application_number
int64 10.3M
15.9M
| decision
stringclasses 3
values | title
stringlengths 3
468
| abstract
stringlengths 43
4.3k
| claims
stringlengths 44
338k
| description
stringlengths 1.93k
2.86M
| background
stringlengths 0
194k
| summary
stringlengths 0
391k
| cpc_label
stringlengths 0
12
| filing_date
stringlengths 8
8
| patent_issue_date
stringclasses 691
values | date_published
stringclasses 720
values | examiner_id
stringlengths 0
7
| ipc_label
stringlengths 0
10
| npe_litigated_count
int64 0
410
| examiner_full_name
stringlengths 6
34
| invention_title
stringlengths 3
410
| small_entity_indicator
stringclasses 3
values | continuation
int64 0
1
| decision_as_of_2020
stringclasses 6
values | main_ipcr_label_subclass
stringclasses 451
values | filing_year
int64 2k
2.02k
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
10,859,595 | ACCEPTED | Expansion tank | An expansion tank (1) which is intended to be connected to a pipe system which is filled or is to be filled with liquid, comprises a substantially closed tank (2) having at least a first connection opening (6) for connection to a liquid pipe, a second connection opening for connection to a source of pressurized gas (14), and an element (8) which can move inside the tank and is designed to move with the interface (11) between liquid (9) and gas (10) in the tank. The tank is provided, at the location of the second connection opening, with a valve assembly (7) which can open and close the second connection opening and can be actuated by the movable element (8) in the tank. | 1. An expansion tank which is intended to be connected to a pipe system which is filled or is to be filled with liquid, comprising a substantially closed tank having at least a first connection opening for connection to a liquid pipe, a second connection opening for connection to a source of pressurized gas, and an element which can move inside the tank and is designed to move with the interface between liquid and gas in the tank, the tank being provided, at the location of the second connection opening, with a valve assembly which can open and close the second connection opening and can be actuated by the movable element in the tank. 2. The expansion tank of claim 1, in which the source of pressurized gas is a reservoir which is connected or is to be connected to the second connection opening and comprises a stock of pressurized gas. 3. The expansion tank of claim 2, in which the reservoir containing pressurized gas is an integral part of the expansion tank and is separated from the actual expansion tank by a partition wall in which the second connection opening is incorporated. 4. The expansion tank of claim 2, in which the reservoir containing pressurized gas is a separate reservoir. 5. The expansion tank of claim 4, in which the reservoir containing pressurized gas is or can be accommodated in a space which is at least partially surrounded by a wall part connected integrally to the wall of the expansion tank and which is separated from the actual expansion tank by means of a partition wall in which the second connection opening is accommodated. 6. The expansion tank of claim 5, in which the partition wall is provided, at the location of the second connection opening, with a connecting member for producing a connection between the interior of the reservoir containing pressurized gas and the second connection opening when the reservoir containing pressurized gas is being placed in the space which is intended for it. 7. The expansion tank of claim 6, in which the reservoir containing pressurized gas is a thin-walled disposable reservoir, and the connecting member comprises a puncturing member for puncturing the wall of the reservoir containing pressurized gas when it is being placed in the space which is intended for it, in such a manner that a connection is produced between the interior of the reservoir containing pressurized gas and the second connection opening. 8. The expansion tank of claim 4, in which the reservoir containing pressurized gas is or can be connected to the tank via a connection piece which is fitted to the tank on the outer side at the location of the second connection opening. 9. The expansion tank of claim 4, in which the valve assembly is provided with means for preventing gas from flowing out of the tank when the reservoir containing pressurized gas is not connected to the tank. | The application relates to an expansion tank which is intended to be connected to a pipe system which is filled or is to be filled with liquid, comprising a substantially closed tank having at least a first connection opening for connection to a liquid pipe, a second connection opening for connection to a source of pressurized gas, and an element which can move inside the tank and is designed to move with the interface between liquid and gas in the tank. Various embodiments of an expansion tank of this type are known. An expansion tank is used in a liquid-filled pipe system in order to keep the pressure within defined limits, and preferably as constant as possible, in the event of a change in the volume of the liquid in the pipe system to which the expansion tank is connected. During normal operation, in which an expansion tank is connected to a liquid-filled pipe system, the expansion tank is partially filled with liquid and partially filled with a pressurized gas. The pressure of the gas in the expansion tank is equal to the pressure of the liquid in the tank and in the pipe system. In certain embodiments of the expansion tank, the liquid and the gas are in direct contact with one another. In other embodiments, there is a separating element, which may take various forms, for example the form of a flexible membrane or a rigid separating element which can move in the longitudinal direction of the tank, between the liquid and the gas. A separating element of this type moves with the interface between liquid and gas in the tank, so that the separating element per se can be considered as a movable element which is designed to move with the interface between liquid and gas in the tank. An element which floats on the liquid present in the tank, i.e. a float, can also be considered as a movable element of this type. To keep the pressure within certain limits, and preferably as constant as possible, in the event of a change in the volume of the liquid in the pipe system to which the expansion tank is connected, it is necessary for the volume of the pressurized gas which is present in the tank to be at a certain minimum level. The volume of the gas which is present in the tank may decrease over the course of time as a result of gas being taken up in the liquid or as a result of gas diffusing through the membrane or leaking out in other ways. To restore good operation of the expansion tank, it is necessary to top up the quantity of pressurized gas in the expansion tank. This represents a laborious operation and in certain cases is indeed impossible. In the latter case, a new expansion tank has to be installed. It is an object of the invention to provide an expansion tank which does not have the abovementioned drawback and in which the required volume of pressurized gas is always present in the expansion tank. This object is achieved, according to the invention, by an expansion tank of the type described in the preamble which is characterized in that the tank is provided, at the location of the second connection opening, with a valve assembly which can open and close the second connection opening and can be actuated by the movable element in the tank. When an expansion tank according to the invention is in use, with the tank connected by means of the first connection opening to a liquid-filled pipe system and a source of pressurized gas being connected to the second connection opening, if the quantity of pressurized gas drops, the element which can move with the interface between liquid and gas will actuate the valve assembly at a given instant. As a result, the second connection opening is opened and pressurized gas flows from the source into the tank. In this way, the quantity of pressurized gas in the expansion tank is automatically topped up. Preferred embodiments of the expansion tank according to the invention are defined in the subclaims. The invention will be explained in more detail in the following description of a number of embodiments of the expansion tank according to the invention with reference to the drawing, in which: FIG. 1 shows a specific embodiment of the expansion tank according to the invention, partly in the form of an exploded view; FIGS. 2a-c show cross sections through the top part of the expansion tank from FIG. 1 in various states; FIGS. 3a-f show the operation of the expansion tank from FIG. 1; FIGS. 4a-f, similarly to FIGS. 3a-f, show the operation of a slightly different embodiment of the expansion tank according to the invention; FIGS. 5a,b show cross sections through yet another embodiment of the expansion tank according to the invention; and FIGS. 6a-d show an enlarged view of details VIa and VIb from FIGS. 5a,b. The expansion tank illustrated in FIG. 1 comprises a substantially closed cylindrical tank 2 having a side wall 3, a base 4 and a top wall 5. In the vicinity of the base 4, a first connection opening 6 is provided in the side wall 3 for connecting the expansion tank 1 to a pipe system (not shown) which is filled or is to be filled with liquid. In the top wall 5 there is a second connection opening for connecting the expansion tank 1 to a source of pressurized gas. This opening can be opened and closed by a valve 7 which is arranged at the location of the second connection opening and the operation of which will be explained below. In the tank there is a float 8, which in the embodiment illustrated functions as a separating element between liquid 9 and gas 10 in the tank. The float 8 floats on the liquid 9 and moves with the liquid level 11, i.e. the interface between liquid 9 and gas 10. The float 8 can actuate the valve assembly 7. The cylindrical side wall 3 of the tank 2 extends beyond the top wall 5, where it forms a wall part 12 which is integrally connected to the wall of the expansion tank 1 and together with the top wall 5 partially surrounds aace 13. A reservoir 14 containing pressurized gas can be incorporated in the space 13. The space 13 can be closed off by a cover 15. In the embodiment shown, the cover 15 is a screw cover which can be screwed onto the end section 16 of the wall part 12. For this purpose, the cover 15 is provided with an internal screwthread, and the end section 16 is provided with an external screwthread which matches the internal screwthread of the cover 15. When the cover 15 is being screwed onto the wall part 12, a connection is produced, in a manner which is to be described in more detail below, between the interior of the reservoir 14 containing pressurized gas and the second connection opening in the top wall 5. In the embodiment shown, the reservoir 14 is a thin-walled, disposable reservoir. FIGS. 2a-c show a cross section through the top part of the expansion tank from FIG. 1 in various states. These figures also provide a more detailed illustration of the valve assembly 7. In FIG. 2a, the reservoir 14 containing pressurized gas is positioned in the space 13. The reservoir 14 rests on a plunger 21, which extends through a bore in the top wall 5 of the tank 2 and can be moved in the axial direction. The plunger 21 is pressed upwards by a spring 22 which is supported at the underside on an end wall 23 of a valve housing 24, which is integrally connected to the top wall 5 of the tank 2 within the tank 2, of the valve assembly 7. The plunger 21 has a central bore which accommodates a needle 25 which, at the end located on the side of the reservoir 14, has a sharp point and at the other end is secured in the end wall 23 of the valve housing 24. The plunger 21 can move over the needle 25. A flexible ring 26 made from soft material, such as a soft rubber, is arranged coaxially around the plunger 21. In FIG. 2b, the cover 15 has been screwed fully onto the wall part 12. Screwing on the cover 15 causes the reservoir 14 to be pressed downwards in the direction of the tank 2. In the process, the reservoir 14 has pressed the plunger 21 downwards, counter to the spring force of the spring 22, and has also compressed the ring 26. In this compressed state, the ring 26 functions as a sealing ring between the reservoir 14 and the top wall 5 of the tank 2. As the plunger 21 is moving downwards, the sharp point of the needle 25 has been exposed and has punctured the thin wall of the reservoir 14, producing a connection between the interior of the reservoir 14 and the space surrounded by the wall of the reservoir 14, the top wall 5 of the tank 2 and the ring 26 and the interior of the valve housing 24, which is in open communication therewith via a space between the plunger 21 and the inner side of the bore in the top wall 5 and/or a space between the plunger 21 and the needle 25. The pressure in the valve housing 24 is then the same as in the reservoir 14. As can be seen from FIG. 2a, b, there is an opening 31 in the end wall 23 of the valve housing 24, connecting the interior of the valve housing 24 to the interior of the tank 2. This opening 31 can be closed off by a valve body 32 which is located inside the valve housing 24 and can interact in a sealing manner with the edge of the opening 31, which functions as a valve seat. The valve body is pressed onto the valve seat by a spring 32. The valve body 32 is provided with an actuating pin 34 which extends through the opening 31 and into the interior of the tank 2. FIG. 2c shows the state in which the volume of the gas 10 in the tank 2 is dropped to such an extent that the float 8 floating on the liquid 9 is in contact with the actuating pin 34 of the valve body 32 and the valve body 32 has lifted off its seat (the edge of the opening 31), counter to the spring force of the spring 33 and the gas pressure in the valve housing 24. As a result, a connection has been produced between the interior of the valve housing 24 and the interior of the tank 2, so that gas can flow out of the reservoir 14, via the valve housing 24, into the interior of the tank 2. In this way, the quantity of gas 10 in the tank 2 is topped up from the reservoir 14 until the pressure of the gas 10 has pressed the liquid level 11 so far downwards that the float 8 comes off the actuating pin 34 and the opening 31 is closed off again by the valve body 32. FIGS. 3a-f provide a more detailed illustration of the operation of the expansion tank shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 3a reveals how the reservoir 14 is positioned, and FIG. 3b shows how the connection is produced between the interior of the reservoir 14 and the interior of the valve housing 24. The situations shown in FIGS. 3a and 3b correspond to those shown in FIGS. 2a and 2b. FIGS. 3c and 3d show how the tank 2, which is connected to a pipe system (not shown), fills up with liquid 9 when the pipe system is filled with liquid until the float 8 comes into contact with the actuating pin 34 of the valve body 32 and the valve body 32 lifts off its seat (FIG. 3d). The situation illustrated in FIG. 3d corresponds to that shown in FIG. 2c. Gas flows out of the reservoir into the tank 2 until the pressure of the gas 10 in the tank 2 is in equilibrium with the pressure in the pipe system to which the tank 2 is connected. During the filling procedure, the maximum pressure is reached in the pipe system at the instant at which the float 8 comes free of the actuating pin 34 again and the valve formed by the valve body 32 and the seat is closed again under the influence of the spring 33, so that the flow of gas out of the reservoir 14 is blocked. From that instant onward, there is sufficient pressurized gas 10 in the tank 2 for the expansion tank 1 to operate successfully. When the volume of the liquid 9 which is present in the pipe system decreases, as can be seen in FIGS. 3e and 3f, the pressure of the gas 10 remains sufficient. When the bottom position of the float 8 is reached, in the embodiment of the expansion tank 1 illustrated, gas can pass out of the tank 2 into the pipe system. However, the quantity of gas 10 which has remained in the tank 2 can be restored to its proper level when, in a later stage, in the event of an increase of the volume of liquid in the pipe system, the float 8 once again comes into contact with the actuating pin 34 of the valve body 32, as illustrated in FIG. 3d (and FIG. 2c). The valve assembly 7 is preferably designed in such a manner that, when the expansion tank is operating, the reservoir 14 can easily be replaced without this affecting the action of the expansion tank. After the cover 15 has been removed, the reservoir 14 can be taken out of the space 13. In the process, the plunger 21 is pressed upwards by the spring 22, closing up the bore in the top wall 5 of the tank 2, so that it is impossible for any gas to escape from the tank 2. Then, a new reservoir 14 can be put in place and the cover 15 can be screwed back onto the wall part 12. The possibility of replacing the reservoir 14, and a pressurized gas source in general, represents a major advantage compared to traditional expansion tanks, in which the entire expansion tank has to be replaced if the stock of gas in the tank is insufficient. FIGS. 4a-f illustrate the same situations as in FIGS. 3a-f, but with a slightly different embodiment of the expansion tank 1. The expansion tank 1 is provided with a reservoir 41 containing pressurized gas which forms an integral part of the expansion tank 1 and is separated from the actual expansion tank (tank 2) by a partition wall 42, in which the second connection opening is incorporated. This second connection opening can be closed and opened by a valve 43 arranged at the location of the opening. The valve assembly 43 is provided with an actuating pin 44, similar to the actuating pin 34 of the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1-3. The reservoir 41 can be filled with pressurized gas via a filling opening 45 in the wall of the reservoir 41. FIGS. 5a, b show a cross section through another embodiment of the expansion tank according to the invention. The expansion tank 51 is substantially a traditional expansion tank with a substantially closed tank 52 having a liquid space 53 and a gas space 54, which are separated by a flexible membrane 55. The membrane 55 moves with the interface between liquid and gas in the tank 52, so that the membrane 55 per se can be considered as a movable element which is designed to move with the interface between liquid and gas in the tank 52. The tank 52 is provided with a first connection opening 56 provided for connecting the expansion tank 51 to a pipe system (not shown) which is filled or is to be filled with liquid. In the top wall 57 there is a second connection opening 58 for connecting the expansion tank 1 to a source of pressurized gas, in this case a reservoir 59 containing pressurized gas. This opening 58 can be opened and closed by a valve assembly 60 which is arranged at the location of the second connection opening 58 and is illustrated in more detail and on an enlarged scale in FIGS. 6a,b. As can be seen from FIGS. 6a,b, a connection piece 61 is arranged on the top wall 57 of the tank at the location of the second connection opening 58. A reservoir 59 containing pressurized gas can be connected to this connection piece 61. For this purpose, the connection piece 61 is provided with a bore 62 which is provided with an internal screwthread and into which a connection nipple 63, provided with an external screwthread, of the reservoir 59 can be screwed. A sealing ring 64 is responsible for the required sealing. When the connection nipple 63 has been completely screwed into the bore 62, a shut-off valve 64 which is present in the connection nipple 63 is opened by a pin 65 mounted in a fixed position in the connection piece 61, with the result that pressurized gas can flow out of the reservoir 59 into the interior of the connection piece 61. The connection opening 58 can be closed off by a valve assembly having a valve body 66 which interacts with the edge of the connection opening 58, which functions as a valve seat. The valve body 66 is pressed onto the valve seat by a spring 67. An actuating pin 68 extending through the connection opening 58 is secured to the valve body 66; the membrane 55 can lift the valve body 66 off the seat and open the connection opening 58 by means of this actuating pin 68. On the other side, the spring 67 presses against a valve body 69 of another valve 70, which acts as a nonreturn valve, as will be explained in more detail below. When the reservoir 59 is connected to the connection piece 61 and the connection opening 58 is closed off by the valve body 58, the pressure of the gas in the reservoir 59 also prevails in the interior of the connection piece. When the stock of gas in the tank 52 drops to such an extent that the membrane 55 pushes the actuating pin 68 upwards and as a result lifts the valve body off its seat, pressurized gas flows out of the reservoir 59 into the tank 52. This state is illustrated in FIG. 5b and FIG. 6b. When the stock of gas in the tank 52 has been topped up, the membrane 55 becomes clear of the actuating pin 68 and the connection opening 58 is closed again. In this embodiment of the expansion tank according to the invention too, it is easy to replace the reservoir 59 during operation without this affecting operation of the tank. When the reservoir is unscrewed from the connection piece, the valve 70 prevents gas from escaping from the tank 52. After another reservoir 59 has been fitted, the situation is as illustrated in FIGS. 5a and 5b. In addition to the embodiments of the expansion tank according to the invention which have been described above, further embodiments are possible within the scope of the invention and lie within the scope of the person skilled in the art without being described in more detail here. The float may be designed differently, for example as a float which does not function as a separating element. The reservoir containing pressurized gas may also be located remotely from the expansion tank and may be connected via a pipe to the second connection opening with the valve of the expansion tank. The actuating pin of the valve assembly may be extended by a rod-like element with a certain length which projects into the tank. This rod-like element is operated by the movable element in the tank. In this embodiment the valve assembly can be operated and gas can be supplied at another level of the liquid in the tank, i.e. before almost all of the gas has disappeared from the tank. To prevent that components are damaged the rod-like element may be made flexible. In embodiments of the tank in which the movable element is a float, the float may be mounted on the free outer end of the rod-like element. The expansion tank may also be designed in such a manner that in the situation in which all or virtually all of the liquid has flowed out of the expansion tank as a result of the volume of the liquid in the pipe system to which the expansion tank is connected decreasing considerably, for example as a result of the cooling of the liquid or as a result of a leak, the first connection opening is closed off by the movable element (float, rigid separating element, membrane) in the expansion tank. When an expansion tank according to the invention to which a pressurized gas source is connected is being used, whenever the quantity of gas in the expansion tank becomes insufficient, gas will once again be supplied from the pressurized gas source to the expansion tank in the manner described above. | 20040603 | 20060926 | 20050203 | 65183.0 | 0 | MAUST, TIMOTHY LEWIS | EXPANSION TANK | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||||
10,859,611 | ACCEPTED | System for measuring earth formation resistivity through an electrically conductive wellbore casing | An instrument is disclosed for measuring resistivity of Earth formations from within a conductive pipe inside a wellbore drilled through the formations. The instrument includes a plurality of housings connected end to end and adapted to traverse the wellbore. At least one electrode is disposed on each housing. Each electrode is adapted to be placed in electrical contact with the inside of the pipe. The instrument includes a source of electrical current, a digital voltage measuring circuit and a switch. The switch is arranged to connect the source of electrical current between one of the electrodes and a current return at a selectable one of the top of the pipe and a location near the Earth's surface at a selected distance from the top of the pipe, and to connect selected pairs of the electrodes to the digital voltage measuring circuit. The pairs are selected to make voltage measurements corresponding to selected axial distances and selected lateral depths in the Earth formations. | 1. An instrument for measuring resistivity of Earth formations from within a conductive pipe inside a wellbore drilled through the formations, comprising: a plurality of housings connected end to end, the housings adapted to traverse the interior of the pipe; at least one electrode on each housing, each electrode adapted to be placed in electrical contact with the interior of the pipe; a source of electrical measuring current; at least one digital voltage measuring circuit; and at least one switch arranged to connect the source of electrical measuring current between one of the electrodes and a current return at a selectable one of the top of the pipe and a location near the Earth's surface at a selected distance from the top of the pipe, the switch arranged to connect selected pairs of the electrodes to the digital voltage measuring circuit, the pairs selected to make voltage measurements corresponding to selected axial distances and selected lateral depths in the Earth formations. 2. The instrument of claim 1 further comprising a focusing current source, and wherein the switch is arranged to connect selected pairs of the electrodes to the focusing current source, an output of the focusing current source controllable to constrain current flowing between one of the electrodes and the return near the Earth's surface to a path substantially laterally outward from the wellbore in the lateral proximity of the wellbore. 3. The instrument of claim 1 wherein the digital voltage measuring circuit comprises at least a twenty four bit resolution analog to digital converter. 4. The instrument of claim 3 wherein the analog to digital converter has a sampling rate of at least one thousand times a frequency of electrical current used to energize the at least one current source electrode. 5. The instrument of claim 1 wherein the measuring current source comprises a digital waveform synthesizer. 6. The instrument of claim 1 wherein the measuring current source is adapted to generate switched direct current. 7. The instrument of claim 1 wherein the measuring current source is adapted to generate switched direct current having less than a one hundred percent duty cycle. 8. The instrument of claim 1 wherein the measuring current source is adapted to generate alternating current having a selected frequency and waveform. 9. The instrument of claim 1 wherein the measuring current source is adapted to generate a pseudo random binary sequence. 10. The instrument of claim 2 wherein the focusing current source is controllable to maintain a selected voltage drop across a pair of reference potential electrodes, the reference potential electrodes selectably coupled by the switch from the plurality of electrodes to the digital voltage measuring circuit. 11. The instrument of claim 1 wherein the digital voltage measuring circuit is adapted to determine a direct current bias extant on the electrodes by operating substantially continuously. 12. The instrument of claim 1 wherein at least one of the housings comprises: a back-up arm for selectively urging the at least one of the housings into contact with the interior of the pipe, and a seismic receiver for detecting seismic signals from a seismic source. 13. The instrument of claim 1 wherein each of the housings comprises therein: a back-up arm for selectively urging the housing into contact with the interior of the pipe; and a seismic receiver for detecting seismic signals from a seismic source, the at least one electrode on each of housings adapted to make electrical contact with the pipe when each of the housings is urged into contact with the interior of the pipe. 14. The instrument of claim 1 further comprising at least one gravity sensor disposed in one of the plurality of housings. 15. The instrument of claim 1 wherein the at least one electrode on at least one of the plurality of housings comprises a plurality of laterally extending, resilient, electrically conductive wires, the wires in electrical contact with each other and insulated from the at least one of the housings, the wires traversing an unconfined diameter larger than a maximum expected internal diameter of the pipe. 16. The instrument of claim 15 wherein the wires are bonded to an electrically conductive substrate. 17. The instrument of claim 1 further comprising: means for extending at least one of the electrodes laterally outward from the housing, a resistance measuring circuit operatively coupled between the at least one electrode and the pipe; an electromagnetic transmitter antenna and an electromagnetic receiver antenna disposed proximate a contact end of the at least one electrode; a source of alternating current electrically coupled to the transmitter antenna; and a receiver circuit electrically coupled to the receiver antenna, whereby a quality of contact is determinable by comparison of the measured resistance to a voltage detected by the receiver circuit. 18. The instrument of claim 1 further comprising at least one imaging device adapted to generate a representation of a visual appearance of at least part of an interior surface of the pipe. 19. The instrument of claim 18 wherein the imaging device comprises one of ultrasonic imager, electrical imager and optical imager. 20. A method for measuring resistivity of Earth formations from within a conductive pipe inside a wellbore drilled through the formations, comprising: inserting a plurality of housings connected end to end to a selected depth inside the pipe; causing at least one electrode on each housing to be placed in electrical contact with the inside of the pipe; passing electrical current from a measuring current source through at least one of the electrodes into the pipe; switching a return from the measuring current source between one of the electrodes and a current return at a selectable one of the top of the pipe and a location near the Earth's surface at a selected distance from the top of the pipe; and digitally measuring voltages across selected pairs of the electrodes, the pairs of electrodes selected to make voltage measurements corresponding to selected axial distances and selected lateral depths in the Earth formations. 21. The method of claim 20 further comprising switching a focusing current source through selected pairs of the electrodes, and controlling an output of the focusing current source to constrain current flowing from the measuring current source between the one of the electrodes switched thereto and the return near the Earth's surface to a path substantially laterally outward from the wellbore in the lateral proximity of the wellbore. 22. The method of claim 20 wherein the digitally measuring voltages is performed to at least twenty four bit resolution. 23. The method of claim 20 wherein the digitally measuring is performed at a sampling rate of at least one thousand times a frequency of electrical current used to energize the at least one electrode switched to the current source. 24. The method of claim 20 wherein the measuring current is digitally synthesized. 25. The method of claim 24 wherein the digitally synthesizing comprises synthesizing generating switched direct current. 26. The method of claim 25 wherein the switched direct current has less than a one hundred percent duty cycle. 27. The method of claim 24 wherein the digitally synthesizing includes generating alternating current having a selected frequency and waveform. 28. The method of claim 24 wherein the digitally synthesizing includes generating a pseudo random binary sequence. 29. The method of claim 21 further comprising controlling the focusing current to maintain a selected voltage drop across a pair of reference potential electrodes, the reference potential electrodes switchably selected from the plurality of electrodes. 30. The method of claim 20 further comprising determine a direct current bias extant on the ones of the electrodes used to measure voltage by substantially continuously digitally measuring the voltage on the electrodes. 31. The method of claim 20 further comprising selectively urging at least one of the housings into contact with the interior of the pipe and detecting seismic energy originating from a seismic energy source. 32. The method of claim 20 further comprising measuring a galvanic property and an electromagnetic property of an electrical current, the properties related to a degree of electrical contact and physical proximity between at least one of the electrodes and an interior of the pipe. 33. The method of claim 20 further comprising measuring a property related to a visual appearance of the interior of the pipe to determine probability of electrical contact between the electrodes and the pipe. 34. The method of claim 20 wherein the measuring the property comprises one of ultrasonic imaging, electrical imaging and optical imaging. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS Not applicable. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT Not applicable. BACKGROUND OF INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates generally to the field of Earth formation electrical resistivity measuring devices. More particularly, the invention relates to wellbore instruments for measuring formation resistivity from within an electrically conductive pipe or casing. 2. Background Art Electrical resistivity measurements of Earth formations are known in the art for determining properties of the measured Earth formations. Properties of interest include the fluid content of the pore spaces of the Earth formations. Wellbore resistivity measuring devices known in the art typically require that the Earth formations be exposed by drilling a wellbore therethrough, and that such formations remain exposed to the wellbore so that the measurements may be made from within the exposed formations. When wellbores are completely drilled through the Earth formations of interest, frequently a steel pipe or casing is inserted into and cemented in place within the wellbore to protect the Earth formations, to prevent hydraulic communication between subsurface Earth formations, and to provide mechanical integrity to the wellbore. Steel casing is highly electrically conductive, and as a result makes it difficult to use conventional (so called “open hole”) techniques to determine the resistivity of the various Earth formations from within a steel pipe or casing. It is known in the art to make measurements for determining the electrical resistivity of Earth formations from within conductive casing or pipe. A number of references disclose techniques for making such measurements. A list of references which disclose various apparatus and methods for determining resistivity of Earth formations from within conductive casings includes: USSR inventor certificate no. 56052, filed by Alpin, L. M. (1939), entitled, The method for logging in cased wells; USSR inventor certificate no. 56026, filed by Alpin, L. M. (1939), entitled, Process of the electrical measurement of well casing; U.S. Pat. No. 2,459,196, to Stewart, W. H. (1949), entitled, Electrical logging method and apparatus; U.S. Pat. No. 2,729,784 issued to Fearon, R. E. (1956), entitled, Method and apparatus for electric well logging; U.S. Pat. No. 2,891,215 issued to Fearon, R. E. (1959), entitled, Method and apparatus for electric well logging; French patent application no. 72.41218, filed by Desbrandes, R. and Mengez, P. (1972), entitled, Method & Apparatus for measuring the formation electrical resistivity In wells having metal casing; International Patent Application Publication no. WO 00/79307 A1, filed by Benimeli, D. (2002), entitled, A method and apparatus for determining of a formation surrounding a cased well; U.S. Pat. No. 4,796,186 issued to Kaufman, A. A. (1989), entitled, Conductivity determination in a formation having a cased well; U.S. Pat. No. 4,820,989, issued to Vail, III, W. (1989), entitled, Methods and apparatus for measurement of the resistivity of geological formation from within cased boreholes; U.S. Pat. No. 4,837,518 issued to Gard et al. (1989), entitled, Method and Apparatus for measuring the electrical resistivity of formation through metal drill pipe or casing; U.S. Pat. No. 4,882,542 issued to Vail, III, W. (1989), entitled, Methods and apparatus for measurement of electronic properties of geological formations through borehole casing; U.S. Pat. No. 5,043,668 issued to Vail, III, W. (1991), entitled, Methods and apparatus for measurement of electronic properties of geological formations through borehole casing; U.S. Pat. No. 5,075,626 issued to Vail, III, W. (1991), entitled, Electronic measurement apparatus movable in a cased borehole and compensation for casing resistance differences; U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,794 issued to Vail, III, W. (1993), entitled, Methods of apparatus measuring formation resistivity from within a cased well having one measurement and two compensation steps; U.S. Pat. No. 5,510,712 issued to Sezginer et al. (1996), entitled, Method and apparatus for measuring formation resistivity in cased holes; U.S. Pat. No. 5,543,715 issued to Singer et al. (1996), entitled, Method and apparatus for measuring formation resistivity through casing using single-conductor electrical logging cable; U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,514 issued to Moulin (1996), entitled, Method and apparatus for determining formation resistivity in a cased well using three electrodes arranged in a Wheatstone bridge. U.S. Pat. No. 5,654,639 issued to Locatelli et al. (1997), entitled, Induction measuring device in the presence of metal walls; U.S. Pat. No. 5,570,024 issued to Vail, III, W. (1996), entitled, Determining resistivity of a formation adjacent to a borehole having casing using multiple electrodes and resistances being defined between the electrodes; U.S. Pat. No. 5,608,323 issued to Koelman, J. M. V. A. (1997), entitled, Arrangement of the electrodes for an electrical logging system for determining the electrical resistivity of subsurface formation; U.S. Pat. No. 5,633,590 issued to Vail, III, W. (1997), entitled, Formation resistivity measurements from within a cased well used to quantitatively determine the amount of oil and gas present. U.S. Pat. No. 5,680,049 issued to Gissler et al. (1997), entitled, Apparatus for measuring formation resistivity through casing having a coaxial tubing inserted therein; U.S. Pat. No. 5,809,458 issued to Tamarchenko (1998), entitled, Method of simulating the response of a through-casing resistivity well logging instrument and its application to determining resistivity of earth formations; U.S. Pat. No. 6,025,721 issued to Vail, III, W. (2000), entitled, Determining resistivity of a formation adjacent to a borehole having casing by generating constant current flow in portion of casing and using at least two voltage measurement electrodes; U.S. Pat. No. 6,157,195 issued to Vail, III, W. (2000), entitled, Formation resistivity measurements from within a cased well used to quantitatively determine the amount of oil and gas present; U.S. Pat. No. 6,246,240 B1 issued to Vail, III, W. (2001), entitled, Determining resistivity of formation adjacent to a borehole having casing with an apparatus having all current conducting electrodes within the cased well; U.S. Pat. No. 6,603,314 issued to Kostelnicek et al. (2003), entitled, Simultaneous current injection for measurement of formation resistance through casing; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,667,621 issued to Benimelli, entitled, Method and apparatus for determining the resistivity of a formation surrounding a cased well. United States Patent Application Publications which cite relevant art include no. 2001/0033164 A1, filed by Vinegar et al., entitled, Focused through-casing resistivity measurement; no. 2001/0038287 A1, filed by Amini, Bijan K., entitled, Logging tool for measurement of resistivity through casing using metallic transparencies and magnetic lensing; no. 2002/0105333 A1 filed by Amini, Bijan K., entitled, Measurements of electrical properties through non magnetically permeable metals using directed magnetic beams and magnetic lenses. and no. 2003/0042016 A1, filed by Vinegar et al., entitled, Wireless communication using well casing The foregoing techniques are summarized briefly below. U.S. Pat. No. 2,459,196 describes a method for measuring inside a cased wellbore, whereby electrical current is caused to flow along the conductive casing such that some of the current will “leak” into the surrounding Earth formations. The amount of current leakage is related to the electrical conductivity of the Earth formations. The '196 patent does not disclose any technique for correcting the measurements for electrical inhomogeneities in the casing. U.S. Pat. No. 2,729,784 discloses a technique in which three potential electrodes are used to create two opposed pairs of electrodes in contact with a wellbore casing. Electrical current is caused to flow in two opposing “loops” through two pairs of current electrodes placed above and below the potential electrodes such that electrical inhomogeneities in the casing have their effect nulled. Voltage drop across the two electrode pairs is related to the leakage current into the Earth formations. The disclosure in U.S. Pat. No. 2,891,215 includes a current emitter electrode disposed between the measuring electrodes of the apparatus disclosed in the '784 patent to provide a technique for fully compensating the leakage current. U.S. Pat. No. 4,796,186 discloses the technique most frequently used to determine resistivity through conductive casing, and includes measuring leakage current into the Earth formations, and discloses measuring current flowing along the same portion of casing in which the leakage current is measured so as to compensate the measurements of leakage current for changes in resistance along the casing. Other references describe various extensions and improvements to the basic techniques of resistivity measurement through casing. The methods known in the art for measuring resistivity through casing can be summarized as follows. An instrument is lowered into the wellbore having at least one electrode on the instrument (A) which is placed into contact with the casing at various depths in the casing. A casing current return electrode B is disposed at the top of and connected to the casing. A formation current return electrode B* is disposed at the Earth's surface at some distance from the wellbore. A record is made of the voltage drop and current flowing from electrode A in the wellbore at various depths, first to electrode B at the top of the casing and then to formation return electrode B*. Current flow and voltage drop through the casing (A-B) is used to correct measurements of voltage drop and current flow through the formation (A-B*) for effects of inhomogeneity in the casing. If the Earth and the casing were both homogeneous, a record with respect to depth of the voltage drop along the casing, and the voltage drop through the casing and formation, would be substantially linear. As is well known in the art, casing includes inhomogeneities, even when new, resulting from construction tolerances, composition tolerances, and even “collars” (threaded couplings) used to connect segments of the casing to each other. Earth formations, of course, are not at all homogeneous, and more resistive formations are typically the object of subsurface investigation, because these Earth formations tend to be associated with presence of petroleum, while the more conductive formations tend to be associated with the presence of all connate water in the pore spaces. Therefore, it is the perturbations in the record of voltage drop with respect to depth that are of interest in determining resistivity of Earth formations outside casing using the techniques known in the art. The conductivity of the Earth formations is related to the amount of current leaking out of the casing into the formations. The formation conductivity with respect to depth is generally related to the second derivative of the voltage drop along A-B with respect to depth, when current is flowing between A and B*. Typically, the second derivative of the voltage drop is measured using a minimum of three axially spaced apart electrodes placed in contact with the casing, coupled to cascaded differential amplifiers, ultimately coupled to a voltage measuring circuit. Improvements to the basic method that have proven useful include systems which create s small axial zone along the casing in which substantially no current flows along the casing itself to reduce the effects of casing inhomogeneity on the measurements of leakage current voltage drop. In practice, instruments and methods known in the art require that the instrument make its measurements from a fixed position within the wellbore, which makes measuring formations of interest penetrated by a typical wellbore take an extensive amount of time. Further, the voltage drops being measured are small, and thus subject to noise limitations of the electronic systems used to make the measurements of voltage drop. Still further, systems known in the art for providing no-current zones, or known current flow values for measurements of voltage drop, are typically analog systems, and thus subject to the accuracy limitations of such analog systems. Still further, it is known in the art to use low frequency alternating current (AC) to induce current flow along the casing and in the Earth formations. AC is used to avoid error resulting from electrical polarization of the casing and the electrodes when continuous direct current (DC) is used. Typically, the frequency of the AC must be limited to about 0.01 to 20 Hz to avoid error in the measurements caused by dielectric effects and the skin effect. It is also known in the art to use polarity-switched DC to make through casing resistivity measurements, which avoids the polarization problem, but may induce transient effect error in the measurements when the DC polarity is switched. Transient effects, and low frequency AC errors are not easily accounted for using systems known in the art. SUMMARY OF INVENTION One aspect of the invention is an instrument for measuring resistivity of Earth formations from within a conductive pipe inside a wellbore drilled through the Earth formations. The instrument includes a plurality of housings connected end to end and adapted to traverse the wellbore. At least one electrode is disposed on each housing. Each electrode is adapted to be placed in electrical contact with the inside of the pipe. The instrument includes a source of electrical current, a digital voltage measuring circuit and a switch. The switch is arranged to connect the source of electrical current between one of the electrodes and a current return at a selectable one of the top of the pipe and a location near the Earth's surface at a selected distance from the top of the pipe, and to connect selected pairs of the electrodes to the digital voltage measuring circuit. The pairs are selected to make voltage measurements corresponding to selected axial distances and selected lateral depths in the Earth formations. One embodiment of the instrument includes a focusing current source that is coupled through the switch to a selected pair of the electrodes to constrain measuring current to flow in a laterally outward path proximate the instrument. One embodiment of the instrument includes a back up arm on one or more of the housings and a seismic receiver disposed in the one or more of the housings which includes the back up arm. Another aspect of the invention is a method for measuring resistivity of Earth formations from within a conductive pipe inside a wellbore drilled through the Earth formations. A method according to this aspect of the invention includes inserting a plurality of housings connected end to end to a selected depth inside the pipe. At least one electrode on each housing is placed in electrical contact with the inside of the pipe. Electrical current from a measuring current source is passed through at least one of the electrodes into the pipe. A return from the measuring current source is switched between one of the electrodes and a current return at a selectable one of the top of the pipe and a location near the Earth's surface at a selected distance from the top of the pipe. Voltages are digitally measured across selected pairs of the electrodes. The pairs of electrodes are selected to make voltage measurements corresponding to selected axial distances and selected lateral depths in the Earth formations. Other aspects and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description and the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows an example resistivity measurement through casing apparatus according to the invention being used in a cased wellbore. FIG. 2 shows a circuit systems of the example apparatus of FIG. 1 in more detail. FIGS. 3A through 3C show different examples of current waveform for making through casing resistivity measurements according to the invention. FIG. 4 shows an example instrument for measuring resistivity through a conductive pipe which includes current focusing systems. FIG. 5 shows an alternative embodiment of an apparatus including a selectable array of electrodes on a sonde mandrel. FIG. 6 shows a flow chart of operation of an instrument such as shown in FIG. 4 adapted to automatically optimize control of electrode usage according to a model based instrument response. FIG. 7 shows a system for measuring resistivity through conductive pipe including a central control unit and a plurality of “satellite” units. FIG. 8 shows an embodiment as in FIG. 7 including seismic receivers in one or more of the central control unit and the satellite units. FIG. 9 shows one embodiment of an electrode for making electrical contact with the interior surface of a conductive casing. FIG. 10 shows a cut away view of the electrode shown in FIG. 9. FIG. 11 shows a system for estimating quality of contact between an electrode and the conductive pipe. FIG. 12 shows an additional portion of one embodiment of an apparatus used to evaluate the condition of the interior surface of the pipe. DETAILED DESCRIPTION One embodiment of a well logging instrument used to measure resistivity of Earth formations from within a wellbore, when the wellbore has a conductive pipe or casing within is shown schematically in FIG. 1. The instrument 10 may include a sonde or similar mandrel-type housing 18. The housing 18 is preferably made from an electrically non-conductive material, or has such non-conductive material on its exterior surface. The housing 18 is adapted to be inserted into and withdrawn from the wellbore 14, by means of any well logging instrument conveyance known in the art. In the present example, the conveyance can be an armored electrical cable 16 extended and retracted by a winch 28. Other conveyances known in the art may be used, including coiled tubing, drill pipe, production tubing, etc. Accordingly, the conveyance is not intended to limit the scope of the invention. The wellbore 14 is drilled through various Earth formations, shown schematically at 22, 24 and 26. After the wellbore 14 is drilled, a conductive pipe 12 or casing is inserted into the wellbore 14. If the pipe 12 is a casing, then the casing 12 is typically cemented in place within the wellbore 14, although cementing the pipe or casing is not necessary to operation of the instrument 10. While the embodiment shown in FIG. 1 is described in terms of a “casing” being inserted and cemented into a drilled wellbore, it should be understood that other types of electrically conductive pipe, such as drill pipe, coiled tubing, production tubing and the like may also be used with an instrument according to the invention. In one particular example, the pipe 12, rather than being casing, may be drill pipe that has become stuck in the wellbore 14, whereupon the instrument 10 is lowered into the stuck drill pipe on an armored electrical cable 16 to make measurements as will be further explained. The armored electrical cable 16 includes one or more insulated electrical conductors (not shown separately) and is arranged to conduct electrical power to the instrument 10 disposed in the wellbore 14. Electrical power can be conducted from, and signals from the instrument 10 can be transmitted to, a recording unit 30 disposed at the Earth's surface using the electrical conductors on the cable 16. The recording unit 30 may also be used to record and/or interpret the signals communicated thereto from the instrument 10 in the wellbore 14. The recording unit 30 may include an electrical power supply 32 used to make measurements for determining resistivity of the various Earth formations 22, 24, 26. In the present description, any electrical power supply used to enable making the measurements corresponding to formation resistivity will be referred to as a “measuring current source.” The power supply 32 may also be used merely to provide electrical power to various measurement and control circuits, shown generally at 20 in FIG. 1, in the instrument 10. The functions provided by the various circuits in the instrument will be further explained below with reference to FIG. 2. Still referring to FIG. 1, a measuring current return electrode 34B* is provided at the Earth's surface at a selected distance from the wellbore 14. The measuring current return electrode 34B* is typically inserted into formations proximate the Earth's surface so as to provide an electrically conductive path to the Earth formations 22, 24, 26 penetrated by the wellbore 14. The measuring current return electrode 34B* provides, in particular, a current path through the Earth formations 22, 24 26 for electrical measuring current to flow from a source electrode A on the instrument 10. The current return electrode 34B* may be connected, as shown in FIG. 1, either to circuits 35B* in the recording unit 30, or alternatively may be connected to one of the electrical conductors (not shown separately) in the cable 16. A casing current return electrode 34B, shown connected to the top of the pipe or casing 12, provides a return path for electrical measuring current caused to flow from the current source electrode A on the instrument 10, to the top of the casing 12. The casing current return electrode 34B may be coupled to circuits 35B in the recording unit 30, or may be coupled to one of the conductors (not shown) in the cable 12 for return to the circuits 20 in the instrument 10. The instrument 10 includes a plurality of electrodes, shown at A, and P0 through P6 disposed on the sonde mandrel 18 at axially spaced apart locations. The electrodes A, P0-P6 are electrically isolated from each other by the non-conductive material disposed on the exterior of, or forming, the sonde mandrel 18. Each of the electrodes A, P0-P6 is mechanically and electrically adapted to make good electrical contact with the casing 12. Various types of casing-contact electrodes are known in the art and include brushes, hydraulically actuated “spikes”, spiked wheels and similar devices. The electrodes A, P0-P6 are each coupled to a selected portion of the electronic circuits 20 in the instrument 10. During operation of the instrument 10 when conveyed by armored cable, the cable 16 is extended by the winch 28 so that the instrument 10 is positioned at a selected depth in the wellbore 14. Electrical power is passed through the casing 12 and through the Earth formations 22, 24, 26 by selective connection between the source electrode A at one end of the current path, and either the casing return 34B or formation return 34B*, respectively, at the other end of the current path. Measurements are made of the voltage extant between a reference potential electrode, shown as electrode P0 in FIG. 1, and one or more potential measurement electrodes, P1-P6 in FIG. 1. Depending on the type of electrodes used, for example, brushes or spiked contact wheels, it may be possible, in some embodiments, for the instrument 10 to be moved slowly along the wellbore 14 as the measurements are being made. Other types of electrode, such as hydraulically actuated spikes, may require that the instrument 10 remain essentially stationary during any one measurement sequence. As the voltage measurements are made, whether the instrument 10 is stationary or moving, the instrument 10 is gradually withdrawn from the wellbore 14, until a selected portion of the wellbore 14, including formations of interest, 22, 24, 26, have voltage measurements made corresponding to them, both using the casing current return 34B and the formation current return 34B*. One embodiment of the electronic circuits 20 is shown in greater detail in FIG. 2. The present embodiment of the circuits 20 may include a central processing unit (CPU) 50, which may be a preprogrammed microcomputer, or a programmable microcomputer. In the present embodiment, the CPU 50 is adapted to detect control commands from within a formatted telemetry signal sent by the recording unit (30 in FIG. 1) to a telemetry transceiver and power supply unit 48. The telemetry transceiver 48 also performs both formatting of data signals communicated by the CPU 50 for transmission along a cable conductor 16A to the recording unit (30 in FIG. 1) and reception and conditioning of electrical power sent along the conductor 16A for use by the various components of the circuits 20. The CPU 50 may also be reprogrammed by the command signals when such are detected by the telemetry transceiver 48 and conducted to the CPU 50. Reprogramming may include, for example, changing the waveform of the measure current used to make the previously explained voltage drop measurements. Reprogramming may also include changing the magnitude of the measure current, and may include changing a sample rate of voltage drop measurements, among other examples. Still other forms of reprogramming will be explained with reference to FIGS. 4 through 6. While the embodiment shown in FIG. 2 includes an electrical telemetry transceiver 48, it should be clearly understood that optical telemetry may be used in some embodiments, and in such embodiments the telemetry transceiver 48 would include suitable photoelectric sensors and/or transmitting devices known in the art. In such embodiments, the cable 16 should include at least one optical fiber for conducting such telemetry signals. One embodiment of an armored electrical cable including optical fibers therein for signal telemetry is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,495,547 issued to Rafie et al. Other embodiments may use optical fibers to transmit electrical operating power to the instrument 10 from the recording unit 30. The cable disclosed in the Rafie et al. '547 patent or a similar fiber optic cable may be used in such other embodiments to transmit power to the instrument over optical fibers. The CPU 50 may include in its initial programming (or may be so programmed by reprogramming telemetry signals) a digital representation of various current waveforms used to energize the Earth formations (22, 24 26 in FIG. 1) and the casing (12 in FIG. 1) for determining the resistivity of the Earth formations (22, 24, 26 in FIG. 1). The digital representation includes information about the frequency content, the shape of the waveform and the amplitude of the current to be conducted through the formations and casing. The digital representation can be conducted to a digital to analog converter (DAC) 42, which generates an analog signal from the digital representation. The analog signal output of the DAC 42 is then conducted to the input of a power amplifier 44. The power amplifier 44 output is connected between the current source electrode A and a switch 47. The switch 47 is under control of the CPU 50. The switch 47 alternates connection of the other output terminal of the power amplifier 44 between the casing return electrode B and the formation return electrode B*, or other current electrodes in other electrode arrangements. Alternatively, the other output terminal of the power amplifier 44 may be connected to one of more cable conductors (either 16A or other electrical conductor), and the switching between casing return and formation return may be performed within the recording unit (30 in FIG. 1). Yet another alternative omits the DAC 42 and the power amplifier 44 from the circuits 20, and provides measuring current and switching features using the power supply (32 in FIG. 1) in the recording unit (30 in FIG. 1) and appropriate conductors (not shown) in the cable (16 in FIG. 1). In the latter example embodiment, measuring current may be conducted to the source electrode A using one or more cable conductors, such as 16A in FIG. 2. In the present embodiment, voltage measurements can be made between the potential reference electrode P0 and a selected one of the potential measuring electrodes P1-P6. The one of the voltage measuring electrodes from which measurements are made at any moment in time can be controlled by a multiplexer (MUX) 40, which itself may be controlled by the CPU 50. The output of the MUX 40 is connected to the input of a low noise preamplifier or amplifier 38. The output of the preamplifier 38 is coupled to an analog to digital converter (ADC) 36. The ADC 36 may be a sigma delta converter, successive approximation register, or any other analog to digital conversion device known in the art, that preferably can provide at least 24 bit resolution of the input signal. Digital signals output from the ADC 36 represent the measured potential between the reference electrode P0 and the MUX-selected one of the voltage measuring electrodes P1-P6. One possible advantage of using the MUX 40 and single preamplifier 38 as shown in FIG. 2 is that the analog portion of the voltage measuring circuitry will be substantially the same irrespective of which voltage measuring electrode P1-P6 is being interrogated to determine potential drop with respect to electrode P0. As a result, measurement error caused by differences in preamplifier 38 response may be reduced or eliminated. Preferably, the ADC 36 is a twenty-four bit device capable of accurately resolving measurements representing voltage differences as small as one nanovolt (1×10−9 volts). Alternatively, each measurement electrode P1-P6 could be coupled to one input terminal of a separate preamplifier (not shown in the Figures) for each electrode P1-P6, thus eliminating the MUX 40 from the analog input circuitry. Digital words representing the voltage measurements can be conducted from the ADC 36 to the CPU 50 for inclusion in the telemetry to the recording unit (30 in FIG. 1). Alternatively, the CPU 50 may include its own memory or other storage device (not shown separately) for storing the digital words until the instrument (10 in FIG. 1) is removed from the wellbore (14 in FIG. 1). In some embodiments, a sample rate of the ADC 36 is in the range of several kilohertz (kHz) both to provide both a very large number of voltage signal samples, preferably at least one thousand, per cycle of current waveform, and to be able to sample transient effects when switched DC is used as a current source to make resistivity measurements. In such embodiments, a switching frequency of the switched DC can be in a range of about 0.01 to 20 Hz, thus enabling the ADC 36 to make preferably at least one thousand, and as many as several thousand, voltage measurement samples within each cycle of the switched DC. In the present embodiment, the ADC 36 operates substantially continuously, to provide a relatively large number of digital signal samples for each cycle of the current source waveform. In the present embodiment, such substantially continuous operation of the ADC 36 may provide the advantage of precise, prompt determination of any DC bias in the voltage measurements. Such DC bias must be accounted for in order to precisely determine formation resistivity from the voltage measurements. In systems known in the art which do not operate voltage measuring devices substantially continuously, it is necessary to determine DC bias by other means. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,467,018 issued to Rueter et al. The measuring current waveform, as previously explained, may be generated by conducting waveform numerical values from the CPU 50, or other storage device (not shown) to the DAC 42. Referring now to FIGS. 3A through 3C, several types of current waveforms particularly suited to making through-casing (or through electrically conductive pipe) resistivity measurements will be explained. FIG. 3A is a graph of current output of the power amplifier (44 in FIG. 2) with respect to time. The current waveform 60 in FIG. 3A is a low frequency (0.01 to 20 Hz) square wave, which may be generated using switched DC, or by conducting appropriate numbers representing such a waveform to the DAC (42 in FIG. 2). The waveform 60 in FIG. 3A is periodic, meaning that the waveform is substantially constant frequency within a selected time range, and has 100 percent “duty cycle”, meaning that current is flowing substantially at all times. Another possible current waveform is shown at 60 in FIG. 3B. The current waveform in FIG. 3B is a random or pseudo random frequency square wave, also having 100 percent duty cycle. As with the previous embodiment (FIG. 3A), the embodiment of current waveform shown in FIG. 3B may be generated by conducting appropriate digital words from the CPU (50 in FIG. 2) to the DAC (42 in FIG. 2). Random switching will be advantageous to avoid aliasing or other adverse effects related to periodic data sampling. Another possible waveform is shown at 60 in FIG. 3C. The current waveform 60 in FIG. 3C is a periodic square wave having less than 100 percent duty cycle. Less than 100 percent duty cycle can be inferred from time intervals, shown at 62, in which no current is flowing. As with the previous embodiment (FIG. 3A), the embodiment of current waveform shown in FIG. 3C may be generated by conducting appropriate digital words from the CPU (50 in FIG. 2) to the DAC (42 in FIG. 2). Using less than 100 percent duty cycle may be advantageous to save electrical power where measured voltage drops are sufficiently large to make possible a reduction in the number of voltage samples measured. Using less than 100 percent duty cycle may also enable determination of some transient effects, by measuring voltage drops across the various electrodes (P0 b between P1-P6 in FIG. 1) during a short time interval after the current is switched off. Such induced potential (IP) effects may be related to fluid composition within the pore spaces of the Earth formations (22, 24, 26 in FIG. 1). Using less than 100 percent duty cycle may also enable better determination of any DC bias, by using the times with no current flow 62 as measurement references. The foregoing examples shown in FIGS. 3A, 3B and 3C are not the only current waveforms that may be generated using the CPU/DAC combination shown in FIG. 2. As will be readily appreciated by those skilled in the art, substantially any frequency and waveform type may be generated, including for example sinusoidal waveforms, by conducting appropriate digital words to the DAC (42 in FIG. 2). In some embodiments, the digital words may be stored in the CPU (50 in FIG. 2). In other embodiments, the digital words themselves, or a command which activates selected waveform digital words, may be transmitted from the recording unit (30 in FIG. 1) to the instrument (10 in FIG. 1) over the cable (16 in FIG. 1). In other embodiments, the waveform may be a pseudo random binary sequence (PRBS). Referring once again to FIG. 2, some embodiments may include one or more of the following features, either programmed into the CPU 50, or programmed into a surface computer in the recording unit (30 in FIG. 1). Some embodiments may include automatic editing of voltage measurements made across the one or more electrode pairs, P0 between any one of P1-P6. For example, if a particular digital voltage sample represents a number outside of a selected range, the sample may be discarded, and an interpolated value may be written to storage in the CPU 50, or transmitted to the recording unit (30 in FIG. 1) for the outlying sample value. Alternatively, if voltage measurements do not increase monotonically as the spacing between P0 and the various measurement electrodes P1-P6 is increased, the anomalous voltage samples may be discarded; interpolated or otherwise not written directly to storage. Other embodiments may include stacking of voltage measurement words corresponding to the same electrode pair (P0 between any of P1-P6) at substantially the same depth in the wellbore to improve the signal to noise ratio of the measurements significantly. Referring once again to FIG. 1, still other embodiments may include permanent installation of an array of electrodes, such as shown in FIG. 1 at A and P0 through P6 inside the casing 16. A cable or similar device may be used to make electrical connection to the Earth's surface from inside the wellbore 14 at a selected depth proximate a petroleum bearing reservoir, for example, formation 24 in FIG. 1. Measurements may be made at selected times during the life of the wellbore 14 to determine movement of a water contact (not shown in FIG. 1) with respect to time. In such permanent emplacements of electrodes A, P0-P6, the circuits 20 may be disposed at the Earth's surface, or may themselves be disposed in the wellbore 14, just as for the cable conveyed instrument described earlier herein. Operating the instrument may be performed in a number of different ways, of which several will be explained herein. In a regular measurement mode, the instrument 10 may be moved to a selected depth in the wellbore 14 at which measurements are to be made. First, the circuits 20 are operated, either by internal programming of the CPU (50 in FIG. 2) or by command transmitted from the recording unit (30 in FIG. 1) first to enable measuring voltage drop caused by current flow entirely along the casing 12. To make casing voltage drop measurements, the power amplifier (44 in FIG. 2) is connected between the current source electrode A on the instrument 10 and casing current return electrode 34B coupled to the top of the casing (12 in FIG. 1) at the Earth's surface. Voltage measurements between P0 and any one or more of P1 through P6 are then made. The output of the power amplifier (44 in FIG. 2) is then switched to return the measuring current at measuring current return electrode 34B* at the Earth's surface. Another set of voltage measurements between P0 and the same ones of P1 through P6 are made. The instrument 10 may then be moved a selected axial distance along the wellbore 14, and the measuring process can be repeated. Values of voltage difference made between P0 and any one or more of P1 through P6 can be converted mathematically into a second derivative, with respect to depth in the wellbore 14, of the measured voltage drop. The values of such second derivative are related to the depth-based current leakage into the Earth formations 22, 24, 26, and are thus related to the electrical conductivity of each of the formations 22, 24, 26. Advantageously, an instrument configured substantially as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 does not require measurement of voltage drop across cascaded differential amplifiers (all of which would be analog) to determine the second derivative of voltage drop with respect to depth. Performance of an instrument according to the invention may be improved by providing focusing current systems to axially constrain the flow of measuring current through the various Earth formations. An example instrument which includes focusing current systems is shown schematically in FIG. 4. The principle of measurement of the example instrument shown in FIG. 4 is described in U.S. Pat. No. 2,729,784 issued to Fearon, incorporated herein by reference. The instrument in FIG. 4 includes an array of electrodes disposed at selected locations along the instrument mandrel or housing (18 in FIG. 1). The electrodes may be similar in mechanical and electrical configuration to the electrodes described above with reference to FIG. 1. The electrodes are adapted to make electrical contact with the pipe or casing (12 in FIG. 1) in the wellbore (14 in FIG. 1). The electrodes in the embodiment of FIG. 4 include two pairs of focusing current electrodes, shown at B1A, B1B and B2A, B2B, approximately equally spaced on either axial side of a central measuring current source electrode M0. Reference potential measuring electrodes R1A, R1B and R2A, R2B are disposed, respectively, between each focusing current electrode pair B1A, B1B; B2A, B2B, and the measuring current source electrode M0. Each focusing current electrode pair B1A, B1B and B2A, B2B is connected across the output of a corresponding focusing current power amplifier 44A, 44C, respectively. In the present embodiment, the focusing current is generated by driving each power amplifier 44A, 44C using the output of a corresponding DAC 42A, 42C. Each DAC 42A, 42C can be connected to a bus or other similar data connection to the CPU 50. As in the embodiment explained above with reference to FIG. 2, the embodiment shown in FIG. 4 may include digital words stored or interpreted by the CPU 50 which represent the focusing current waveform to be generated by each power amplifier 44A, 44C and conducted to the casing (12 in FIG. 1). Aspects of the waveform which may be controlled include amplitude, phase, frequency and duty cycle, among other aspects. Each pair of reference potential measuring electrodes R1A, R1B and R2A, R2B is coupled across the input terminals of a respective low noise preamplifier 38A, 38B, or low noise amplifier, similar to the preamplifier described with reference to FIG. 2. Each low noise preamplifier 38A, 38B has its output coupled to an ADC 42A, 42B. The ADC 42A, 42B outputs are coupled to the bus or otherwise to the CPU 50. In the present embodiments, the ADCs 42A, 42B are preferably 24 bit resolution devices, similar to the ADC described with reference to FIG. 2. In the present embodiment, potential difference measurements are made across each pair of reference potential electrodes R1A, R1B and R2A, R2B, respectively. The CPU 50 receives digital words representing the measured potential across each reference electrode pair R1A, R1B and R2A, R2B, respectively. The magnitude of the focusing current output by each power amplifier 44A, 44C can be controlled by the CPU 50 such that the measured potential across each pair of reference potential electrodes R1A, R1B and R2A, R2B, respectively, is substantially equal to zero. The CPU 50 may cause such adjustments to be made by, for example, changing the amplitude or changing the duty cycle of the power amplifier 44A, 44B outputs, or both. Changes to amplitude and/or duty cycle may be made to either or both power amplifier 44A, 44B. Other methods for changing or adjusting the power output of each focusing current power amplifier 44A, 44C will occur to those skilled in the art. The purpose of making such focusing current magnitude adjustments so as to maintain substantially zero potential across the reference electrodes R1A, R1B and R2A, R2B, respectively, is to assure that there is a region within the casing (12 in FIG. 1) where substantially no net current flows along the casing in either an upward or downward direction. The embodiment of FIG. 4 can include a digitally controlled measuring current source. The source consists of, in the present embodiment, a measuring current DAC 42B coupled to the bus or otherwise to the CPU 50. Measuring current is generated by conducting waveform words to the DAC 42B, which converts the words into a driver signal for a measuring current power amplifier 44B coupled at its input to the DAC 42B output. Measuring current output from the measuring current power amplifier 44B is coupled to the measuring current source electrode M0, and maybe returned at the Earth's surface, at return electrode 34B*, or alternatively at casing current return 34B. Measuring potential electrodes M1A, M1B are disposed on either side of the measuring current source electrode M0. Each measuring potential electrode M1A, M1B, and the source electrode M0 is coupled across the input of a respective measuring potential low noise amplifier 38B, 38C. The output of each measuring potential low noise amplifier 38B, 38C is coupled to a respective ADC 36B, 36C, wherein digital words representing the value of measured potential across each respective pair of measure potential electrodes M1A, M0 and M1B, M0 are conducted to the CPU 50 for processing. The measuring potential ADC 44B is also preferably a 24 bit resolution device. Resistivity of the Earth formations outside the casing is related to the potential across the measuring potential electrodes and the magnitude of the measuring current. Waveform, frequency and duty cycle of the measuring current may be controlled in a substantially similar manner as explained with reference to the embodiment of FIG. 2. Possible advantages of a system as shown in FIG. 4 include more accurate control over focusing current properties than was previously possible, making measurements of potential across the measuring electrodes M1A, M1B more accurate. Another embodiment of an instrument according to the invention is shown schematically in FIG. 5. The instrument includes an array of electrodes disposed on the instrument housing 18 at axially spaced apart locations. The electrodes are designated A, B, P, O, N and M. The electrodes are coupled through a switching system, designated “control unit” 50A (which may be associated with for form part of a controller similar in design to CPU 50 from FIG. 2). The control unit 50A selects which electrodes are coupled to which one or selected circuits. The circuits include a current source 52. The current source 52 may be a digital synthesizer, and may include a DAC and power amplifier (not shown separately). The circuits may include a voltage (or potential) measuring circuit 51, which may include a low noise preamplifier and ADC (not shown separately) as explained with reference to FIG. 2. The circuits may also include a voltage feedback unit 53, which may be similar in configuration to the focusing current source explained with reference to FIG. 4. To perform various types of measurements, the instrument shown in FIG. 5 can select the measuring and focusing current sources to be applied to, and voltage measurements to be made across, selected ones of the electrodes and selected electrode pairs. Examples of various modes of measurement, and the electrodes used to make measurements in each of the modes, are explained in the following table: Current source and Potential measured Measurement Mode return electrodes across electrodes Downhole, completely A, B M and N; O and P contained Deep penetrating B, current return is at M and N; O and P resistivity Earth's surface away from top of casing (return 34B*) Fast measurement M and N A and B; O and P Mixed Mix sources Mix pairs In the above table, the “Current source and return electrodes” column represents the electrodes coupled to the measuring current source 52. Potential measurement is made across electrode pairs as indicated in the “Potential measured across electrodes” column. Various configurations of an instrument according to the invention which include a suitably programmed CPU (50 in FIG. 2) may provide substantially real-time automatic control of selection of the various electrodes for the purposes as explained above with reference to FIG. 4, namely axial spacings of the voltage measuring electrodes, and the spacing of and amount of focusing current supplied to various focusing electrodes. A generalized flow chart showing one embodiment of a system programmed to perform the foregoing functions is shown in FIG. 6. At 70, initially configured electrodes, current sources and voltage measuring circuits emit measuring current, focusing current and make voltage measurements, respectively. Initial configuration may be set by the system operator, or may be preprogrammed. Preprogrammed or operator-selected initial configuration may be based on parameters such as expected thickness of the various Earth formations and expected resistivities of the various Earth formations, among other parameters. At 71, voltages are measured, at least for one pair of voltage measuring electrodes. In configurations which include reference potential electrodes, for example as explained with reference to FIG. 4, such reference potentials may also be measured. At 72 the measured voltages are analyzed. Analysis may include determining a magnitude of voltage drop along the casing to determine casing resistance, and may include determining voltage drop of leakage current into the formations. Analysis may include determination of polarization direction for reference potential measurements which are not substantially equal to zero. At 75, the analysis is used to determine if the response obtained represents a stable set of formation resistivity calculations. If the response is stable, at 77, the voltage measurements are used to determine formation resistivity, typically, as previously explained, by determining a second derivative, with respect to depth, of the magnitude of leakage current corrected for casing resistance variation in the vicinity of where the measurements are made. At 73, the voltage measurements may be used to develop a model of the resistivity distribution around the outside of the wellbore (14 in FIG. 1) proximate the instrument (10 in FIG. 1). Methods for determining a model of the Earth formations are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,809,458 issued to Tamarchenko (1998), entitled, Method of simulating the response of a through-casing resistivity well logging instrument and its application to determining resistivity of earth formations. At 74, the model is subjected to a sensitivity analysis. The model, using appropriate sensitivity analysis, may be used, at 76, to determine an optimum arrangement of focusing current electrodes. If the determined optimum focusing current electrode arrangement is different from the initial or current configuration, the configuration is changed, at 79, and focusing current parameters are changed at 78 to provide the model with the optimum sensitivity response. A different embodiment which may be used to investigate relatively long axial spans between electrodes, as well as shorter axial spans, is shown schematically in FIG. 7. The embodiment in FIG. 7 includes a plurality of “satellite” or auxiliary instrument units, shown generally at 62, coupled to each other axially by cable segments 17. Any number of auxiliary units 62 may be used in a particular implementation. Each auxiliary unit 62 may include one or more electrodes made as previously explained and adapted to make electrical contact with the casing (12 in FIG. 1). Each auxiliary unit 62 may include one or more current sources, configured as explained with reference to FIG. 2, and one or more voltage measuring circuits, also configured as explained with reference to FIG. 2. The length of the cable segments 17 is not a limitation on the scope of the invention, however, it is contemplated that the length of the cable segments is typically about 1 to 1.5 meters. The auxiliary units 62 may be disposed axially on either side of, and electrically connected to, a central control unit 60. The central control unit 60 may include a central processor, similar in configuration to the CPU explained with reference to FIG. 2. The control unit 60 may operate the various auxiliary units 62 to perform as current source electrodes and/or current return electrodes for either or both measuring current or focusing current, these currents as explained with reference to FIG. 4. The various electrodes on the auxiliary units 62 may also be configured to make voltage measurements of either or both measuring current and focusing current, also as explained with reference to FIG. 4. In some embodiments, the central control unit 60 may itself include one or more current sources (not shown separately) and one or more voltage measuring circuits (not shown separately). The central control unit 60 may also include a telemetry transceiver, similar in configuration to the transceiver explained with reference to FIG. 2, and adapted to communicate measurement signals to the Earth's surface in a selected telemetry format, and to receive command signals from the Earth's surface, along the cable 16. Alternatively, the control unit 60 may include recording devices, as explained with reference to FIG. 2, to store measurements until the instrument is withdrawn from the wellbore (14 in FIG. 1). The embodiment shown in FIG. 7 may be electronically configured, in some instances, to provide focusing currents across a very long axial span, for example, by selecting innermost auxiliary units (those axially closest to the control unit 60) to provide a focusing current source electrode, and outermost auxiliary units 62 (those axially most distant from the central unit 60) to provide a focusing current return electrode. As will be readily appreciated by those skilled in the art, such a long axial span for focusing current may provide a relatively large radial (lateral) “depth of investigation” of the measuring current, because such measuring current is constrained to flow laterally a larger distance than when the focusing current traverses a smaller axial span. A possible advantage of the control unit 60/auxiliary unit 62 arrangement shown in FIG. 7 is that the various electrodes may be selectively configured and reconfigured electronically, by the central control unit 60, to make a wide range of different radial depth and axial resolution measurements of Earth formation resistivity outside of a conductive pipe. More specifically, the electrical connections between the one or more electrodes on each of the auxiliary units 62 may be individually addressable by the circuitry in the central control unit 60. While the configuration shown in FIG. 7 could conceivably be adapted to a single, elongated instrument housing, it will be readily appreciated by those skilled in the art that a set of axially shorter units (60, 62) interconnected by flexible cable segments 17 may be more readily inserted into and withdrawn from a wellbore, particularly if the wellbore is not substantially vertical or includes places of relatively high trajectory tortuosity (“dog leg severity”). Another embodiment is shown in FIG. 8. The embodiment of FIG. 8 includes a central control unit 60 configured as explained with reference to the embodiment of FIG. 7, and includes a plurality of auxiliary units 62, also configured as explained with reference to the embodiment of FIG. 7. The auxiliary units 62 are connected end to end to each other and to the central control unit 60 by cable segments 17. The entire array of auxiliary units 62 and central control unit 60 can be conveyed into and out of the wellbore by the cable 16 or other conveyance known in the art. In the present embodiment, any one or more of the central control unit 60 and the auxiliary units 62 may include a seismic receiver SR disposed within the housing. The housing of the one or more units which includes a seismic receiver SR preferably includes a selectively extensible back-up arm 63 for urging the respective housing into contact with the interior surface of the pipe or casing (12 in FIG. 1). The seismic receiver may be a single sensor element (not shown separately), or may be a plurality of sensor elements arranged along different sensitive axes. The sensor element may be a geophone, accelerometer or any other seismic sensing device known in the art. A suitable arrangement of actuating mechanism for the back up arm(s) 63, and seismic sensors is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,438,169 issued to Kennedy et al. and incorporated herein by reference. The one or more of the units having the seismic receiver SR therein preferably includes circuits (not shown separately) for converting signals detected by the one or more sensing elements into appropriately formatted telemetry for recording in the central unit 60 and/or for transmission to the Earth's surface in a selected telemetry format. In operation, the embodiment of FIG. 8 may be moved to a selected depth in the wellbore, and the one or more back up arms 63 may be extended to urge the associated unit's housing into contact with the casing. A seismic energy source 65 disposed at the Earth's surface may be actuated at selected times and the signals detected by the one or more seismic receivers SR is recorded (indexed with respect to time of actuation of the source 65) for interpretation. The extension of the back up arm(s) 63, actuation of the source 65 and signal recording may be repeated at different selected depths in the wellbore. Similarly, measurements of voltage drop and current amplitude may be made using the one or more auxiliary units 62 as the array is positioned at each one of a plurality of selected depths in the wellbore, while seismic data recordings are being made. Voltage measurements may also be made while the array is moving through the wellbore, depending on the type of electrodes used on each one of the units 60, 62. While the embodiment shown in FIG. 8 includes seismic receivers SR and a back up arm 63 in each one of the central control unit 60 and the auxiliary units 62, it should be clearly understood that any one or more of the units 60, 62 may include a seismic receiver and back up arm. A possible advantage of using a back up arm 63 in each of the units 60, 62 as shown in FIG. 8 is that each back up arm 63 may serve both the purpose of providing good mechanical contact between the unit housing and the casing to enhance acoustic coupling therebetween, and to provide back-up force such that the electrodes (see FIG. 2) may be urged into firm contact with the interior of the casing to enhance electrical contact therebetween. An combination through-casing resistivity measuring and borehole seismic instrument configured as shown in FIG. 8 may provide the advantage of substantial time saving during operation, because both seismic surveys and resistivity measurements may be made in a single insertion of the instrument into the wellbore. Such time savings may be substantial in cases where conveyance other than by gravity are used, for example, well tractors or drill pipe. The embodiment shown in FIG. 8 may also include a gravity sensor, shown generally at G, in one or more of the central control unit 60 and the auxiliary units. The one or more gravity sensors G may be a total gravitational field sensor, or a differential gravity sensor. Suitable types of gravity and differential gravity sensors are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,671,057 issued to Orban. An instrument configured as shown in FIG. 8 including resistivity, gravity and seismic sensors may be used, for example, in fluid displacement monitoring of subsurface reservoirs. One embodiment of an electrode system for making electrical contact with the interior of a casing is shown in FIG. 9. The electrode system includes an electrical insulating layer 90 coupled to the exterior surface of the instrument housing 18. A plurality of resilient, electrically conductive wires 90 are mechanically coupled to the insulating layer 92 so as to protrude laterally outward from the exterior of the housing 18 and insulating layer 92. The wires 90 are all in electrical contact with each other. The wires 90 are preferably made from a corrosion resistant, high strength and “spring like” alloy, and have a length such that a free diameter traversed by the wires 90 is slightly larger than the expected maximum internal diameter of the pipe or casing (14 in FIG. 1) in the wellbore to be surveyed. The wires 90 will thus be urged into a scratching or scraping contact with the interior of the pipe or casing. While some of the wires 90 may not penetrate scale, deposits or corrosion present on the interior of the pipe, some of the wires 90 are likely to make such penetration and thus provide good electrical contact to the pipe or casing. One possible configuration for the wires 90 so as to be in electrical contact with each other and insulated from the exterior surface of the housing is shown in FIG. 10. The wires 90 are bonded to an electrically conductive substrate 92B. The substrate 92B is insulated from the exterior surface of the housing (18 in FIG. 9) by a lower insulation layer 92A. The substrate 92B may be covered on its exterior surface by an upper insulating layer 92C to prevent electrical contact between the housing (18 in FIG. 9) and the substrate 92B. The wires 90 thus act as a single electrode at the location of the substrate 92B and insulating layers 92A, 92C. One embodiment of a system for estimating quality of contact between extensible/retractable type electrodes and the interior surface of the pipe is shown in FIG. 11. The electrode 106 in FIG. 11 in extended and retracted by a piston 102 disposed in an hydraulic cylinder 100. Alternatively, a solenoid or other similar electromagnetic device may be used to extend and retract the electrode 106. The piston 102 in the present embodiment is sealed with respect to the cylinder 100 by o-rings 100 or the like. Disposed proximate the contact tip of the electrode 106 is an insulating mandrel 114 which includes an electromagnetic transmitter antenna 110 and an electromagnetic receiver antenna 112. The antennas 110, 112 can be wire coils. The transmitter coil 110 is coupled to a source of alternating current (AC) 108. The AC source 108 preferably has a frequency selected to make a voltage induced in the receiver coil 112 related to a distance between the coils 110, 112 and the pipe or casing 14. The voltage is determined by a voltage measuring circuit 116 coupled to the receiver coil 112. Additionally, a resistance measuring circuit, which can be a direct current (DC) or preferably and AC type, is electrically coupled between the electrode 106 and the pipe 14. The pipe connection may be at the Earth's surface, or through a different one of the electrodes on the instrument (10 in FIG. 1). Quality of electrical contact is determined when the voltage detected by the voltage measuring circuit 116 remains steady, indicating no further movement of the electrode 106 toward the pipe 14, and the resistance measured by the resistance circuit 118 reaches a minimum. As will be readily appreciated by those skilled in the art, sometimes the condition of the interior of the pipe in the wellbore is such that it may prove difficult or even impossible to provide sufficient electrical contact between the electrodes on the instrument and the conductive pipe. Much operating time can be consumed in attempts to make such electrical contact in sections of the pipe which are sufficiently deteriorated or covered in mineral and/or hydrocarbon deposits so as to make electrical contact poor at best. One embodiment of an apparatus according to the invention may include one or more types of wellbore imaging device to assist the system operator in determining whether any particular portion of a wellbore pipe is unlikely to provide a sufficient basis for good electrical contact. One example of a wellbore imaging subsystem is shown in FIG. 12. The imaging subsystem 7 may include any one or all of the embodiments of wellbore wall imaging devices shown therein. The imaging subsystem 7, and additional ones of the imaging subsystem, may in some embodiments be contained in one or more of the auxiliary units 62, the central unit 60, or in a single housing system such as shown in FIG. 1. The imaging subsystem 7 may be contained in a housing having therein a conventional strength and load bearing portion 122, and an acoustically and/or optically transparent window section 120. The transparent window section 120 may include therein an optical video camera 134, and an ultrasonic transducer 132 either or both of which may be coupled to a motor 130 for rotating the camera 134 and transducer 132 to enable imaging over the entire interior circumference of the pipe. Output of the camera 134 and transducer 132 may be coupled to conventional signal processing circuits 128 disposed, preferably, in the housing 122. A portion of the housing may include one or more electrically insulating contact pads 124, coupled to the housing 122 by extensible arms and linkages, shown generally at 124A. The linkages 124A may be of any type known in the art for extending a pad or contact device laterally outward from the housing 122. Each of the one or more pads 124 may include a plurality of spaced apart electrodes 126 for making galvanic resistance measurements therebetween or with reference to a selected potential point, such as the housing 122. Imaging devices for making electrical and ultrasonic images of the interior surface of a wellbore, including a pipe, are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,502,686 issued to Dory et al., incorporated herein by reference Video imaging devices for use in a wellbore are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,134,471 issued to Gendron et al., also incorporated herein by reference. Various embodiments of a through-pipe resistivity measurement apparatus according to the invention may include any one or more, or all of the imaging systems shown in FIG. 12. During operation, the system operator may observe a visual representation, such as by a graphic print or video display, of measurements made by the one or more imaging systems shown in FIG. 12. If the system operator determines that a particular portion of the wellbore is likely to be difficult to establish good electrical contact, the operator may instead more the instrument (10 in FIG. 1) to a different portion of the wellbore. Alternatively, a record of the measurements made by the one or more imaging systems may be made with respect to depth in the wellbore, along with the measurements of potential as explained previously herein. Image representations may then be used in combination with the potential measurements to evaluate whether the potential measurements are more likely representative of the true resistivity of the Earth formations outside the pipe, or whether such potential measurements are more likely to have been materially affected by the condition of the interior of the pipe. Such imaging can therefore improve the quality of interpreted results by providing a way to resolve ambiguous measurements where pipe condition is suspected to have affected the potential measurements. While the invention has been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments, those skilled in the art, having benefit of this disclosure, will appreciate that other embodiments can be devised which do not depart from the scope of the invention as disclosed herein. Accordingly, the scope of the invention should be limited only by the attached claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The invention relates generally to the field of Earth formation electrical resistivity measuring devices. More particularly, the invention relates to wellbore instruments for measuring formation resistivity from within an electrically conductive pipe or casing. 2. Background Art Electrical resistivity measurements of Earth formations are known in the art for determining properties of the measured Earth formations. Properties of interest include the fluid content of the pore spaces of the Earth formations. Wellbore resistivity measuring devices known in the art typically require that the Earth formations be exposed by drilling a wellbore therethrough, and that such formations remain exposed to the wellbore so that the measurements may be made from within the exposed formations. When wellbores are completely drilled through the Earth formations of interest, frequently a steel pipe or casing is inserted into and cemented in place within the wellbore to protect the Earth formations, to prevent hydraulic communication between subsurface Earth formations, and to provide mechanical integrity to the wellbore. Steel casing is highly electrically conductive, and as a result makes it difficult to use conventional (so called “open hole”) techniques to determine the resistivity of the various Earth formations from within a steel pipe or casing. It is known in the art to make measurements for determining the electrical resistivity of Earth formations from within conductive casing or pipe. A number of references disclose techniques for making such measurements. A list of references which disclose various apparatus and methods for determining resistivity of Earth formations from within conductive casings includes: USSR inventor certificate no. 56052, filed by Alpin, L. M. (1939), entitled, The method for logging in cased wells; USSR inventor certificate no. 56026, filed by Alpin, L. M. (1939), entitled, Process of the electrical measurement of well casing; U.S. Pat. No. 2,459,196, to Stewart, W. H. (1949), entitled, Electrical logging method and apparatus; U.S. Pat. No. 2,729,784 issued to Fearon, R. E. (1956), entitled, Method and apparatus for electric well logging; U.S. Pat. No. 2,891,215 issued to Fearon, R. E. (1959), entitled, Method and apparatus for electric well logging; French patent application no. 72.41218, filed by Desbrandes, R. and Mengez, P. (1972), entitled, Method & Apparatus for measuring the formation electrical resistivity In wells having metal casing; International Patent Application Publication no. WO 00/79307 A1, filed by Benimeli, D. (2002), entitled, A method and apparatus for determining of a formation surrounding a cased well; U.S. Pat. No. 4,796,186 issued to Kaufman, A. A. (1989), entitled, Conductivity determination in a formation having a cased well; U.S. Pat. No. 4,820,989, issued to Vail, III, W. (1989), entitled, Methods and apparatus for measurement of the resistivity of geological formation from within cased boreholes; U.S. Pat. No. 4,837,518 issued to Gard et al. (1989), entitled, Method and Apparatus for measuring the electrical resistivity of formation through metal drill pipe or casing; U.S. Pat. No. 4,882,542 issued to Vail, III, W. (1989), entitled, Methods and apparatus for measurement of electronic properties of geological formations through borehole casing; U.S. Pat. No. 5,043,668 issued to Vail, III, W. (1991), entitled, Methods and apparatus for measurement of electronic properties of geological formations through borehole casing; U.S. Pat. No. 5,075,626 issued to Vail, III, W. (1991), entitled, Electronic measurement apparatus movable in a cased borehole and compensation for casing resistance differences; U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,794 issued to Vail, III, W. (1993), entitled, Methods of apparatus measuring formation resistivity from within a cased well having one measurement and two compensation steps; U.S. Pat. No. 5,510,712 issued to Sezginer et al. (1996), entitled, Method and apparatus for measuring formation resistivity in cased holes; U.S. Pat. No. 5,543,715 issued to Singer et al. (1996), entitled, Method and apparatus for measuring formation resistivity through casing using single-conductor electrical logging cable; U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,514 issued to Moulin (1996), entitled, Method and apparatus for determining formation resistivity in a cased well using three electrodes arranged in a Wheatstone bridge. U.S. Pat. No. 5,654,639 issued to Locatelli et al. (1997), entitled, Induction measuring device in the presence of metal walls; U.S. Pat. No. 5,570,024 issued to Vail, III, W. (1996), entitled, Determining resistivity of a formation adjacent to a borehole having casing using multiple electrodes and resistances being defined between the electrodes; U.S. Pat. No. 5,608,323 issued to Koelman, J. M. V. A. (1997), entitled, Arrangement of the electrodes for an electrical logging system for determining the electrical resistivity of subsurface formation; U.S. Pat. No. 5,633,590 issued to Vail, III, W. (1997), entitled, Formation resistivity measurements from within a cased well used to quantitatively determine the amount of oil and gas present. U.S. Pat. No. 5,680,049 issued to Gissler et al. (1997), entitled, Apparatus for measuring formation resistivity through casing having a coaxial tubing inserted therein; U.S. Pat. No. 5,809,458 issued to Tamarchenko (1998), entitled, Method of simulating the response of a through-casing resistivity well logging instrument and its application to determining resistivity of earth formations; U.S. Pat. No. 6,025,721 issued to Vail, III, W. (2000), entitled, Determining resistivity of a formation adjacent to a borehole having casing by generating constant current flow in portion of casing and using at least two voltage measurement electrodes; U.S. Pat. No. 6,157,195 issued to Vail, III, W. (2000), entitled, Formation resistivity measurements from within a cased well used to quantitatively determine the amount of oil and gas present; U.S. Pat. No. 6,246,240 B1 issued to Vail, III, W. (2001), entitled, Determining resistivity of formation adjacent to a borehole having casing with an apparatus having all current conducting electrodes within the cased well; U.S. Pat. No. 6,603,314 issued to Kostelnicek et al. (2003), entitled, Simultaneous current injection for measurement of formation resistance through casing; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,667,621 issued to Benimelli, entitled, Method and apparatus for determining the resistivity of a formation surrounding a cased well. United States Patent Application Publications which cite relevant art include no. 2001/0033164 A1, filed by Vinegar et al., entitled, Focused through-casing resistivity measurement; no. 2001/0038287 A1, filed by Amini, Bijan K., entitled, Logging tool for measurement of resistivity through casing using metallic transparencies and magnetic lensing; no. 2002/0105333 A1 filed by Amini, Bijan K., entitled, Measurements of electrical properties through non magnetically permeable metals using directed magnetic beams and magnetic lenses. and no. 2003/0042016 A1, filed by Vinegar et al., entitled, Wireless communication using well casing The foregoing techniques are summarized briefly below. U.S. Pat. No. 2,459,196 describes a method for measuring inside a cased wellbore, whereby electrical current is caused to flow along the conductive casing such that some of the current will “leak” into the surrounding Earth formations. The amount of current leakage is related to the electrical conductivity of the Earth formations. The '196 patent does not disclose any technique for correcting the measurements for electrical inhomogeneities in the casing. U.S. Pat. No. 2,729,784 discloses a technique in which three potential electrodes are used to create two opposed pairs of electrodes in contact with a wellbore casing. Electrical current is caused to flow in two opposing “loops” through two pairs of current electrodes placed above and below the potential electrodes such that electrical inhomogeneities in the casing have their effect nulled. Voltage drop across the two electrode pairs is related to the leakage current into the Earth formations. The disclosure in U.S. Pat. No. 2,891,215 includes a current emitter electrode disposed between the measuring electrodes of the apparatus disclosed in the '784 patent to provide a technique for fully compensating the leakage current. U.S. Pat. No. 4,796,186 discloses the technique most frequently used to determine resistivity through conductive casing, and includes measuring leakage current into the Earth formations, and discloses measuring current flowing along the same portion of casing in which the leakage current is measured so as to compensate the measurements of leakage current for changes in resistance along the casing. Other references describe various extensions and improvements to the basic techniques of resistivity measurement through casing. The methods known in the art for measuring resistivity through casing can be summarized as follows. An instrument is lowered into the wellbore having at least one electrode on the instrument (A) which is placed into contact with the casing at various depths in the casing. A casing current return electrode B is disposed at the top of and connected to the casing. A formation current return electrode B* is disposed at the Earth's surface at some distance from the wellbore. A record is made of the voltage drop and current flowing from electrode A in the wellbore at various depths, first to electrode B at the top of the casing and then to formation return electrode B*. Current flow and voltage drop through the casing (A-B) is used to correct measurements of voltage drop and current flow through the formation (A-B*) for effects of inhomogeneity in the casing. If the Earth and the casing were both homogeneous, a record with respect to depth of the voltage drop along the casing, and the voltage drop through the casing and formation, would be substantially linear. As is well known in the art, casing includes inhomogeneities, even when new, resulting from construction tolerances, composition tolerances, and even “collars” (threaded couplings) used to connect segments of the casing to each other. Earth formations, of course, are not at all homogeneous, and more resistive formations are typically the object of subsurface investigation, because these Earth formations tend to be associated with presence of petroleum, while the more conductive formations tend to be associated with the presence of all connate water in the pore spaces. Therefore, it is the perturbations in the record of voltage drop with respect to depth that are of interest in determining resistivity of Earth formations outside casing using the techniques known in the art. The conductivity of the Earth formations is related to the amount of current leaking out of the casing into the formations. The formation conductivity with respect to depth is generally related to the second derivative of the voltage drop along A-B with respect to depth, when current is flowing between A and B*. Typically, the second derivative of the voltage drop is measured using a minimum of three axially spaced apart electrodes placed in contact with the casing, coupled to cascaded differential amplifiers, ultimately coupled to a voltage measuring circuit. Improvements to the basic method that have proven useful include systems which create s small axial zone along the casing in which substantially no current flows along the casing itself to reduce the effects of casing inhomogeneity on the measurements of leakage current voltage drop. In practice, instruments and methods known in the art require that the instrument make its measurements from a fixed position within the wellbore, which makes measuring formations of interest penetrated by a typical wellbore take an extensive amount of time. Further, the voltage drops being measured are small, and thus subject to noise limitations of the electronic systems used to make the measurements of voltage drop. Still further, systems known in the art for providing no-current zones, or known current flow values for measurements of voltage drop, are typically analog systems, and thus subject to the accuracy limitations of such analog systems. Still further, it is known in the art to use low frequency alternating current (AC) to induce current flow along the casing and in the Earth formations. AC is used to avoid error resulting from electrical polarization of the casing and the electrodes when continuous direct current (DC) is used. Typically, the frequency of the AC must be limited to about 0.01 to 20 Hz to avoid error in the measurements caused by dielectric effects and the skin effect. It is also known in the art to use polarity-switched DC to make through casing resistivity measurements, which avoids the polarization problem, but may induce transient effect error in the measurements when the DC polarity is switched. Transient effects, and low frequency AC errors are not easily accounted for using systems known in the art. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF INVENTION <EOH>One aspect of the invention is an instrument for measuring resistivity of Earth formations from within a conductive pipe inside a wellbore drilled through the Earth formations. The instrument includes a plurality of housings connected end to end and adapted to traverse the wellbore. At least one electrode is disposed on each housing. Each electrode is adapted to be placed in electrical contact with the inside of the pipe. The instrument includes a source of electrical current, a digital voltage measuring circuit and a switch. The switch is arranged to connect the source of electrical current between one of the electrodes and a current return at a selectable one of the top of the pipe and a location near the Earth's surface at a selected distance from the top of the pipe, and to connect selected pairs of the electrodes to the digital voltage measuring circuit. The pairs are selected to make voltage measurements corresponding to selected axial distances and selected lateral depths in the Earth formations. One embodiment of the instrument includes a focusing current source that is coupled through the switch to a selected pair of the electrodes to constrain measuring current to flow in a laterally outward path proximate the instrument. One embodiment of the instrument includes a back up arm on one or more of the housings and a seismic receiver disposed in the one or more of the housings which includes the back up arm. Another aspect of the invention is a method for measuring resistivity of Earth formations from within a conductive pipe inside a wellbore drilled through the Earth formations. A method according to this aspect of the invention includes inserting a plurality of housings connected end to end to a selected depth inside the pipe. At least one electrode on each housing is placed in electrical contact with the inside of the pipe. Electrical current from a measuring current source is passed through at least one of the electrodes into the pipe. A return from the measuring current source is switched between one of the electrodes and a current return at a selectable one of the top of the pipe and a location near the Earth's surface at a selected distance from the top of the pipe. Voltages are digitally measured across selected pairs of the electrodes. The pairs of electrodes are selected to make voltage measurements corresponding to selected axial distances and selected lateral depths in the Earth formations. Other aspects and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description and the appended claims. | 20040601 | 20080617 | 20051201 | 95899.0 | 0 | SCHINDLER, DAVID M | SYSTEM FOR MEASURING EARTH FORMATION RESISTIVITY THROUGH AN ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE WELLBORE CASING | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,859,994 | ACCEPTED | Selective internet priority service | An Internet Priority Service (IPS) provides to authorized users priority access to communication over the Internet during emergencies. Transmission of data packets from an authorized user that accesses the IPS are given priority for transmission over the Internet. The level of priority given to a data packet depends on the type of application associated with the data packet. Each user or group of users may also be given a respective IPS level of priority. Furthermore, for a particular authorized user, access to the IPS may be limited to a specific number of application types, which for example do not have high bandwidth requirements. Assigning different priority levels as a function of application type and user or group of users, and limiting IPS access to specific application types allows efficient methods of emergency communication to be implemented over the Internet during emergencies. | 1. A network device for participating in providing an Internet priority service for transmission of data packets each associated with an application type of a plurality of application types, the network element comprising: an IPS (Internet priority Service) function adapted to: a) for each data packet: i) determine which application type is associated with the data packet; and ii) determine a priority level for transmission of the data packet, the priority level being a function of the application type associated with the data packet; and b) transmit the data packets according to the priority levels of the data packets. 2. A network element according to claim 1 wherein for each data packet the IPS function is further adapted to: determine a user or group associated with the data packet, the priority level for transmission of the data packet also being a function of the user or group associated with the data packet. 3. A network element according to claim 2 wherein for each of a plurality of users or groups of users, the user or group of users is assigned an IPS level of priority, and wherein for a first user or group of users of the plurality of users or groups of users the priority level for transmission of data packets associated with a first application type is higher than the priority level for transmission of data packets associated with a second application type assigned to a second user or group of users of the plurality of users and groups, the IPS level of priority of the second user or group of users being higher than the IPS level of priority of the first user or group of users. 4. A network element according to claim 1 wherein the IPS function is adapted to transmit the data packets in a hierachical manner by: first transmitting the data packets having a higher priority level and then progressively transmitting the data packets having a lower priority level. 5. A network element according to claim 4 wherein to transmit the data packets according to the priority levels of the data packets for each data packet the IPS function is further adapted to: mark the date packet with an indicator of the priority level for transmission of the data packet for allowing other network elements to transmit the data packet according to the priority level for transmission of the data packet. 6. A network element according to claim 3 wherein for each data packet, to determine the priority level for transmission of the data packet the IPS function is adapted to: if the application type associated with the data packet is from a subset of application types of the plurality of application types, select a priority level that provides priority services for transmission of the data packet, the subset of application types being a respective subset of application types for the user or group; and if the application type associated with the data packet is not from the respective subset of application types for the user or group, select a priority level that provides no priority services for transmission of the data packet. 7. A network element according to claim 1 wherein the IPS function is further adapted to: responsive to invocation of an application by a user authorized to use the Internet priority service, confirm with the user whether associated data packets associated with the application require the Internet priority service; and if the associated data packets require the Internet priority service, provide the Internet priority service for the associated data packets. 8. A network element according to claim 1 wherein the data packets comprise application fields each containing at least one indicator of an application type indicator and a priority indicator, and wherein for each data packet the IPS function is adapted to determine the priority level for transmission of the data packet using the at least one indicator. 9. A network element for participating in providing an Internet priority service, the network element comprising: an IPS (Internet Priority Service) management function adapted to: provide user access to the Internet priority service for at least one application type of a plurality of application types, each one of the plurality of application types having a respective associated priority level for transmission, the respective associated priority level of at least one of the plurality of application types being different than the priority level of at least one other application type of the plurality of application types. 10. A network element according to claim 9 wherein the IPS management function is further adapted to: receive a request from a user requesting the Internet priority service; and verify whether the user request is valid, the user access being provided to the user only if the request is valid. 11. A network element according to claim 9 wherein the at least one application type comprises fewer application types than the plurality of application types. 12. A network element according to claim 9 wherein to provide the user access to the Internet priority service the IPS management function is further adapted to send information to other network elements indicating that the access to the priority service is enabled. 13. A network element according to claim 9 comprising a proxy function adapted to serve as a proxy for applications invoked remotely. 14. A network element according to claim 13 wherein the proxy function is further adapted to provide a secure link for access by users invoking the Internet priority service. 15. A network element according to claim 14 wherein the proxy function is further adapted to provide the secure link using an SSL (Secure Socket Layer) protocol. 16. A network element according to claim 15 comprising an IPS function adapted to: a) for each data packet of a plurality of data packets, the data packet being associated with an associated application type of the plurality of application types: i) determine which associated application type is associated with the data packet; and ii) determine the respective associated priority level for transmission from the associated application type associated with the data packet, the respective associated priority level for transmission being a function of the associated application apse associated with the data packet; and b) transmit the data packets according to the priority levels of the data packets. 17. In a network element, a method of providing an Internet priority service for transmission of data packets each associated with an application type of a plurality of application types, the method comprising: b) for each data packet: i) determining which application type is associated with the data packet; and ii) determining a priority level for transmission of the data packet, the priority level being a function of the application type associated with the data packet; and b) transmitting the data packets according to the priority levels of the data packets. 18. In a network element, a method of participating in providing an Internet priority service, the method comprising: providing user access to the Internet priority service for at least one application type of a plurality of application types, each one of the plurality of application types having a respective associated priority level for transmission, the respective associated priority level of at least one of the plurality of application types being different than the priority level of at least one other application type of the plurality of application types. 19. An article of manufacture comprising: a computer usable medium having computer readable program code means embodied therein for providing, in a network element, an Internet priority service for transmission of data packets each associated with an application type of a plurality of application types, the computer readable code means in said article of manufacture comprising: computer readable code means for: for each data packet: i) determining which application type is associated with the data packet; and ii) determining a priority level for transmission of the data packet, the priority level being a function of the application type associated with the data packet; and computer readable code means for transmitting the data packets according to the priority levels of the data packets. 20. An article of manufacture comprising: a computer usable medium having computer readable program code means embodied therein for participating in providing an Internet priority service, the computer readable code means in said article of manufacture comprising: computer readable code means for providing user access to the Internet priority service for at least one application type of a plurality of application types, each one of the plurality of application types having a respective associated priority level for transmission, the respective associated priority level of at least one of the plurality of application types being different than the priority level of at least one other application type of the plurality of application types. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to IPS (Internet Priority Service) for data packet transmission over the Internet. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION ETS (Emergency Telecommunications Services) have been implemented for telephone services including wire and wireless telephone services, in which in the event of an emergency a priority service is provided to particular users or groups of users over other users. IPS (Internet Priority Service) is being proposed as an analogue to ETS. The purpose of IPS is to support national security and emergency preparedness communications over the Internet during an emergency or an abnormal situation where the Internet is not able to support all communication demands. Such a situation could arise due to for example destruction of facilities, downing of cables, etc. in a disaster or terrorist attack or simply due to increase in traffic generated by people trying to find out what has happened to loved ones after the news of such an event is known. The design of the Internet is thought to be particularly robust against complete shut down and this makes the Internet well suited for authorized emergency communications. One difference between telephone services and the Internet is that the former supports basically one type of service corresponding to phone calls while the Internet supports a plethora of services such as e-mail, instant messaging, voice over IP (Internet Protocol), and video conferencing for example. Phone calls each consume essentially the same amount of resources while different Internet application types consume widely different amounts of resources. For example, full motion and full resolution video conferencing makes use of far more bandwidth than instant messaging. Although the required resources depend greatly on the application type, generally the Internet infrastructure is not aware of what application a user is using. The Internet handles all IP packets uniformly. In an emergency situation, when resources are limited the current methods treat IP packets from a user that has invoked the IPS uniformly from one application type to another. This causes problems in that if the user is in a video conference and making use of a large bandwidth, other users invoking the IPS may not be able to communicate efficiently using for example e-mails which require far less bandwidth than video conferencing. Furthermore, if the user is in a video conference and has a higher priority than some other users that are attempting to send emergency related low bandwidth e-mails, these other users may be precluded for being able to send the low bandwidth e-mails due to priority being given to the user in the video conference. As such, current methods proposed for implementing IPS are inefficient in achieving the goal of emergency communication over the Internet. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In a network, one or more network elements have IPS (Internet Priority Service) functionality for participating in providing the IPS. In an emergency situation authorized users access the IPS and data packets associated with applications invoked by the authorized users are given priority when being transmitted over the Internet. A priority level given to a data packet is a function of the type of application being invoked. For example, a high priority may be given to e-mails which require a relatively low bandwidth whereas a lower priority may be given to video conferencing. Assigning a higher priority to e-mails prevents important e-mail communications from being compromised by the use of video conferencing during an emergency. This allows an efficient method of communication to be implemented for purposes of emergency situations. In some embodiments of the invention, IPS is provided by Internet service providers in return for example for a retainer fee plus payment for IPS traffic actually carried out. In some embodiments of the invention, the priority level is also a function of the users invoking the application. This allows an Internet service provider to provide IPS packages tailored for particular users or groups of users. Instead of fixing a fee based solely on the number of authorized users, the Internet service provider can negotiate to provide IPS for applications on an individual basis. For example, for a particular user or group of users only a selected number of application type may be available for IPS and/or each application type is given a respective priority level. Furthermore, when new applications become available the Internet service provider can provide IPS for data packets associated with these new applications. In some embodiments of the invention, each user or group might be assigned an IPS level of priority and within each IPS level each application type is given a respective priority level for transmission of associated data packets. In an example implementation, a first user having a high IPS level of priority might be given high priority level for transmission of data packets associated with email and a lower priority level for transmission of data packets associated with video conferencing. Other users having a lower IPS level of priority might be given lower priority levels for transmission of data packets associated with video conferencing and e-mail than the respective priority levels of the first user. However, the priority level for transmission of data packets associated with e-mail given to the other users might nonetheless be higher than the priority level for transmission of data packets associated with video conferencing given to the first user. As such, in such a case when IPS is invoked, priority is given to e-mail messages sent by the other users over video conferencing data packets sent by the first user. This allows an efficient method of providing emergency communications during an emergency to be implemented. In some embodiments of the invention, a network element in the system has an IPS function adapted to determine the priority levels for transmission of the data packets on the basis of the application types associated with the data packets. The IPS function is used to transmit data packets in a hierachical manner by first transmitting the data packets having a higher priority level and then progressively transmitting the data packets having a lower priority level. In addition, in some embodiments of the invention the IPS function is also adapted to mark the data packets with an indicator of the priority level. This allows other network elements such as routers for example to transmit the data packets over the Internet according to the priority level marked with the indicator. A network element in the network may have an IPS management function adapted to provide access to the Internet priority service for at least one application type of a plurality of application types. In some embodiments of the invention, the IPS management function is further adapted to receive a request from a user requesting the Internet priority service and verify whether the user request is valid. In such embodiments of the invention, the access is provided to the user only if the request is valid. In some embodiments of the invention, to verify whether the user request is valid, the IPS management function is adapted to request credentials from the user; receive the credentials; and verify whether the credentials are valid. In some embodiments of the invention, the network element has a proxy function adapted to provide a secure link for access by users invoking the Internet priority service. In some embodiments of the invention, the proxy function is also adapted to provide the secure link for access to the IPS by a user at a remote network element. In particular, in some embodiment of the invention the proxy function is further adapted to provide the secure link using an SSL (Secure Socket Layer). Providing IPS cover the Internet effectively provides a VPN (Virtual Private Network) and using SSL capabilities provides a secure access to the IPS even if Internet resources such as addressing and routing are used. Furthermore, with SSL VPNs network elements of end users can access the IPS without the need for special software at the end user's network element. For example, in one implementation, a user accesses the IPS using a PC (Personal Computer) or PDA (Personal Digital assistant) having an SSL Web browser. Finally, in SSL VPNs the type of application being invoked is easily determined for example from the messaging used when the application is invoked. In accordance with a first broad aspect, the invention provides a network device for participating in providing an Internet priority service for transmission of data packets each associated with an application type of a plurality of application types. The network element has an IPS (Internet priority Service) function. For each data packet, the IPS function determines which application type is associated with the data packet, and determines a priority level for transmission of the data packet. The priority level is a function of the application type associated with the data packet. The IPS function also transmits the data packets according to the priority levels of the data packets. In some embodiments of the invention, for each data packet the IPS function is adapted to perform at least one of deep packet inspection and stateful inspection of the data packets to determine the application type associated with the data packet. In accordance with a second broad aspect, the invention provides a network element for participating in providing an Internet priority service. The network element has an IPS management function adapted to provide user access to the Internet priority service for at least one application type of a plurality of application types. Each one of the plurality of application types has a respective associated priority level for transmission. The respective priority level of at least one of the plurality of application types is different than the priority level of at least one other application type. In accordance with a third broad aspect, the invention provides, in a network element, a method of providing an Internet priority service for transmission of data packets each associated with an application type of a plurality of application types. The method involves, for each data packet: i) determining which application type is associated with the data packet; and ii) determining a priority level for transmission of the data packet. The priority level is a function of the application type associated with the data packet. The method also involves transmitting the data packets according to the priority levels of the data packets. In accordance with a fourth broad aspect, the invention provides, in a network element, a method of participating in providing an Internet priority service. The method involves providing user access to the Internet priority service for at least one application type of a plurality of application types, each one of the plurality of application types having a respective associated priority level for transmission. The respective associated priority level of at least one of the plurality of application types is different than the priority level of at least one other application type of the plurality of application types. In accordance with a fifth broad aspect, the invention provides an article of manufacture having a computer usable medium having computer readable program code means embodied therein for providing, in a network element, an Internet priority service for transmission of data packets each associated with an application type of a plurality of application types. The computer readable code means in the article of manufacture has computer readable code means for, for each data packet: i) determining which application type is associated with the data packet; and ii) determining a priority level for transmission of the data packet. The priority level is a function of the application type associated with the data packet. The computer readable code means in the article of manufacture also has computer readable code means for transmitting the data packets according to the priority levels of the data packets. In accordance with a sixth broad aspect, the invention provides an article of manufacture having a computer usable medium having computer readable program code means embodied therein for participating in providing an Internet priority service. The computer readable code means in the article of manufacture has computer readable code means for providing user access to the Internet priority service for at least one application type of a plurality of application types. Each one of the plurality of application types having a respective associated priority level for transmission. The respective associated priority level of at least one of the plurality of application types is different than the priority level of at least one other application type of the plurality of application types. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Preferred embodiments of the invention will now be described with reference to the attached drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a network, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a table of priority levels for transmission of data packets over the network of FIG. 1, the priority levels being grouped into application type and user or group level; FIG. 3A is a flowchart of steps followed during login for IPS (Internet Priority Service), according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3B is a flow chart of steps followed by a network element of the network of FIG. 1 in providing IPS; and FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a network, according to another embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS By way of background, in implementing ETS (Emergency Telecommunication Services) for telephone services, generally there is a priority model in which users or groups authorized for the ETS are divided into categories. There may be for example five categories. Authorized users from one category have priority over authorized users from another category when establishing calls. The above priority model can be applied for IPS (Internet Priority Service). In particular, during congestion data packets may have to be discarded because there is insufficient bandwidth to carry them on a next hop to their destination. If necessary, beginning with data packets from users using the IPS which have a highest priority level down to data packets from users having a lowest priority and further down to data packets from users un-authorized to use the IPS, the data packets are transmitted until limitations on bandwidth no longer permit data packets to be transmitted over the Internet. Any remaining data packets are then discarded. Such a model in which priority levels are assigned on a user basis only, allows for a user having a high priority level to take up a large bandwidth resulting in resources being seriously limited and preventing other users having a lower IPS priority level from communication over the Internet using other application types such as e-mail for example which require much less bandwidth. In embodiments of the invention the data packets are each associated with an application type. Application types include for example but are not limited to video conferencing, instant messaging, e-mail, e-mail with no attachment and low priority, e-mail with no attachment and high priority, e-mail with attachment and low priority, e-mail with attachment and high priority, chat, voice, web browsing, web browsing site specific, and games. Each application type has a respective associated priority level for transmission when access to the priority service is provided. The priority level of at least one of the application types is different than the priority level of at least one other application type. For example data packets associated with video conferencing might be given a lower priority for transmission than data packets associated with e-mail allowing low bandwidth e-mails to be given priority over high bandwidth video conferencing. Furthermore, as will be discussed in further details below in some embodiments of the invention the priority level associated with data packets of an application type also depends on the user's or group of user's IPS level. In some embodiments of the invention, IPS is provided by Internet service providers in return for example for a retainer fee plus payment for IPS traffic actually carried out. Referring to FIG. 1, shown is a block diagram of a network 100, according to an embodiment of the invention. The network 100 has network elements (NEs) 110, 120, 121 interconnected by way of links 105. The network 100 also has a network element 130 connected to network elements 120, 121 by way of links 115. Devices such as PCs (Personal Computers) 170, 171, PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) 180, 181, and cell phones 190,191 are connected to network elements 120, 121 by way of links 125 through an access network 160. The network elements 120, 121 are edge devices of the network 100 through which the PCs 170, 171, the PDAs 180, 181 and the cell phones 190, 191 access the network 100. It is to be clearly understood that the invention is not limited to PCs, PDAs, and cell phones, and any suitable device capable of transmitting over the access network 160 may be used. Furthermore, the links 125 are shown as logical links and it is to be clearly understood that the PCs 170, 171, the PDAs 180, 181, and the cell phones 190, 191 generally access the network elements 120, 121 using network elements of the access network 160 (not shown for clarity). The PCs 170, 171 are equipped with a web browser (WB) 420. In some cases at least some of the PDAs 180, 181 and cell phones 190, 191 are also equipped with a web browser. Data traffic from the PCs 170, 171, the PDAs 180, 181, and the cell phones 190, 191 propagates over the network 100 through network elements 120, 121 which are edge devices of the network 100. The network elements 120, 121 each have an IPS function 140 for assigning and checking the priority of data packets. In some embodiments of the invention, the IPS function 140 is implemented as software. The software can be implemented as any suitable combination of instructions stored in memory for execution by general or special purpose processors, firmware, ASICs (Application Specific Integrated Circuits), FPGAs (Field-Programmable Gate Arrays), and general or special purpose logic. Network element 130 has an IPS management function 150 which is used in conjunction with the IPS function 140 of network elements 120 for providing IPS. In some embodiments of the invention the IPS management function 150 is also implemented as software. The software can be implemented as any suitable combination of instructions stored in memory for execution by general or special purpose processors, firmware, ASICs (Application Specific Integrated Circuits), FPGAs (Field-Programmable Gate Arrays), and general or special purpose logic. The IPS management function 150 of network element 130 is managed by an Internet service provider for example that provides Internet Priority Services to users as part of other Internet services packages. An illustrative example of how a user having a subscription with an Internet service provider for IPS accesses the IPS will now be discussed with reference to FIGS. 1, 2, and 3A. In the illustrative example, a user at PC 170 invokes the IPS. To make use of the IPS, the user logs in with the Internet service provider. An example implementation of a user login for IPS will now be described with reference to FIG. 3A. At step 305, login for IPS is initiated with the Internet service provider. In the example implementation, to login IPS the user at PC 170 invokes the web browser 420 and provides a user input requesting a home page having a URL associated with network element 130. Alternatively, the web browser and/or the request for the home page is invoked automatically during for example login on the PC 170. Access to the home page which is provided by the management function 150 of the network element 130 is provided through network element 120 by way of links 125, 115. In the illustrative example, the network element 130 sends a request to the computer 170 requesting credentials such as for example an identification of the user and a password from the user (step 315). The user enter the credentials and upon receiving the credentials the network element 120 sends the credentials to the network element 130 and the management function 150 of network element 130 verifies whether the credentials are valid (step 325). If the credentials are valid, the network element 130 sends to the network element 120 information on priority levels for transmission of data packets from the computer 170 each associated with a respective application type (step 335). Various priority levels for transmission of data packets over the network 100 are shown in a table generally indicated by 200 in FIG. 2. A column 210 indicates IPS levels of priority available for subscription by individual users or groups of users. In Table 200 only three IPS levels of priority I, II, III are shown for clarity. More generally, there is at least one IPS level of priority. Columns 215, 220, 225, 230, 235, 240, 245, 250, 255, 260, and 265 indicate various priority levels for transmission of data packets associated with video conferencing, instant messaging, e-mail with no attachment and low priority, e-mail with no attachment and high priority, e-mail with attachment and low priority, e-mail with attachment and high priority, chat, voice, web browsing site A specific, web browsing site B specific, and games, respectively. Various priority levels for transmission of data packets are listed in Table 200 ranging from 0 to 5. More generally, there are two or more priority levels. In the example of FIG. 2, data packets with a priority level 5 are given a highest priority and the priority given to data packets decreases with decreasing priority level with a priority level 0 indicating no priority. Each user having access to the IPS is provided with one of the IPS levels of priority. Within an IPS level of priority there are different priority levels for transmitting data packets depending on the application type. For example, the level II high bandwidth data packets associated with video conferencing are given a priority level 1 whereas low bandwidth data packets associated with instant messaging are given a higher priority level 4. In some embodiments of the invention, one or more application types are broken down into categories each having a respective priority level associated with it. For example, in Table 200 for e-mail there are four categories identified in columns 230, 235, 240, 245. In another implementation there is only one category for e-mail. More generally, each application type has one or more categories. In Tables 200, as shown in column 215 for IPS level I a priority level 2 is given for transmission of data packet associated with video conferencing, however, as shown in column 230 for IPS level II a priority level 4 is given for transmission of data packets associated with high priority e-mails with no attachments. As such, data packets from high priority e-mails sent by a user having an IPS level II priority have priority over data packets associated with video conferencing sent by another user having an IPS level I priority. In this way, important high priority e-mail messages from users having IPS level II priority are not precluded from being sent because users having IPS level I priority are using large amounts of bandwidth. Instead, the e-mails are given priority over video conferencing. In the illustrative example, the user logging in has access to level II priority and upon receipt of valid credentials from the user, the network element 130 sends information on the level II priority levels to network element 120 for use by the IPS function 140 of network element 120 in transmitting data packets received from the PC 170. In the illustrative example of FIG. 3A, once the user has logged in with the Internet service provider for IPS, each time a new application invoked by the user data pickets associated with the new application are given IPS treatment. Alternatively, when a new application is invoked, the user is queried as to whether IPS treatment is to be given to data packets associated with the new application. The method used by the network element 120 in participating in the transmission of data packet will now be described below with reference to FIG. 3B. In particular, an illustrative example is described in which the user invokes an application at the PC 170 and data packets are sent to the PC 171 through the network element 120 along a path 135. While the network element 120 receives data packets from the PC 170, the network element 120 may also receive data packets from other network elements such as the PDA 180 and the cell phone 190. With reference to FIG. 3B, at step 310 a first data packet that is received by the network element 120 through the access network 160 is selected. The IPS function 140 determines which application type is associated with the data packet (step 320) and determines a priority level for transmission of the data packet (step 330). At step 340 if there is another data packet that is received then the data packet is selected (step 350) and step 320, 330, 340 are repeated. At step 340 if there are no other data packets the data packets are transmitted according to the priority levels of the data packets (strip 360). In some implementations, at Step 320 the IPS function 140 performs well-known deep packet and/or stateful inspection to determine the application type associated with a flow of data packets. Deep packet inspection can be performed using for example a SHASTA BSN 5000 network element. It is to be clearly understood that the invention is not limited to deep packet inspection and/or stateful inspection for determining an application type associated data packets and in other implementations other methods are used. For example, in some cases the application type is explicitly signalled to the IPS function 140. In particular, for example for an application that uses a session protocol such as SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) for example, the application cype may be explicitly signalled to the IPS function 140 by a call server. In the illustrative example, as shown in Table 200 of FIG. 2 there are three IPS levels of priority for different users or groups of users and at step 330 the user or network element associated with the data packet is determined and the priority level for transmission of data packets specific to the application type and the user is obtained using the information received from the network element 130 during validation of the user request for IPS. At step 360, the data packets are queued for transmission in a hierachical manner and transmitted by first transmitting the data packets having a higher priority level and then progressively transmitting the data packets having a lower priority level until more packets of higher priority level are queued for transmission. Any arriving packets of lower priority level for which there is no queue space are discarded. It is to be clearly understood that this is only one possible mechanism for providing priority transmission of data packets through network elements and that one of skill in the art would recognize there are other possible mechanisms. In some embodiments of the invention, at step 360 each data packet is marked with an indicator of the priority level for transmission of the data packet. In some embodiments of the invention, a set of diff-serv code points are used for marking a data packet with an indicator of a priority level for transmission. Marking the packet with an indicator of the priority level allows other network devices to transmit the data packet according to the priority level. For example, in the illustrative example a data packet at network element 120 intended to be transmitted to the PC 171 along path 135 is marked with the indicator of the priority level using the IPS function 140 of network element 120. The network elements 110 along path 135 and the network element 121 make use of the priority level associated with the data packet to transmit the data packet throughout the network 100 with the associated priority level. In some cases, the data packet received through the access network 160 has an application field indicating an application type and/or a priority for example. A data packet might have for example an application field indicating a high priority e-mail with one or more attachments. The priority might be marked by the user when composing the e-mail message. In some embodiments of the invention, the IPS function 140 determines the application and/or the priority from the application field to determine the priority level to be used in transmitting the data packet. In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the network elements 120, 121 operating as edge devices are given IPS functionality by implementing the functionality of the IPS function 140. As will now be described with reference to FIG. 4, in other embodiments of the invention some or all of the functionality of the IPS function 140 is implemented at the network element 130. Similarly, in other embodiments of the invention, at least some of the functionality of the IPS management function 150 of network element 130 is implemented in network elements 120, 121. Referring to FIG. 4, shown is a block diagram of a network 101, according to another embodiments of the invention. The network 101 is similar to the network 100 of FIG. 1 except for some differences. In particular, the network element 130 is replaced with a network element 132, which is connected to network elements 120, 121, and 110 by way of links 105. The network element 132 has IPS management function 150, IPS function 140, and a proxy function 400. In some embodiments of the invention, the IPS management function 150, the IPS function 140, and the proxy function 400 are implemented as software. This software can be implemented as any suitable combination of instructions stored in memory for execution by general or special purpose processors, firmware, ASICs (Application Specific Integrated Circuits), FPGAs (Field-Programmable Gate Arrays), and general or special purpose logic. The network element 132 is an SSL (Secure Socket Layer) VPN (Virtual Private Network) server or otherwise known as an SSL portal and operates as an application proxy for applications such as Wet) applications for example, invoked remotely. The Web applications include a HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) for example and have a secure variant such as SHTTP (Secure HyperText Transfer Protocol) for example. In addition to Web based applications, the proxy function 400 proxies other applications such as SMTP (Standard Mail Transport Protocol) POP for e-mail, and SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) and RTP (Real Time Protocol) for Voice over IP telephony for example. In the embodiment of FIG. 4, the network elements 120, 121 do not have the IPS function 140 and the IPS functionality is provided by the network element 132. In particular, users at PCs 170, 171, PDAs 180, 181, and cell phones 190, 191 access the IPS along communications paths (only one communications path 126 is shown for clarity) through links secured using an SSL protocol. In particular, in some implementations the communications path 126 is established using the SSL protocol which secures the links 115, 125 along the communication path 126 between the PC 170 and the NE 130 is an SSL session. The secure links 115, 125 along the communication path 126 provide protection against spoofing. When there is an emergency, an IPS user communicates with the network element 132. As an illustrative example, an emergency occurs and a user at the PC 170 requires IPS. The user at the PC 170 communicates with the network element 132 by way of communication path 126 between the PC 170 and the NE 130 through the access network 160. The IPS management function 150 of the network element 132 provides a login window and the user provides his/her credentials for access to the IPS. The user can then invoke applications; however, data traffic from the PC 170 is encrypted as directed by the SSL session and directed to the network element 132 by way of the communication path 126. The proxy function 400 decrypts the data traffic form the PC 170; and data packets associated with the data traffic are marked with priority information using the IPS function 140 and sent through the network 101. Any one or more of NE 110, 120, 121 receiving the data packets, transmits the data packets according to the priority information. In the illustrative example, when the user invokes an application at the PC 170 over the SSL, the messaging between the PC 170 and the network element 132 depends on the application type of the application being invoked. As such, the application type and hence the priority level for transmission of the data packets is determined from the messaging between the PC 170 and the network element 132. This provides an alternative to deep packet inspection for determining the application type. To illustrate how the network element 132 functions as a proxy for other network elements, an illustrative example will now be described in which the network element 132 functions as a proxy for a web browsing application invoked at the PC 170. In the illustrative examples a user at the PC 170 invokes the web browsing application using the web browser 420 and a secure link through the communications path 126 between the PC 170 and the network element 132 is established. The user at PC 170 requests at web page that is located at the PC 171. The request is received at the network element 132 and the proxy function 400 forwards the request for the web page on behalf of the PC 170. The PC l71 receives the request and forwards the web page to the network element 132. The web page may contain URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) and the proxy function 400 translates the URLs in the web page into SHTTP URLs. The proxy function 400 then forwards the web page together with the SHTTP URLs to the PC 170. If the user at PC 170 selects a link to another web page contained in the web page, the computer 170 sends a request to the network element 132 containing one of the SHTTP URLs that is associated with the link. Upon receipt of the request at the network element 132, the proxy function 400 translates the SHTTP URL back into the original URL and forwards the request for the other web page on behalf of the PC 170. The use of SSL provides a secure way to access IPS. In addition, the SSL provides a VPN in which a user can access the IPS without any requirement of any special software at the PCs 170, 171, the PDAs 180, 181, and the cell phones 190, 191. In particular, a user can access the IPS from any device such as a PC, PDA or cell phone for example that has an SSL enabled web browser. For example, in an emergency situation where an authorized user does not have access to his/her PC, the user can access the IPS through NE 132 using any network element having an SSL enabled web browser. In some embodiments of the invention some software is implemented in any one or more of the PCs 170, 180, the PDAs 180, 181, and the cell phones 190, 191 for establishing secure paths. Numerous modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practised otherwise than as specifically described herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>ETS (Emergency Telecommunications Services) have been implemented for telephone services including wire and wireless telephone services, in which in the event of an emergency a priority service is provided to particular users or groups of users over other users. IPS (Internet Priority Service) is being proposed as an analogue to ETS. The purpose of IPS is to support national security and emergency preparedness communications over the Internet during an emergency or an abnormal situation where the Internet is not able to support all communication demands. Such a situation could arise due to for example destruction of facilities, downing of cables, etc. in a disaster or terrorist attack or simply due to increase in traffic generated by people trying to find out what has happened to loved ones after the news of such an event is known. The design of the Internet is thought to be particularly robust against complete shut down and this makes the Internet well suited for authorized emergency communications. One difference between telephone services and the Internet is that the former supports basically one type of service corresponding to phone calls while the Internet supports a plethora of services such as e-mail, instant messaging, voice over IP (Internet Protocol), and video conferencing for example. Phone calls each consume essentially the same amount of resources while different Internet application types consume widely different amounts of resources. For example, full motion and full resolution video conferencing makes use of far more bandwidth than instant messaging. Although the required resources depend greatly on the application type, generally the Internet infrastructure is not aware of what application a user is using. The Internet handles all IP packets uniformly. In an emergency situation, when resources are limited the current methods treat IP packets from a user that has invoked the IPS uniformly from one application type to another. This causes problems in that if the user is in a video conference and making use of a large bandwidth, other users invoking the IPS may not be able to communicate efficiently using for example e-mails which require far less bandwidth than video conferencing. Furthermore, if the user is in a video conference and has a higher priority than some other users that are attempting to send emergency related low bandwidth e-mails, these other users may be precluded for being able to send the low bandwidth e-mails due to priority being given to the user in the video conference. As such, current methods proposed for implementing IPS are inefficient in achieving the goal of emergency communication over the Internet. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In a network, one or more network elements have IPS (Internet Priority Service) functionality for participating in providing the IPS. In an emergency situation authorized users access the IPS and data packets associated with applications invoked by the authorized users are given priority when being transmitted over the Internet. A priority level given to a data packet is a function of the type of application being invoked. For example, a high priority may be given to e-mails which require a relatively low bandwidth whereas a lower priority may be given to video conferencing. Assigning a higher priority to e-mails prevents important e-mail communications from being compromised by the use of video conferencing during an emergency. This allows an efficient method of communication to be implemented for purposes of emergency situations. In some embodiments of the invention, IPS is provided by Internet service providers in return for example for a retainer fee plus payment for IPS traffic actually carried out. In some embodiments of the invention, the priority level is also a function of the users invoking the application. This allows an Internet service provider to provide IPS packages tailored for particular users or groups of users. Instead of fixing a fee based solely on the number of authorized users, the Internet service provider can negotiate to provide IPS for applications on an individual basis. For example, for a particular user or group of users only a selected number of application type may be available for IPS and/or each application type is given a respective priority level. Furthermore, when new applications become available the Internet service provider can provide IPS for data packets associated with these new applications. In some embodiments of the invention, each user or group might be assigned an IPS level of priority and within each IPS level each application type is given a respective priority level for transmission of associated data packets. In an example implementation, a first user having a high IPS level of priority might be given high priority level for transmission of data packets associated with email and a lower priority level for transmission of data packets associated with video conferencing. Other users having a lower IPS level of priority might be given lower priority levels for transmission of data packets associated with video conferencing and e-mail than the respective priority levels of the first user. However, the priority level for transmission of data packets associated with e-mail given to the other users might nonetheless be higher than the priority level for transmission of data packets associated with video conferencing given to the first user. As such, in such a case when IPS is invoked, priority is given to e-mail messages sent by the other users over video conferencing data packets sent by the first user. This allows an efficient method of providing emergency communications during an emergency to be implemented. In some embodiments of the invention, a network element in the system has an IPS function adapted to determine the priority levels for transmission of the data packets on the basis of the application types associated with the data packets. The IPS function is used to transmit data packets in a hierachical manner by first transmitting the data packets having a higher priority level and then progressively transmitting the data packets having a lower priority level. In addition, in some embodiments of the invention the IPS function is also adapted to mark the data packets with an indicator of the priority level. This allows other network elements such as routers for example to transmit the data packets over the Internet according to the priority level marked with the indicator. A network element in the network may have an IPS management function adapted to provide access to the Internet priority service for at least one application type of a plurality of application types. In some embodiments of the invention, the IPS management function is further adapted to receive a request from a user requesting the Internet priority service and verify whether the user request is valid. In such embodiments of the invention, the access is provided to the user only if the request is valid. In some embodiments of the invention, to verify whether the user request is valid, the IPS management function is adapted to request credentials from the user; receive the credentials; and verify whether the credentials are valid. In some embodiments of the invention, the network element has a proxy function adapted to provide a secure link for access by users invoking the Internet priority service. In some embodiments of the invention, the proxy function is also adapted to provide the secure link for access to the IPS by a user at a remote network element. In particular, in some embodiment of the invention the proxy function is further adapted to provide the secure link using an SSL (Secure Socket Layer). Providing IPS cover the Internet effectively provides a VPN (Virtual Private Network) and using SSL capabilities provides a secure access to the IPS even if Internet resources such as addressing and routing are used. Furthermore, with SSL VPNs network elements of end users can access the IPS without the need for special software at the end user's network element. For example, in one implementation, a user accesses the IPS using a PC (Personal Computer) or PDA (Personal Digital assistant) having an SSL Web browser. Finally, in SSL VPNs the type of application being invoked is easily determined for example from the messaging used when the application is invoked. In accordance with a first broad aspect, the invention provides a network device for participating in providing an Internet priority service for transmission of data packets each associated with an application type of a plurality of application types. The network element has an IPS (Internet priority Service) function. For each data packet, the IPS function determines which application type is associated with the data packet, and determines a priority level for transmission of the data packet. The priority level is a function of the application type associated with the data packet. The IPS function also transmits the data packets according to the priority levels of the data packets. In some embodiments of the invention, for each data packet the IPS function is adapted to perform at least one of deep packet inspection and stateful inspection of the data packets to determine the application type associated with the data packet. In accordance with a second broad aspect, the invention provides a network element for participating in providing an Internet priority service. The network element has an IPS management function adapted to provide user access to the Internet priority service for at least one application type of a plurality of application types. Each one of the plurality of application types has a respective associated priority level for transmission. The respective priority level of at least one of the plurality of application types is different than the priority level of at least one other application type. In accordance with a third broad aspect, the invention provides, in a network element, a method of providing an Internet priority service for transmission of data packets each associated with an application type of a plurality of application types. The method involves, for each data packet: i) determining which application type is associated with the data packet; and ii) determining a priority level for transmission of the data packet. The priority level is a function of the application type associated with the data packet. The method also involves transmitting the data packets according to the priority levels of the data packets. In accordance with a fourth broad aspect, the invention provides, in a network element, a method of participating in providing an Internet priority service. The method involves providing user access to the Internet priority service for at least one application type of a plurality of application types, each one of the plurality of application types having a respective associated priority level for transmission. The respective associated priority level of at least one of the plurality of application types is different than the priority level of at least one other application type of the plurality of application types. In accordance with a fifth broad aspect, the invention provides an article of manufacture having a computer usable medium having computer readable program code means embodied therein for providing, in a network element, an Internet priority service for transmission of data packets each associated with an application type of a plurality of application types. The computer readable code means in the article of manufacture has computer readable code means for, for each data packet: i) determining which application type is associated with the data packet; and ii) determining a priority level for transmission of the data packet. The priority level is a function of the application type associated with the data packet. The computer readable code means in the article of manufacture also has computer readable code means for transmitting the data packets according to the priority levels of the data packets. In accordance with a sixth broad aspect, the invention provides an article of manufacture having a computer usable medium having computer readable program code means embodied therein for participating in providing an Internet priority service. The computer readable code means in the article of manufacture has computer readable code means for providing user access to the Internet priority service for at least one application type of a plurality of application types. Each one of the plurality of application types having a respective associated priority level for transmission. The respective associated priority level of at least one of the plurality of application types is different than the priority level of at least one other application type of the plurality of application types. | 20040604 | 20120703 | 20051208 | 60203.0 | 0 | LOUIS, VINNCELAS | SELECTIVE INTERNET PRIORITY SERVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,860,334 | ACCEPTED | Spin-coatable liquid for formation of high purity nanotube films | Certain spin-coatable liquids and application techniques are described, which can be used to form nanotube films or fabrics of controlled properties. A spin-coatable liquid for formation of a nanotube film includes a liquid medium containing a controlled concentration of purified nanotubes, wherein the controlled concentration is sufficient to form a nanotube fabric or film of preselected density and uniformity, and wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of metal impurities. The spin-coatable liquid is substantially free of particle impurities having a diameter of greater than about 500 nm. | 1. A spin-coatable liquid for formation of a nanotube film, comprising: a liquid medium containing a controlled concentration of purified nanotubes, wherein the controlled concentration is sufficient to form a nanotube fabric or film of preselected density and uniformity, and wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of metallic impurities. 2. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 1×1015 atoms/cm3 of metallic impurities. 3. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of metal impurities. 4. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of heavy metal impurities. 5. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of heavy metal impurities. 6. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of group I and group II element impurities. 7. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of group I and group II element impurities. 8. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of transition metal impurities. 9. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of transition metal impurities. 10. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid is substantially free of particle impurities having a diameter of greater than about 500 nm. 11. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid is substantially free of particle impurities having a diameter of greater than about 300 nm. 12. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid is substantially free of particle impurities having a diameter of greater than about 45 nm. 13. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the nanotubes are homogeneously distributed in the liquid medium without substantial precipitation or flocculation. 14. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the liquid medium is a non-halogen solvent. 15. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the liquid medium is a non-aqueous solvent. 16. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the liquid medium is selected for compatibility with an electronics manufacturing process. 17. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the liquid medium comprises ethyl lactate. 18. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the spin-coatable liquid is surfactant-free. 19. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the nanotubes comprise conductive nanotubes. 20. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 1, wherein the nanotubes are single-walled nanotubes. 21. A fullerene composition, comprising: a liquid medium containing a distribution of fullerenes, wherein the fullerenes remain separate from one another without precipitation or flocculation for a time sufficient to apply the fullerene composition to a surface, and wherein the composition comprises less than 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of metallic impurities. 22. The fullerene composition of claim 21, wherein the composition comprises less than about 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of heavy metal impurities. 23. The fullerene composition of claim 21, wherein the composition comprises less than about 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of group I and group II element impurities. 24. The fullerene composition of claim 21, wherein the composition comprises less than about 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of transition metal impurities. 25. The fullerene composition of claim 21, wherein the composition comprises less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of heavy metal impurities. 26. The fullerene composition of claim 21, wherein the composition comprises less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of group I and group II element impurities. 27. The fullerene composition of claim 21, wherein the composition comprises less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of transition metal impurities. 28. A spin-coatable liquid for formation of a nanotube film, comprising: a liquid medium containing a distribution of nanotubes, wherein the nanotubes remain separate from one another without precipitation or flocculation for a time sufficient to apply the spin-coatable liquid to a surface, and wherein the spin-coatable liquid is substantially free of particle impurities having a diameter of greater than about 500 nm. 29. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the spin-coatable liquid is substantially free of particle impurities having a diameter of greater than about 300 nm. 30. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the spin-coatable liquid is substantially free of particle impurities having a diameter of greater than about 100 nm. 31. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the spin-coatable liquid is substantially free of particle impurities having a diameter of greater than about 45 nm. 32. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of metallic impurities. 33. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of metallic impurities. 34. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of transition metal impurities. 35. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of transition metal impurities. 36. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of heavy metal impurities. 37. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of heavy metal impurities. 38. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 10×1017 atoms/cm3 of group I and group II element impurities. 39. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of group I and group II element impurities. 40. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the liquid medium is a non-halogen solvent. 41. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the liquid medium is a non-aqueous solvent. 42. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the liquid medium is selected for compatibility with an electronics manufacturing process. 43. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the liquid medium comprises ethyl lactate. 44. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the liquid medium is surfactant-free. 45. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the nanotubes comprise conductive nanotubes. 46. The spin-coatable liquid of claim 28, wherein the nanotubes are single-walled nanotubes. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to the following applications, all of which are assigned to the assignee of this application, and all of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety: Nanotube Films and Articles (U.S. Pat. No. 6,706,402) filed Apr. 23, 2002; Methods of Nanotube Films and Articles (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/128,117) filed Apr. 23, 2002; and Patterning of Nanoscopic Articles (U.S. Provisional Patent Appl. No. 60/501,033) filed on Sep. 8, 2003. BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field This invention describes spin-coatable liquids for use in the preparation of nanotube films. Such liquids are used in creating films and fabrics of nanotubes or mixtures of nanotubes and other materials on a variety of substrates including silicon, plastics, paper and other materials. In particular, the invention describes spin-coatable liquids containing nanotubes for use in electronics fabrication processes. Furthermore, the spin-coatable liquids meet or exceed specifications for a semiconductor fabrication facility, including a class 1 environment. 2. Discussion of Related Art Nanotubes are useful for many applications; due to their electrical properties nanotubes may be used as conducting and semi-conducting elements in numerous electronic elements. Single walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) have emerged in the last decade as advanced materials exhibiting interesting electrical, mechanical and optical properties. However, the inclusion or incorporation of the SWNT as part of standard microelectronic fabrication process has faced challenges due to a lack of a readily available application method compatible with existing semiconductor equipment and tools and meeting the stringent materials standards required in the electronic fabrication process. Standards for such a method include, but are not limited to, non-toxicity, non-flammability, ready availability in CMOS or electronics grades, substantially free from suspended particles (including but not limited to submicro- and nano-scale particles and aggregates), and compatible with spin coating tracks and other tools currently used by the semiconductor industry. Individual nanotubes may be used as conducting elements, e.g. as a channel in a transistor, however the placement of millions of catalyst particles and the growth of millions of properly aligned nanotubes of specific length presents serious challenges. U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,643,165 and 6,574,130 describe electromechanical switches using flexible nanotube-based fabrics (nanofabrics) derived from solution-phase coatings of nanotubes in which the nanotubes first are grown, then brought into solution, and applied to substrates at ambient temperatures. Nanotubes may be derivatized in order to facilitate bringing the tubes into solution, however in uses where pristine nanotubes are necessary, it is often difficult to remove the derivatizing agent. Even when removal of the derivatizing agent is not difficult, such removal is an added, time-consuming step. There have been few attempts to disperse SWNTs in aqueous and non-aqueous solvents. Chen et al. first reported solubilization of shortened, end-functionalized SWNTs in solvents such as chloroform, dichloromethane, orthodichlorobenzene (ODCB), CS2, dimethyl formamide (DMF) and tetrahydrofuran (THF). See, “Solution Properties of Single-Walled Nanotubes”, Science 1998, 282, 95-98. Ausman et al. reported the use of SWNTs solutions using sonication. The solvents used were N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), DMF, hexamethylphosphoramide, cyclopentanone, tetramethylene sulfoxide and ε-caprolactone (listed in decreasing order of carbon nanotube solvation). Ausman at el. generally conclude that solvents with good Lewis basicity (i.e., availability of a free electron pair without hydrogen donors) are good solvents for SWNTs. See, “Organic Solvent Dispersions of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes: Toward Solutions of Pristine Nanotubes”, J. Phys. Chem. B 2000, 104, 8911. Other early approaches involved the fluorination or sidewall covalent derivatization of SWNTs with aliphatic and aromatic moieties to improve nanotube solubility. See, e.g., E. T. Mickelson et al., “Solvation of Fluorinated Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes in Alcohol Solvents”, J. Phys. Chem. B 1999, 103, 4318-4322. Full-length soluble SWNTs can be prepared by ionic functionalization of the SWNT ends dissolved in THF and DMF. See, Chen et al., “Dissolution of Full-Length Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes”, J. Phys. Chem. B 2001, 105, 2525-2528 and J. L. Bahr et al Chem. Comm. 2001, 193-194. Chen et al. used HiPCO™ as-prepared (AP)-SWNTs and studied a wide range of solvents. (HiPCO™ is a trademark of Rice University for SWNTs prepared under high pressure carbon monoxide decomposition). The solutions were made using sonication. Bahr et al. (“Dissolution Of Small Diameter Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes In Organic Solvents?”, Chem. Commun., 2001, 193-194) reported the most favorable solvation results using ODCB, followed by chloroform, methylnaphthalene, bromomethylnaphthalene, NMP and DMF as solvents. Subsequent work has shown that good solubility of AP-SWNT in ODCB is due to sonication-induced polymerization of ODCB, which then wraps around SWNTs, essentially producing soluble polymer wrapped (PW)-SWNTs. See Niyogi et al., “Ultrasonic Dispersions of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes”, J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 8799-8804. Polymer wrapping usually affects sheet resistance of the SWNT network and may not be appropriate for electronic applications where low sheet resistance is desired. See, e.g., A. Star et al., “Preparation and Properties of Polymer-Wrapped Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes”, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2001, 40, 1721-1725 and M. J. O'Connell et al., “Reversible Water-Solubilization Of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes By Polymer Wrapping”, Chem. Phys. Lett. 2001, 342, 265-271. While these approaches were successful in solubilizing the SWNTs in a variety of organic solvents to practically relevant levels, all such attempts resulted in the depletion of the π electrons that are essential to retain interesting electrical and optical properties of nanotubes. Other earlier attempts involve the use of cationic, anionic or non-ionic surfactants to disperse the SWNT in aqueous and non-aqueous systems. See, Matarredona et al., “Dispersion of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes in Aqueous Solutions of the Anionic Surfactant”, J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 13357-13367. While this type of approach has helped to retain the electrical conductivity and optical properties of the SWNTs, most such methods leave halogens or alkali metals or polymeric residues, which tend to severely hamper any meaningful use in microelectronic fabrication facilities. There is a need for a method of solvating or dispensing nanotubes in solvents for use in electronics applications. There remains a further need for methods that meet the criteria outlined above for low toxicity, purity, cleanliness, ease of handling and scalability. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One aspect of the present invention is directed to spin-coatable liquids for formation of high purity nanotube films. According to one aspect of the present invention, a composition of nanotubes for use in an electronics fabrication process includes a liquid medium containing a plurality of nanotubes pretreated to reduce the level of metal and particulate impurities to a preselected level. The solvents are present at commercially meaningful levels, e.g., the nanotubes are at a concentration of greater than 1 mg/L. The nanotubes are homogeneously distributed in the liquid medium without substantial precipitation or flocculation. In one aspect of the present invention, a nanotube composition includes a stable distribution of nanotubes in a liquid medium and is substantially free of particulate and metallic impurities. The level of particulate and metallic impurities is commensurate with preselected fabrication requirements. In one aspect of the invention, a spin-coatable liquid for formation of a nanotube film is provided including a liquid medium containing a controlled concentration of purified nanotubes, wherein the controlled concentration is sufficient to form a nanotube fabric or film of preselected density and uniformity, and wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of metallic impurities. In another aspect of the invention a spin-coatable liquid for formation of a nanotube film is provided including a liquid medium containing a distribution of nanotubes, wherein the nanotubes remain separate from one another without precipitation or flocculation for a time sufficient to apply the spin-coatable liquid to a surface, and wherein the spin-coatable liquid is substantially free of particle impurities having a diameter of greater than about 500 nm. In another aspect of the invention, a fullerene composition includes a liquid medium containing a distribution of fullerenes, wherein the fullerenes remain separate from one another without precipitation or flocculation for a time sufficient to apply the fullerene composition to a surface, and wherein the composition comprises less than 1×1018 atoms/cm3 of metal impurities. The fabrication processes can have varying requirements for solvent and raw material composition and purity. According to one aspect of the present invention, spin-coatable liquids containing fullerenes or nanotubes of varying composition and purity are provided for use in these fabrication processes having varying processing specifications and environmental requirements. According to one aspect of the present invention, methods and compositions for creating nanotube compositions for use in fabrication facilities having high standards of non-toxicity and purity are provided. Such processes include semiconductor fabrication processes, for example, CMOS and advanced logic and memory fabrications. Such fabrication processes may produce devices having fine features, e.g., ≦250 nm. According to other aspects of the present invention, the nanotube compositions are of a purity that is suitable for use in electronics fabrication facilities having less stringent standards for chemical composition and purity. Such processes include, for example, interconnect fabrication and fabrication of chemical and biological sensors. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING The invention is described with reference to the Drawing, which is presented for the purpose of illustration only and which is not intended to be limiting of the invention. FIG. 1 illustrates a typical scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of an unpurified nanotube fabric; and FIG. 2 illustrates a typical SEM image of a purified nanotube fabric. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Nanotubes have been the focus of intense research efforts into the development of applications that take advantage of their electronic, biological, and/or material properties. In one or more embodiments, a spin-coatable liquid containing a controlled concentration of purified nanotubes is prepared in a liquid medium. The spin-coatable liquid may be used to create nanotube films and fabrics of substantially uniform porosity. Certain embodiments provide spin-coatable liquids having a purity level that is commensurate with the intended application. Other applications provide spin-coatable liquids meeting or exceeding specifications for class 1 semiconductor fabrication. In one or more embodiments, a nanotube composition includes a liquid medium containing a mixture of single-walled or multi-walled nanotubes that is stable enough for certain intended applications, such as spin coating in a class 1 production facility. The nanotubes in the nanotube composition remain suspended, dispersed, solvated or mixed in a liquid medium without substantial precipitation, flocculation or any other macroscopic interaction that would interfere with the ability to apply the nanotube solution to a substrate and form a uniform porosity. If there were significant precipitation or aggregation of the nanotubes, the nanotubes would clump together and form non-uniform films, which would be undesirable. The nature by which the nanotubes interact with the solvent to form a stable composition is not limited. Thus, for example, the nanotubes may be suspended or dispersed in the solvent or they may be solvated or solubilized in the solvent. The stable nanotube composition typically forms a homogeneous distribution of nanotubes in the solvent. At the present time, it is desirable that the nanotubes remain distributed in the solvent medium without substantial precipitation, flocculation or other macroscopic interaction, for at least one hour, or for at least 24 hours, or even for at least one week. Substantial precipitation and flocculation and the like can be detected by a variety of methods. Precipitates and aggregates can be detected by visual inspection. Alternatively, precipitation or flocculation can be detected by analytical techniques, such light scattering or absorbance, or by observation of nanotubes once they are deposited on a substrate from the nanotube solution. A stable nanotube composition can exhibit prolonged suspension (typically several weeks to few months) of the SWNT in the medium with little or no detectable change in the scattered light intensity, or absorbance at a given wavelength, or viscosity. Light scattering is measured using a monochromatic beam of light traveling through the solution. A change of light scattering intensity over time is recorded usually by a detector placed normal to the beam direction or from multiple detectors placed at various angles including the right angle. Another indicator especially at low concentrations of SWNT is the fall in absorbance (at a given wavelength) as function of time. For higher concentrations of the solution, between the semidilute and nematic regimes, precipitation of individually suspended tubes leads to a noticeable fall in the viscosity of the suspension. Other methods of determining the stability of a nanotube composition for its intended purpose will be apparent to those of skill in the art. The nanotubes used in one or more embodiments of the present invention may be single walled nanotubes or multi-walled nanotubes and may be of varying lengths. The nanotubes may be conductive, semiconductive or combinations thereof. Conductive SWNTs are useful in the manufacture of nanotube films, articles and devices and can be used in the nanotube solutions according to one or more embodiments of the invention. Thus, the nanotube composition is integratable into current electronic fabrication processes including, by way of example, CMOS, bipolar-transistor, advanced memory and logic device, interconnect device, and chemical and biological sensor fabrications. In selecting a solvent for the nanotube composition, the intended application for the nanotube composition is considered. The solvent meets or exceeds purity specifications required in the fabrication of intended application. The semiconductor manufacturing industry demands adherence to the specific standards set within the semiconductor manufacturing industry for ultra-clean, static-safe, controlled humidity storage and processing environments. Many of the common nanotube handling and processing procedures are simply incompatible with the industry standards. Furthermore, process engineers resist trying unfamiliar technologies. According to one aspect of the present invention, a solvent for use in a nanotube composition is selected based upon its compatibility or compliance with the electronics and/or semiconductor manufacturing industry standards. Exemplary solvents that are compatible with many semiconducting fabrication processes, including but not limited to CMOS, bipolar, biCMOS, and MOSFET, include ethyl lactate, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), monomethyl ether, 4-methyl-2 pentanone, N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), t-butyl alcohol, methoxy propanol, propylene glycol, ethylene glycol, gamma butyrolactone, benzyl benzoate, salicyladehyde, tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide and esters of alpha-hydroxy carboxylic acids. In one or more embodiments, the solvent is a non-halogen solvent, or it is a non-aqueous solvent, both of which are desired in certain electronic fabrication processes. In one or more embodiments, the solvent disperses the nanotubes to form a stable composition without the addition of surfactants or other surface-active agents. In one aspect of the invention, nanotube compositions include a plurality of single-walled or multi-walled nanotubes in ethyl lactate as the solvent. Ethyl lactate is one among the common solvent systems used by the electronics and electronic packaging industry and is an industry-accepted solvent that meets the industry standards for safety and purity. Ethyl lactate is available as a high purity solvent, or it can be purified to acceptable purity levels. Ethyl lactate has surprisingly been shown to exhibit excellent solubilizing capabilities for nanotubes. Furthermore, ethyl lactate can form stable nanotube compositions even in the presence of significant levels of impurities, thereby providing a versatile solution for application for formation of nanotube films and fabrics in a variety of applications. In one or more embodiments of the present invention, a nanotube solution of SWNT in ethyl lactate is provided. Purified SWNTs can be solubilized in ethyl lactate at high concentrations, e.g., 100 mg/L, or even higher. Nanotube compositions include nanotubes homogeneously distributed in ethyl lactate without significant precipitation or flocculation. Typical nanotube concentrations range from about 1 mg/L to 100 g/L, or from about 1 mg/L to 1 g/L, or about 10 mg/L, or about 100 mg/L, or even about 1000 mg/L with a common concentration used for memory and logic applications of 100 mg/L. Such a concentration is exemplary various useful concentrations ranges depend upon the application. For example in the case where a monolayer fabrics is desired one could use a less concentrated composition with a single or a few applications of the nanotube composition, e.g., by spin coating, to the substrate. In the event that a thick multilayer fabric is desired, a spraying technique could be employed with a nearly saturated nanotube composition. The concentration is, of course, dependent upon the specific solvent choice, method of nanotube dispersion and type of nanotube used, e.g., single-walled or multiwalled. Nanotubes may be prepared using methods that are well known in the art, such as for example, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or other vapor phase growth techniques (electric-arc discharge, laser ablation, etc.). Nanotubes of varying purity may also be purchased from several vendors, such as Carbon Nanotubes, Inc., Carbolex, Southwest Nanotechnologies, EliCarb, Nanocyl, Nanolabs, and BuckyUSA (a more complete list of carbon nanotube suppliers is found at http://www.cus.cam.ac.uk/˜cs266/list.html). Vapor-phase catalysts are typically used to synthesize nanotubes and, as a result, the nanotubes are contaminated with metallic impurities. Furthermore, formation of nanotubes may also be accompanied by the formation of other carbonaceous materials, which are also a source of impurities in the nanotubes. In one or more embodiments of the present invention, metallic particles and amorphous carbon particles are separated from nanotubes. The purification process reduces alkali metal ions, halogen ions, oligomers or polymers as active or inactive chemical components as part of the SWNT solution. The nanotube solutions according to certain embodiments of the present invention are substantially free of high levels of these particulate and/or insoluble materials (as well as other soluble materials that are incompatible with the semiconducting fabrication process). The nanotube solutions are thus purified for use in CMOS processing or other semiconducting fabrication process. Appropriate purification techniques desirably remove impurities without affecting the nanotube chemical structure or electronic properties. Impurities may be removed for example, by dispersing the nanotubes in dilute acid solution to dissolve metal impurities, followed by separation of the nanotubes from the metallic solution. A mild acid treatment with nitric acid or hydrochloric acid may be used. Other suitable methods for metal removal include magnetic purification. Amorphous carbon may be removed, for example, by a combination of high speed centrifugation using an ultracentrifuge and filtration techniques for example but not limited to gravity filtration, cross flow filtration, vacuum filtration and others. Other suitable purification techniques include the preferential oxidation of non-fullerenic carbonaceous materials. Multiple purification steps may be desired in order to obtain nanotubes of a purity for use in a CMOS-grade nanotube solution. See, for example, Chiang, et al., J. Phys.ChemB 105, 1157 (2001); and Haddon, et al., MRS Bulletin, April 2004) In one or more embodiments, nanotubes are pretreated to reduce the metallic impurity levels to preselected levels. In one or more embodiments, the nanotubes composition contains less than about 1018 atoms/cm3 of metal impurities, or less than about 1016 atoms/cm3 of metal impurities, or less than about 1014 atoms/cm3 of metal impurities, or less than about 1012 atoms/cm3 of metal impurities, or less than about 1010 atoms/cm3 of metal impurities. Compositions having lower levels of metallic impurities, e.g. ca. 1010-1012 atoms/cm3, may be used in the manufacture of advanced devices having fine features, for example, devices having features of less than or equal to 250 nm. Heavy metals, for examples metals having a specific gravity of 5 g/ml, are generally toxic in relatively low concentrations to plant and animal life and tend to accumulate in the food chain. Examples include lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, and arsenic. Such compounds are carefully regulated in the semiconductor fabrication industry and are desirably maintained at minimum levels. In one or more embodiments, the nanotube composition includes less than about 1018 atoms/cm3 of heavy metal impurities, or less than about 1016 atoms/cm3 of heavy metal impurities, or less than about 1014 atoms/cm3 of heavy metal impurities, or less than about 1012 atoms/cm3 of heavy metal impurities or even less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of heavy metal impurities. Similarly, the concentration of group I and group II elements is regulated due to the deleterious effect of elements such as sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium, and the like, on the performance characteristics of the electronic device. In one or more embodiments, the nanotube composition includes less than about 1018 atoms/cm3 of group I and group II element impurities, or less than about 1016 atoms/cm3 of group I and group II element impurities, or less than about 1014 atoms/cm3 of group I and group II element impurities, or less than about 1012 atoms/cm3 of group I and group II element impurities or even less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of group I and group II element impurities. Lastly, transition metals are also avoided due to their ready migration and the deleterious effect of such migration to the device performance. See, Mayer, et al. Electronic Materials Science: For Integrated Circuits in Si and GaAs, 2nd Ed, Macmilliam, New York, 1988. As is the case for heavy metals and group I and group II metals, it is desired to maintain the impurity level of transition metals, such as copper, iron, cobalt, molybdenum, titanium and nickel, to less than preselected values. In one or more embodiments of the present invention, the nanotube composition includes less than about 1018 atoms/cm3 of transition metal impurities, or less than about 1016 atoms/cm3 of transition metal impurities, or less than about 1014 atoms/cm3 of transition metal impurities, or less than about 1012 atoms/cm3 of transition metal impurities or even less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm3 of transition metal impurities. The impurity content of the nanotubes can be monitored using conventional methods, such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and using analytical techniques such as x-ray microanalysis (EDAX), or Vapor Phase Decomposition and Inductively-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (VPD, ICP/MS). Metallic impurity levels may be measured using conventional methods such as EDAX and VPD, IPC/MS. If large quantities of solution (e.g., > about 1000 mL), are available for testing, direct volumetric concentration measurements (atoms/cm3) can be determined. Alternatively, a known volume of the composition may be deposited over a known surface area and the surface impurity concentration (atoms/cm2) can be determined. In other embodiments of the present invention, nanotubes are pretreated to reduce the particulate impurities levels to a preselected level. The semiconductor industry has established standardized particulate impurity levels for particular processes, and the nanotubes may be pretreated to reduce the nanotube particulate levels to below the accepted levels. In one or more embodiments, the composition is substantially free of particle impurities having a diameter of greater than about 5 micron (μm), or about 1 μm, or about 3 μm, or about 500 nm, or 300 nm, or 100 nm, or even 45 nm. Guidelines for particulate and metal impurity levels are found in the International Technology Roadmad for Semiconductors (ITRS Roadmap). For example, the ITRS Roadmap states that at the 65 nm DRAM ½ pitch, the critical particle size is 33 nm and only 1 particle/m3 is allowed over the critical size. From the ITRS 2002 update, at the 90 nm DRAM ½ pitch node, the critical particle size is 45 nm with only 2 particles/m3 allowed above the critical particle dimension. The ITRS Roadmap for 90 nm DRAM ½ pitch mode allows for <15×1010 atoms/cm3 of metal contamination during fabrication. Liquid chemicals utilized for wafer fabrication may contribute <10 particles/mL of surface contamination. Other fabrication specifications may be identified by the ITRS. The semiconductor industry has well-established testing protocols for monitoring the particulate levels at, for example, 5 μm, 3 μm, 1 μm, 500 nm, 300 nm and 100 nm. The metrology employed for detecting the particulate contaminate will have a resolution of 0.2 nm. Typical equipment include KLA Tencor surfscan™ and the like. Such testing methods and equipment may be readily adapted for use in evaluating the particulate levels of nanotube compositions. In one or more embodiments of the present invention, the nanotube composition is a homogeneous mixture of purified single walled carbon nanotubes in ethyl lactate at concentrations high enough to be useful in practical applications in the electronics industry, e.g., ≧10 mg/L. The nanotube composition can be electronics-grade purity. In some embodiments, nanotubes purified to an impurity content of less than 0.2 wt %, or less than 0.1 wt % free metal are solubilized in electronics-grade ethyl lactate or other suitable solvent. It has been surprisingly discovered that nanotubes that have been pretreated to reduce the metallic and particulate impurity levels to below preselected levels, such as described herein, can form stable nanotube dispersions in a variety of solvents. Nanotubes, by way of example, SWNTs, and further by way of example purified SWNT, may be solubilized by dispersion in the appropriate solvent. One or more steps of grind or agitating the nanotubes in the selected solvent and sonication may enhance solubilization. The solution is appropriate for use as a spin-on SWNT solution for electronic and electronic packaging applications. The inventors envision that the addition of various optional additives may be useful to facilitate long term storage and stabilization properties of carbon nanotube solutions. Such additives include, but are not limited to stabilizers, surfactants and other chemicals known or accepted as additives to solutions used for fabrication of electronics. The nanotube solution according to one or more embodiments of the present invention and the methods of making the solution of nanotubes have been standardized for CMOS compatibility as required in conventional semiconductor fabrication systems, i.e. the chemicals, spin coating tracks and other related machineries necessary to create the solutions of the present invention may be found in typical CMOS processing facilities or more generally may be present in many types of services common to the electronics industry including fabrication and packaging facilities. The nanotube composition can be placed or applied on a substrate to obtain a nanotube film, fabric or other article. A conductive article includes an aggregate of nanotubes (at least some of which are conductive), in which the nanotubes contact other nanotubes to define a plurality of conductive pathways in the article. The nanotube fabric or film desirably has a uniform porosity or density. In many applications, the nanotube fabric is a monolayer. Many methods exist for the application procedure including spin coating, spray coating, dipping and many others known for dispersing solutions onto substrates. For thicker fabrics beyond a monolayer, more applications or more concentrated solutions may be required. In fact other techniques for application of the fabric may be required as has been outlined elsewhere (See Nanotube Films and Articles (U.S. Pat. No. 6,706,402) filed Apr. 23, 2002 and Methods of Nanotube Films and Articles (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/128,117) filed Apr. 23, 2002). In one aspect of the invention, a highly purified nanotube article is provided. The article contains a network of contacting nanotubes for form pathway through the article. The nanotube network may form a ribbon or non-woven fabric. The article contains less than 0.2 wt % or 0.1 wt % free metal, or even less. In one or more embodiments, the nanotubes article contains less than about 1018 atoms/cm2 of metal impurities, or less than about 1016 atoms/cm2 of metal impurities, or less than about 1014 atoms/cm2 of metal impurities, or less than about 1012 atoms/cm2 of metal impurities, or less than about 1010 atoms/cm2 of metal impurities. Compositions having lower levels of metallic impurities, e.g. ca. 1010-1012 atoms/cm2, may be used in the manufacture of advanced devices having fine features, for example, devices having features of less than or equal to 250 nm. Heavy metals, for examples metals having a specific gravity of 5 g/ml, are generally toxic in relatively low concentrations to plant and animal life and tend to accumulate in the food chain. Examples include lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, and arsenic. Such compounds are carefully regulated in the semiconductor fabrication industry and are desirably maintained at minimum levels. In one or more embodiments, the nanotube article includes less than about 1018 atoms/cm2 of heavy metal impurities, or even less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm2 of heavy metal impurities. Similarly, the concentration of group I and group II elements is regulated due to the deleterious effect of elements such as sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium, and the like, on the performance characteristics of the electronic device. In one or more embodiments, the nanotube article includes less than about 1018 atoms/cm2 of group I and group II element impurities, or even less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm2 of group I and group II element impurities. Lastly, transition metals are also avoided due to their ready migration and the deleterious effect of such migration to the device performance. As is the case for heavy metals and group I and group II metals, it is desired to maintain the impurity level of transition metals, such as copper, iron, cobalt, molybdenum, titanium, and nickel, to less than preselected values. In one or more embodiments of the present invention, the nanotube article includes less than about 1018 atoms/cm2 of transition metal impurities, or even less than about 15×1010 atoms/cm2 of transition metal impurities. The use of the term “about” reflects the variation that occurs in measurement and can range up to 30% of the measured value. For example, when determining metal impurity levels using VPD ICP-MS, the accuracy of the measurement is related to the precision of analytical signals, the recovery of trace metals from the wafer surface, and the accuracy of the standards used. Overall accuracy of the VPD ICP-MS technique varies from ±15%, at concentration levels higher than 10 times above the method detection limit, to ±30% or higher at concentration levels lower than 10 times the detection limits. Similar variability is expected in other measurements. The following example are provided to illustrate the invention, which is not intended to be limiting of the invention, the scope of which is set forth in the claims which follow. EXAMPLE 1 This example describes the purification of nanotubes. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) were purified by stirring in 7.7M HNO3 for 8 h followed by refluxing at 125° C. for 12 h. The acid refluxed material was washed with DI water three times by a sonication-centrifugation-decantation cycle. The DI water washed material was then vacuum filtered over a 5 micron filter until a dried SWNT membrane was obtained on the filter paper. This purified SWNT material was collected and used for making a SWNT composition. EXAMPLE 2 This example describes the preparation of a nanotube composition and a nanotube article. In order to avoid recontamination of the nanotubes, clean room conditions, for example, Class 100 or greater, were maintained during preparation and processing of the nanotube composition. Twenty-one mg of single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs), purified as described above in Example 1 were soaked in 10 mL ethyl lactate (electronics grade—Sigma), ground with a mortar and pestle, sonicated and centrifuged to remove the supernatant. These steps were repeated as necessary to solubilize the carbon nanotubes. The solubilized nanotubes had a final concentration of 21 mg carbon nanotubes per 250 mL ethyl lactate, and the optical density at 550 nm of the solution was measured to be 1.001. Each individual step of the solubilization process is detailed in the Table 1 for the solubilization of SWNTs in ethyl lactate (EL). This protocol is illustrative of one means of forming a solubilized nanotube solution. Many other methods of forming such a solution are possible by adding or subtracting steps involving agitation and solubilization depending upon the specific requirements for concentration, solution stability and ultimate performance metrics of the desired fabric. TABLE 1 Process Flow Chart for SWNT solubilization in Ethyl-Lactate Step Process Duration Remarks 1 Soak in 10 ml EL 30 min In mortar 2 Grind 10 min In mortar 3 Soak in 10 ml EL 1 h 20 min In mortar 4 Add 90 ml EL After transfer to 250 ml flask 5 Bath sonicate 0.5 h 5° C. 6 Centrifuge (10 krpm, 20° C.) 0.5 h In Teflon container 7 Decant supernatant Collect in 500 ml flask (100 ml); 25 C. 8 Grind sediment in 10 ml EL 10 min In mortar 9 Soak 50 min In mortar 10 Add 90 ml EL After transfer to 250 ml flask 11 Bath sonicate 0.5 h 5° C. 12 Centrifuge (10 krpm, 20° C.) 0.5 h In Teflon container 13 Decant supernatant Collect in 500 ml flask (200 ml); 25° C. 14 Grind sediment in 10 ml EL 10 min In mortar 15 Soak 50 min In mortar 16 Add 90 ml EL After transfer to 250 ml flask 17 Bath sonicate 0.5 h 5° C. 18 Centrifuge (10 krpm) 0.5 h In Teflon container 19 Decant supernatant Collect in 500 ml flask (300 ml); 25° C. 20 Allow to stand 12 h At 25° C. in closed flask 21 Sonicate 1 h 5° C. 22 Metrics NA Check for sheet resistance and SEM 23 Storage conditions NA In 250 ml polypropylene (PP) bottle; 5° C. EXAMPLE 3 This example describes an alternative method of preparing a nanotube composition. Twenty-one mg carbon nanotubes were mixed in 10 mL EL and subjected to sonication, centrifugation, decanting of the supernatant and remixing of carbon nanotubes in EL for repeated sonication until the tubes were sufficiently solubilized; i.e., the nanotubes were subjected essentially the same steps as in Example 2, without grinding with mortar and pestle. The steps of the process are shown in Table 2. TABLE 2 Alternate Process Flow Chart for SWNT solubilization in Ethyl-Lactate Step Process Duration Remarks 1 Place 100 mg in 800 ml EL N/A In 1 L polypropylene (PP) bottle. 2 Add Teflon impellers N/A In 1 L PP bottle 3 Place on autoshaker 100 h Powered through a timer 4 Collect in a 1 L RB N/A HF cleaned flask, in cleanroom 5 Bath sonicate 1 h 5° C. 6 Centrifuge (15 krpm, 15° C.) 2 h 6 × 250; Beckman PP bottles 7 Decant supernatant ˜15 min Collect in 1000 ml flask 8 Check for optical density at 550 N/A If above 1.25 this needs to be adjusted to nanometer. 1.25 by adding neat EL 9 Bath sonicate 2 h 5° C. 10 Centrifuge (25000 rpm, 15° C.) 2 h 8 × 50 cc, Beckman PP in 3 batches 12 Decant supernatant N/A Collect in 1000 ml flask (200 ml); 25° C. 13 Check for final metrics N/A Bottled in a 1 L PP bottle rinsed with including sheet resistance and CMOS grade EL, SEM EXAMPLE 4 This example describes the preparation of a nanotube article on a silicon substrate. The solution prepared in Example 2 was spin coated onto a 100 mm oxide-coated silicon wafer. For comparison, a nanotube solution in EL using as-prepared, i.e., unpurified, nanotubes was spin coated onto a similar 100 mm oxide-coated silicon wafer. Six applications were used to generate a fabric or film onto the wafer surface. FIGS. 1 and 3 illustrate SEM images of unpurified SWNT material and purified SWNT material, respectively coated from a solution of SWNTs in ethyl lactate. The presence of particulate impurities is apparent in the unpurified sample (FIG. 1). The purified SWNT film showed significant reduction in amorphous carbon contamination after completion of the purification process (FIG. 2). The figures do not necessarily represent ideal electronics grade fabrics, but are shown simply to represent spun-on fabrics created from ethyl lactate. Upon generation of a fabric the sheet resistance was measured to be 70 kOhm (center); 129+/−22 kOhm (edge). The following table (Table 3) summarizes several metric parameters including the optical density of a typical purified SWNT solution as well as the resistivity of a SWNT fabric on a 100 mm silicon wafer coated with a thick gate oxide. TABLE 3 Metrics of Typical SWNT Fabric Metrics Data Remarks Optical Density (550 nm) 1.001 Sheet Resistance 70 kohm (center), 6 spins: 129 +/− 22 kohm (edge) 60 rpm, 500 rpm, 4000 rpm The solution can be used to form a component of NRAM memories, such as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/915,093, entitled “Electromechanical Memory Array Using Nanotube Ribbons and Method for Making Same”, filed Jul. 25, 2001; U.S. Pat. No. 6,643,165, entitled “Electromechanical Memory Having Cell Selection Circuitry Constructed with Nanotube Technology,” filed Jul. 25, 2001; U.S. Provisional Patent Apl. No. 60/459,223, entitled “NRAM Bit Selectable Two-Drive Nanotube Array,” filed Mar. 29, 2003; and U.S. Provisional Patent Appl. No. 60/459,222, entitled “NRAM Byte/Block Released Bit Selectable One-Device Nanotube Array,” filed Mar. 29, 2003. The solution holds potential as a stand alone commercial product to serve the research and development laboratories that work on single walled carbon nanotubes as well other applications. EXAMPLE 5 This example describes the testing of trace metals on the surface of a nanotube article that is deposited on a silicon wafer. A nanotube composition was prepared from nanotubes that had been purified of metallic and particulate impurities as described in Example 1 by dispersing the nanotubes in ethyl lactate medium as described in Example 2. The nanotube compositions were analyzed for surface metallic impurities by Vapor Phase Decomposition and Inductively-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (VPD, ICP/MS) by Chemtrace, Fremont, Calif. Silicon wafers, with and without a deposited nanotube layer, were placed in a pre-cleaned high purity chamber saturated with hydrofluoric acid (HF) vapor. Untreated silicon wafers and ethyl lactate coated wafers were used as controls. The native or thermal oxide on the silicon wafer or deposited layer was dissolved in the presence of the HF vapor. Metal impurities incorporated into the layer were released and dissolved in the acid during the scanning process. A drop of an ultrapure acid etchant is added to the surface and the analysis area is scanned in a reproducible manner. The scanning solution was then collected for ICP-MS analysis. The analysis area was the entire surface on one side of the wafer with 2 mm edge exclusion. Strict cleanroom practices were followed at all times. The VPD process was performed in a near Class 1 laminar flow mini-environment located in a Class 10 cleanroom. The ICP-MS instrument was operated in a Class 1000 cleanroom to minimize environmental source contamination. A pre-cleaned silicon wafer was used as the control. In order to evaluate the source of metallic impurities in the solvent, a silicon wafer was treated (spin-coated) with electronics grade ethyl lactate alone (EL Control). Samples 1 through 3 represent three different nanotube compositions purified and prepared according to the methodology set out in Examples 1 and 2. The test results demonstrate that comparable levels of purity were achieved over a number of samples tested. Most of the metals tested were near the detection limit of the method. Notable exceptions to this were boron, calcium, cobalt, nickel potassium and sodium. However, the total and individual metals content were well below the lower limit of 15×1010 atoms/cm3 set by the ITRS. Care must be taken in post purification processing in order to preserve the purity levels thus attained. For example, it was observed that rinsing the as-deposited nanotubes with DI water reintroduced several metal impurities. The results of trace metal analysis recording the elemental content SWNTs after being coated on silicon substrates are reported in Table 4. Measurements are recorded as the number of atoms for a given element (×1010 atoms per cm2). TABLE 4 (Number Of Atoms For A Given Element X 1010 Atoms Per cm2). Method Detection Limits Control EL Control Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Aluminum (Al) 0.3 0.91 0.57 0.78 0.33 <0.3 Antimony (Sb) 0.003 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 Arsenic (As) 0.03 0.065 0.32 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 Barium (Ba) 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Beryllium (Be) 0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 Bismuth (Bi) 0.002 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 Boron (B) 1 140 220 5.7 5.9 5.3 Cadmium (Cd) 0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 Calcium (Ca) 0.2 0.34 2.4 0.83 1.3 1.8 Chromium (Cr) 0.1 <0.1 0.11 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 Cobalt (Co) 0.02 <0.02 <0.02 0.57 0.45 0.22 Copper (Cu) 0.05 <0.05 0.080 <0.05 0.34 <0.05 Gallium (Ga) 0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 Germanium (Ge) 0.021 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Iron (Fe) 0.1 <0.1 0.54 0.24 0.19 0.14 Lead (Pb) 0.003 <0.003 0.012 <0.003 0.011 <0.003 Lithium (Li) 0.08 <0.08 <0.08 <0.08 <0.08 <0.08 Magnesium (Mg) 0.3 <0.3 <0.3 <0.3 <0.3 <0.3 Manganese (Mn) 0.03 <0.03 0.069 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 Molybdenum (Mo) 0.01 <0.01 0.014 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Nickel (Ni) 0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.79 0.96 0.48 Potassium (K) 0.2 <0.2 3.5 0.30 1.2 0.73 Sodium (Na) 0.2 <0.2 7.1 1.2 2.1 1.5 Strontium (Sr) 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Tin (Sn) 0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 Titanium (Ti) 0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 Tungsten (W) 0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 Vanadium (V) 0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 Zinc (Zn) 0.06 <0.06 1.4 0.088 0.095 0.078 Zirconium (Zr) 0.003 0.050 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 Other Embodiments In certain embodiments concentrations of metallic or carbonaceous contamination that are above those required for CMOS fabrication may be acceptable. The present invention serves to exemplify creation of nanotube solutions with stringent requirements that meet or exceed those of a CMOS process flow but can be modified in applications that have relaxed requirements. In certain embodiments the SWNT solutions may be modified or tailored to form thick nanotube coatings up to 100 microns thick or more and as thin as a monolayer of SWNTs. Such nanotube fabrics can be characterized by resistivity or capacitance measurements to meet the requirements of the specific electronics application. As described herein, certain applicator liquids and application techniques are described, which can be used to form nanotube films or fabrics of controlled properties. For example, certain proposals have been made suggesting the benefits of substantially monolayers of nanotubes with substantially uniform porosity. Techniques have been provided in which one or more parameters may be controlled or monitored to create such films. Moreover, these liquids are intended for industrial environments, which require that the liquids be usable, i.e., that the nanotube suspension is stable, for periods of days, weeks and even months. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Technical Field This invention describes spin-coatable liquids for use in the preparation of nanotube films. Such liquids are used in creating films and fabrics of nanotubes or mixtures of nanotubes and other materials on a variety of substrates including silicon, plastics, paper and other materials. In particular, the invention describes spin-coatable liquids containing nanotubes for use in electronics fabrication processes. Furthermore, the spin-coatable liquids meet or exceed specifications for a semiconductor fabrication facility, including a class 1 environment. 2. Discussion of Related Art Nanotubes are useful for many applications; due to their electrical properties nanotubes may be used as conducting and semi-conducting elements in numerous electronic elements. Single walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) have emerged in the last decade as advanced materials exhibiting interesting electrical, mechanical and optical properties. However, the inclusion or incorporation of the SWNT as part of standard microelectronic fabrication process has faced challenges due to a lack of a readily available application method compatible with existing semiconductor equipment and tools and meeting the stringent materials standards required in the electronic fabrication process. Standards for such a method include, but are not limited to, non-toxicity, non-flammability, ready availability in CMOS or electronics grades, substantially free from suspended particles (including but not limited to submicro- and nano-scale particles and aggregates), and compatible with spin coating tracks and other tools currently used by the semiconductor industry. Individual nanotubes may be used as conducting elements, e.g. as a channel in a transistor, however the placement of millions of catalyst particles and the growth of millions of properly aligned nanotubes of specific length presents serious challenges. U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,643,165 and 6,574,130 describe electromechanical switches using flexible nanotube-based fabrics (nanofabrics) derived from solution-phase coatings of nanotubes in which the nanotubes first are grown, then brought into solution, and applied to substrates at ambient temperatures. Nanotubes may be derivatized in order to facilitate bringing the tubes into solution, however in uses where pristine nanotubes are necessary, it is often difficult to remove the derivatizing agent. Even when removal of the derivatizing agent is not difficult, such removal is an added, time-consuming step. There have been few attempts to disperse SWNTs in aqueous and non-aqueous solvents. Chen et al. first reported solubilization of shortened, end-functionalized SWNTs in solvents such as chloroform, dichloromethane, orthodichlorobenzene (ODCB), CS2, dimethyl formamide (DMF) and tetrahydrofuran (THF). See, “Solution Properties of Single-Walled Nanotubes”, Science 1998, 282, 95-98. Ausman et al. reported the use of SWNTs solutions using sonication. The solvents used were N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), DMF, hexamethylphosphoramide, cyclopentanone, tetramethylene sulfoxide and ε-caprolactone (listed in decreasing order of carbon nanotube solvation). Ausman at el. generally conclude that solvents with good Lewis basicity (i.e., availability of a free electron pair without hydrogen donors) are good solvents for SWNTs. See, “Organic Solvent Dispersions of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes: Toward Solutions of Pristine Nanotubes”, J. Phys. Chem. B 2000, 104, 8911. Other early approaches involved the fluorination or sidewall covalent derivatization of SWNTs with aliphatic and aromatic moieties to improve nanotube solubility. See, e.g., E. T. Mickelson et al., “Solvation of Fluorinated Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes in Alcohol Solvents”, J. Phys. Chem. B 1999, 103, 4318-4322. Full-length soluble SWNTs can be prepared by ionic functionalization of the SWNT ends dissolved in THF and DMF. See, Chen et al., “Dissolution of Full-Length Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes”, J. Phys. Chem. B 2001, 105, 2525-2528 and J. L. Bahr et al Chem. Comm. 2001, 193-194. Chen et al. used HiPCO™ as-prepared (AP)-SWNTs and studied a wide range of solvents. (HiPCO™ is a trademark of Rice University for SWNTs prepared under high pressure carbon monoxide decomposition). The solutions were made using sonication. Bahr et al. (“Dissolution Of Small Diameter Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes In Organic Solvents?”, Chem. Commun., 2001, 193-194) reported the most favorable solvation results using ODCB, followed by chloroform, methylnaphthalene, bromomethylnaphthalene, NMP and DMF as solvents. Subsequent work has shown that good solubility of AP-SWNT in ODCB is due to sonication-induced polymerization of ODCB, which then wraps around SWNTs, essentially producing soluble polymer wrapped (PW)-SWNTs. See Niyogi et al., “Ultrasonic Dispersions of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes”, J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 8799-8804. Polymer wrapping usually affects sheet resistance of the SWNT network and may not be appropriate for electronic applications where low sheet resistance is desired. See, e.g., A. Star et al., “Preparation and Properties of Polymer-Wrapped Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes”, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2001, 40, 1721-1725 and M. J. O'Connell et al., “Reversible Water-Solubilization Of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes By Polymer Wrapping”, Chem. Phys. Lett. 2001, 342, 265-271. While these approaches were successful in solubilizing the SWNTs in a variety of organic solvents to practically relevant levels, all such attempts resulted in the depletion of the π electrons that are essential to retain interesting electrical and optical properties of nanotubes. Other earlier attempts involve the use of cationic, anionic or non-ionic surfactants to disperse the SWNT in aqueous and non-aqueous systems. See, Matarredona et al., “Dispersion of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes in Aqueous Solutions of the Anionic Surfactant”, J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 13357-13367. While this type of approach has helped to retain the electrical conductivity and optical properties of the SWNTs, most such methods leave halogens or alkali metals or polymeric residues, which tend to severely hamper any meaningful use in microelectronic fabrication facilities. There is a need for a method of solvating or dispensing nanotubes in solvents for use in electronics applications. There remains a further need for methods that meet the criteria outlined above for low toxicity, purity, cleanliness, ease of handling and scalability. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>One aspect of the present invention is directed to spin-coatable liquids for formation of high purity nanotube films. According to one aspect of the present invention, a composition of nanotubes for use in an electronics fabrication process includes a liquid medium containing a plurality of nanotubes pretreated to reduce the level of metal and particulate impurities to a preselected level. The solvents are present at commercially meaningful levels, e.g., the nanotubes are at a concentration of greater than 1 mg/L. The nanotubes are homogeneously distributed in the liquid medium without substantial precipitation or flocculation. In one aspect of the present invention, a nanotube composition includes a stable distribution of nanotubes in a liquid medium and is substantially free of particulate and metallic impurities. The level of particulate and metallic impurities is commensurate with preselected fabrication requirements. In one aspect of the invention, a spin-coatable liquid for formation of a nanotube film is provided including a liquid medium containing a controlled concentration of purified nanotubes, wherein the controlled concentration is sufficient to form a nanotube fabric or film of preselected density and uniformity, and wherein the spin-coatable liquid comprises less than 1×10 18 atoms/cm 3 of metallic impurities. In another aspect of the invention a spin-coatable liquid for formation of a nanotube film is provided including a liquid medium containing a distribution of nanotubes, wherein the nanotubes remain separate from one another without precipitation or flocculation for a time sufficient to apply the spin-coatable liquid to a surface, and wherein the spin-coatable liquid is substantially free of particle impurities having a diameter of greater than about 500 nm. In another aspect of the invention, a fullerene composition includes a liquid medium containing a distribution of fullerenes, wherein the fullerenes remain separate from one another without precipitation or flocculation for a time sufficient to apply the fullerene composition to a surface, and wherein the composition comprises less than 1×10 18 atoms/cm 3 of metal impurities. The fabrication processes can have varying requirements for solvent and raw material composition and purity. According to one aspect of the present invention, spin-coatable liquids containing fullerenes or nanotubes of varying composition and purity are provided for use in these fabrication processes having varying processing specifications and environmental requirements. According to one aspect of the present invention, methods and compositions for creating nanotube compositions for use in fabrication facilities having high standards of non-toxicity and purity are provided. Such processes include semiconductor fabrication processes, for example, CMOS and advanced logic and memory fabrications. Such fabrication processes may produce devices having fine features, e.g., ≦250 nm. According to other aspects of the present invention, the nanotube compositions are of a purity that is suitable for use in electronics fabrication facilities having less stringent standards for chemical composition and purity. Such processes include, for example, interconnect fabrication and fabrication of chemical and biological sensors. | 20040603 | 20080520 | 20050317 | 69914.0 | 0 | SOWARD, IDA M | SPIN-COATABLE LIQUID FOR FORMATION OF HIGH PURITY NANOTUBE FILMS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,860,346 | ACCEPTED | Integrated theft deterrent device | An integrated theft deterrent tag 20 having a lanyard 38 emanating therefrom. The lanyard 38 having a pin 48 permanently attached thereto and the pin 48 being received within a locking mechanism 32 and enclosing an article to be protected. | 1. An integrated theft deterrent device, comprising: a tag body 20; a locking mechanism 32 located within said tag body 20; a lanyard 38 extending from within said tag body 20; a pin 48 being permanently connected to said lanyard 38 at an end opposing said tag body 20; whereby, said pin 48 is received within said locking mechanism 32 in a secure yet detachable manner. 2. The device of claim 1, wherein said tag body 20 further comprises an apex region 25 that is substantially dome shaped, whereby tag 20 is forced onto its side when on a flat surface such that pin 48 is maintained in horizontal alignment with said flat surface. 3. The device of claim 1, wherein said lanyard 38 further comprises a first end 40 and a second end 42, said first end 40 having an anchor 44 attached thereto and said second end having the pin 48 attached thereto, whereby anchor 44 is securely maintained within tag body 20. 4. The device of claim 3, wherein said tag body 20 defines an aperture 36, said aperture 36 being sufficiently sized to allow said lanyard 38 to pass therethrough yet preventing said anchor 44 from being withdrawn. 5. The device of claim 4, wherein a reinforcement wall 46 extends inwardly into said tag body 20 and further defines said aperture 36. 6. The device of claim 3, wherein said first end 40 is attached to said anchor 44 by crimping. 7. The device of claim 3, wherein said first end 40 is attached to said anchor 44 by soldering. 8. The device of claim 3, wherein said lanyard 38 is made of stainless steel cable yet is flexible. 9. The device of claim 1, wherein said tag body 20 further comprises: a first half 22 and a second half 24 that are joined around a perimeter of said tag body 20 by a first side wall 26 and a second side wall 28 extending inwardly from said first and second halves respectively; an opening 30 being defined by said first half 22 for receiving said pin 48; and an aperture 36 being defined by said first half 22 through which said lanyard 38 emanates. 10. The device of claim 9, wherein said tag body 20 further comprises an apex region 25 that is substantially dome shaped extending outwardly from said second half 24, whereby tag 20 is forced onto its side when on a flat surface such that pin 48 is maintained in horizontal alignment with said flat surface. 11. The device of claim 9, wherein said lanyard 38 further comprises a first end 40 and a second end 42, said first end 40 having an anchor 44 attached thereto and said second end having the pin 48 attached thereto, whereby anchor 44 is securely maintained within tag body 20. 12. The device of claim 11, wherein said aperture 36 is sufficiently sized to allow said lanyard 38 to pass therethrough yet preventing said anchor 44 from being withdrawn. 13. The device of claim 11, wherein a reinforcement wall 46 extends inwardly from said first half into said tag body 20 and further defines said aperture 36. 14. The device of claim 11, wherein said first end 40 is attached to said anchor 44 by crimping. 15. The device of claim 11, wherein said first end 40 is attached to said anchor 44 by soldering. 16. The device of claim 11, wherein said lanyard 38 is made of flexible stainless steel cable. 17. The device of claim 3, wherein said tag body 20 further comprises a resonant tag circuit. 18. The device of claim 11, wherein said tag body 20 further comprises a resonant tag circuit. 19. A method of manufacturing an integrated theft deterrent device, comprising the steps of: creating a tag body 20 having a first half 22 and a second half 24; defining an aperture 36 of a predetermined size and an opening 30 of a predetermined size through said first half 22; inserting a lanyard 38 through said aperture 36, said lanyard 38 having a first end 40 and a second end 42; attaching an anchor 44 of sufficient size to said first end 40 such that anchor 44 cannot pass through aperture 36; providing a locking mechanism 32 within said tag body 20; sonic welding said first half 22 and said second half 24 to enclose said anchor 44 and said locking mechanism 32 within said tag body 20; and attaching a pin 48 to said second end of said lanyard. 20. The method of claim 19, further comprising enclosing a resonant tag circuit 34 within said tag body. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The contents of this application are related to U.S. design patent applications having Ser. Nos. 29/182,901, 29/182,878, and 29/182,914, filed on Jun. 2, 2003, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to theft deterrent security tags in general, and in particular to an integrated security tag containing an attaching pin that emanates from the tag body for use in electronic article surveillance (EAS) tags for theft deterrence. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Various types of electronic article surveillance (EAS) systems are known having the common feature of employing a marker or tag which is affixed to an article to be protected against theft from a controlled area, such as merchandise in a store. When a legitimate purchase of the article is made, the marker can either be removed from the article, or converted from an activated state to a deactivated state. Such systems employ a detection arrangement, commonly placed at all exits of a store, and if an activated marker passes through the detection system, it is detected by the detection system and an alarm is triggered. Such electronic detection arrangements, as used in the present invention, are well known in the art and are more clearly discussed in my co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/410,486, titled “Article Surveillance Tag Having a Metal Clip,” filed on Apr. 8, 2003, which is incorporated herein by reference. In addition, the locking mechanism and removal tool, as used in the instant invention, are also well known in the art and are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,588,280 to Martin A. J. Marens and U.S. Pat. No. 3,911,534 to Henry J. Martens et al. which disclosures are incorporated herein by reference for a complete understanding of the locking device employed in the present invention. A discussion of the inventions in the field, known to the inventor, and their differences from the present invention is provided below. U.S. Pat. No. 3,911,534 and U.S. Pat. No. 3,974,581 to Henry J. Martens et al. disclose a security tag having the pin contained on a first strip that is attached by a hinge to a second strip that has the locking component thereon. The hinged attachment may lead to the bending of the pin when contacting the locking component because of the predetermined arc that it must travel as a result of the hinged arrangement. Furthermore, the hinged arrangement allows the pin to protrude vertically when the device has fallen to the floor and may lead to injury. The '534 and '581 patents also disclose a pin soldered to a chain at one end and the other end of the chain riveted to the tag cover. The riveting of the chain on the outside of the tag body may subject the tag easy defeat by unscrupulous individuals. Furthermore, the pin thereof will protrude vertically when the device has fallen to the floor and may lead to injury. U.S. Pat. No. 3,932,918 to Paskert discloses a releasably attachable clip for attachment to certain cloth articles, wherein the pin component is incorporated into the tag. However, the pin once again is held in a substantially hinged relation to the locking component and may lead to bending of the pin as a result of the arc which must be traveled in order to engage the locking component. Furthermore, the '918 patent may only be used with articles made of cloth and cannot engage solid components as disclosed in the instant invention. U.S. Pat. No. 3,942,829 to Humble et al. discloses a security tag having the pin contained on a first strip that is attached by a hinge to a second strip that has the locking component thereon. The hinged attachment may lead to the bending of the pin when contacting the locking component because of the predetermined arc that it must travel as a result of the hinged arrangement. In addition, the hinged arrangement allows the pin to protrude vertically when the device has fallen to the floor and may lead to injury. Furthermore, the '829 patent may only be used with articles made of cloth and cannot engage solid components as disclosed in the instant invention. U.S. Pat. No. 6,535,130 to Nguyen et al. discloses a complex electronic tag having visual and audible alarm systems incorporated into the tag body itself. The tag also incorporates a lanyard that is made of an electrical circuit wire that will cause an audible or visual alarm in the tag body to be activated should the lanyard be cut. The Nguyen device, however, uses a traditional independent pin having a head to attach the lanyard to an article, thereby possibly leading to work place injuries when the pin is dropped on the floor. Furthermore, the electrical components incorporated into each tag make the manufacture and use thereof cost prohibitive. The prior art does not address the need for an integrated EAS tag that is difficult to defeat and easy to use. In addition, the prior art fails to provide a theft deterrent tag assembly that incorporates the pin, a lanyard and the tag body into one unit. Therefore, there remains a long standing and continuing need for an advance in the art of EAS and theft deterrent tags that makes the tags more difficult to defeat, simpler in both design and use, more economical and efficient in their construction and use, and provide a more secure engagement of the article. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, it is a general object of the present invention to overcome the disadvantages of the prior art. Therefore, it is a primary objective of the invention to provide an EAS tag wherein the tag body and the pin are an integrated unit. It is another objective of the invention to provide a cost-efficient EAS tag. It is another objective of the invention to provide an EAS tag that is durable. It is a further objective of the invention to provide an EAS tag that is detachable when used with an authorized detaching unit. It is a further objective of the invention to provide an EAS tag that provides an integrated pin to reduce the chances of injury to persons stepping on the pin, as is commonly a problem with the pins utilized in the prior art. It is still a further objective of the invention to provide a theft deterrent device that can be quickly and easily secured to an article made of varying materials to prevent the unauthorized removal of the article. It is yet a further object of the invention to provide a rugged theft deterrent unit to permit the repeated reuse thereof. In keeping with the principles of the present invention, a unique EAS theft deterrent tag is disclosed wherein the pin element is integrated into the tag body via an elongated element. In integrating the pin component with the tag body, labor time and costs are reduced when removing the tag from an article being protected thereby because separate bins are not required for storing the tag body and the pin component until they are reused. In addition, labor time and costs during attachment of the tag body to an article are also reduced because the pin component is integrated therewith and a separate search for a corresponding pin is eliminated. In addition, the risk of work place injury is reduced because when the tag body falls on the floor, the pin also lays flat on the floor and should not penetrate the foot of an employee stepping thereon. Conversely, the pins illustrated in the prior art have a head on which the pin will rest and leave the shaft thereof in a vertical plane thereby increasing the risk of foot injuries. Such stated objects and advantages of the invention are only examples and should not be construed as limiting the present invention. These and other objects, features, aspects, and advantages of the invention herein will become more apparent from the following detailed description of the embodiments of the invention when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings and the claims that follow. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS It is to be understood that the drawings are to be used for the purposes of illustration only and not as a definition of the limits of the invention. In the drawings, wherein similar reference characters denote similar elements throughout the several views: FIG. 1 is a top perspective view of the tag of the instant invention. FIG. 2 is a side elevational view of the tag of the instant invention. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the tag of the instant invention showing an alternate preferred embodiment. FIG. 4 is a cross sectional view of the tag of the instant invention taken along line 4-4 of FIG. 1. FIG. 5 is a top perspective view of the tag of the instant invention showing an alternate preferred embodiment that does not incorporate electromagnetic components therein. FIG. 6 is a cross sectional view of the tag of the instant invention taken along line 6-6 of FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a perspective view of the tag of the instant invention showing an alternate preferred embodiment where the pin is not directly attached to the lanyard. FIG. 8 is a perspective view of the tag of the present invention showing an alternate preferred embodiment thereof. FIG. 9 is a perspective view of the tag of the present invention showing an alternate preferred embodiment thereof. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring now to FIGS. 1, 2 and 4, a tag 20 is illustrated having a first half 22 and a second half 24. First and second halves 22 and 24 are preferably made of a hard or rigid material and are adapted to attach to one another and form a front end 21 and a rear end 23. A usable rigid or hard material might be a hard plastic such as, for purposes of illustration but not limitation, an injection molded ABS plastic. If a plastic material is used, the mating of a first side wall 26 to a second side wall 28 can be accomplished via an ultrasonic weld or like joining mechanism. However, it is to be understood that other joining methods, such as adhesives, may also be used. When first half 22 and second half 24 are securely joined, first sidewall 26 and second sidewall 28 form a peripheral outer wall of tag 20. Second half 24 has an apex region 25 that extends therefrom in an opposing direction to first half 22 in a substantially dome shaped manner. The dome shaped apex region 25 forces tag 20 to fall onto its side such that a pin 48 (described hereinafter) is not vertically oriented and prevents injury by accidentally stepping thereon. An opening 30 is defined on first half 22 and is axially aligned with apex region 25. Apex region 25 encloses a locking mechanism 32. Locking mechanism 32 is not the subject of the instant invention and a detailed description thereof is disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,858,280 and 3,911,534 to Martens et al., which is incorporated herein by reference. In addition, first half 22 and second half 24 enclose a resonant tag circuit 34 which is not the subject of the instant invention and a detailed description thereof is disclosed in my U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/410,486, titled “Article Surveillance Tag Having a Metal Clip,” filed on Apr. 8, 2003, which is incorporated herein by reference. It is to be understood that alternate resonant tag circuitry that is known in the art may also be used with the instant invention. Resonant tag circuit 34 functions with electronic article surveillance systems that are well known in the art to prevent theft and similar unauthorized removal of articles from a controlled area. An aperture 36 is defined through tag 20 to allow a lanyard 38, preferably formed of stainless steel cable, to pass therethrough. Lanyard 38 is flexible and has a first end 40 and a second end 42. First end 40 is inserted through aperture 36 and an anchor 44, having a greater diameter than aperture 36, is attached to first end 40. Anchor 44 may be formed by crimping a metal element onto first end 40 or by soldering thereon. In addition, anchor 44 may also preferably be formed by crimp splices. Anchor 44 securely maintains lanyard 38 within tag 20. A reinforcement wall 46, having a preferably tubular shape, extends inwardly from top half 22 and further defines aperture 36 such that a greater pull force would be required in order to pull lanyard 38 out of tag 20 through aperture 36. After lanyard 38 has passed through aperture 36 and anchor 44 engaged therein, first half 22 and second half 24 are sonic welded together, thereby enclosing anchor 44 therein. Second end 42 of lanyard 38 receives a pin 48 thereon in substantially axial alignment. Pin 48 has a pointed end 50 and a dull end 52. Grooves 54 extend circumferentially along pin 48 and provide a more secure engagement when pin 48 is received within locking mechanism 32. Dull end 52 of pin 48 is attached to second end 42 of lanyard 38 by an attaching element 56. Attaching element 56 may be formed by crimping a metal element around dull end 52 and second end 42 or by soldering a metal element thereon, thereby permanently fixing the attaching element 56, dull end 52 and second end 42 together. In addition, attaching element 56 may also preferably be formed by crimp splices. Now referring to FIG. 3, an alternate preferred embodiment of tag 20 is disclosed wherein an extension barrier 58 extends outwardly from first half 22 and substantially encircles opening 30. Extension barrier 58 is substantially tubular and is intended to prevent access to pin 48 when it is inserted within opening 30 and received within locking mechanism 32. Now referring to FIGS. 5, 6 and 7, an alternate preferred embodiment of tag 20 is disclosed wherein the resonant tag circuit 34 is removed in order to minimize the size of tag 20. The alternate preferred embodiment is of compact size and is attachable to small articles, such as sunglasses, in order to provide theft deterrence. Now referring to FIG. 8, an alternate preferred embodiment of tag 20 is disclosed wherein the aperture 36 extends is defined by front end 21 and is perpendicular to the axis of opening 30. Now referring to FIG. 9, an alternate preferred embodiment of tag 20 is disclosed wherein the aperture 36 is defined by rear end 23 and is perpendicular to the axis of opening 30. For attachment of tag 20 to articles of clothing, pointed end 50 of pin 48 passes through the article of clothing and is inserted into opening 30 and received within locking mechanism 32. For delicate fabrics, such as lingerie or silk blouses, the lanyard attaches around a portion of the article and forms a loop around the article when pin 48 is inserted into locking mechanism 32. Tag 20 may also be used with solid articles, such as baseball bats, wherein a loop is formed by the lanyard around the solid article (i.e. the handle of the baseball bat). While the above description contains many specificities, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention, but rather as an exemplification of one preferred embodiment thereof. Many other variations are possible without departing from the essential spirit of the invention. Accordingly, the scope of the invention should be determined not by the embodiment illustrated, but by the appended claims and their legal equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Various types of electronic article surveillance (EAS) systems are known having the common feature of employing a marker or tag which is affixed to an article to be protected against theft from a controlled area, such as merchandise in a store. When a legitimate purchase of the article is made, the marker can either be removed from the article, or converted from an activated state to a deactivated state. Such systems employ a detection arrangement, commonly placed at all exits of a store, and if an activated marker passes through the detection system, it is detected by the detection system and an alarm is triggered. Such electronic detection arrangements, as used in the present invention, are well known in the art and are more clearly discussed in my co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/410,486, titled “Article Surveillance Tag Having a Metal Clip,” filed on Apr. 8, 2003, which is incorporated herein by reference. In addition, the locking mechanism and removal tool, as used in the instant invention, are also well known in the art and are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,588,280 to Martin A. J. Marens and U.S. Pat. No. 3,911,534 to Henry J. Martens et al. which disclosures are incorporated herein by reference for a complete understanding of the locking device employed in the present invention. A discussion of the inventions in the field, known to the inventor, and their differences from the present invention is provided below. U.S. Pat. No. 3,911,534 and U.S. Pat. No. 3,974,581 to Henry J. Martens et al. disclose a security tag having the pin contained on a first strip that is attached by a hinge to a second strip that has the locking component thereon. The hinged attachment may lead to the bending of the pin when contacting the locking component because of the predetermined arc that it must travel as a result of the hinged arrangement. Furthermore, the hinged arrangement allows the pin to protrude vertically when the device has fallen to the floor and may lead to injury. The '534 and '581 patents also disclose a pin soldered to a chain at one end and the other end of the chain riveted to the tag cover. The riveting of the chain on the outside of the tag body may subject the tag easy defeat by unscrupulous individuals. Furthermore, the pin thereof will protrude vertically when the device has fallen to the floor and may lead to injury. U.S. Pat. No. 3,932,918 to Paskert discloses a releasably attachable clip for attachment to certain cloth articles, wherein the pin component is incorporated into the tag. However, the pin once again is held in a substantially hinged relation to the locking component and may lead to bending of the pin as a result of the arc which must be traveled in order to engage the locking component. Furthermore, the '918 patent may only be used with articles made of cloth and cannot engage solid components as disclosed in the instant invention. U.S. Pat. No. 3,942,829 to Humble et al. discloses a security tag having the pin contained on a first strip that is attached by a hinge to a second strip that has the locking component thereon. The hinged attachment may lead to the bending of the pin when contacting the locking component because of the predetermined arc that it must travel as a result of the hinged arrangement. In addition, the hinged arrangement allows the pin to protrude vertically when the device has fallen to the floor and may lead to injury. Furthermore, the '829 patent may only be used with articles made of cloth and cannot engage solid components as disclosed in the instant invention. U.S. Pat. No. 6,535,130 to Nguyen et al. discloses a complex electronic tag having visual and audible alarm systems incorporated into the tag body itself. The tag also incorporates a lanyard that is made of an electrical circuit wire that will cause an audible or visual alarm in the tag body to be activated should the lanyard be cut. The Nguyen device, however, uses a traditional independent pin having a head to attach the lanyard to an article, thereby possibly leading to work place injuries when the pin is dropped on the floor. Furthermore, the electrical components incorporated into each tag make the manufacture and use thereof cost prohibitive. The prior art does not address the need for an integrated EAS tag that is difficult to defeat and easy to use. In addition, the prior art fails to provide a theft deterrent tag assembly that incorporates the pin, a lanyard and the tag body into one unit. Therefore, there remains a long standing and continuing need for an advance in the art of EAS and theft deterrent tags that makes the tags more difficult to defeat, simpler in both design and use, more economical and efficient in their construction and use, and provide a more secure engagement of the article. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, it is a general object of the present invention to overcome the disadvantages of the prior art. Therefore, it is a primary objective of the invention to provide an EAS tag wherein the tag body and the pin are an integrated unit. It is another objective of the invention to provide a cost-efficient EAS tag. It is another objective of the invention to provide an EAS tag that is durable. It is a further objective of the invention to provide an EAS tag that is detachable when used with an authorized detaching unit. It is a further objective of the invention to provide an EAS tag that provides an integrated pin to reduce the chances of injury to persons stepping on the pin, as is commonly a problem with the pins utilized in the prior art. It is still a further objective of the invention to provide a theft deterrent device that can be quickly and easily secured to an article made of varying materials to prevent the unauthorized removal of the article. It is yet a further object of the invention to provide a rugged theft deterrent unit to permit the repeated reuse thereof. In keeping with the principles of the present invention, a unique EAS theft deterrent tag is disclosed wherein the pin element is integrated into the tag body via an elongated element. In integrating the pin component with the tag body, labor time and costs are reduced when removing the tag from an article being protected thereby because separate bins are not required for storing the tag body and the pin component until they are reused. In addition, labor time and costs during attachment of the tag body to an article are also reduced because the pin component is integrated therewith and a separate search for a corresponding pin is eliminated. In addition, the risk of work place injury is reduced because when the tag body falls on the floor, the pin also lays flat on the floor and should not penetrate the foot of an employee stepping thereon. Conversely, the pins illustrated in the prior art have a head on which the pin will rest and leave the shaft thereof in a vertical plane thereby increasing the risk of foot injuries. Such stated objects and advantages of the invention are only examples and should not be construed as limiting the present invention. These and other objects, features, aspects, and advantages of the invention herein will become more apparent from the following detailed description of the embodiments of the invention when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings and the claims that follow. | 20040602 | 20080311 | 20051208 | 78772.0 | 1 | LIEU, JULIE BICHNGOC | INTEGRATED THEFT DETERRENT DEVICE | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,860,396 | ACCEPTED | Apparatus and method for improving uniformity and charge decay time performance of an air ionizer blower | An air ionizer blower includes a voltage source, an air inlet, an air outlet, an air mover, at least one electrode and a straightening vane. The air mover is configured to cause air to flow into the air inlet and out of the air outlet, thereby creating an air flow. The electrode is disposed in the flow path of the air and is electrically connected to the voltage source. The electrode is configured to generate either or both of positive and negative polarity ions. The straightening vane is disposed in the air flow and attenuates loss-causing air flow patterns by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and redirects portions of the air flow having other trajectories toward the single output direction. The straightening vane has a plurality of uniformly distributed apertures, each having a depth that is a function of the open area of the aperture. | 1. An air ionizer blower comprising: a voltage source; an air inlet; an air outlet; an air mover configured to cause air to flow into the air inlet and out of the air outlet, thereby creating an air flow; at least one electrode disposed in the flow path of the air and being electrically connected to the voltage source, the at least one electrode being configured to generate either or both of positive and negative polarity ions; and a straightening vane disposed in the path of the air flow and being configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction, the straightening vane having a plurality of generally uniformly distributed apertures, each aperture having a depth that is a function of the overall open area of the aperture. 2. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, wherein the air mover is a fan. 3. The air ionizer blower according to claim 2, wherein the fan is a rotary-hub fan or axial fan or tube-axial fan. 4. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, wherein the straightening vane is formed of a conductive material. 5. The air ionizer blower according to claim 4, wherein the straightening vane is electrically coupled to the voltage source as a sensor to provide feedback control of the voltage source. 6. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, wherein the straightening vane is formed of an electrically non-conductive material. 7. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, wherein the loss-causing air flow patterns include at least one of eddy currents, rotational swirls, vortices and non-linear trajectories. 8. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, wherein the straightening vane is positioned over at least one of the air inlet, the air outlet and the at least one electrode, such that air flowing into the air inlet, air flowing out of the air outlet or air flowing past the at least one electrode flows through the straightening vane. 9. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, wherein the straightening vane is positioned over the air outlet. 10. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, further comprising a sensor at the air outlet for sensing ion content of the outlet air, the sensor providing a feedback voltage that controls the voltage source. 11. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, wherein each of the apertures are one of rectangularly-shaped, circularly-shaped, polygonally-shaped and asymmetrically-shaped. 12. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, wherein the apertures of the straightening vane are aligned in a grid or a honeycomb. 13. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, wherein the apertures of the straightening vane are aligned in a symmetrical pattern with respect to the overall shape of the straightening vane. 14. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, wherein the depth of each aperture is at least two millimeters. 15. The air ionizer blower according to claim 1, wherein the depth of each aperture is at least one-half (½) times the square root of the open area of the aperture. 16. A bipolar air ionizer apparatus comprising: an air inlet; an air outlet; a high voltage source having a positive high voltage output and a negative high voltage output; a first electrode electrically connected to the positive high voltage output and configured to generate positive polarity ions; a second electrode electrically connected to the negative high voltage output and configured to generate negative polarity ions; an air mover that causes air to flow into the bipolar air ionizer through the air inlet, around the electrodes and out of the bipolar air ionizer through the air outlet, thereby creating an air flow; and a straightening vane disposed in the path of the air flow and being configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction, the straightening vane having a plurality of generally uniformly distributed apertures, each aperture having a depth that is a function of the overall open area of the aperture, the straightening vane being positioned over at least one of the air inlet, the air outlet and the electrodes, such that air flowing into the air inlet, air flowing out of the air outlet or air flowing past the electrodes flows through the straightening vane. 17. The air ionizer blower according to claim 16, wherein the air mover is a fan. 18. The air ionizer blower according to claim 17, wherein the fan is a rotary-hub fan or axial fan or tube-axial fan. 19. The air ionizer blower according to claim 16, wherein the straightening vane is formed of a conductive material. 20. The air ionizer blower according to claim 19, wherein the straightening vane is electrically coupled to the voltage source as a sensor to provide feedback control of the voltage source. 21. The air ionizer blower according to claim 16, wherein the straightening vane is formed of an electrically non-conductive material. 22. The air ionizer blower according to claim 16, wherein the loss-causing air flow patterns include at least one of eddy currents, rotational swirls, vortices and non-linear trajectories. 23. The air ionizer blower according to claim 16, further comprising a sensor at the air outlet for sensing ion content of the outlet air, the sensor providing a feedback voltage that controls the voltage source. 24. The air ionizer blower according to claim 16, wherein each of the apertures are one of rectangularly-shaped, circularly-shaped, polygonally-shaped and asymmetrically-shaped. 25. The air ionizer blower according to claim 16, wherein the apertures of the straightening vane are aligned in a grid or a honeycomb. 26. The air ionizer blower according to claim 16, wherein the apertures of the straightening vane are aligned in a symmetrical pattern with respect to the overall shape of the straightening vane. 27. The air ionizer blower according to claim 16, wherein the depth of each aperture is at least two millimeters. 28. The air ionizer blower according to claim 16, wherein the depth of each aperture is at least one-half (½) times the square root of the open area of the aperture. 29. A bipolar air ionizer apparatus comprising: an air inlet; an air outlet; an alternating current (AC) high voltage source; an electrode electrically connected to the high voltage source and configured to alternately generate positive and negative polarity ions; an air mover that causes air to flow into the bipolar air ionizer through the air inlet, around the electrodes and out of the bipolar air ionizer through the air outlet, thereby creating an air flow; and a straightening vane disposed in the path of the air flow and being configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction, the straightening vane having a plurality of generally uniformly distributed apertures, each aperture having a depth that is a function of the overall open area of the aperture, the straightening vane being positioned over at least one of the air inlet, the air outlet and the electrodes, such that air flowing into the air inlet, air flowing out of the air outlet or air flowing past the electrodes flows through the straightening vane. 30. The air ionizer blower according to claim 29, wherein the air mover is a fan. 31. The air ionizer blower according to claim 30, wherein the fan is a rotary-hub fan or axial fan or tube-axial fan. 32. The air ionizer blower according to claim 29, wherein the straightening vane is formed of a conductive material. 33. The air ionizer blower according to claim 32, wherein the straightening vane is electrically coupled to the voltage source as a sensor to provide feedback control of the voltage source. 34. The air ionizer blower according to claim 29, wherein the straightening vane is formed of an electrically non-conductive material. 35. The air ionizer blower according to claim 29, wherein the loss-causing air flow patterns include at least one of eddy currents, rotational swirls, vortices and non-linear trajectories. 36. The air ionizer blower according to claim 29, further comprising a sensor at the air outlet for sensing ion content of the outlet air, the sensor providing a feedback voltage that controls the voltage source. 37. The air ionizer blower according to claim 29, wherein each of the apertures are one of rectangularly-shaped, circularly-shaped, polygonally-shaped and asymmetrically-shaped. 38. The air ionizer blower according to claim 29, wherein the apertures of the straightening vane are aligned in a grid or a honeycomb. 39. The air ionizer blower according to claim 29, wherein the apertures of the straightening vane are aligned in a symmetrical pattern with respect to the overall shape of the straightening vane. 40. The air ionizer blower according to claim 29, wherein the depth of each aperture is at least two millimeters. 41. The air ionizer blower according to claim 29, wherein the depth of each aperture is at least one-half (½) times the square root of the open area of the aperture. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to air ion generators and, more specifically, to an apparatus and method for improving uniformity and charge decay time performance of an air ionizer blower by redirecting discharged air flow patterns being discharged therefrom. In many manufacturing and processing environments, it is desirable to prevent the accumulation of charge within a workspace. To prevent the accumulation of charge both positive and negative ions are guided into the workspace to neutralize any charge which may be building up. One example of an industry in which the accumulation of charge in production areas must be avoided is the disk drive industry where it is critical to maintain high manufacturing yields. Air ionization is an effective method of eliminating static charges on non-conductive materials and isolated conductors. Air ionizers generate large quantities of positive and negative ions in the surrounding atmosphere which serve as mobile carriers of charge in the air. As ions flow through the air, they are attracted to oppositely charged particles and surfaces. Neutralization of electrostatically charged surfaces can be rapidly achieved through the process. Additionally, many air cleaners and ambient air ionization units also produce ions of either positive, but more typically, negative polarity. Air ionization may be performed using electrical ionizers which generate ions in a process known as corona discharge. Electrical ionizers generate air ions through this process by intensifying an electric field around a sharp point until it overcomes the dielectric strength of the surrounding air. Negative corona occurs when electrons are flowing from the electrode into the surrounding air. Positive corona occurs as a result of the flow of electrons from the air molecules into the electrode. One important factor in ion generation is how rapidly ions can be transferred from the tip of an ionizing pin into an air stream, and ultimately to the desired workspace or target. An emitter assembly is commonly used in ion air blower which emits either or both of positive and negative polarity ions. The emitter assembly is mounted in an air flow path so that air is propelled through an air guide such as an annular ring formed by the interior walls of an ionizer housing. FIGS. 4-5 depict a prior art air ionizer blower 50 having a housing 52 and a conventional finger-guard 51 disposed over an outlet of the air ionizer blower 50. Ionizing pins or other electrodes extend generally radially inwardly from the annular ring so that their tips are positioned in the air flow to allow ions to be blown off or drawn off of the ionizing pins and out of the ion air blower 50 which houses the emitter assembly. It is common to use an air mover, such as a rotary-hub fan or axial fan or tube-axial fan, to drive or draw air through the air ionizer blower 50. One drawback of the conventional finger-guard 51, as demonstrated in FIG. 4, is that the air that is not directed in a particular direction, and therefore, loss-causing air flow patterns such as eddy currents, swirls, vortices, rotational swirls and non-linear trajectories detract from or inhibit the air flow directed toward the work space. Further, some of the air flow that is not even loss-causing, has a trajectory other than toward the work space or target. The typical air flow output of an axial fan has some velocity in the direction away from the fan (X direction, perpendicular to the face of the fan) and velocity elements in the tangential directions (Y-Z plane, parallel to the face of the unit). The net effect is for the air coming from the fan to have significant swirl. Fan swirl is well understood and modeled by computational fluid dynamics. For an application such as an ionizer (see, for example, prior art air ionizer blower 50 in FIG. 4) where the output of the axial fan is used to target a critical area, the tangential velocity components of the fan swirl are undesirable, as they lack directionality towards the work space or target area. Commercially available fan guards, such as conventional fan finger-guard 51 (FIG. 4) are comprised of elements with rounded or oval cross sections. In the case of wire form finger-guards 51, the rounded metal elements minimize resistance to air flow in any direction. Similarly, plastic finger-guards 51 do little to impact the directionality of the output air flow. In either case, this relatively isotropic resistance to the air allows flow to move away from the fan with little impact on velocity components tangential to the output direction of the ionizer. Because the air flow does not reach the work space target rapidly or thoroughly, the ions are not transported to the work space or target efficiently. Additionally, in the case of bipolar ionizers, the loss-causing air flow patterns also result in the recombination and/or cancellation of positively and negatively charged ions further detracting from the efficiencies of the system. Moreover, the optimal efficiency of the air mover or fan is also not fully realized because much of the discharged air that is not channeled never even reaches the work space or target. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide an air ionizer blower configured to redirect the air flow toward the work space or target. Further, it is desirable to configure such an air ionizer blower to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns to improve the efficiency with respect to air flow and the distance that ions are carried. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Briefly stated, the present invention comprises an air ionizer blower that includes a voltage source, an air inlet, an air outlet, an air mover, at least one electrode and a straightening vane. The air mover is configured to cause air to flow into the air inlet and out of the air outlet, thereby creating an air flow. The at least one electrode is disposed in the flow path of the air and is electrically connected to the voltage source. The at least one electrode is configured to generate either or both of positive and negative polarity ions. The straightening vane is disposed in the path of the air flow and is configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction. The straightening vane has a plurality of generally uniformly distributed apertures. Each aperture has a depth that is a function of the overall open area of the aperture. The present invention also comprises a bipolar air ionizer apparatus that includes an air inlet, an air outlet, a high voltage source, first and second electrodes, an air mover and a straightening vane. The high voltage source has a positive high voltage output and a negative high voltage output. The first electrode is electrically connected to the positive high voltage output and is configured to generate positive polarity ions. The second electrode is electrically connected to the negative high voltage output and is configured to generate negative polarity ions. The air mover causes air to flow into the bipolar air ionizer through the air inlet, around the electrodes and out of the bipolar air ionizer through the air outlet, thereby creating an air flow. The straightening vane is disposed in the path of the air flow and is configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction. The straightening vane has a plurality of generally uniformly distributed apertures. Each aperture has a depth that is a function of the overall open area of the aperture. The straightening vane is positioned over at least one of the air inlet, the air outlet and the electrodes, such that air flowing into the air inlet, air flowing out of the air outlet or air flowing past the electrodes flows through the straightening vane. The present invention further comprises a bipolar air ionizer apparatus that includes an air inlet, an air outlet, an alternating current (AC) high voltage source, an electrode, an air mover and a straightening vane. The electrode is electrically connected to the high voltage source and is configured to alternately generate positive and negative polarity ions. The air mover causes air to flow into the bipolar air ionizer through the air inlet, around the electrodes and out of the bipolar air ionizer through the air outlet, thereby creating an air flow. The straightening vane is disposed in the path of the air flow and is configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction. The straightening vane has a plurality of generally uniformly distributed apertures. Each aperture has a depth that is a function of the overall open area of the aperture. The straightening vane is positioned over at least one of the air inlet, the air outlet and the electrodes, such that air flowing into the air inlet, air flowing out of the air outlet or air flowing past the electrodes flows through the straightening vane. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing summary, as well as the following detailed description of the invention, will be better understood when read in conjunction with the appended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there are shown in the drawings embodiments which are presently preferred. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentalities shown. In the drawings: FIG. 1A is a perspective view of an air ionizer blower having a straightening vane in accordance with a first preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 1B is a partially exploded perspective view of the air ionizer blower of FIG. 1A depicting the major internal components; FIG. 2 is an enlarged perspective view of the straightening vane of FIG. 1A with a partially cross-sectioned portion; FIG. 3 is a side-perspective view of the air ionizer blower having the straightening vane of FIG. 1A and depicting a discharged air flow pattern; FIG. 4 is a side-perspective view of a prior art air ionizer blower having a conventional finger-guard and depicting a discharged air flow pattern; FIG. 5 is a perspective view of a prior art air ionizer blower having a conventional finger-guard; FIG. 6 is a schematic circuit diagram of an alternating current ionizer circuit in accordance with the preferred embodiments of the present invention; and FIG. 7 is a schematic circuit diagram of a bipolar ionizer control circuit in accordance with the preferred embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Certain terminology is used in the following description for convenience only and is not limiting. The words “right,” “left,” “lower” and “upper” designate directions in the drawings to which reference is made. The words “inwardly” and “outwardly” refer to directions toward and away from, respectively, the geometric center of the element or device described and designated parts thereof. The terminology includes the words above specifically mentioned, derivatives thereof and words of similar import. Additionally, the word “a,” as used in the claims and in the corresponding portions of the specification, means “one” or “at least one.” Referring to the drawings in detail, wherein like numerals represent like elements throughout, there is shown in FIGS. 1A-1B, 2-3 and 6-7, an air ionizer blower 20 having a straightening vane 30 in accordance with a first preferred embodiment of the present invention. The air ionizer blower 20 includes a voltage source 110, an air inlet 23, an air outlet 25, an air mover 26, at least one electrode 114 and the straightening vane 30. The straightening vane 30 may be formed of an electrically conductive or non-conductive material. The straightening vane 30 may also be electrically coupled to the voltage source 110 to provide feedback control of the voltage source 110. The air mover 26 is configured to cause air to flow into the air inlet 23 and out of the air outlet 25, thereby creating an air flow. The air mover 26 may be a fan 26 such as a rotary-hub fan or axial fan or tube-axial fan (FIG. 1B). Of course, any air mover 26 can be utilized including blowers, squirrel-cage fans, sources of compressed gas, and the like, without departing from the present invention. The at least one electrode 114 is disposed in the flow path of the air and is electrically connected to the voltage source 110 (FIG. 6). The at least one electrode 114 is configured to generate either or both of positive (+) and negative (−) polarity ions. Preferably, there are a plurality of electrodes 114 disposed in the air ionizer blower 20 (FIG. 1B), such as ionizer pins 114 that extend radially outward from the hub of the fan 26 or radially inward toward the hub of the fan 26. Other electrodes 114 such as wires, pins, tubes and the like may be equally utilized without departing from the present invention. The electrodes 114 may be configured in other orientations upstream or downstream of the fan 26 without departing from the present invention. The voltage source 110 includes an alternating current (AC) high voltage power supply 112 and a control circuit 90. Preferably, the AC power supply 112 is supplied with electrical power conditioned at between about seventy (70 V) and about two hundred forty (240 V) volts AC at between about fifty (50 Hz) and about sixty (60 Hz) hertz. The AC power supply 112 of the voltage source 110 can include electrical power conditioning components such as a transformer, capable of stepping up the voltage to between about five thousand (5 KV) and ten thousand (10 KV) volts AC at between about fifty (50 Hz) and about sixty (60 Hz) hertz. The AC power supply 112 of the voltage source 110 can include electrical power conditioning components such as a rectifier that includes a diode and capacitor arrangement, capable of increasing the voltage to between about five thousand (5 KV) and ten thousand (10 KV) volts DC of either or both of positive and negative polarities. The control circuit 90 is configured to drive the AC power supply 112 based on feedback from either a sensor 120 or from the straightening vane 30. The sensor 120 detects the level of ions in the discharged air flow. The control circuit 90, implemented as a feedback circuit, is preferably used to automatically adjust the power transmitted to the electrodes 114 to adjust the level of ions contained in the air being ejected from the ion air blower. The control circuit 90 may include other components, such as integrated circuits (ICs), controllers, amplifiers and the like, for accepting feedback control and/or operator adjustments. When the straightening vane 30 is formed of a conductive material and used as the feedback sensor, an additional feedback or bias circuit 122 may be provided which includes a biasing component, such as a capacitor or resistor coupled to ground, or a capacitor, resistor, an amplifier or voltage source coupled between the straightening vane 30 and the control circuit 90. In another embodiment shown in FIG. 7, a voltage source 210 may be used which is supplied with electrical power conditioned at about twenty-four (24 V) volts DC. The voltage source 210 includes either or both of a positive high voltage power supply 212 and a negative high voltage power supply 216. The voltage source 210 may include a free standing oscillator which is used as an AC source to drive a transformer whose output is rectified, capable of conditioning the voltage to between about five thousand (5 KV) and ten thousand (10 KV) volts DC of both positive and negative polarities. In any of the embodiments, the sensor 120 may provide feedback to the voltage source 210 to control the output of the power supplies 212, 216. The control circuit 190 is configured to drive the positive and negative high voltage power supplies 212, 216 based on feedback from either the sensor 120 or from the straightening vane 30. The control circuit 190 may include components, such as integrated circuits (ICs), controllers, amplifiers and the like, for accepting feedback control and/or operator adjustments. When the straightening vane 30 is formed of a conductive material and used as the feedback sensor, an additional feedback or bias circuit 122 may be provided which includes a biasing component, such as a capacitor or resistor coupled to ground, or a capacitor, resistor, an amplifier or voltage source coupled between the straightening vane 30 and the control circuit 190. The specifics of the particular voltage source 110, 210 used with the air ionizer blower 20 is not critical to the present invention and, accordingly, is not further detailed herein. The straightening vane 30 is disposed in the path of the air flow and is configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the undesirable loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction. The straightening vane 30 is positioned over at least one of the air inlet 23, the air outlet 25 and the at least one electrode 114, such that air flowing into the air inlet 23, air flowing out of the air outlet 25 or air flowing past the at least one electrode 114 flows through the straightening vane 30. The straightening vane 30 has a plurality of generally uniformly distributed apertures 32. Each aperture 32 has a height H, a width W and a depth D (FIG. 2). The depth D of each aperture 32 is preferably greater than 2 millimeters (mm) in order to provide sufficient redirection of the air flow. Preferably, each aperture 32 has a depth D that is a function of the overall open area of the aperture 32. For example, the depth D of each aperture 32 may be calculated as being at least one-half (½) times the square root of the open area of the aperture 32. For example, in one design, a square-shaped aperture 32 having a height H of 0.5 inches (12.7 mm) and a width W of 0.5 inches (12.7 mm), a depth D of greater than 0.25 inches (˜6.35 mm) was deemed to improve performance. The area for a square is height times width, or in this case Area=H×W=0.5*0.5=0.25. The square root of 0.25 is 0.5, and one-half ( 1/2) times 0.5 is 0.25. Of course, other calculable relationships which similarly tie the open area or the length of the perimeter of the aperture 32 to the depth D may be utilized without departing from the invention. Likewise, other calculable relationships which tie the solid area of the straightening vane to the depth D of each aperture 32 may also be utilized without departing from the invention. While depicted as square-shaped and triangular-shaped apertures 32 (FIG. 2), apertures 32 having shapes such as hexagonal (honeycomb), rectangular, circular, polygonal or other repetitive geometries can be employed in the construction of the volume resistive element or straightening vane 30 without departing from the present invention. The apertures 32 of the straightening vane 30 may be aligned in a grid or a honeycomb. Preferably, the apertures 32 of the straightening vane 30 are aligned in a symmetrical pattern with respect to the overall shape of the straightening vane 30. By introducing a volume resistive element, namely the straightening vane 30, to the air flow, the unwanted tangential components of the output of the fan 26 can be successfully redirected. The straightening vane 30 is designed to be resistive to air with velocity components in the direction tangential (Y-Z plane) to the desired output directionality for the ionizer (X direction). At the same time, the straightening vane is designed to have minimal cross section in the desired air flow direction (X direction), minimizing the resistance to air moving in this direction. Preferably, the open face of the straightening vane 30 (i.e., with the apertures 32) is aligned in the direction of the desired air flow. The depth D of the apertures 32 is selected to offer resistance to flow in the tangential directions. The construction of the straightening vane 30 can be optimized for a particular application to eliminate or manage tangential air flow to a desired level. The following parameters should be considered when designing a straightening vane 30 for an air ionizer blower 20: (i) the wall thickness TW between apertures 32 should be minimized to minimize air flow resistance in the desired direction; (ii) the overall wall area AW perpendicular to the desired air flow direction should be minimized; (iii) increasing the depth D of the apertures 32 increases added resistance to the air moving in directions tangential to the desired direction; (iv) the depth D of the apertures 32 can be adjusted to maintain an intermediate level of tangential velocity in the air; (v) the depth D of the apertures 32 can be increased to a point where no addition effect of the output air directionality is yielded; (vi) increasing the number of apertures 32 per unit area of the straightening vane 30 increases the resistance to the air moving in the tangential direction; and (vii) increasing the number of apertures 32 per unit area of the straightening vane 30 increases the resistance to the air moving in the desired direction by virtue of increased overall wall area AW. Apertures 32 having other irregular geometries (e.g., symmetrical, non-geometrical or asymmetrical shapes) may achieve the same effect of offering resistance to the air flow in the tangential directions while letting air in the perpendicular direction flow freely and of attenuating undesirable loss-causing air flow patterns. A bipolar air ionizer apparatus 20, in accordance with a second preferred embodiment of the present invention, includes the air inlet 23, the air outlet 25, the high voltage source 210, first and second electrodes 214, 218, the air mover 26 and a straightening vane 30. The first electrode 214 is electrically connected to the positive high voltage output or power supply 212 and is configured to generate positive polarity ions. The second electrode 218 is electrically connected to the negative high voltage output or power supply 216 and is configured to generate negative polarity ions. The air mover 26 causes air to flow into the bipolar air ionizer 20 through the air inlet 23, around the electrodes 214, 218 and out of the bipolar air ionizer through the air outlet 25, thereby creating an air flow. The straightening vane 30 is disposed in the path of the air flow and is configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction. The straightening vane 30 has a plurality of generally uniformly distributed apertures 32. Each aperture 32 has a depth D that is a function of the overall open area of the aperture 32. The straightening vane 30 is positioned over at least one of the air inlet 23, the air outlet 25 and the electrodes 214, 218, such that air flowing into the air inlet 23, air flowing out of the air outlet 25 or air flowing past the electrodes 214, 218 flows through the straightening vane 30. A bipolar air ionizer apparatus 20, in accordance with a third preferred embodiment of the present invention, includes the air inlet 23, an air outlet 25, the alternating current (AC) high voltage source 110, the electrode 114, the air mover 26 and the straightening vane 30. The electrode 114 is electrically connected to the AC power supply 112 of the high voltage source 110 and is configured to alternately generate positive and negative polarity ions. The air mover 26 causes air to flow into the bipolar air ionizer 20 through the air inlet 23, around the electrodes 114 and out of the bipolar air ionizer 20 through the air outlet 25, thereby creating an air flow. Otherwise, the bipolar air ionizer apparatus 20 in accordance with the third preferred embodiment of the present invention operates similar to the second preferred embodiment of the present invention. Concentric rings or concentric tubes or other shapes may concentrate output air into a column, similar to the straightening vane 30, and therefore, may be contemplated in alternate embodiments of the present invention. But, such designs are not as ideal for providing uniform resistance to air flow in the tangential directions (Y-Z) across their areas. The present invention can be utilized equally well with either bipolar or monopolar air ionizer blowers 20. Furthermore, while depicted herein as being associated with a bench-top unit, the size and shape of the air ionizer blower 20 need not be limited to bench-top devices. Even further, the present invention can be utilized with other ion generators such as alpha sources, x-ray photo-ionizer and the like. Test data from experiments comparing the prior art air ionizer blower 50 (FIG. 4) with one of the air ionizer blowers 20 (FIG. 3) in accordance with the present invention demonstrates that for a given distance, charge decay times were halved by utilizing the straightening vane 30. Further, the air ionizer blower 20 having the straightening vane 30 demonstrated the ability to reach farther distances with ionized air flow, as compared to the prior art air ionizer blower 50 with only a finger-guard 51. Furthermore, experiments with the air ionizer blower 20 having the straightening vane 30 demonstrated a measurable improvement in uniform ion balance and uniform distribution of charge decay times surrounding the area generally in-line with the axis of rotation of the fan, as compared to the prior art air ionizer blower 50 with only a finger-guard 51. From the foregoing it can be seen that the present invention comprises air ionizer blower having a straightening vane that is configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that changes could be made to the embodiments described above without departing from the broad inventive concept thereof. It is understood, therefore, that this invention is not limited to the particular embodiments disclosed, but it is intended to cover modifications within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to air ion generators and, more specifically, to an apparatus and method for improving uniformity and charge decay time performance of an air ionizer blower by redirecting discharged air flow patterns being discharged therefrom. In many manufacturing and processing environments, it is desirable to prevent the accumulation of charge within a workspace. To prevent the accumulation of charge both positive and negative ions are guided into the workspace to neutralize any charge which may be building up. One example of an industry in which the accumulation of charge in production areas must be avoided is the disk drive industry where it is critical to maintain high manufacturing yields. Air ionization is an effective method of eliminating static charges on non-conductive materials and isolated conductors. Air ionizers generate large quantities of positive and negative ions in the surrounding atmosphere which serve as mobile carriers of charge in the air. As ions flow through the air, they are attracted to oppositely charged particles and surfaces. Neutralization of electrostatically charged surfaces can be rapidly achieved through the process. Additionally, many air cleaners and ambient air ionization units also produce ions of either positive, but more typically, negative polarity. Air ionization may be performed using electrical ionizers which generate ions in a process known as corona discharge. Electrical ionizers generate air ions through this process by intensifying an electric field around a sharp point until it overcomes the dielectric strength of the surrounding air. Negative corona occurs when electrons are flowing from the electrode into the surrounding air. Positive corona occurs as a result of the flow of electrons from the air molecules into the electrode. One important factor in ion generation is how rapidly ions can be transferred from the tip of an ionizing pin into an air stream, and ultimately to the desired workspace or target. An emitter assembly is commonly used in ion air blower which emits either or both of positive and negative polarity ions. The emitter assembly is mounted in an air flow path so that air is propelled through an air guide such as an annular ring formed by the interior walls of an ionizer housing. FIGS. 4-5 depict a prior art air ionizer blower 50 having a housing 52 and a conventional finger-guard 51 disposed over an outlet of the air ionizer blower 50 . Ionizing pins or other electrodes extend generally radially inwardly from the annular ring so that their tips are positioned in the air flow to allow ions to be blown off or drawn off of the ionizing pins and out of the ion air blower 50 which houses the emitter assembly. It is common to use an air mover, such as a rotary-hub fan or axial fan or tube-axial fan, to drive or draw air through the air ionizer blower 50 . One drawback of the conventional finger-guard 51 , as demonstrated in FIG. 4 , is that the air that is not directed in a particular direction, and therefore, loss-causing air flow patterns such as eddy currents, swirls, vortices, rotational swirls and non-linear trajectories detract from or inhibit the air flow directed toward the work space. Further, some of the air flow that is not even loss-causing, has a trajectory other than toward the work space or target. The typical air flow output of an axial fan has some velocity in the direction away from the fan (X direction, perpendicular to the face of the fan) and velocity elements in the tangential directions (Y-Z plane, parallel to the face of the unit). The net effect is for the air coming from the fan to have significant swirl. Fan swirl is well understood and modeled by computational fluid dynamics. For an application such as an ionizer (see, for example, prior art air ionizer blower 50 in FIG. 4 ) where the output of the axial fan is used to target a critical area, the tangential velocity components of the fan swirl are undesirable, as they lack directionality towards the work space or target area. Commercially available fan guards, such as conventional fan finger-guard 51 ( FIG. 4 ) are comprised of elements with rounded or oval cross sections. In the case of wire form finger-guards 51 , the rounded metal elements minimize resistance to air flow in any direction. Similarly, plastic finger-guards 51 do little to impact the directionality of the output air flow. In either case, this relatively isotropic resistance to the air allows flow to move away from the fan with little impact on velocity components tangential to the output direction of the ionizer. Because the air flow does not reach the work space target rapidly or thoroughly, the ions are not transported to the work space or target efficiently. Additionally, in the case of bipolar ionizers, the loss-causing air flow patterns also result in the recombination and/or cancellation of positively and negatively charged ions further detracting from the efficiencies of the system. Moreover, the optimal efficiency of the air mover or fan is also not fully realized because much of the discharged air that is not channeled never even reaches the work space or target. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide an air ionizer blower configured to redirect the air flow toward the work space or target. Further, it is desirable to configure such an air ionizer blower to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns to improve the efficiency with respect to air flow and the distance that ions are carried. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Briefly stated, the present invention comprises an air ionizer blower that includes a voltage source, an air inlet, an air outlet, an air mover, at least one electrode and a straightening vane. The air mover is configured to cause air to flow into the air inlet and out of the air outlet, thereby creating an air flow. The at least one electrode is disposed in the flow path of the air and is electrically connected to the voltage source. The at least one electrode is configured to generate either or both of positive and negative polarity ions. The straightening vane is disposed in the path of the air flow and is configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction. The straightening vane has a plurality of generally uniformly distributed apertures. Each aperture has a depth that is a function of the overall open area of the aperture. The present invention also comprises a bipolar air ionizer apparatus that includes an air inlet, an air outlet, a high voltage source, first and second electrodes, an air mover and a straightening vane. The high voltage source has a positive high voltage output and a negative high voltage output. The first electrode is electrically connected to the positive high voltage output and is configured to generate positive polarity ions. The second electrode is electrically connected to the negative high voltage output and is configured to generate negative polarity ions. The air mover causes air to flow into the bipolar air ionizer through the air inlet, around the electrodes and out of the bipolar air ionizer through the air outlet, thereby creating an air flow. The straightening vane is disposed in the path of the air flow and is configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction. The straightening vane has a plurality of generally uniformly distributed apertures. Each aperture has a depth that is a function of the overall open area of the aperture. The straightening vane is positioned over at least one of the air inlet, the air outlet and the electrodes, such that air flowing into the air inlet, air flowing out of the air outlet or air flowing past the electrodes flows through the straightening vane. The present invention further comprises a bipolar air ionizer apparatus that includes an air inlet, an air outlet, an alternating current (AC) high voltage source, an electrode, an air mover and a straightening vane. The electrode is electrically connected to the high voltage source and is configured to alternately generate positive and negative polarity ions. The air mover causes air to flow into the bipolar air ionizer through the air inlet, around the electrodes and out of the bipolar air ionizer through the air outlet, thereby creating an air flow. The straightening vane is disposed in the path of the air flow and is configured to attenuate loss-causing air flow patterns in the air flow by redirecting the loss-causing air flow toward a single output direction and to redirect portions of the air flow having a trajectory other than that of the single output direction toward the single output direction. The straightening vane has a plurality of generally uniformly distributed apertures. Each aperture has a depth that is a function of the overall open area of the aperture. The straightening vane is positioned over at least one of the air inlet, the air outlet and the electrodes, such that air flowing into the air inlet, air flowing out of the air outlet or air flowing past the electrodes flows through the straightening vane. | 20040603 | 20060530 | 20051208 | 67319.0 | 1 | DEMAKIS, JAMES A | APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR IMPROVING UNIFORMITY AND CHARGE DECAY TIME PERFORMANCE OF AN AIR IONIZER BLOWER | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,860,435 | ACCEPTED | Semiconductor high-voltage devices | A semiconductor high-voltage device comprising a voltage sustaining layer between a n+-region and a p+-region is provided, which is a uniformly doped n(or p)-layer containing a plurality of floating p (or n)-islands. The effect of the floating islands is to absorb a large part of the electric flux when the layer is fully depleted under high reverse bias voltage so as to the peak field is not increased when the doping concentration of voltage sustaining layer is increased. Therefore, the thickness and the specific on-resistance of the voltage sustaining layer for a given breakdown voltage can be much lower than those of a conventional voltage sustaining layer with the same breakdown voltage. By using the voltage sustaining layer of this invention, various high voltage devices can be made with better relation between specific on-resistance and breakdown voltage. | 1-19. (canceled) 20. A semiconductor device comprising: a substrate of a first conductivity type; a first region of a second conductivity type; a voltage sustaining layer of the first conductivity type located between the substrate and the first region; and an embedded region of the second conductivity type located between the substrate and the first region, the embedded region being entirely embedded within the voltage sustaining layer and spaced apart from the substrate and the first region by an approximate equal distance. 21-28. (Canceled) 29. The semiconductor device according to claim 20 further comprising: a second embedded region of the second conductivity type located between the substrate and the first region, the second embedded region being entirely embedded within the voltage sustaining layer and spaced apart from the substrate and the first region by an approximate equal distance and spaced apart from the other embedded region of the second conductivity type. 30. A semiconductor power device comprising: a substrate of a first conductivity type; a first region of a second conductivity type; a voltage sustaining layer of the first conductivity type located between the substrate and the first region, the voltage sustaining layer having a width, W; and a plurality of m regions of the second conductivity type located in alignment within the voltage sustaining layer between the substrate and the first region, and a first member of the plurality of m embedded regions being centered on a plane spaced apart from the substrate by an approximate distance of W/n, and a second member being centered on a second plane spaced apart from the first region by an approximate distance of W/n, and wherein m and n are positive integers. 31. The semiconductor device according to claim 30 further comprising: a second plurality of P regions of the second conductivity type located within the voltage sustaining layer between the substrate and the first region and in parallel alignment with the plurality of m regions, and a first member of the plurality of p regions being centered on a third planed spaced apart from the substrate by an approximate distance of 2W/n and a second member of the plurality of P regions being spaced apart from the first region by an approximate distance of W/n and wherein P is a positive integer and is less than m. 32. The semiconductor power device according to claim 30 wherein the semiconductor is a diode and the substrate is a cathode and the first region is an anode. 33. The semiconductor according to claim 30 wherein the semiconductor device is a VDMOST and the substrate is a drain and the first region further includes a source region. 34. The semiconductor device according to claim 30 wherein the first member and the second member are between the substrate and the first region. 35. The semiconductor device according to claim 34 further including a third region also spaced apart from the substrate and also spaced apart from the first and second members. 36. The semiconductor device according to claim 35 wherein the first member and third member are in parallel alignment with the substrate and spaced apart by a predetermined distance and the second member is non aligned with the first member and the substrate. 37. The semiconductor power device according to claim 30 further including a third member of the plurality of embedded regions also spaced apart from the first region by an approximate distance of W/n and spaced apart from the first and second members. 38. The semiconductor power device according to claim 37 wherein the third member and second member being in parallel alignment with each other and the first region, and spaced apart by a predetermined distance, and the first member being in perpendicular alignment with the first region and substrate. 39. A semiconductor power device comprising: a first layer of a first conductivity type of a first concentration; a second layer of the first conductivity type of a second concentration located on top of the first layer; a first region of a second conductivity type located on a top surface of the second layer and extending into the second layer towards the first layer to a predetermined dept; a voltage sustaining layer of the first conductivity type located between the first layer and a boundary between the second layer and the first region at the predetermined depth; and an embedded region of the second conductivity type embedded within the voltage sustaining layer and spaced apart from the first layer and the boundary by an approximate equal distance. 40. The semiconductor device according to claim 39 further comprising: a second region of the second conductivity type located on a top surface of the second layer and extending into the second layer towards the first layer to the predetermined dept, the first region and the second region being spaced apart from each other; and a channel region located between the first region and the second region. 41. The semiconductor device according to claim 40 wherein the embedded region is in alignment between the channel region and the first layer. 42. The semiconductor device according to claim 39 further comprising: a second embedded region of the second conductivity type embedded within the voltage sustaining layer and spaced apart from the embedded region and spaced apart from the first layer and the boundary. 43. The semiconductor device according to claim 42 further comprising: a second region of the second conductivity type located on a top surface of the second layer and extending into the second layer towards the first layer to the predetermined dept, the first region and the second region being spaced apart from each other; and a channel region located between the first region and the second region. 44. The semiconductor device according to claim 42 wherein the embedded region is in alignment between the first region and the first layer and the second embedded region is in alignment between the second region and the first layer. 45. A semiconductor device comprising: a first layer of a first conductivity type of a first concentration; a second layer of the first conductivity type of a second concentration located on top of the first layer; a first region of a second conductivity type located on a top surface of the second layer and extending into the second layer towards the first layer to a predetermined dept; a voltage sustaining layer of the first conductivity type located between the first layer and a boundary between the second layer and the first region at the predetermined depth, the voltage sustaining layer having a width, W; and a plurality of m embedded regions of the second conductivity type located between the first layer and the first region, the plurality of m embedded regions being entirely embedded within the voltage sustaining layer and a first member of the plurality of m third embedded regions being spaced apart from the first layer by an approximate distance of W/n and a second member being spaced apart from the boundary by the approximate distance of W/n, and wherein m and n are positive integers. 46. The semiconductor device according to claim 45 further comprising: a second region of the second conductivity type located on a top surface of the second layer and extending into the second layer towards the first layer to the predetermined dept, the first region and the second region being spaced apart from each other; and a channel region located between the first region and the second region. 47. The semiconductor device according to claim 46 wherein the first member of the plurality of m embedded regions being in alignment with the first region and the first layer and the second member of the plurality of m embedded regions being in alignment with the second region and the first layer. 48. The semiconductor device according to claim 46 further comprising: the first member of the plurality of m embedded regions being in vertical alignment with the first region and the first layer; the second member of the plurality of m embedded regions being in vertical alignment with the channel and the first layer; and a third member of the plurality of m embedded regions being spaced apart from the first layer by approximate distance of W/n and in vertical alignment with the second region and the first layer. 49. A method of manufacturing a semiconductor device comprising the steps of: preparing a semiconductor wafer with a substrate of a first conductivity type; forming a first epitaxial layer of the first conductivity type on the substrate, the epitaxial layer having a first thickness; growing an oxide layer on the first epitaxial layer; masking the oxide layer; ion implanting to create at least one embedded island of dopant of the second conductivity type in the first epitaxial layer; removing the oxide layer; forming a final epitaxial layer of the first conductivity type on the first epitaxial layer, the second epitaxial layer having the first thickness plus a thickness equal to the depth of the embedded islands of the second conductivity type; growing an oxide layer on the second epitaxial layer; masking the oxide layer; and ion implanting to create at least a single embedded region of the second conductivity type extending into the second epitaxial layer. 50. A method of manufacturing a semiconductor device comprising the steps of: preparing a semiconductor wafer with a substrate of a first conductivity type; forming a first epitaxial layer of the first conductivity type on the substrate, the epitaxial layer having a first thickness; growing an oxide layer on the first epitaxial layer; masking the oxide layer; ion implanting to create at least one embedded island of dopant of the second conductivity type in the first epitaxial layer; removing the oxide layer; forming a second epitaxial layer of the first conductivity type on the first epitaxial layer, the second epitaxial layer having the first thickness plus a thickness equal to the depth of the body region of a VDMOS FET; growing an oxide layer on the second epitaxial layer; masking the oxide layer; and ion implanting to create at least one embedded region of the second conductivity type extending into the second epitaxial layer. 51. A method of manufacturing a semiconductor device comprising the steps of: preparing a semiconductor wafer with a substrate of a first conductivity type having a buffer layer of the first conductivity type; forming a first epitaxial layer of the first conductivity type on the substrate, the epitaxial layer having a first thickness; growing an oxide layer on the first epitaxial layer; masking the oxide layer; ion implanting to create at least one embedded island of dopant of the second conductivity type in the first epitaxial layer; removing the oxide layer; forming a second epitaxial layer of the first conductivity type on the first epitaxial layer, the second epitaxial layer having the first thickness plus a thickness equal to the depth of the body region of an IGBT; growing an oxide layer on the second epitaxial layer; masking the oxide layer; and ion implanting to create embedded at least one embedded region of the second conductivity type extending into the second epitaxial layer. | FIELD OF INVENTION This invention relates to semiconductor high voltage devices, and specifically to semiconductor high voltage devices with voltage sustaining layer containing floating regions. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION It is well-known that in many semiconductor devices, such as VD-MOST and SIT, a high sustaining voltage always accompanies a high specific on-resistance. This is due to the fact that, for a high sustaining voltage, thickness of a voltage sustaining layer should be large and doping concentration of the voltage sustaining layer should be low, so as the peak field does not exceed the critical field for breakdown −EC, which is normally expressed by EC=8.2×105×VB−0.2 V/cm for silicon, where VB is the breakdown voltage of the voltage sustaining layer. In a uniformly doped n-type voltage sustaining layer between p+-region and n+-region, in order to obtain a minimum specific on-resistance at a given breakdown voltage, a doping concentration ND and a thickness W of the voltage sustaining layer are optimized such that a maximum field is at p+-n-junction and its value is equal to EC, a minimum field is at n+-n-junction and equal to EC/3. For silicon device, ND=1.9×1018×VB−1.4cm−3 (1) W=1.8×10−2×VB−1.2 μm−2 (2) (see, e.g., P. Rossel, Microelectron. Reliab., vol. 24, No. 2, pp 339-336, 1984). In a VDMOST shown in FIG. 1A, a field profile in the voltage sustaining layer at VB is shown in FIG. 1B, where a slope of the field versus distance is qND/Es, Es is the permittivity of the semiconductor and q is the electron charge. The change of field through the n-region is qND/Es, 2EC/3. The relation between Ron and VB of a n-type voltage sustaining layer is then expressed by Ron=W/qμμnND=0.83×10−8×VB2.5Ω.cm2 (3) where μm is the mobility of the electron and μn=710×VB0.1 cm/V.sec is used for silicon. In order to get even lower Ron at a given VB, some research have been done to optimize the doping profile instead of using a uniform doping, see: [1] C. Hu, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-2, No. 3, p243 (1979); [2] V. A. K. Temple et al., IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-27, No. 2, p243 91980); [3] X. B. Chen, C.Hu, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-27, No. 6, p985-987 (1982). However, the results show no significant improvement. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The purpose of this invention is to provide a semiconductor high voltage device having a new voltage sustaining layer with better relationship between Ron and VB. To achieve the above purpose, a semiconductor high voltage devices is provided, which comprises a substrate of a first conductivity type, at least one region of a second conductivity type, and a voltage sustaining layer of the first conductivity type having plurality of discrete floating (emberdded) islands of a second conductivity between said substrate and said region of second conductivity type. According to this invention, and n (or p) type voltage sustaining layer is divided by (n−1) planes into n sub-layers with equal thickness, p (or n) type discrete floating islands are introduced with their geometrical centers on such planes. The average does NT of the floating islands in each plane is about 2esEc/3q. For silicon, NT=2EsEc/3q=3.53.1012VB−0.2cm−2 (4) With such a floating island, the field is reduced by an amount about 2EC/3 from a maximum value EC at a side of the floating island to a minimum value EC/3 at another side of the floating island so far as the floating island is fully depleted. Each sub-layer is designed to sustain a voltage of VB1=VB/n, and to have a thickness and doping concentration which are almost the same as those form formulas (1) and (2) with VB is replaced by VB1, so that when a reverse voltage which is about the breakdown voltage VB is applied over the whole voltage sustaining layer, the maximum field is EC and the minimum field is EC/3, where the locations of the maximum field are not only at the p+−n (or n+−p) junction, but also at the points of each p (or n) island nearest to the n+−n (or p+−p) junction; the locations of the minimum field are not only at the n+−n (or p+−p) junction, but also at the points of each p (or n) islands nearest to the p+−n (or n+−p) junction. An example of the structure of a VDMOST using a voltage sustaining layer of this invention with n=2 is shown in FIG. 3A and the field profile under a reverse voltage of VB is shown in FIG. 3B. Apparently, in such a condition, VB=2WEC/3, where W is the total thickness of the voltage sustaining layer. It is easy to prove that the above structured voltage sustaining layer including a plurality of floating regions if full depleted under a reverse bias voltage about VB/2. The flux due to the charges of the ionized donors (or acceptors) under the p (or n) islands are almost totally terminated by the charges of the p (or n) islands. The maximum field is then 2EC/3 and the minimum field is zero, the locations of the maximum field are the same as those under a reverse bias voltage of VB. Apparently, the p (or n) islands make the field not to be accumulated throughout the whole voltage sustaining layer. For a given value of breakdown voltage VB, the doping concentration ND can be higher than that in a conventional voltage sustaining layer and the specific on-resistance is much lower than that in a conventional voltage sustaining layer. Supposed that there are n sub-layers in a voltage sustaining layer. Then, each sub-layer can sustain a voltage of VB/n, where VB is the breakdown voltage of the total voltage sustaining layer. Obviously, instead of (3), the relation of Ron and VB of this invention is R on = n × 0.83 × 10 - 8 ( V B / n ) 2.5 Ω . cm 2 = 0.83 × 10 - 8 V B 2.5 / n 1.5 Ω . cm 2 ( 5 ) Compared to formula (3), it can been seen that the on-resistance of a voltage sustaining layer having n sub-layers is much lower than that of a conventional one. The inventor has experimented and obtained remarkable results, which show that the on-resistance of a semiconductor device using a voltage sustaining layer with n=2 of this invention is at least lower than ½ of that of a conventional one with the same breakdown voltage, although the real value of Ron of a voltage sustaining layer having floating islands is a little higher than the value calculated from expression (5) when n<3, due to the effect that the current path is narrowed by the p-type floating islands. Besides, for minimizing Ron, the optimum value of NT is slightly different with the expression (4), due to that the negative charges of p-type floating islands are concentrated in the p-regions instead of being uniformly distributed on a plane, whereas these negative charges are used to absorb the flux of ionized donors below that plane. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is the schematic diagram of the VDMOST of prior art, where FIG. 1A shows the structure and FIG. 1B shows the field profile. FIG. 2 shows a voltage sustaining layer structure of this invention, where FIG. 2A shows a voltage sustaining layer structure with islands in one plane. FIGS. 2B and 2C show the structures of the voltage sustaining layer with the floating islands in two planes. FIG. 3 shows the structure and the field profile of a VDMOST with the voltage sustaining layer of this invention. In FIG. 3A, the voltage sustaining layer of FIG. 2A is used. The field profile of this structure under a reverse voltage of VB is shown in FIG. 3B. In FIG. 3C, a voltage sustaining layer of FIG. 2C is used. FIG. 4 shows the structure of an IGBT with a voltage sustaining layer of this invention. In FIG. 4A, a voltage sustaining layer of FIG. 2A is used. In FIG. 4B, a voltage sustaining layer of FIG. 2C is used. FIG. 5 shows a structure of a RMOST with the voltage sustaining layer of this invention shown in FIG. 2A. FIG. 6 shows a structure of a bipolar junction transistor with the voltage sustaining layer of this invention shown in FIG. 2A. FIG. 7 shows a structure of a SIT with the voltage sustaining layer of this invention shown in FIG. 2A. All the structures schematically shown in the figures are cross-sectional view. In FIGS. 3-7, the same numeral designates similar part of a high voltage semiconductor device, where, 1 designates p (or n) island in the voltage sustaining layer; 3 designates n+ (or p+) substrate; 4 designates p (or n) source body; 5 designates n+ (or p+) source; 6 designates p+(or n+) substrate; 7 designates n (or p) buffer layer; 8 designates p+ (or n+) outer base of BJT; 9 designates p+ (or n+) grid of SIT; and shaded regions designate oxide regions. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 2 shows several structures of a voltage sustaining layer according to the invention. In FIG. 2A, a voltage sustaining layer with p (or n) islands in a plane is shown (i.e., n=2, two sub-layers). In FIG. 2B, a voltage sustaining layer with p (or n) islands disposed in two planes is shown (i.e., n=3, three sub-layers), where each island in the upper plane is vertically arranged over a corresponding island in the lower plane. FIG. 2C shows another voltage sustaining layer with two planes of p (or n) islands (n=3), wherein each of islands in the upper plane is vertically arranged in the middle of two neighboring islands in the lower plane. The horizontal layout of the voltage sustaining layer than be either interdigitated (finger), or hexagonal (cell), or rectangular (cell). In all the figures of schematic cross-sectional view of the structures, only one or two units (fingers or cells) of the voltage sustaining layer are shown. The voltage sustaining layer of this invention can be used in many high voltage devices. 1) High Voltage Diode This can be simply realized by forming two electrodes on the p+-region and the n+-region in any of structures shown in FIG. 2. 2) High Voltage (or Power) VDMOST FIG. 3A shows a structure of a VDMOST using the voltage sustaining layer with a plurality of floating islands disposed in one plane, i.e. n=2. FIG. 3B shows the field profile along a line through a center of an islands in the voltage sustaining layer and perpendicular to said planes in FIG. 3A. FIG. 3C shows a structure of a VDMOST using a voltage sustaining layer with islands in two planes, i.e. n=3. The turn-off process of a resultant device is almost as fast as a conventional VDMOST. The turn-on process is like the turn-off process of a conventional IGBT, which consists of a fast stage and a long tail. The long tail is due to that the p (or n) islands needs to be charged. 3) High Voltage (or Power) IGBT FIG. 4A shows a structure of an IGBT using a voltage sustaining layer with n=2. FIG. 4B shows a structure of an IGBT using a voltage sustaining layer with n=3. In order to improve the turn-on process of a VDMOST with the voltage sustaining layer of this invention, only a few amount of minorities is needed to charge the islands in the voltage sustaining layer. This can be done by using a IGBT structure with a ver low injection by the inventor that an injection ratio of less than 0.1 is enough to make the turn-on process to be almost as fast as the turn-off process and results no long tail. The low injection ratio makes the device operate dominantly by the majority carriers. 4) High Voltage (or Power) RMOST FIG. 5 shows a structure of an RMOST using a voltage sustaining layer of this invention, where n=2. 5) High Voltage (or Power) BJT FIG. 6 shows a structure of a bipolar junction transistor using a voltage sustaining layer of this invention, where n=2. 6) High Voltage (or Power)SIT FIG. 7 shows a structure of a static induction transistor using a voltage sustaining layer of this invention, where n=2. The design references of a voltage sustaining layer of this invention may be calculated according to above formulas for calculating EC and the average does of the islands in a plane. For example, at first, a value of a desirable breakdown voltage VB is determined, and the value of EC is calculated from the determined EC. Then, from the technology achievable number of sub-layers n, the lateral size of a unit and the width of the islands in a plane, the number of impurity atoms in each island is calculated. The calculated values can be used as the reference values for simulation in CAD is more accurate values are needed. An example of process for making a vertical n-IGBT using the voltage sustaining layer of this invention is stated briefly as follows: First step: preparing a wafer of a p+-substrate having an n+-buffer on it. Second step: forming a n-epilayer on said wafer; Third step: growing a thin oxide layer on the epilayer and forming openings by photo-lithograph; Fourth step: implanting boron through the openings for making p-islands and then removing the oxide layer; Fifth step: repeat (n−1) times of second step to fourth step. The following steps are all the same as fabricating a conventional IGBT. Although the invention has been described and illustrated with reference to specific embodiments thereof, it is not intended that the invention be limited to these illustrative embodiments. Those skilled in the art will recognized that modifications and variations can be made without departing from the spirit of the invention. Therefore, it is intended that this invention encompass all such variations and modifications as fall within the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is well-known that in many semiconductor devices, such as VD-MOST and SIT, a high sustaining voltage always accompanies a high specific on-resistance. This is due to the fact that, for a high sustaining voltage, thickness of a voltage sustaining layer should be large and doping concentration of the voltage sustaining layer should be low, so as the peak field does not exceed the critical field for breakdown −E C , which is normally expressed by E C =8.2×10 5 ×V B −0.2 V/cm for silicon, where V B is the breakdown voltage of the voltage sustaining layer. In a uniformly doped n-type voltage sustaining layer between p+-region and n+-region, in order to obtain a minimum specific on-resistance at a given breakdown voltage, a doping concentration N D and a thickness W of the voltage sustaining layer are optimized such that a maximum field is at p+-n-junction and its value is equal to E C , a minimum field is at n+-n-junction and equal to E C /3. For silicon device, in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? N D =1.9×10 18 ×V B −1.4 cm −3 (1) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? W= 1.8×10 −2 ×V B −1.2 μm −2 (2) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? (see, e.g., P. Rossel, Microelectron. Reliab., vol. 24, No. 2, pp 339-336, 1984). In a VDMOST shown in FIG. 1A , a field profile in the voltage sustaining layer at V B is shown in FIG. 1B , where a slope of the field versus distance is q N D /E s , E s is the permittivity of the semiconductor and q is the electron charge. The change of field through the n-region is q N D /E s , 2E C /3. The relation between R on and V B of a n-type voltage sustaining layer is then expressed by in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R on =W/qμμ n N D =0.83×10 −8 ×V B 2.5 Ω.cm 2 (3) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where μ m is the mobility of the electron and μ n =710×V B 0.1 cm/V.sec is used for silicon. In order to get even lower R on at a given V B , some research have been done to optimize the doping profile instead of using a uniform doping, see: [1] C. Hu, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-2, No. 3, p243 (1979); [2] V. A. K. Temple et al., IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-27, No. 2, p243 91980); [3] X. B. Chen, C.Hu, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-27, No. 6, p985-987 (1982). However, the results show no significant improvement. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The purpose of this invention is to provide a semiconductor high voltage device having a new voltage sustaining layer with better relationship between R on and V B . To achieve the above purpose, a semiconductor high voltage devices is provided, which comprises a substrate of a first conductivity type, at least one region of a second conductivity type, and a voltage sustaining layer of the first conductivity type having plurality of discrete floating (emberdded) islands of a second conductivity between said substrate and said region of second conductivity type. According to this invention, and n (or p) type voltage sustaining layer is divided by (n−1) planes into n sub-layers with equal thickness, p (or n) type discrete floating islands are introduced with their geometrical centers on such planes. The average does N T of the floating islands in each plane is about 2e s Ec/3q. For silicon, in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? N T =2 E s E c /3 q =3.53.10 12 V B −0.2 cm −2 (4) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? With such a floating island, the field is reduced by an amount about 2E C /3 from a maximum value E C at a side of the floating island to a minimum value E C /3 at another side of the floating island so far as the floating island is fully depleted. Each sub-layer is designed to sustain a voltage of V B1 =V B /n, and to have a thickness and doping concentration which are almost the same as those form formulas (1) and (2) with V B is replaced by V B1 , so that when a reverse voltage which is about the breakdown voltage V B is applied over the whole voltage sustaining layer, the maximum field is E C and the minimum field is E C /3, where the locations of the maximum field are not only at the p+−n (or n+−p) junction, but also at the points of each p (or n) island nearest to the n+−n (or p+−p) junction; the locations of the minimum field are not only at the n+−n (or p+−p) junction, but also at the points of each p (or n) islands nearest to the p+−n (or n+−p) junction. An example of the structure of a VDMOST using a voltage sustaining layer of this invention with n=2 is shown in FIG. 3A and the field profile under a reverse voltage of V B is shown in FIG. 3B . Apparently, in such a condition, V B =2WE C /3, where W is the total thickness of the voltage sustaining layer. It is easy to prove that the above structured voltage sustaining layer including a plurality of floating regions if full depleted under a reverse bias voltage about V B /2. The flux due to the charges of the ionized donors (or acceptors) under the p (or n) islands are almost totally terminated by the charges of the p (or n) islands. The maximum field is then 2E C /3 and the minimum field is zero, the locations of the maximum field are the same as those under a reverse bias voltage of VB. Apparently, the p (or n) islands make the field not to be accumulated throughout the whole voltage sustaining layer. For a given value of breakdown voltage V B , the doping concentration N D can be higher than that in a conventional voltage sustaining layer and the specific on-resistance is much lower than that in a conventional voltage sustaining layer. Supposed that there are n sub-layers in a voltage sustaining layer. Then, each sub-layer can sustain a voltage of V B /n, where V B is the breakdown voltage of the total voltage sustaining layer. Obviously, instead of (3), the relation of R on and V B of this invention is R on = n × 0.83 × 10 - 8 ( V B / n ) 2.5 Ω . cm 2 = 0.83 × 10 - 8 V B 2.5 / n 1.5 Ω . cm 2 ( 5 ) Compared to formula (3), it can been seen that the on-resistance of a voltage sustaining layer having n sub-layers is much lower than that of a conventional one. The inventor has experimented and obtained remarkable results, which show that the on-resistance of a semiconductor device using a voltage sustaining layer with n=2 of this invention is at least lower than ½ of that of a conventional one with the same breakdown voltage, although the real value of R on of a voltage sustaining layer having floating islands is a little higher than the value calculated from expression (5) when n<3, due to the effect that the current path is narrowed by the p-type floating islands. Besides, for minimizing R on , the optimum value of N T is slightly different with the expression (4), due to that the negative charges of p-type floating islands are concentrated in the p-regions instead of being uniformly distributed on a plane, whereas these negative charges are used to absorb the flux of ionized donors below that plane. | 20040603 | 20070605 | 20050217 | 99805.0 | 1 | NADAV, ORI | SEMICONDUCTOR HIGH-VOLTAGE DEVICES | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,860,602 | ACCEPTED | Common control of an electronic multi-pod conferencing system | Disclosed herein are electronic conferencing systems that support audio conversations between local and remote participants. Further disclosed herein are methods for providing common control of a multi-pod electronic conferencing system. Detailed information on various example embodiments of the inventions are provided in the Detailed Description below, and the inventions are defined by the appended claims. | 1. A full-duplex electronic conferencing system, comprising: a network of pods, said network comprising a plurality of pods, each of said pods including at least one loudspeaker and one microphone, each of said pods further including an input device operable to receive commands from users, said network further interconnecting said pods and providing for data transfer between pods; a connection facility for connecting to a carrier medium; an echo canceller, said canceller operable to reduce the sound produced by the speakers of said plurality of pods from the outgoing audio stream; an incoming audio channel; an outgoing audio channel; wherein during a conference said pods are operable to contribute sound input from pod microphones to said outgoing audio channel, and wherein said pods are operable to produce an audio signal transferred through said incoming audio channel at said loudspeakers that may be heard at an appreciable distance from said pods; and wherein each of said pods is further operable to communicate keypress information to said network whereby an action associated with a keypress may be taken by the entire system. 2. A system according to claim 1, wherein a input at said input device of any of said pods initiates an action at all of said pods. 3. A system according to claim 2, wherein a input at said input device of any of said pods indicating a volume change causes a volume change at all of said pods. 4. A system according to claim 2, wherein an input at said input device of any of said pods indicating mute causes all of said pods to mute. 5. A system according to claim 2, wherein an input at said input device of any of said pods indicating a change of on/off hook status causes all of said pods to become enabled or disabled, and further causes said connection facility to go on or off hook. 6. A system according to claim 5, further comprising a base unit containing said connection facility and further connected to said incoming audio channel and said outgoing audio channel, and wherein an input at said input device of any of said pods indicating a change of on/off hook status causes said connection facility to go on or off hook. 7. A system according to claim 1, comprising: wherein each of said pods periodically computes an internal loudness measurement; wherein each of said pods sends and receives loudness information to and from other pods of said network; and wherein each of said pod operates to gate on and off using the internal loudness measurement and received loudness information from other pods. 8. A pod intended for use in a multi-pod conference system, said pod comprising: a transceiver operable to communicate data to and from another pod over a communication medium; a loudspeaker; at least one microphone; at least one processor; a connection facility for connecting to a incoming audio channel and an outgoing audio channel; an incoming audio sampler configured to sample the incoming audio channel; for said microphones, at least one microphone sampler; at least one loudspeaker driver for driving said loudspeaker with audio received by the incoming audio sampler such that the driven audio may be heard at an appreciable distance from said loudspeaker; a driver for injecting an audio signal into the outgoing audio stream channel, said injection adding to and preserving the sound on the outgoing channel, and wherein said pod is operable to communicate keypress information to said network whereby an action associated with a keypress may be taken by the entire system. 9. A system according to claim 8, wherein said pod is operable to propagate a command to other connected pods based on a keypress action. 10. A system according to claim 8, wherein said pod is operable to receive a command to change volume and accordingly change the volume at said loudspeaker of said pod. 11. A system according to claim 8, wherein said pod is operable to receive a command to mute and accordingly mute the outgoing audio stream produced at said pod. 12. A system according to claim 8, wherein said pod is operable to receive a command to enable operation, and further operable to enable operation of the pod. 13. A system according to claim 8, wherein said pod is operable to receive a command to disable operation, and further operable to disable operation of the pod. 14. A method of operating a multi-pod conferencing system, the system comprising a network of pods, each pod including at least one microphone, a speaker and an input device; each pod further including facilities for communication of input indications and commands with the pod, the system further comprising a connection facility for connecting to a carrier medium on which audio signals may be carried, the method comprising the steps of: receiving inputs from local participants at a pod; sending keypress information to the system by the input receiving pod corresponding to the received input; interpreting the keypress information, said interpreting producing a command; propagating the command to each of the pods of the network; at each pod of the network, executing the propagated command. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein: the input is a indication to go on-hook; the command is a command to enable operation of the pods for a conference; and execution of the propagated command enables all pods of the network. 16. The method of claim 14, wherein: the input is a indication to go off-hook; the command is a command to disable operation of the pods for a conference; and the execution of the command disables all pods of the network. 16. The method of claim 14, wherein: the input is a indication to increase or decrease volume; the command is a command to set volume; and the execution of the command sets the volume all pods of the network to the same setting. 17. The method of claim 14, wherein: the input is a indication to mute or unmute; the command is a command to set mute operation; and the execution of the command sets the the mute operation of all the pods of the network to the same setting. | BACKGROUND The claimed systems and methods relate generally to electronic conferencing systems that support an audio conversation between local and remote participants, and more particularly to conferencing systems that include several pods that may be commonly controlled. BRIEF SUMMARY Disclosed herein are electronic conferencing systems that support audio conversations between local and remote participants. Further disclosed herein are methods for controlling a multi-pod conferencing system by user input at a particular pod. Detailed information on various example embodiments of the inventions are provided in the Detailed Description below, and the inventions are defined by the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a simple conferencing system utilizing half-duplex communication. FIG. 2 shows a simple conferencing system utilizing full-duplex communication and echo cancellation. FIG. 3 shows a simplified conferencing system utilizing contemporary components. FIG. 4 shows another simplified conferencing system divided into a base and pod portion. FIG. 5 depicts a form factor of an exemplary conferencing system pod. FIG. 6 shows an exemplary conferencing system including one pod in operational connective configuration. FIG. 7 shows another exemplary conferencing system having at least two pods and connections between. FIG. 8 depicts another exemplary conferencing system having four pods and showing connections between the pods and base. FIG. 9 shows the system in FIG. 8, showing other audio processing components. FIG. 10 depicts an exemplary conferencing pod utilizing an RF wireless connection to a base and an external power supply. FIG. 11 shows the base unit corresponding to the wireless pod of FIG. 10. FIG. 12 illustrates the installation of a battery into the exemplary pod 6f FIG. 10. FIG. 13 displays zones of usability for an exemplary single-pod configuration. FIG. 14 displays zones of usability for an exemplary dual-pod configuration. FIG. 15 shows components of an exemplary multiple-pod conferencing system. FIG. 16 depicts the arrangement of a speaker and three bi-polar microphones and further several virtual microphones in an exemplary pod. FIG. 17 depicts the audio lobes of sensitivity for the microphones and virtual microphones of the system depicted in FIG. 16. FIG. 18 shows an exemplary method of sharing microphone gating information between pods. FIG. 19a shows an exemplary method of determining whether or not to gate a microphone on in a pod. FIG. 19b shows an exemplary method of determining whether or not to gate a microphone off and of selecting a best microphone in a pod. FIG. 20 shows an exemplary method of computing a noise floor value in a pod. Reference will now be made in detail to electronic conferencing systems incorporating pods which may include various aspects, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Conferencing Systems To facilitate the discussion below, several conference system types depicted in FIGS. 1, 2, 3 and 4 will now be described. In FIG. 1 aspects of a simplified conferencing device 100 is shown. That conferencing device includes a speaker 102, and a microphone 104, through which a local participant may audibly and conversationally interact with the device. Speaker 102 and microphone 104 are coupled to a carrier medium 10, through which signals of audio content are transmitted and received from a remote participant, not shown. Carrier medium 112 might take any number of forms, in a familiar example a telephone line, or other forms such as electronic, optical or radio communication channels in analog and digital formats. Most recently, digital communication networks are increasingly being utilized over the Internet for conference calls, using recently developed “Voice Over IP” (VoIP) protocols. In the below discussion and examples, the particular form of carrier medium is not particularly important, so long as it may carry the audio data between local and remote participants. Thus even for examples specifically stated to be connectable to telephone lines or other types of mediums, it is contemplated that those examples might be connected to other mediums by making suitable design changes as will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art. A conferencing device is different from a common telephone, in that the conferencing device permits a local participant to use the system at an appreciable distance from the device. More specifically, sound from a remote participant is reproduced by a speaker, 102 in this example, at a level whereby a local participant may understandably listen to the remote sound at some distance from the device, for example several feet. Indeed, the remote sound may be produced at a volume so as to give the impression that the local participant is hearing the remote participant as if he were in the vicinity of the conferencing device, permitting a natural conversation to take place as if the remote participant were present in the room. Because a local participant's mouth may not be expected to be immediately close to the microphone of the conferencing device, in this example 104, the microphone system may be required to be more sensitive to local sound than a common telephone handset microphone, which might be accomplished by electronic amplification or simply by using a more sensitive microphone. Now, because sound is produced at a higher level and perhaps because a more sensitive microphone system is utilized, an audio feedback path 114 is introduced. Remote sound is produced by the speaker into the air, which is then received by the microphone. The effect of feedback path 114 is to produce an echo, if the feedback is moderate, which is particularly noticeable by the remote participant. If feedback is also introduced by the remote equipment, a feedback loop is created which may repeat the echo and possibly produce shrill sounds if the feedback is of sufficient gain. In contrast, common telephones do not generally exhibit noticeable echo because the sound produced by the earpiece and received at the microphone is much weaker than the user's voice. FIG. 1 illustrates a common solution to echo prevention, which is to insert a detector 106 and at least one cutoff switch 108 or 110. In a first exemplary operation, the conferencing device samples the incoming audio from the remote device, and if the audio is sufficiently loud, opens switch 110 (and optionally closes switch 108). Sound is then produced at the speaker, but local audio received at the microphone is not sent to the remote participant. Detector 106 might also sample the audio received at the microphone, for example comparing the level of that sound to the level of the remote sound, allowing a local participant to interrupt a remote participant. In that case, switch 110 is closed and switch 108 is opened. In either case, the feedback path 114 is interrupted, which prevents echo from occurring. Now it is to be understood that switches 108 and 110 might not be physical switches, if other provisions are available to cut off the carried sound. For example, in a conferencing device utilizing a microprocessor through which digital audio passes, the microprocessor might transmit audio at a zero level which effectively drops the incoming sound. The example of FIG. 1 describes a conferencing device supporting half-duplexing, which means that one side of a conversation (local or remote) is permitted to proceed at any given time, but not both. FIG. 2 shows a conferencing device 200 supporting full-duplex operation, permitting both local and remote participants to be heard generally during the entire connection. That conferencing device includes a speaker 202 and a microphone 204, and permits audio interaction with a carrier medium 212, as in the example of FIG. 1. Conferencing device 200 includes an echo canceller 216, by which echo is reduced in operation. Speaking in simple terms, echo canceller 216 samples both the incoming remote audio and the audio locally received at the microphone, and subtracts the remote audio from the local audio, producing modified audio. The modified audio, largely stripped of the remote audio, is then sent across carrier medium 212 to remote participants. For systems that use digital audio, an echo canceller may include a digital filter, the use of which is well known in the digital audio arts. A simple echo cancelling filter might delay the remote audio by a fixed time, scaled by an expected amount of attenuation between the speaker and the microphone, and subtract the produced audio from the locally received audio from the microphone. Such an implementation may effectively reduce echo to acceptable levels, particularly where the surroundings where the conferencing device is to be used are stable and well-understood. If surroundings are indeterminate, or if portability is needed, a dynamic filter may provide enhanced echo cancellation. A dynamic filter is one that is tuned as the conference is taking place, which might use initial values set by design or set from a prior conference. As a conference proceeds, the conference device analyzes the performance of the filter, evaluating the outgoing audio for echo artifacts or reflections. If echo is noticed in the output, the filter is re-tuned, with the object of reducing the echo to an acceptable level. This operation may be helpful to cancel echo under circumstances where reflections may change (such as if people or reflecting objects relocate or reorient) or if microphones are moved during a conference. Complex filters may also be used, which incorporate multiple delays and scaling factors for reducing echo. Under many circumstances, remote sound received at a microphone will be from reflections from multiple objects and surfaces, which results in the echo being received at multiple delays and degrees of attenuation. In those circumstances, a filter including only a single delay may not effectively cancel all the echo. If desired, and if sufficient computation and memory resources are available, a filter can be constructed with one constant (scaler) per sample over a fixed interval, which can effectively eliminate all echo, assuming that the constants can be appropriately set during a conference. An additional technique is to utilize two microphones (or several microphones) placed in selective different directions and/or locations, so as to provide cancellation for the sound produced at a speaker. At least one example of this technique will be discussed below. Now this technique does not generally provide a complete solution, as the reflection conditions are difficult to hold fixed. It may, however, improve the worst-case echo performance of a conferencing system. In FIG. 3 a conferencing device 300 is depicted including contemporary components. Conferencing device 300 includes again a speaker 302, a microphone 304, and couples to a carrier medium 312. A controller 306 provides processing power to the conferencing device 300, and control interfaces and functions for a display 322 and a keypad 324. A power supply 310 provides electrical power to the various device electronic components. Many contemporary designs process audio data in digital format, the data existing as a continuous stream of numeric values representing the waveform of the original sound taken at a defined frequency, for example 8 kHz. By processing data in digital format, intermediate circuit noise is avoided and the number of electronic parts can be reduced. Additionally, by reducing the number of parts, the failure rate of a production run of electronic devices can be significantly reduced which leads to better economy for the producer and seller, and also better reliability for an end-user. Conferencing device 300 utilizes such a digital design. Speaker 302 is driven by controller 306 by way of a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter 320 and amplification circuits, not shown. Microphone 304 is sampled by an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter 316 by which a stream of incoming audio data is supplied to controller 306. In like fashion, analog audio data carried over carrier medium 312 is converted to and from a digital format by converters 314 and 318. The signals carried on carrier medium 312 may best be read in an amplified state, as those signals may be small-signal in nature. An amplification and impedance matching network 308 may be included to match the signals on carrier medium 312 to processable and producible signals at converters 314 and 318. For example, carrier medium might carry an unmodulated analog audio signal peaking at about 100 mV. A/D converter 314 might accept an input from 0-5.0 volts. In that case, network 308 might include a circuit to amplify the audio signal to amplitude peaks of 2.5 volts and shift the voltage to center at a 2.5V offset. Network 308 might also include a loading element to balance the impedance of carrier medium 312, for example a 50 ohm resistive load. The output of D/A converter 318 might be reduced and offset or isolated to match the voltage characteristics of the medium 312. Furthermore, if carrier medium 312 were low-impedance in nature, network 308 might include an impedance matching amplifier for the outgoing signal. Network 308 might further include isolation transformers to protect against DC offsets on the carrier medium. Likewise, if carrier medium 312 were digital in nature, converters 314 and 318 and network 308 could be replaced with a transceiver suitable for the particular medium. In FIG. 4 a related conferencing system is depicted, but this system is divided into a base 400 and a pod 402, which may reduce the aspect of the portion of the system in relative proximity to local conference participants. The base 400 includes an amplifying/impedance matching network 408 connectible to a carrier medium 412. Base further includes converters 414 and 418 and a base controller 406b performing similar functions as in the example of FIG. 3. Display 422, keypad 424 are moved to pod 402, controlled by a pod controller 406p. Pod 402 includes two microphones, 404a and 404b, converted to digital data by A/D converters 416a and 416b. A speaker 402 is also provided and driven by way of an amplifier and a D/A converter 420. Controllers 406b and 406p may communicate by way of transceivers 426b and 426p. Those transceivers establish a communications channel carrying at least audio data between base 400 and pod 402, and may further carry control signals such as on/off hook, DTMF tones, and other signals. Transceivers 426b and 426p might operate over a cabled medium, such as copper wire or optical fibers, or over a non-cabled medium such as a radio or even an infra-red channel. As will be shown in further examples, pods may contain several microphones to provide for better range of pickup. A pod might also include several speakers, for example a high frequency and low frequency speaker or speakers mounted in different orientations. A conferencing system may also connect to more than one connection medium, for example two telephone lines. A conferencing system may also be fashioned to connect to multiple medium types, such as a system having provisions for a telephone line connection or a VoIP utilizing an Ethernet connection. Example Conferencing System 1 Depicted in FIG. 5 is an exemplary conferencing pod 500 having a contemporary form factor, which will provide context for several features described below. It is to be understood that the features later described are applicable to other conferencing devices having various configurations differing from the example described for FIG. 5, and generally do not require any particular configuration. Exemplary conferencing pod 500 includes a housing 510 having a flat bottom, not shown, whereon the device may rest on a table or other flat surface. Pod 500 includes a speaker 502 and optionally a speaker grill, located substantially in the center of the top of the device whereby produced audio may be projected into a room with wide dispersion. Three bi-polar microphones are positioned at 120 degree intervals in the horizontal resting plane of pod 500 substantially around the speaker, providing substantially 360 degree coverage in that plane. Pod 500 further includes a display 506, which provides visual indicators of the operational status of the device. A keypad 508 is also included providing command input to pod 500, and may provide digit keys, an on/off hook key, setup keys, volume and multe keys, and other keys as desired. Each bi-polar microphone is located within the protective environment of the housing 510, wherein a pair of audio ports is included, one pair being visible in the figure as 504a and 504b. These audio ports may be placed near the expected tabletop surface, as in the example of FIG. 5, to receive sound reflected off that surface. Passages from ports 504a and 504b, not shown, to their respective microphones are isolated from other passages to prevent cross-mixing of sound entering at the respective ports. Each port of a pair is placed at a substantially equal distance from the speaker 502, and likewise each microphone passage of a pair is maintained at a substantially equal length, so as to provide an audio path from speaker 502 to each microphone of a pair. Because sound must travel an equal distance to each microphone of a bi-polar pair, sound from the speaker arriving at one microphone will be in-phase with the sound arriving at the other microphone. The output of one microphone of a bi-polar pair is inverted, providing for cancellation of some of the sound produced by speaker 502 when the two microphones in the pair are summed together. This inversion may be performed numerically by an included processor, by an inverting amplifier, or by many other configurations. As exemplary pod 500 provides substantially 360 degree coverage in the horizontal plane, it is suitable for placement at the center of a conference table or within a group of local conference participants. Other configurations may also be provided providing varying coverages, for example a device having 180 coverage intended to be placed on a table against a wall. Additionally, a conferencing device need not have exactly three microphones. A device with two microphones placed on opposing sides may provide adequate coverage, if microphones having a wide sensitivity pattern are used. Likewise, four or more microphones might be used surrounding a device, providing better selectivity of sound from a participant, although at additional cost. Microphones placed at varying distances might also be useful, or microphones of various sensitivities, for example, if it is desired to locate the device closer to the end of a table. Furthermore, a conferencing device need not include bi-polar microphones, provided that the device includes countermeasures to reduce any unacceptable echo, particularly if fill-duplex operation is desired. Referring now to FIG. 6, the exemplary pod 500 is made operational by connection to a base 600 by way of a cable 604 and receptacle 602 located in pod 500. In this example, cable 604 is a category 5 networking type cable, the connections and signals carried described below. Cable 604 might be about 25 feet in length, to provide for the relatively distant placement of pod 500 from base 600, which might allow placement of the base 600 near a wall or other unobtrusive location and pod 500 on a table. Of course, cable 604 might be made to many lengths, even customized by an installer. Base 600 includes a cable and connector to supply to mains power from a receptacle 606, and a means of connecting to a carrying medium, in this example a telephone cable having an RJ-11 connector for connection to a standard telephone line. Base 600 may also include indicator lights to show to a user the operational status of the base unit or the conferencing system. Now, some of the examples described herein include multiple pods, one exemplary configuration shown in FIG. 7. In this example, two pods 700, each including two data link connections, are connected in daisy-chained fashion to a base unit. A cable 702, in this case being a 12 foot length of category 5 type cable, connects the two pods together. Another cable 704, again a 25 foot length of category 5 type cable, connects one of the pods 700 to a base unit, not shown. Other examples of multiple-pod systems will be described below. In a related exemplary system shown in FIG. 10, the data connection between the pod and the base is wireless, conforming to Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) or Worldwide Digital Cordless Telecommunications (WDCT) standards, depending on the country of intended use. In that system, a pod 1000 is provided with an external power supply 1002, connected by connections 1004 and 1006. Power supply 1002 connects to mains power and is provided with a cord sufficiently long for expected installation configurations. Shown in FIG. 11 is the base unit 1100 of that exemplary wireless system. That base unit includes means of connecting to a receptacle of mains power 1106. This example further includes optional indicator lights 1102, and a paging button 1104 which causes base 1100 to send a paging command to pods, by which the pods may emit an audible signal assisting a person in locating a lost or misplaced pod. The exemplary pod 1000 of FIG. 10 further includes a rechargable battery 1202, the installation of which is depicted in FIG. 12 to a cavity 1204 in the housing of pod 1000. Exemplary pod 1000 may operate from either of external power supply 1002 or battery 1202. Exemplary pod 1000 provides a recharging circuit for an installed battery 1202, so that the battery may be recharged when power supply 1002 is connected. Battery may be of sufficient capacity to operate for exended periods of time, for example 8 hours of talk time or 2 days of standby. A wireless pod might also be fashioned to use non-rechargeable batteries, such as alkaline types, for which a pod might include a switch for selecting an installed battery type, or may omit the battery charger altogether. The exemplary conference system of FIGS. 10, 11 and 12 utilizes spread spectrum techniques to spread the communications link between the pod and the base between several frequencies, for example 75 or 120 channels. The system further utilizes a pseudo-random number generator to select a sequence in which channels are to be used. The system may also provide a blacklist of channels which are known to have interference, and skip or select alternate channels if a blacklisted channel is pseudo-randomly picked. The use of spread spectrum and pseudo-random selection provides a degree of interference immunity and security from unintended listeners. The system further includes radio transceivers sufficient to communicate over a selected distance, which, for example, might be defined to be 150 feet in free air or perhaps 50 feet with two walls of standard construction between the pod and base. Example Conferencing System 2 FIG. 15 depicts at a moderate level various components of a system that may support multiple pods utilizing a single telephone line, that system including echo cancellation for pods generally as a system and also supporting fill-duplex operation. That system includes a base 1500 and up to four pods 1502, connectible through cables fashioned from category 5 type cable. Category 5 type cable consists of four twisted 24 AWG copper wire pairs 1506a-d. Other types of cables may also be used, for example a similar cable having 28 AWG wire, provided that consideration is given to the types of signals and currents that will be carried. Base 1500 includes a power supply 1504 accepting mains supply input and providing, in this example, 12VDC at 2A for supplying power to both the base and pods through one twisted pair 1506a Base 1500 further includes a connector for connecting to, in this example, a telephone line 1508. Base 1500 further includes a digital/analog adapter 1510 (DAA) to convert the analog telephonic signals to and from the digital domain usable by digital signal processor 1512. Further included in DAA 1510 is a coupler/decoupler to the telephone line to connect and disconnect the system. Those of ordinary skill in will recognize that mediums other than standard telephone lines can be utilized by adapting component 1510 suitably. For example, in a VoIP application an encoder and Ethernet/IP transceiver might be appropriate. Telephone line audio is separated by a codec 1514 with the assistance of DSP 1512 into incoming and outgoing streams. The audio signal may be referenced to ground while transiting through the base 1500 or a pod 1502, but is communicated differentially across intermediate cables in twisted pairs 1506b and 1506c providing immunity to electronically-induced noise. Single-ended to differential transceivers 1516 and differential to single-ended transceivers 1518 are provided to make the conversion at the cable interfaces. The remaining twisted pair 1506d is utilized as a “control” channel for communicating commands and data other than analog audio through the system between the base and the first pod or between pods. In this exemplary system, data is communicated in full duplex at RS-232 voltages utilizing RS-232 drivers 1520 at about 57,600 baud. Base DSP 1512 provides control and computation facilities for the various base functions, one of which may be echo cancellation as described above. Now although component 1512 is labeled a DSP, a general purpose processor or other processor might be used provided that sufficient processing power is provided to perform the desired functions. A recording facility may also be included if desired, in this example through a summer 1521, an amplifier 1522 and a connector jack 1524 for connection of a recording device. Pod 1502 includes a processor 1526, in this case a microcontroller, which provides communication and interpretation facilities for the data and/or commands passing over the control channel, utilizing other components as shown. Processor 1526 includes interfaces to a keypad 1528 and LCD display 1530, also included in pod 1502. A separate processor 1532, in this example a DSP56F826 DSP processor, avaliable from Motorola, Inc. of Schaumburg, Ill., is included to handle audio functions independently from processor 1526. This implementation containing two separate processors is merely exemplary; one more powerful processor or alternatively a number of smaller, but distributed processors could be used to accomplish the audio and control functions of the pod. Pod 1502 includes several sampling devices 1534a-d, which are used to sample the incoming audio stream and three microphones 1536a-c. Two digital to analog devices 1538a and 1538b are included to supply analog audio signals to the outgoing audio stream through a summing device 1544 and to a speaker 1542 by way of a power amplifier 1540. Summing device 1544 need not be elaborate: for example summing device might be a summing operational amplifier or even a simple transformer coupling the output of converter 1538a to the outgoing audio line. In this method, each pod makes a contribution to the audio output creating a summing bus starting at the last pod in the chain and ending in the base receiver. Now it will be recognized that the ampacity of a category five pair is approximately 2A; therefore if a system is to be fashioned with many pods it may be necessary to either utilize a different cabling scheme, reduce the power consumed or to provide a supplemental power source. Referring now to FIG. 8, an exemplary conferencing system including a base and four connections is shown conceptually in operationally connected form. A base 800 again connects to mains power, and also to a telephone line through a telephone cord 804. Base 800 connects to a first pod 802a through a category 5 cable 806a as described above. Each of successive bases 802b-d is connected in daisy-chain fashion through cables 806b-d. FIG. 9 shows the elements of FIG. 8, wherein each pod is shown symbolically having three microphones, a loudspeaker, and a processing and user interface. For the discussion below, data and audio traveling in the “downstream” direction is data traveling toward the pod at the end of the daisy chain, and “upstream” data is data traveling toward the base. FIG. 13 depicts exemplary theoretical zones of usability, which may be applied to the design of a pod as described above. Pictured in FIG. 13 is a conference table 1300, as viewed from above, which is 12 feet long by 4 feet wide. Placed at the center of the table is a pod 1302, which may be of the type described above. An optimal pickup radius 1304 provides best performance, which may mean good echo cancellation and good signal-to-noise ratio, when a participant located near the circle defined by radius 1304 is speaking normally. A maximal pickup radius 1306 provides a maximal distance of a participant from the pod to be heard with acceptable signal-to-noise and echo cancellation. In one example, radius 1304 is about three feet and radius 1306 is about eight feet. A pod might be designed to receive speech at other distances, but it should be kept in mind that a trade off between sensitivity and noise may limit the possible distances that may work best. For example, if a greater pickup radius were designed into the system, it might pickup other nuisance noises in the room, for example air ducts and squeaks from nearby chairs. Depicted in FIG. 14 is a conference system including two pods 1402a and 1402b, having the same characteristics as the pod 1302 of FIG. 13, and located away from the center and toward the ends of conference table 1300 about six feet apart. In this example, nearly the entire conference table is within the zones of optimal performance 1404a and 1404b. In addition, a much greater area of the room falls within the acceptable performance zones 1406a and 1406b. Furthermore, the system can take advantage of additional microphones near the participants, selecting the best pod and/or microphones for speech from participants, one such selection method being described below. Still referring to FIG. 14, each of pods 1402a and 1402b includes a loudspeaker. By utilizing both loudspeakers, a better sound distribution is achieved at the table and in the room. As in a system described below, the volume level of both pods may be adjusted in tandem, and loud and soft spots in the room may thereby be avoided. Including additional pods can yield certain advantages over other systems intended to improve the interactivity of local participants relatively far away from a pod. In a first alternative system, additional microphones are added near the distant participants to provide better pickup. This system may exhibit poor performance in two ways. First, the distant participants may not be able to hear the remote side of the conversation without turning the volume up at the pod, which can make the sound too loud to be comfortable for participants nearby the pod. Second, people naturally tend to talk toward the source of the remote conversation. This leads distant participants to talk toward the pod, rather than into an added microphone. In a second alternative system, the audio from a pod is replaced with audio from an external speaker, mounted in a relatively remote location such as high on a wall or ceiling. The external speaker is driven at a volume sufficient to disperse the remote side of the conversation throughout the room. Now although this system may solve the problem of providing the remote side of the conversation to all participants at comfortable levels, it tends to exacerbate the problem of local participants speaking toward the source of the remote conversation (the remote speaker high on the wall) rather than provided microphones at tabletop level. Good microphone pickup may therefore be a problem in these alternative systems. Although these alternative systems may be acceptable under some circumstances, the generalized performance may not be as optimal as using multiple pods at tabletop level. As just mentioned, sound is more evenly distributed to local participants through multiple speakers, one at each pod. Because of the more even distribution of sound, lower volume levels may be utilized without adversely affecting listenability. Additionally, a local participant may speak toward the source of the remote side of the conversation, and as the microphones are located nearby the speaker in the pod, local participants will naturally and properly direct their speech to the microphones. Furthermore, because microphones are provided in each of several multiple pods, the necessity of additional microphones may be avoided or even eliminated. The benefits of multiple pods may be extended by providing other pods in the system, by which longer or larger conference tables may be used with a conferencing system. Distributed Microphone Gating In conferencing systems with more than one microphone, the microphones may be gated on and off to match the local participant activity. Thus, when a participant begins speaking, the microphone best picking up his speech should turn on, while others not receiving substantial sound remain silent or attenuated. Likewise, if two people are speaking at different microphones, both microphones may turn on. Although the automatic selection of microphones in a system may utilize any number of selection methods, one method is described below particularly applicable to a multi-pod conference system. In designing the exemplary gating method described below, two goals were kept in mind. The first was, of course, to select the best microphones to match the participants speech The second goal was to maintain a relatively constant gain (i.e. sound injection onto the outgoing signal) at all times. By maintaining a constant gain, several advantages may be realized. The noise level can be held relatively constant by maintaining a constant sound injection into the outgoing audio channel. This reduces the “pumping” of noise at the remote participant's site from microphones switching on and off from participants intermittently speaking and going silent. Additionally, echo cancellation may be simplified as the feedback from the system speakers to microphones is held relatively constant. Now although these features or goals may be desirable under certain circumstances, it is not necessary to achieve those to produce a usable conference system. Similar systems that do not maintain a constant gain or select microphones immediately close to speaking participants may therefore be adequate under some circumstances. Now, a conferencing system may assume certain “normal” conditions to provide for good performance under usual circumstances. A first condition is that usually at most one local participant will be speaking at any given time, with relatively short periods where local participants may be speaking “over” each other. Utilizing that assumption, it is reasonable in a pod having several microphones to select the microphone having the best signal-to-noise ratio, or in a multi-pod system to select the pod best picking up a participant's speech. For cases of several participants speaking over one another, it will likely be the case that all of the participants' sound will be picked up by a microphone selected for a first speaking participant. That fact may be relied upon to give a remote participant an indication that two local participants are speaking over each other, even though only a limited number of microphones are selected. If a second assumption is made that the noise is fairly constant across all the microphones of a system, the best microphone may become simply the microphone receiving the loudest sound at any given time. A third assumption may also be made that once a participant begins to speak to a pod, he will continue speaking to that pod at least until he is finished. Using this assumption, it may be practical to hold a microphone gated on, even if another microphone picks up slightly more sound. By utilizing such a principle, sudden volume drops or increases can be avoided during a participant's speaking, perhaps even if he turns his head in a different direction before he finishes. The play of these assumptions in the described method will become more apparent in the discussion below. In the exemplary gating method each pod gates on no more than one microphone in the pod at any given time, with the understanding that a microphone might be any one of several available inputs, including unitary microphones, bi-polar microphones as described above and below, or even virtual microphones, an example of which is also described below. The pod is permitted to switch to gating a different pod microphone if circumstances warrant (i.e. if the volume substantially increases at the second microphone). For the purposes of this discussion, if a microphone of a pod is gated on, the pod will be considered to be gated on. In the exemplary gating method, more than one pod is permitted to be gated on, which can be helpful to pick up two or more speakers located near different pods. Also in the method, at least one pod is kept gated on during a conference, which has the effect of transmitting to remote participants the ambient noise in the room, by which the remote participants may have a continuing indication that the conference is live. The method gravitates, however, to keeping no more than one pod gated, which tends to limit the noise and gain received at the remote side. For microphones gated off, the method defines “off” to be attenuated by approximately −12 dB rather than totally muting the microphone input. More attenuation may lead to “pumping” of noise, by which a person on the other size may hear the noise level fluctuate between when a participant is speaking and not speaking, which can be a nuisance. Additionally, to maintain a more constant gain and perceived noise floor in the system, if more than one microphone is gated on then attenuation is applied to each gated microphone using the equation attenuation=sqrt(1/n) where n is the number of open microphones. Turning now to FIGS. 18, 19a, 19b and 20, the exemplary method is shown in flowchart format, that method being performed at each pod in a multiple-pod system. The method defines a loop beginning at 1800, which proceeds at a specified interval which is generally the interval of gating information communication between pods. In step 1802, an internal loudness value is computed. In the exemplary method the loudness value, or loudness meter, receives the input of one or more microphones, rectifies the input, and resets the loudness value to any higher input values. The loudness value is permitted to decay at a rate of 250 dB/sec, in order to indicate low loudness during relatively long quiet periods. An additional zero correction offset may be applied, for example, if the microphone input is not centered about zero. The zero offset correction might be calculated as the average input over some given time, or another method as will be understood by one of ordinary skill. Although the loudness value might be designed to reflect the loudness of all present microphones collectively, it may be desirable to maintain a loudness value for each microphone, which may be useful data in selecting the best microphone of a pod to gate on. In that case, the loudness value of a pod might be designed to be the maximum of the individual microphone loudness values. Execution of the method then proceeds at step 1806, in which a determination is made as to whether or not the pod executing the method is the last in the chain of multiple pods. This is important to compute the loudness value sent upstream to an adjacent pod, as the value sent upstream is the maximum of this pod and all other pods downstream. If the pod is last in the chain, the upstream loudness is merely the internal loudness of the pod, as reflected in step 1808. Otherwise, the method pauses in step 1810 to receive an upstream loudness from the downstream pod. Upon receipt, a new upstream loudness is computed in step 1812 to be the maximum of the received loudness from the downstream pod and the internal loudness computed in step 1802. Once the upstream loudness is determined, a new packet containing the upstream loudness is sent upstream in step 1814 to the adjacent pod (or to the base if this pod is first in the chain.) Steps 1816, 1818, 1820, 1822, and 1824 reflect a similar procedure for calculating and sending a new downstream loudness. Following the transmission or reception of the upstream and downstream loudness, the gating computation may proceed in step 1804 as described in FIGS. 19a and 19b. Now the method shown in FIG. 18 is merely one exemplary method for passing loudness information through a multiple-pod conference system. Many other methods can be fashioned to serve a similar purpose, as will be understood by one of ordinary skill. The example of FIG. 18 was chosen as an example of easy understanding, utilizing a synchronous mode of operation. An alternative asynchronous mode, for example, would not wait for an upstream or downstream loudness packet, as in steps 1810 and 1820, but would rather use the latest received upstream or downstream loudness value regardless of how fresh that value was. In yet another example, steps 1806 and 1820 are omitted, and the system retains a shadow upstream and downstream loudness value reset to 0. For pods located at the front or rear of a chain, the upstream or downstream loudness will always be 0, and thus the the internal loudness would always be used in the direction where no adjacent pod exists. Depicted in FIGS. 19a and 19b is a subroutine for performing the gating computation mentioned for the method of FIG. 18. First, a noise floor calculation is performed in step 1902, which is further described for FIG. 20. The result of the noise floor computation is a value labeled noise_floor, which is a dynamic value representing generally the level of ambient noise in the area of the pod. Following the computation of noise_floor, a comparison is made in step 1904 to determine if the level of loudness (the internal loudness value computed in step 1820) is greater than the ambient noise plus an offset. If the loudness is greater, the sound being received at the pod is considered to be loud enough for further consideration to gate the pod on. Otherwise, the sound level is determined to be too low to gate on, and execution of the subroutine continues at step 1914. The offset in step 1904 provides a degree of hysteresis to gating on, without which the pod might gate on at sporadic rises in the noise level in the room. The value of offset will depend on the intended environment of pod operation, however an offset equivalent to about 15 dB has yielded good results in normal circumstances. Now it is considered desirable to limit the number of pods turning on in the exemplary method of FIGS. 19a and 19b. A pod should therefore not gate on if another pod is currently gated on and receiving only mildly softer input. By this criteria a person turning his head may not cause a second pod to gate on, but rather the originally gating pod will continue to provide the majority gain into the conference system. Likewise, if another pod becomes significantly louder, this is indicative of a second person speaking, and another pod is thereby permitted to gate on. To achieve this end, a comparison may be made between the internal loudness level and the external loudness level (the maximum of the upstream and downstream loudness levels), as in step 1906. Another hysteresis offset is applied to that comparison to slow the tendency to turn on pods that are only mildly louder than a pod currently gated on. The value of this offset will vary, depending at least on the distance between pods, for example. In a system locating having pods as described in FIGS. 8 and 9 spaced six feet apart, a value of 5 dB was found to yield good results. If the loudness of the instant pod is found not to be significantly louder than other pods in the system in step 1906, execution in the method bypasses to step 1928. Otherwise, maintenance of two counters, a loud_counter and a quiet_counter are maintained. In this exemplary method, delays are introduced following detection of loud sounds or quietness. In the case of a delay after detection of loudness, it is desirable to wait for a propagation period of time, which is the period of propagation of upstream and downstream loudness information throughout the system. Thus, in a conferencing system of four pods linked together, a loud sound might be received at pods 1 and 4. The immediately received loudness by pod 1 from pod 2 would be too early, and would not reflect the information required to determine whether pod 1 or pod 4 should gate on. Pod 1 should therefore wait the period of time to propagate loudness information from pod 4 to 3, 3 to 2, and finally 2 to 1 before gating on. In the system described in FIG. 15, the propagation time from pod to pod might be about 1 ms. That given, a pod should wait at least 3-4 ms before gating on, to ensure that another pod is not better located to receive the sound. It may also be desirable to increase this delay by several more propagation times to ensure that loudness information has been received and to reject spurious electronic noise in the system. Thus a counter called loud_counter is incremented in step 1908, which generally increments periodically at the propagation frequency so long as loudness is being detected. A quiet_counter is also reset, indicating that a period of quietness has ended. (Note that the loud_counter is reset in step 1926 at the time of gating off.) In step 1910, if the loud_counter has exceeded the threshold mentioned above, the pod is allowed to gate on in step 1912. Continuing now to FIG. 19b, step 1914 begins a sub-procedure on condition of quietness found in step 1904. In step 1914, the internal loudness is compared to the system loudness (which is again the maximum of the upstream and downstream reported loudnesses). Another offset is applied to this comparison, whereby the loudness at this pod must fall below the the system loudness with the offset subtracted, thus filtering out mild samples of quietness. If the comparison fails, this pod is not yet considered to be quiet, and the quiet_counter is reset in step 1916. Otherwise, the quiet_counter is incremented in step 1918 and compared against a threshold in step 1920. As alluded to above, the method does not permit spurious and short periods of relative quiet to cause the pod to gate off, and thus the quiet_counter is used to time that period. This period threshold should be chosen to be long enough to filter out pauses in volume between a participant's words and phrases, but short enough to disengage the pod at a reasonable time after speech has ceased. A period of about 0.5 second has been shown to yield good results. If the period has not expired, the method continues to step 1928. Otherwise, a check is made to determine whether this pod is the only gated one in the system. As spoken of above, holding one microphone gated at all times gives the remote participants an indication that the conference is live and further provides continuity by maintaining a level of background noise. The system therefore includes in the loudness packets above the number of microphones currently being gated in the system. Thus if the last pod has a microphone gated on, the system will propagate a count of one upstream in the chain. The result is that each pod may determine the values ds_mics and us_mics, which are the number of microphones gated on downstream and upstream. If there are other microphones gated in the system, the pod microphones are gated off in step 1924, and the loud_counter is reset in step 1926 to restart the delay period of loudness. If no other microphones are gated in the system other than in the present pod, steps 1924 and 1926 are bypassed, and execution continues at step 1928. In step 1928 a procedure is started to select the best microphone in the pod. A determination of which microphone is best could take many forms. In one example, the microphone receiving the most sound might be considered the best. In another example, the microphone having the best signal-to-noise radio might be selected. Again, hysteresis might be applied to microphone selection to avoid unnecessary switches and audio artifacts during a conference. If needed, the system selects the best available microphone in step 1930, and the procedure ends. FIG. 20 depicts a procedure of calculating a noise floor, as might be done, for example, as step 1902 in the method of FIGS. 19a and 19b. In short, a noise_floor value is constantly updated while a pod is in operation, or participating in a conference. The value is reset to a high value, following which the value is set to the internal loudness value, if it is lower. After a short period of time, the value is permitted to decay upward toward the high value, and thereby make correction if the ambient noise increases. Referring now to FIG. 20, in step 2002, a branch is made if a reset flag is set. If a reset has occurred, the noise_floor value needs to be reset to a high value as in step 2004 (selecting a high value in this method yields rapid convergence to the true noise floor). Periodically, in step 2006, the internal loudness calculated above is compared to this noise floor value. If the internal loudness is above the ambient_noise value, a counter labeled ambient_noise_timer is permitted to increment in step 2008. Otherwise, the system has discovered a new noise_floor value in step 2010, and the ambient_noise_timer is reset. Following either of steps 2008 and 2010, the ambient_noise_timer is checked for a timeout condition in step 2012. If a timeout has occurred, the noise_floor value is permitted to rise, in this example by multiplying the old value with a constant. Successive multiplication of a constant results in the noise_floor value taking on an exponential curve over successive iterations until a new noise floor is discovered. As to the timeout period specified above, a value relatively long may be chosen, as the ambient noise conditions do not usually exhibit rapid changes. A timeout of about 5 seconds has been found to have good results. As to the curve of a rising noise_floor, other curves than exponential may be chosen, if desired. In one example, a constant is added rather than multiplied to the noise_floor value, resulting in a linear sloped curve. Other examples might combine two or more curves, for example a linear curve for the first second and an exponential curve thereafter. Now referring back to FIG. 19a, the delay introduced by steps 1908 and 1910 to gate a microphone on can have an unintended consequence. A person who abruptly begins speaking from a quiet state may have the first few milliseconds of his speech cut off. This may cause the system to fail to transmit about the first consonant, which can be noticable to remote conference participants. To avoid this problem, the pods can buffer the audio, the buffer being sufficient to store the audio in the delay interval. If this is desired, the outgoing sound is delayed by this period at all times. In one example, this period is generally between 1 to 8 milliseconds. Now it will be recognized that if this delay becomes too long, it will become noticable to the participants and potentially be a nuisance. It is expected that keeping this delay shorter than about 20 to 30 milliseconds will avoid that nuisance. The designer of a multi-pod conference system utilizing the above principles will therefore need to limit the number of pods in the system and/or utilize faster data communication paths to avoid noticable audio delays, especially if many pods are utilized. A system might also be configured to gate a default microphone on at the beginning of a connection in order to provide the live indication before loud sounds are detected by the system. In an example of a conference system as shown in FIGS. 8, 9 and 15, also utilizing the above methods, gating and loudness information information may be sent through the RS-232 bus approximately every 1 ms. The packet format is as follows: Byte number Contents 1 Sync 2 Control 3-4 Loudest microphone level + number of microphones gated on The observant reader will notice that the above described methods define a distributed algorithm, wherein each pod makes a similar calculation utilizing the same input information across the system. Each pod, while computing and maintaining independent state, permits the collection of pods to act in concert as a system, as the behavior of each pod can be readily predicted and accounted for. Other algorithms might be fashioned, which might work equally well. In an alternate example, the base might receive loudness values from each of the connected pods and command which pods are to gate on and off. In a another alternate example, an iteration may encompass the period required to communicate the loudness information throughout the system, rather than the period required to transmit a packet between two adjacent pods. Many other algorithms, some variations on the above, might be utilized effectively under circumstances and/or assumptions as described above, or others, permitting the sharing of audio level information and gating of microphones in a multi-pod system. Distributed Communication and Control In a multi-pod conference system, it may be desired for one pod to include an input device, such as a keypad, for accepting actions or commands from a user to control the system. In that system, commands may be communicated effectively under a master-slave arrangement, whereby commands from the pod containing the keypad are received at the other pods in the system. It may be desirable, however, to include a keypad in some or all pods of a conference system, permitting control at arm's reach of participants at several locations around a conference table. Going further, if all the pods include a keypad, the conference system becomes more uniform and modular. If all pods are required to include a keypad, only one type of pod need be manufactured and distributed, simplifying installation and use of the system. Now the discussion below will discuss methods of controlling an exemplary conferencing system having multiple pods each having a keypad and display. It should be kept in mind that many, if not all of the methods described might be used in any conferencing system having multiple pods regardless of where keypads or other input devices are included. It should also be recognized that many input devices might be used rather than a keypad, such as touchpads, tablets, remote controls, etc.; although the below discussion will refer to a keypad, it is only a convenient example. Likewise, the location of displays might be varied from the example, or even omitted if other feedback is provided, such The exemplary conferencing system includes several pods and a base unit, as described above, the system connectible to a telephone line. Commands are transferred through the four-byte packet format described above, utilizing the sync and control bytes. If no command is to be send, a default value is sent for the sync byte, which in this example is 0x26. A different sync byte, in this example 0x27, is sent to indicated a command byte present in the control byte of the packet. Commands are sent by sending all bytes defined for those commands sequentially, which would be transferred in several successive packets for multi-byte commands. Each command begins with a header sequence, which is as follows: Byte Number Contents 1 0×28 (=command) 2 Command ID 3 Word count 4 Checksum (for the header and arguments) Any arguments to the command follow the header, with no ending marker for the command. In the exemplary system, commands are only interpreted as they are received in the downstream direction (from the base). Key presses are communicated in the upstream direction, toward the base. When the base receives a key press from a pod, the key press is interpreted which may result in the generation of one or more commands to the connected pods. In the example of FIG. 15, this communication is over pair 1506d in a cable between pods 1502 or a pod 1502 and the system base unit 1500. In this exemplary system, all of the connected pods may be controlled by pressing keys on any pod, or by passing a command through the system to all pods and, in this example, the base. For example, if in a system having four pods as configured in FIG. 8, the “on/off” hook on pod 4 (the last pod) were pressed, pod 4 would send the key press to pod 3. Pod 3 transfers the key press to pod 2, pod 2 to pod 1, and pod 1 to the base. The base would then go on or off-hook, and send an appropriate enable command to pod 1. Pod 1 would receive the enable command, and transfer the command to pod 2. Pods 2, 3 and 4 would then each receive and pass the command in turn. Each pod, as it receives the enable command, changes its operational state accordingly, i.e. turns the speaker on/off, changes the display, etc. In this way all pods may be switched on together when a conference is initiated. Likewise, all pods may be switched off when a conference is ended. Other functions that may be distributed throughout a multi-pod system are volume controls and mute controls. By utilizing distribution of keypress commands the volume of all pods may be adjusted together, by which an even distribution of sound may be maintained. Likewise, distributing the mute function throughout the system protects from a local participant muting only one pod while unknowingly sending his speaking remotely over a different and unmuted pod. An exemplary list of commands transmittable to a base and pods are listed in the following table: Command Argument Command name and byte length (in description value bytes) Arguments Mute (mutes or 0 1 Byte 0: 0=off, 1=on. unmutes the outgoing audio) Speaker volume (sets 1 1 Byte 0: 1-16 the system pod speaker volume) Ringer volume (sets the 2 1 Byte 0: 1-5 system ringer volume) Ringer selection (sets 3 1 Byte 0: 1-5 the system ringer sound) Ringer Enable/Disable 4 1 Byte 0: 0=enabled, (enables or disables the 1=disabled system ringer) Ring Indication 5 1 Byte 0: 0=ring ended, (indicates whether a 1=ring started ring is being received for display update and/or audible ring) Dial (dials a number) 6 1-44 Bytes 0-43: any of characters ‘0’-‘9’, ‘*’, ‘#’ and ‘P’ (for pause), terminated with a null character (0×00) Enable (go on/off hook) 7 1 Byte 0: 0=off hook, 1=on hook Flash (send a hook 8 0 None flash) Dial type (set dial type) 9 1 Byte 0: 0=pulse, 1=tone Flash duration (set flash 10 1 Byte 0:1-4 (value in duration) ms) Speed dial (dial a speed 11 1 Byte 0: dial number) 0-9=0 to 9th speed dial number, 10=last number (redial), 11=tech support, 12=conferencing services, 13=own number Query settings (ask the 13 0 base to send system settings) Play ringer (plays a ring 14 1 Byte 0: 1-5 sound without setting system) Country select (sets the 15 1 Byte 0: system country setting) 1=US/Canada/Mexico, 2=Europe (CTR21), 3=Australia, 4=South Africa, 5=Japan/Brazil Device ID (enumerates 16 1 Byte 0: pod locations in 0=base, 1-4=pod 1-4. system) Maximum device ID 17 1 Byte 0: number of (determines how many pods in system (1-4) pods are connected) Write memory (write 18 8 Byte 0: the pod memories) ‘X’=DSP X data memory, ‘Y’=DSP Y data memory, ‘P’=DSP program memory, ‘N’=NEC memory; Bytes 1-3: start address; Byte 4: count of addresses to write (1-3); Bytes 5-7: write values Read memory (read the 19 5 Byte 0: pod memories) ‘X’=DSP X data memory, ‘Y’=DSP Y data memory, ‘P’=DSP program memory, ‘N’=NEC memory; Bytes 1-3: start address; Byte 4: count of addresses to read (1-3) Write DSP vector 20 5 Byte 0: (writes a vector to any 1=write vector only, of the system's DSPs) 2=write value; Byte 1: vector; Bytes 2-4: value Pod response (the 21 4 Byte 0: Pod ID, response from any of Bytes 1-3: Value the prior three commands) Program mode (sets 22 0 None programming mode for pods) Base version (send the 23 19 Bytes 0-18: a string base version to the ending will NULL pods) (0×00) Pass through (sets the 24 1 Byte 0: 0=off; system pass through 1=pass through on state) pods, Base Telco In to Codec Out and Codec In to Telco Out; 2=mic switch, Base Telco In to Telco Out and Codec In to Codec Out Version request 25 1 Byte 0: (request the version of a 0=Pod controller pod) version, 1=Pod DSP version Version response (the 26 20 Byte 0: response of a version 0=Pod controller request) version, 1=Pod DSP version; Bytes 1-19: version string Test mode (sets internal 27 1 Byte 0: mode test mode) For pod enumeration commands “Device ID” and “Maximum device ID” (16 & 17) above, a slightly different mode of operation is used. For the “Device ID” command, the command is initiated at the base with a value of 0. Upon receipt of that command, a pod takes the passed value, increments it, and notes the new value as its position in the system. So a pod adjacent to a base determines an ID of 1, the next an ID of 2, and so forth. Following receipt of the “Device ID” command, each pod returns its determined value to the base using the “Maximum device ID” command. The base may know how many pods are in the system by waiting for the last “Maximum device ID” command to be received, and noting the returned ID. In the above described communication procedure, it may be desirable to have a command buffer for each pod that may store an incoming command. This might be valuable, for example, if a pod is currently sending a key press upstream while receiving a command or key press from the adjacent downstream pod. Alternatively, a token passing or acknowledgment scheme may be used to either grant permission for an adjacent pod to send a new command or to acknowledge that one was successfully received. Now the above described method of communicating commands and responses in a multi-pod conference system is only one example—many other possible modes of communication or operation might also be effectively used. For example, volume controls might be undistributed, permitting participants to adjust the level of a particular pod without changing the volume of others. Additionally, alternate connection schemes might be used. In one example, a star configuration is used, with each pod having assigned an identifier rather than the system relying on a pods positioned in a daisy-chain configuration. Rather than sending commands intended for all system pods, commands might also include the ID number (or address) of particular pods to respond and/or act on those commands. A system might also include a common communication bus, which might be wired or wireless. For a wireless bus, it may be useful to retain state at a base or a master unit and periodically update, to alleviate the possibility that one pod goes out of communications range and back. Many other modifications may be made to the communication facilities of the exemplary conference system described above while maintaining good operation, as will be understood by those skilled in the art. Virtual Microphones A conference system pod having multiple microphones may utilize virtual microphones, which are logical microphones formed by combinations of existing physical microphones in the pod. The use of virtual microphones can yield reduced common-mode noise, some examples of which are widespread noise in a room (for example the rumbling of a passing truck through the conference table), circuit-generated (power supply) noise, or RF noise (noise picked up from EM emissions to high-impedance microphones.) The use of virtual microphones may also be used to provide rejection of sound produced by a speaker arriving in-phase at microphones, as will be discussed below. Now referring to FIG. 16, the microphone and speaker configuration of earlier described pods is shown. A speaker 1600 is located at the center of the pod, with three bi-directional microphones 1602a-c surrounding at 120 degree intervals. Microphones 1602a-c each include two ports 1604a-c and 1605a-c. Each of microphones 1602a-c may include a singular element receiving sound from its corresponding ports on opposite poles of the element in a proper orientation considering the axis of sensitivity, by which the sound from one port is subtracted from the sound arriving at another port. Ports 1604a-c and 1605a-c are therefore placed where the sound from speaker 1600 travels a substantially equal distance to the microphone element. The sound arriving at one port is thereby seen by the system to be 180 degrees out of phase with the sound arriving at the other port, thereby defining a 0 degree phase and a 180 degree phase for each of microphones 1602a-c. Microphones 1602a-c might also be dual microphones, one microphone being a positive and the other a negative contributor to the received audio signal. In that case a subtracting circuit, perhaps using a low noise operational amplifier, might be used to perform the subtraction and optionally amplify the signal for analog to digital conversion. Another alternative is to do the subtraction in a processor digitally. Further in the example of FIG. 16, the sound of each microphone is amplified by amplifiers 1606a-c, and converted to digital signals by analog to digital converters 1608a-c. Those digital signals are then taken differentially in three combinations, in this example, yielding three virtual microphones 1610a-c, as shown. FIG. 17 conceptually depicts the lobes of pickup for physical and virtual microphones as configured in FIG. 16. The lobes of microphone 1602a are shown, which are labeled 1700a and 1700b, one lobe for each phase of the microphone. The lobes of microphone 1602b are also shown and labeled 1702a and b. These lobes depict the areas of sensitivity for the phases of these bi-polar microphones, i.e. sound originating within the lobe will tend to be picked up better than the sound outside. For simplicity's sake, the lobes are shown as circles, which might be representative of the actual lobes if the microphones were suspended in free air. Although the true lobes would be somewhat different, given the fact they will be mounted inside an enclosure possibly accessible through ports, the description is sufficient to show the basic characteristics of these virtual microphones. The combination of microphones 1602a and 1602b, which is represented by virtual microphone 3 labeled 1610c in FIG. 16, yields a virtual microphone having lobes 1704a and 1704b centered about the speaker. The virtual microphone lobes show a zero about the speaker, which is largely caused by the cancellation of bipolar microphones 1602a and 1602b. The main pickup lobe 1704b makes the virtual microphone sensitive to sounds away from the center of the pod and between the combined microphones, at about 6 dB increased sensitivity as compared to it's component microphones. Now in order to achieve the lobe labeled 1704b, the polarity of microphones 1602a and 1602b should be the same (i.e. if pole 1604a is positive, then 1604b should be positive, and vice versa). This ensures that the audio received at the two nearest poles are positively combined, resulting in the strongest pickup of a speaker within lobe 1704b. Two other virtual microphones each with respective lobes 120 degrees rotate from the center of the speaker can be formed by the other two microphone combinations, which are not shown. Now it is possible to combine two unipolar microphones to achieve a similar effect, however it should be kept in mind that if the two microphones are not equidistant from the speaker, echo may become a larger issue that may require enhanced echo cancellation. It is also possible to combine four, six or any even number of microphones to achieve other virtual microphones, if more microphones are provided in a system. The reason for the low noise and/or better signal-to-noise radio of virtual microphones is as follows. Power supply noise tends to be seen by the system microphones in common, i.e. noise on a ground or power supply will arrive largely equally at all of the microphones, amplifiers and A/D converters. That is also true of EMI: as EM radiation travels near the speed of light, the effects tend to be seen equally by all microphones sampled at a relatively low (audio frequency) rate. By subtracting the input of one microphone from another, this common-mode interference is canceled out. Synchronized sampling of all the A/D converters in the system may improve noise rejection, if the common mode noise is high-frequency or “glitchy” in nature (this is because the noise may be changing so rapidly that the noise may be sampled differently by different converters if they are not synchronized). The use of sample-and-hold circuits, low-pass filters or relatively large loads at the A/D inputs may also provide for better common-mode noise rejection. Now a system may use virtual microphones alone, or virtual microphones in combination with real microphones as desired. If both are used, it may be desirable to multiply the output of the virtual microphones (or the real microphones) by a scaler if the sensitivity is different between the two. While electronic conferencing systems incorporating pods have been described and illustrated in conjunction with a number of specific configurations and methods, those skilled in the art will appreciate that variations and modifications may be made without departing from the principles herein illustrated, described, and claimed. The present invention, as defined by the appended claims, may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from its spirit or essential characteristics. The configurations described herein are to be considered in all respects as only illustrative, and not restrictive. All changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within their scope. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The claimed systems and methods relate generally to electronic conferencing systems that support an audio conversation between local and remote participants, and more particularly to conferencing systems that include several pods that may be commonly controlled. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY <EOH>Disclosed herein are electronic conferencing systems that support audio conversations between local and remote participants. Further disclosed herein are methods for controlling a multi-pod conferencing system by user input at a particular pod. Detailed information on various example embodiments of the inventions are provided in the Detailed Description below, and the inventions are defined by the appended claims. | 20040602 | 20110104 | 20051229 | 75232.0 | 1 | SMITH, CREIGHTON H | COMMON CONTROL OF AN ELECTRONIC MULTI-POD CONFERENCING SYSTEM | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,860,876 | ACCEPTED | Polycyclic polymers containing pendant ion conducting moieties | A polymer comprising polycyclic repeating units having recurring ion conducting groups and optional crosslinkable groups is disclosed. The present invention provides the capability of tailoring polymers to impart unique properties to membranes fabricated from the polymers. Membranes comprising the polymers and methods for preparing the membranes and their use in ion conducting membranes, particularly in fuel cells, are also provided. | 1. An addition polymer comprising polycyclic repeating units, a portion of said repeating units contain a pendant ionic conducting moiety comprising a sulfonic acid group or salt thereof, a phosphoric acid or salt thereof, or mixtures thereof, said polycyclic repeating units having the structural formula: wherein X represents O, S, —CH2— or —CH2CH2—; n is an integer from 0 to 5 inclusive; R1 to R4 independently represent a pendant group selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1 to C20) alkyl, linear and branched (C1 to C20) haloalkyl, subject to the proviso that at least one of R1 to R4 must represent a pendant ion conducting moiety and salts thereof selected from sulfonic acid, phosphoric acid, carboxylic acid moieties and combinations thereof represented by the formulae: —(A)q—SO3H —(A)q—OP(O)(OH)(OR) —(A)q—P(O)(OH)(OR) wherein A is a spacer moiety represented by —(CH2)m—, —(CH2)mO—, —(CH2)mO(CH2)m—, O(CH2)m—, —(CH2)mNR15(CH2)m—, —(CH2)m-aryl-, —O(CH2)m-aryl-, —(CH2)mO(CH2)m-aryl-, -aryl—O(CH2)m—, —aryl—NR15(CH2)m—, —(C(R16)2)m(C(R16)2)mO(C(R17)2)a—, and wherein aryl represents phenyl, naphthyl, and anthracenyl, R is selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1 to C10) alkyl, linear and branched (C1 to C10)haloalkyl, and substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C16) aryl; R15 independently is selected from hydrogen and (C1 to C5) alkyl, R16 independently is selected from hydrogen, halogen, (C1 to C5) alkyl, and (C1 to C5) haloalkyl, R17 independently is selected from hydrogen and halogen, R18 is selected from hydrogen and (C1 to C10) alkyl and (C1 to C5) haloalkyl; a is 2 to 6; m independently is 0 to 4 and q is 0 or 1, subject to the proviso that when said ion conducting moiety is a phosphoric acid group it can not be directly connected to an oxygen atom on said spacer moiety. 2. The addition polymer of claim 1 further comprising a polycyclic repeating unit containing a pendant group selected from an alkenyl containing moiety, an alkylidenyl containing moiety, a carboxyl containing moiety, a hydroxyl containing moiety, a trialkoxysilyl containing moiety, an epoxy containing moiety, a cinnamate containing moiety, an acrylate containing moiety, a sulfonic acid containing moiety, and combinations thereof. 3. The addition polymer of claim 1 further comprising a polycyclic repeating unit represented by the structural formula: wherein R5 to R8 independently represent a pendant group selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1 to C20) alkyl; linear and branched (C1 to C20) haloalkyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C4-C12) cycloalkyl; linear and branched (C2 to C10) alkenyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C5-C8) cycloalkenyl; (C2-C10) alkynyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C24) aryl; substituted and unsubstituted (C7-C24) aralkyl; hydroxyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C1 to C10) hydroxyalkyl; —(CH2)mC(CF3)2OR; —(CH2)mC(O)OR9; —(CH2)mOR9; —(CH2)mOC(O)R9; —(CH2)mC(O)R9; —(CH2)mOC(O)OR9; —(CH2)mC(O)OR10; —(CH2)mSi(R11)3; —(CH2)mSi(OR11)3; —(CH2)mNR12SO2R13; —(CH2)mSO2NR12R13; —(CH2)mNHR; and radicals selected from the structures below: wherein b is 1 to 4; d is 0 to 2; e is 0 or 1; R9 is selected from hydrogen, linear or branched (C1 to C10) alkyl, substituted and unsubstituted (C4-C8) cycloalkyl, substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C24) aryl, and substituted and unsubstituted (C7-C24) aralkyl; R10 is selected from an acid labile group; R11 independently is selected from hydrogen and (C1 to C5) alkyl; R12 is selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1-C5) haloalkyl, linear and branched tri(C1-C10) alkylsilyl, and the groups —C(O)CF3, —C(O)OR14, and —OC(O)OR14; R13 is selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1-C10) alkyl, linear and branched (C1-C5) haloalkyl, —OR, —C(O)R, substituted and unsubstituted (C3-C8) cycloalkyl, substituted and unsubstituted cyclic esters containing 2 to 8 carbon atoms substituted and unsubstituted cyclic ketones containing 4 to 8 carbon atoms, substituted and unsubstituted cyclic ethers and cyclic diethers containing 4 to 8 carbon atoms; R14 is selected from linear and branched (C1-C10) alkyl, linear and branched (C1-C10) haloalkyl, substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C14) aryl, and substituted and unsubstituted (C7-C20) aralkyl; R19 is selected from hydrogen, —OH, and —COOR; R5 and R6 and/or R7 and R8 independently can be taken together to form a (C1-C5) alkylidenyl group or a spiral anhydride group; R6 and R7 taken together with the two ring carbon atoms to which they are attached form a cyclic anhydride group, a cyclic sulfonamide group, and a sultone group, each group containing 3 to 6 carbon atoms; and wherein X, m, n and R are as previously defined. 4. The addition polymer of claim 3 wherein said polymer is crosslinked. 5. An addition polymer comprising polycyclic repeating units wherein a portion of said repeating units are represented by the structural formula: wherein R5 to R8, X and n are as defined previously, and one of R5 to R8 represents a pendant sultone containing moiety, or R6 and R7 taken together with the carbon atoms to which they are attached represent a sultone or sultam each containing 4 to 6 carbon atoms. 6. The addition polymer of claim 5 wherein said pendant sultone containing moiety is represented by the structural formula: wherein a, m and R19 is as previously described. 7. A composition comprising the polymer of claim 3 and a crosslinking agent selected from a diamine, a diol, a thermally activated crosslinking agent and a photochemically activated crosslinking agent. 8. An ion conducting membrane comprising an addition polymer comprising polycyclic repeating units, a portion of said repeating units contain a pendant ionic conducting moiety containing a sulfonic acid group or salt thereof, a phosphoric acid or salt thereof, or mixtures thereof, said polycyclic repeating units having the structural formula: wherein X represents O, S, —CH2— or —CH2CH2—; n is an integer from 0 to 5 inclusive; R1 to R4 independently represent a pendant group selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1 to C20) alkyl, linear and branched (C1 to C20) haloalkyl, subject to the proviso that at least one of R1 to R4 must represent a pendant ion conducting moiety and salts thereof selected from sulfonic acid, phosphoric acid, carboxylic acid moieties and combinations thereof represented by the formulae: -(A)q-SO3H -(A)q-OP(O)(OH)(OR) -(A)q-P(O)(OH)(OR) —(CH2)mC(O)OH wherein A is a spacer moiety represented by —(CH2)m—, —(CH2)mO—, —(CH2)mO(CH2)m—, O(CH2)m—, —(CH2)mNR15(CH2)m—, —(CH2)m-aryl-, —O(CH2)m-aryl-, —(CH2)mO(CH2)m-aryl-, -aryl-O(CH2)m—, -aryl-NR15(CH2)m—, —(C(R16)2)m(C(R16)2)mO(C(R17)2)a—, and wherein aryl represents phenyl, naphthyl, and anthracenyl, R is selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1 to C10) alkyl, linear and branched (C1 to C10)haloalkyl, and substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C16) aryl; R15 independently is selected from hydrogen and (C1 to C5) alkyl, R16 independently is selected from hydrogen, halogen, (C1 to C5) alkyl, and (C1 to C5) haloalkyl, R17 independently is selected from hydrogen and halogen, R18 is selected from hydrogen and (C1 to C10) alkyl and (C1 to C5) haloalkyl; a is 2 to 6; m independently is 0 to 4 and q is 0 or 1, subject to the proviso that when said ion conducting moiety is a phosphoric acid group it can not be directly connected to an oxygen atom on said spacer moiety. 9. The ion conducting membrane of claim 8 further comprising a polycyclic repeating unit containing a pendant group selected from an alkenyl containing moiety, an alkylidenyl containing moiety, a carboxyl containing moiety, a hydroxyl containing moiety, a trialkoxysilyl containing moiety, an epoxy containing moiety, a cinnamate containing moiety, an acrylate containing moiety, a sulfonic acid containing moiety, and combinations thereof. 10. The ion conducting membrane of claim 8 further comprising a polycyclic repeating unit represented by the structural formula wherein R5 to R8 independently represent a pendant group selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1 to C20) alkyl; linear and branched (C1 to C20) haloalkyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C4-C12) cycloalkyl; linear and branched (C2 to C10) alkenyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C5-C8) cycloalkenyl; (C2-C10) alkynyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C24) aryl; substituted and unsubstituted (C7-C24) aralkyl; hydroxyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C1 to C10) hydroxyalkyl; —(CH2)mC(CF3)2OR; —(CH2)mC(O)OR9; —(CH2)mOR9; —(CH2)mOC(O)R9; —(CH2)mC(O)R9; —(CH2)mOC(O)OR9; —(CH2)mC(O)OR10; —(CH2)mSi(R11)3; —(CH2)mSi(OR11)3; —(CH2)mNR12SO2R13; —(CH2)mSO2N12R13; —(CH2)mNHR; and radicals selected from the structures below: wherein b is 1 to 4; d is 0 to 2; e is 0 or 1; R9 is selected from hydrogen, linear or branched (C1 to C10) alkyl, substituted and unsubstituted (C4-C8) cycloalkyl, substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C24) aryl, and substituted and unsubstituted (C7-C24) aralkyl; R10 is selected from an acid labile group; R11 independently is selected from hydrogen and (C1 to C5) alkyl; R12 is selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1-C5) haloalkyl, linear and branched tri(C1-C10) alkylsilyl, and the groups —C(O)CF3, —C(O)OR14, and —OC(O)OR14; R13 is selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1-C10) alkyl, linear and branched (C1-C5) haloalkyl, —OR, —C(O)R, substituted and unsubstituted (C3-C8) cycloalkyl, substituted and unsubstituted cyclic esters containing 2 to 8 carbon atoms substituted and unsubstituted cyclic ketones containing 4 to 8 carbon atoms, substituted and unsubstituted cyclic ethers and cyclic diethers containing 4 to 8 carbon atoms; R14 is selected from linear and branched (C1-C10) alkyl, linear and branched (C1-C10) haloalkyl, substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C14) aryl, and substituted and unsubstituted (C7-C20) aralkyl; R19 is selected from hydrogen, —OH, and —COOR; R5 and R6 and/or R7 and R8 independently can be taken together to form a (C1-C5) alkylidenyl group or a spiral anhydride group; R6 and R7 taken together with the two ring carbon atoms to which they are attached form a cyclic anhydride group, a cyclic sulfonamide group, and a sultone group, each group containing 3 to 6 carbon atoms; and wherein X, m, n and R are as previously defined. 11. The membrane of claim 9 wherein said addition polymer is crosslinked. 12. An electrode comprising the membrane of claim 8. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims benefit to Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/476,889, filed Jun. 6, 2003. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates generally to polycyclic polymers that contain pendant recurring ion conducting moieties and more specifically to films and membranes fabricated therefrom. BACKGROUND Proton conducting membranes (PEM) are widely utilized in electrochemical devices which employ a chemical reaction to produce or store electricity. Exemplary electrochemical devices include fuel cells, electrolysis cells, hydrogen separation cells, and batteries. An increasingly important use for PEM materials is in fuel cells. A fuel cell generates electricity from the electrochemical reaction of a fuel (e.g., hydrogen, methane or methanol) and oxygen. A fuel cell contains a PEM interposed between an anode and a cathode, each contained in its own compartment. The anode and the cathode are connected through an external circuit which can have a load such as an electric drive motor. Anodes and cathodes are generally coated with precious metals such as platinum to catalyze the electrochemical reactions occurring at the anode and cathode. At the anode, hydrogen (from the fuel source) is oxidized to protons and electrons. The electrons are conducted by the anode through the external load and back to the cathode. The protons are transported directly across the PEM to the cathode where they are combined with electrons (returning from the external load) and oxygen to form water. The ability of the PEM to effectively conduct protons to the cathode while acting as an impermeable barrier to fuel cell gases and liquids are integral factors in maintaining fuel cell efficiency. The flow of current is sustained by a flow of protons across the PEM and electrons through the external load. Theoretically, fuel cells can produce power continuously so long as the supply of fuel and oxygen is sustained and the PEM material maintains its physical integrity and proton conducting efficiency. All fuel cells are limited by the performance of the PEM. There are many types of fuel cell configurations in common use (e.g., direct hydrogen/air fuel cell, indirect hydrogen/air fuel cell, and organic fuel cell), each having associated advantages and disadvantages. One type of fuel cell is the direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC). A DMFC utilizes methanol as the proton source. An aqueous solution of methanol is directly fed into cell, where the fuel is oxidized at the anode to produce CO2, electrons and protons. The protons are transported across the PEM where oxygen is reduced to water at the cathode. The PEM plays a very important role in the operation of fuel cells. On one hand it acts as a proton conducting medium, permitting the transfer of hydrated protons (H3O+) from the anode to the cathode, and on the other hand it functions as a barrier that is impermeable to fuel cell gases and liquids. The PEM must meet many specifications relating to mechanical, chemical, and electrical properties. For example, the polymer must be able to be cast into thin films without defects. The mechanical properties must permit the membrane to withstand assembly operations such as being clamped between metal frames. The polymer must have good stability to hydrolysis and exhibit good resistance to harsh chemical reactions such as oxidation and reduction. The polymer must exhibit good thermal stability as well as a need to endure wide fluctuations in temperature conditions. The PEM must also have an affinity for hydration since the transport of protons across the polymer membrane occurs in the form of hydronium ions in aqueous medium. Finally, the PEM must have high proton conductivity or the ability for proton transport across the membrane. This conductivity is provided by the ability to functionalize the polymer with strong acidic groups. Heretofore, various polymers have been utilized for the PEM but with only limited success. One such polymer is Nafion® (available from DuPont) which is a sulfonated poly(perfluoroethylene). Despite this limited success, Nafion polymers are generally considered to be the current standard PEM. However, the use of such perfluoroethylene polymers as PEM's can be problematic. For example, while in many current applications the membrane is maintained at an operating temperature close to ambient (i.e., not exceeding 80° C.), higher operating temperatures (approaching 120° C. and above) are desirable from the standpoint of increasing catalyst efficiency at the anode. Perfluoroethylene polymers such as Nafion generally suffer from poor thermal stability and mechanical strength at such higher operating temperatures. Generally, after thirty days of continuous exposure to operating temperatures of 120° C. perfluoroethylene polymers are virtually unusable. It is believed that such poor thermal stability and mechanical strength of perfluoroethylene polymers are due to their lack of a crosslinked structure. Another issue with membranes fabricated from perfluoroethylene polymers arises from the requirement to maintain high levels of moisture within the membrane. A high level of hydration is necessary to facilitate trans-membrane proton transport, while reduced levels of hydration results in decreased proton transport efficiency. Accordingly, it is necessary to humidify the membrane during fuel cell operation to maintain transport efficiency. This requires additional equipment to regulate and maintain the overall water balance requirements of the fuel cell. However, as temperatures in the fuel cell are increased to take advantage of higher catalyst efficiencies, an attendant decrease in humidity levels occurs within the cell. Consequently, the fuel cell must be pressurized when cell temperatures exceed 100° C. Another problem found with perfluoroethylene polymers is in their use in direct methanol fuel cells. Since perfluoroethylene polymers can be permeable to methanol, methanol can leak from the anode compartment across the membrane into the cathode compartment reducing fuel cell efficiency. Recently, on Jan. 23, 2001, a new PEM material was disclosed in Japanese published Patent Application No. 2001-019723, assigned to Toyota Central Research & Development Lab Inc. The PEM of this application is a copolymer formed of norbornene monomers with an olefinic monomer such as trifluorostyrene. As with Nafion perfluoroethylene polymers, the polymer disclosed in the Toyota application is not crosslinked. In addition, the disclosed polymer contains only one type of functionality pendant from the polymer backbone (i.e., a sulfonic acid functionality added to the phenyl ring of the styrenic repeating unit). Therefore it would appear that this polymer would suffer some of the same drawbacks of the Nafion polymers. Accordingly, there is still an unsatisfied need for new polymers which can be readily fabricated into thin film membranes and which can be tailored to meet the stringent conditions required by operating fuel cells. Such thin film membranes should require little or no additional humidification, and should be capable of being operated at elevated temperatures, for example in excess of 120° C., and/or they should be more resistant to methanol permeability than Nafion type polymer membranes, advantageously making them advantageous for proton conducting membranes of fuel cells and the like. DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Exemplary embodiments in accordance with the present invention will be described. Various modifications, adaptations or variations of such exemplary embodiments described herein may become apparent to those skilled in the art as such are disclosed. It will be understood that all such modifications, adaptations or variations that rely upon the teachings of the present invention, and through which these teachings have advanced the art, are considered to be within the scope and spirit of the present invention. In one aspect, embodiments of the present invention relate to polymer compositions that encompass a polycyclic addition polymer containing recurring pendant ion conducting groups along the polymer backbone. In some embodiments of the present invention a polycyclic addition polymer is post-functionalized to contain recurring pendant ion conducting moieties. Some exemplary embodiments in accordance with the present invention relate to crosslinked and non-crosslinked polymers and polymerizable compositions for preparing such polymers. Other embodiments relate to polymers that are easily tailored for use in harsh environmental conditions. Yet other such embodiments relate to polymer films and membranes containing ion conducting groups as well as selected optional functional groups that are suitable for use as ion conducting membranes in electrolytic and fuel cell applications. Polymers The polycyclic polymer of the present invention comprises polycyclic repeating units that are substituted with a pendant ion conducting moiety. In some embodiments of the invention, the polycyclic addition polymers comprise one or more repeating units selected from Formula I (described below). In other embodiments of the invention, the polycyclic addition polymer comprises one or more repeating units selected from Formula I and one or more repeating units selected from Formula II (described below). The repeating unit under Formula I is represented by a structure(s) selected from: wherein X represents —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, O, or S, n is an integer from 0 to 5 inclusive; R1 to R4 independently represent a substituent selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1 to C20) alkyl, linear and branched (C1 to C20) haloalkyl, subject to the proviso that at least one of R1 to R4 must represent a pendant ion conducting moiety or salts thereof selected from sulfonic acid, phosphoric acid and carboxylic acid moieties represented by the formulae: -(A)q-(SO3H)r -(A)q-OP(O)(OH)(OR) -(A)q-P(O)(OH)(OR) —(CH2)mC(O)OH wherein A is a spacer moiety represented by —(CH2)m—, —(CH2)mO—, —(CH2)mO(CH2)m—, —O(CH2)m—, —(CH2)mNR15(CH2)m—, —(CH2)m-aryl-, —O(CH2)m-aryl-, —(CH2)mO(CH2)m-aryl-, -aryl-O(CH2)m—, -aryl-NR15(CH2)m—, —(C(R16)2)m(C(R16)2)mO(C(R17)2)a—, -(aryl)m-(aryl)m-, and wherein aryl represents phenyl, naphthyl, and anthracenyl, R is selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1 to C10) alkyl, linear and branched (C1 to C10)haloalkyl, and substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C16) aryl; R15 independently is selected from hydrogen and (C1 to C5) alkyl, R16 independently is selected from hydrogen, halogen, (C1 to C5) alkyl, and (C1 to C5) haloalkyl, R17 independently is selected from hydrogen and halogen, R18 is selected from hydrogen and (C1 to C10) alkyl and (C1 to C5) haloalkyl; a is 2 to 6; m independently is 0 to 4, r is 1 to 3, and q is 0 or 1, subject to the proviso that when said ion conducting moiety is a phosphoric acid group it can not be directly connected to an oxygen atom on said spacer moiety. In the spacer moieties that contain an aryl group it is to be recognized that the sulfonic acid or phosphoric acid group can be covalently bonded to any aryl carbon atom in the aryl group(s). For purposes of illustration, when A is the bridging moiety —O(CH2)m-aryl-, the pendant ion conducting moiety can be represented as set forth below: wherein r independently is 0 or 1, subject to the proviso that r cannot all be 0 at the same time (i.e., one sulfonic acid group has to be present when the aryl group is naphthalene and anthracene). As used here and throughout the specification, it should be noted that the diagonal line set forth in the above formulae represents a covalent bond to any of the carbon atoms present in the carbocyclic and heterocyclic rings. It is to be recognized that when the bond is present on a particular carbon atom that carbon atom will contain one less hydrogen atom to balance its valence. As used here and throughout the specification, the term haloalkyl means that at least one hydrogen atom on the alkyl group is replaced with a halogen atom selected from fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and combinations thereof. The degree of halogenation can range from at least one hydrogen atom on the alkyl radical being replaced by a halogen atom (e.g., a monofluoromethyl group) to full halogenation (e.g., perhalogenation) wherein all hydrogen atoms on the alkyl group have been replaced by a halogen atom (e.g., trifluoromethyl or perfluoromethyl). The haloalkyl groups useful in embodiments of the invention are partially or fully halogenated and are linear or branched, and in one embodiment are represented by the formula CzX″2z+1 wherein X″ independently is selected from hydrogen and halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine) and z is selected from an integer of 1 to 20, and at least one of X″ must be a halogen atom. The repeating unit under Formula II is represented by a structure(s) selected from: The substituents R5 to R8 independently represent a radical selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1 to C20) alkyl; linear and branched (C1 to C20) haloalkyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C4-C12) cycloalkyl; linear and branched (C2 to C10) alkenyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C5-C8) cycloalkenyl; (C2-C10) alkynyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C24) aryl; substituted and unsubstituted (C7-C24) aralkyl; hydroxyl; substituted and unsubstituted (C1 to C10) hydroxyalkyl; —(CH2)mC(CF3)2OR; —(CH2)mC(O)OR9; —(CH2)mOR9; —(CH2)mOC(O)R9; —(CH2)mC(O)R9; —(CH2)mOC(O)OR9; —(CH2)mC(O)OR10; —(CH2)mSi(R11)3; —(CH2)mSi(OR11)3; —(CH2)mNR12SO2R13; —(CH2)mSO2NR12R13; —(CH2)mNHR; and the groups selected from the structures below: and a pendant sultone selected from: wherein b is 1 to 4; d is 0 to 2; e is 0 or 1; and R19 is selected from hydrogen, —OH, and —COOR. R5 to R8 can also represent a pendant epoxy, acrylate or cinnamate moiety represented by, but not limited to, the structures set forth under Formulae IIA as follows: In Formula II and IIA X, m, n and R are as previously defined. R9 is selected from hydrogen, linear or branched (C1 to C10) alkyl, substituted and unsubstituted (C4-C8) cycloalkyl, substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C24) aryl, and substituted and unsubstituted (C7-C24) aralkyl. R10 is selected from an acid labile group. R11 independently is selected from hydrogen and (C1 to C5) alkyl. R12 is selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1-C5) haloalkyl, linear and branched tri(C1-C10) alkylsilyl, and the groups —C(O)CF3, —C(O)OR14, and —OC(O)OR14. R13 is selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1-C10) alkyl, linear and branched (C1-C5) haloalkyl, —OR, —C(O)R, substituted and unsubstituted (C3-C8) cycloalkyl, substituted and unsubstituted cyclic esters (lactones) containing 2 to 8 carbon atoms (excluding the carbonyl carbon), substituted and unsubstituted cyclic ketones containing 4 to 8 carbon atoms (excluding the carbonyl carbon), substituted and unsubstituted cyclic ethers and cyclic diethers containing 4 to 8 carbon atoms. R14 is selected from linear and branched (C1-C10) alkyl (preferably t-butyl), linear and branched (C1-C10) haloalkyl, substituted and unsubstituted (C6-C14) aryl, and substituted and unsubstituted (C7-C20) aralkyl. R5 and R6 or R7 and R8 can be taken together to form a (C1-C5) alkylidenyl group or a spiral anhydride group. R6 and R7 taken together along with the two ring carbon atoms to which they are attached can form a cyclic anhydride group, a cyclic sulfonamide (sultam) group or a sultone group containing 3 to 6 carbon atoms. For illustrative purposes, a polycyclic repeating unit wherein n is 0 and R5 and R6 or R7 and R8 are taken together to form a spiral anhydride group is represented as follows: For illustrative purposes, a polycyclic repeating unit wherein n is 0 and R6 and R7 taken together with the two ring carbon atoms to which they are attached form a cyclic anhydride group is represented as follows: Sultams formed by R6 and R7 taken together with the two ring carbon atoms contributed by the polycyclic repeating unit are represented by the formulae: wherein R is as previously defined. Sultone groups formed by R6 and R7 taken together with the two ring carbon atoms contributed by the polycyclic repeating unit are represented by the formulae: In the sultam and sultone groups represented above, it is to be recognized that the ring carbon atoms contributed by the polycyclic ring to which R6 and R7 are attached can be any two consecutive carbon atoms in the sulfonamide or sultone ring. Accordingly, for illustrative purposes, the polycyclic repeating units containing cyclic sulfonamide (sultam) and sultone groups are represented as follows: wherein X, n and R are as previously described, and a and a′ independently represent an integer of 0 to 4. The sum of a and a′ can not exceed 4, and a and a′ can not both be 0 at the same time. Additional polycyclic repeating units containing sulfonamide groups that can be present in the polymer backbone are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,849, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. As used in the definition of R10 in Formula II, an acid labile group is defined herein to mean a blocking or protecting moiety capable of being cleaved from a carboxy group in the presence of an acid. Upon cleavage of the protecting moiety, for example by hydrolysis, a polar functional group is formed which can confer different solubility characteristics to the polymer. Representative acid labile groups under R10 are selected from but not limited to a radical selected from —C(CH3)3, —Si(CH3)3, —CH(R6)OCH2CH3, —CH(R6)OC(CH3)3, dicyclopropylmethyl, dimethylcyclopropylmethyl, or the following cyclic groups: wherein R19 represents hydrogen or a linear or branched (C1-C5) alkyl group. The alkyl substituents include but are not limited to methyl, ethyl, propyl, i-propyl, butyl, i-butyl, t-butyl, pentyl, t-pentyl and neopentyl. In the above structures, the single bond line projecting from the illustrated cyclic groups represents the covalent bond between the acid labile group and the oxygen atom of the carboxyl group. It is also to be recognized that this covalent bond and the R19 substituent can be situated on any ring carbon atom as shown in the heterocyclic moieties above. In one embodiment, the bond to the carboxyl group and the R19 substituent are situated on the same ring carbon atom forming a tertiary ring carbon as illustrated in several of the cyclic moieties set forth above. By the term substituted as used here and throughout the specification is meant that the substituent is selected from linear and branched (C1-C5) alkyl, (C1-C5) haloalkyl, (C4-C8) cycloalkyl, phenyl, halogen, and combinations thereof. The degree of substitution can range from monosubstitution to multisubstitution. The ion conducting group containing polymers of the present invention comprise repeating units of Formula I in optional combination with repeating units set forth under Formula II defined above. Optionally, the ion conducting group containing polymers of the present invention can include in addition to the repeating units defined under Formula I and/or Formula II, one or more repeating units polymerized from acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, maleic acid, itaconic acid, citraconic anhydride, itaconic anhydride, maleic anhydride, and linear and branched (C1-C5) alkyl esters of acrylic acid, and sulfur dioxide. When latent crosslinking of the polymer is desired, at least a portion of the polycyclic repeating units of the polycyclic backbone of embodiments of the present invention contain pendant latent crosslinkable groups. Latent crosslinkable groups are incorporated into the polymer backbone by copolymerizing a polycycloolefin monomer containing a pendant latent crosslinking group or moiety into the polymer. These monomers are characterized by being readily copolymerizable with the other monomers of the invention, and also by being capable of curing (i.e., crosslinked), generally in the presence of a catalyst, by means of heat and/or radiation. Crosslinkable ion conducting group containing polymers can be provided, for example, by including a co-repeating unit that contains a crosslinkable functional group. Suitable crosslinkable functional groups include but are not limited to the pendant alkenyl, alkylidenyl, carboxylic acid, hydroxyl, trialkoxysilyl, acrylate cinnamate and epoxy moieties that are represented by substituents R5 to R8 defined under Formulae II and IIA. Representative crosslinkable moieties are set forth but not limited to the moieties under Formula IIA. The polymers are crosslinked subsequent to polymerization and functionalization (latent crosslinking) by effecting a crosslinking reaction between co-reactive crosslinkable moieties. In some embodiments of the invention, the polymers suitable for use in the polymer compositions comprise from about 95 to about 5 mole % (based on the total mole % of the repeating units contained in the polymer backbone) of at least one polycyclic repeating unit defined under Formula I and from about 5 to about 95 mole % of at least one polycyclic repeating unit defined under Formula II. In other embodiments of the invention, the polymer comprises from about 80 to about 20 mole % of at least one polycyclic repeating unit defined under Formula I and from about 20 to about 80 mole % of at least one polycyclic repeating unit defined under Formula II. In yet another embodiment, the polymer comprises from about 70 to about 30 mole % of at least one polycyclic repeating unit defined under Formula I and from about 30 to about 70 mole % of at least one polycyclic repeating unit defined under Formula II. In still another embodiment, the polymer comprises from about 60 to about 40 mole % of at least one polycyclic repeating unit defined under Formula I and from about 40 to about 60 mole % of at least one polycyclic repeating unit defined under Formula II. In still another embodiment, the polymer comprises from about 20 to about 60 mole % of at least one polycyclic repeating unit defined under Formula I and from about 40 to about 80 mole % of at least one polycyclic repeating unit defined under Formula II. In another embodiment of the invention, the polymer comprises from about 1 to about 10 mole % of a repeating unit polymerized from a monomer selected from acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, maleic acid, itaconic acid, citraconic anhydride, itaconic anhydride, maleic anhydride, and linear and branched (C1-C5) alkyl esters of acrylic acid, sulfur dioxide, and mixtures thereof. It will be evident to one of ordinary skill that when the repeating units derived from these monomers are in the polymer backbone that the mole % of one or both of the repeating units set forth under Formulae I and II will be reduced accordingly. In other words, the total mole percentage of repeating units set forth under Formulae I and II in optional combination with the other repeating units set forth immediately above, can not exceed 100 mole %. Repeating units of Formulae II and IIA that contain latent crosslinkable groups are present in the backbone in a sufficient amount to enhance the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of the polymer as well as films and membranes produced therefrom. The amount (in terms of mole %) of repeating units containing the pendant crosslinkable moieties present in the copolymer backbone must be sufficient to result in a crosslink density adequate to achieve the desired membrane properties. Determining this amount of crosslinkable repeating units needed to achieve the desired membrane properties can be easily determined by routine experimentation. However, for illustrative purposes, some embodiments of the present invention can contain a range of from about 1 to about 50 mole % (based on the total mole % of the repeating units contained in the polymer backbone) of a repeating unit containing a crosslinkable moiety. In other embodiments, the amount of the repeating unit containing the crosslinkable moiety present in the polymer backbone ranges from about 1 to about 20 mole %. In yet other embodiments in accordance with the present invention, the amount can range from about 1 to about 10 mole %. Latent Crosslinking The latent crosslinkable pendant groups can be reacted via a variety of chemistries known to initiate the reaction of selected functional groups. While it is generally advantageous to initiate crosslinking of the latent crosslinkable pendant groups of polymer embodiments of the present invention thermally, in some embodiments of the invention, a crosslinking reaction is initiated by a photochemically generated free radical initiator. In other embodiments, the latent crosslinking reaction is initiated by a thermally generated acid (thermoacid generator or TAG). In a further embodiment of the invention, the crosslinking reaction is initiated by a photoacid generator. In yet a further embodiment, combinations of the thermally and photochemically generated free radical initiator (TAG and PAG) crosslinking agents can be utilized to effect polymer crosslinking. In another embodiment, polymers containing pendant silyl groups can be crosslinked by a hydrolysis reaction. In yet another embodiment, polymers containing pendant carboxylic acid and hydroxy groups can be crosslinked via transesterification. In a further embodiment, polymer chains containing pedant sulfonic acid containing moieties can be spontaneously crosslinked by heating the polymers to effect a hydrolysis reaction between respective sulfonic acid moieties. In a still further embodiment of the invention, a diamine or diol crosslinking agent is utilized to crosslink the instant polymers that contain co-reactive functional groups. By thermally induced is meant that the initiator is inert until its decomposition temperature is reached. Upon reaching the decomposition temperature a free radical initiator or a strong free acid is formed to initiate or catalyze the crosslinking reaction. By photo-chemically induced is meant that a free radical initiator or strong acid is generated upon exposure to a radiation source. The thermally and photochemically activated crosslinking agents are employed to induce the crosslinking reaction between two mutually reactive groups that are pendant from the same or different polymer chains. For example, the alkenyl (any group containing carbon-carbon unsaturation), cycloalkenyl, and alkylidenyl groups can be crosslinked via a free radical mechanism in the presence of the photo and thermally activated free radical crosslinking agents. The alkoxysilyl groups can be crosslinked with each other in the presence of moisture at elevated temperature via a hydrolysis reaction mechanism. Epoxy groups can be reacted together in the presence of a TAG or PAG generated acid resulting in an ether linkage. Carboxyl and hydroxyl moieties can be crosslinked in the presence of a strong acid (H2SO4) or base (KOH) via transesterification, resulting in an ester linkage. Suitable thermally induced free radical thermal initiators for crosslinking pendant unsaturated moieties include organic peroxides and aliphatic azo compounds. The aliphatic azo compounds are suitable initiators for the thermal and photo activated crosslinking embodiments of the invention, while the organic peroxides are suitable for use as thermally activated initiators only. The thermal crosslinking reaction is initiated by a thermal curing agent which generates an acid upon thermal activation. The thermally generated acid in turn catalyzes the crosslinking reaction of the epoxy functionality. The thermal curing agents or thermal acid generators include many of the PAGs set forth above. In addition to photo-activation, it is well known that PAGs can be activated at elevated temperatures. Generally, the activation temperatures range from about 25° C. to about 250° C. Suitable thermal acid generators include the onium salts set forth above. It should be apparent to those skilled in the art that any thermally activated initiator can be employed so long as it is capable of initiating a crosslinking reaction of the crosslinkable functionality on the polymer backbone. Examples of such thermal curing agents or thermal acid generators include, but are not limited to, imidazoles, primary, secondary and tertiary amines, quaternary ammonium salts, anhydrides, polysulfides, polymercaptans, phenols, carboxylic acids, polyamides, quaternary phosphonium salts, and combinations thereof. Suitable thermal curing agents are set forth in Chemistry and Technology of Epoxy Resins, Chapman & Hall, Bury St. Edmunds, England, 1993, pp. 37-71, B. Ellis, editor.) The organic peroxide initiators include but are not limited to dibenzoyl peroxide, di(2,4-dichlorobenzoyl) peroxide, diacetyl peroxide, diisobutyryl peroxide, dilauroyl peroxide, t-butylperbenzoate, t-butylperacetate, 2,5-di(benzoylperoxy)-1,2-dimethylhexane, di-t-butyl diperoxyazelate, t-butyl peroxy-2-ethylhexanoate, t-amyl peroctoate, 2,5-di(2-ethylhexanoylperoxy)-2,5-dimethylhexane, t-butylperoxyneodecanoate, ethyl 3,3-di(t-butylperoxy)butyrate, 2,2-di(t-butylperoxy)butane, 1,1-di(t-butylperoxy)cyclohexane, 1,1-di(t-butylperoxy)-3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexane, 2,5-di(t-butylperoxy)-2,5-dimethylhex-3-yne, di-t-butyl peroxide, 2,5-di(t-butylperoxy)-2,5-dimethylhexane, dicumyl peroxide, n-propyl peroxydicarbonate, i-propyl peroxydicarbonate, cyclohexyl peroxydicarbonate, and acetyl peroxydicarbonate. The azo initiators include but are not limited to 2,2′-azobis[2,4-dimethyl]pentane, 2-(t-butylazo)-4-methoxy-2,4-dimethylpentanenitrile, 2,2′-azobis(i-butyronitrile), 2-(t-butylazo)-2,4-dimethylpentanenitrile, 2-(t-butylazo)i-butyronitrile, 2-(t-butylazo)-2-methylbutanenitrile, 1,1-azobis-cyclohexanecarbonitrile, 1-(t-amylazo)cyclohexanecarbonitrile, and 1-(t-butylazo)cyclohexanecarbonitrile. In one latent crosslinking embodiment of the invention, polymer chains having pendant sulfonic acid containing moieties are crosslinked with diamine and diol crosslinking agents. In this embodiment a TAG or PAG initiator is not necessary to initiate the crosslinking reaction. The diamine or diol crosslinking agent is added to the sulfonic acid containing polymer in a sufficient amount to crosslink the polymer. The crosslinking reaction is initiated by applying a heat to the polymer composition to initiate hydrolysis between respective sulfonic acid groups on the polymer and the amine or hydroxy groups of the diamine or diol crosslinking agent. Suitable diamine and diol crosslinking agents are represented by the formulae: H2N-D-NH2 and HO-D-OH, wherein D represents a substituted or unsubstituted alkylene group containing 1 to 10 carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group. Representative alkylene groups include methylene, ethylene, propylene and butylene. Representative aryl groups include phenyl, naphthyl, and anthracenyl. In one embodiment of the invention, D is phenylene wherein the amino or diol moieties are situated in the meta or para positions on the ring. An exemplary crosslinking reaction is schematically represented as follows: wherein D is as defined above. The polymers of the invention that contain pendant sulfonic acid containing moieties can also be crosslinked through the hydrolysis of two sulfonic acid groups that are in proximity to one another. The hydrolysis reaction is initiated by applying a sufficient amount of heat to the polymer composition, such as is shown below: Monomers Polymers in accordance with the present invention are prepared by: (a) polymerizing a monomer composition that encompasses (a) polycycloolefin monomer(s) having the desired ion conducting moiety(ies); (b) polymerizing a monomer composition encompassing one or more functional groups containing polycycloolefin monomer(s) to obtain a precursor polymer containing pendant groups that are subsequently post-functionalized to a desired ion conducting moiety; (c) polymerizing a polycycloolefin monomer composition encompassing the polycycloolefin monomer(s) set forth in monomer compositions (a) and (b) to obtain a precursor polymer that is subsequently post-functionalized to contain additional ion conducting moieties; and (d) polymerizing a monomer composition that encompasses the polycycloolefin monomer composition set forth in (a), (b) or (c) in combination with a monomer selected from (meth)acrylic acid and linear and branched (C1-C5) alkyl esters of acrylic acid, maleic anhydride and sulfur dioxide, and mixtures thereof. It will be understood that generally, ion conducting moieties are too reactive to allow for direct polymerization, therefore most polymerizations encompass monomers with protected ion conducting pendant groups or such groups are created after polymerization. Examples of such post-functionalization are provided herein below. In some embodiments of the invention, the polymerizable polycycloolefin monomer composition set forth in (a) encompasses one or more monomers represented by Formula Ia below: wherein X and n are as previously defined; R1 to R4 independently represent a substituent selected from hydrogen, linear and branched (C1 to C20) alkyl, linear and branched (C1 to C20) haloalkyl, subject to the proviso that at least one of R1 to R4 must represent a pendant ion conducting moiety and salts thereof selected from the formulae: -(A)q-(SO3H )r -(A)q-OP(O)(OH)(OR) -(A)q-P(O)(OH)(OR) —(CH2)nC(O)OH wherein A is a spacer moiety represented by —(CH2)m—, —(CH2)mO—, —(CH2)mO(CH2)m—, —O(CH2)m—, —(CH2)mNR15(CH2)m—, —(CH2)m-aryl-, —O(CH2)m-aryl-, —(CH2)mO(CH2)m-aryl-, -(aryl)m-(aryl)m—, —aryl-O(CH2)m—, and -aryl-NR15(CH2)m—, wherein q, m, r, aryl, R and R15 are as previously defined. In another embodiment of the invention, the polymerizable polycycloolefin monomer composition set forth in (b) encompasses one or more monomers independently selected from a monomer represented by Formula IIa below: wherein X, n, and R5 to R8 are as previously defined. In a further embodiment, the polymerizable polycycloolefin monomer composition set forth in (c) encompasses one or more monomers independently selected from a monomer represented by Formula IA in combination with one or more monomers independently selected form a monomer represented by Formula IIa. In a still further embodiment in accordance with the present invention, the polymerizable monomer composition encompasses one or more polycycloolefin monomers selected from a monomer represented by (i) Formula Ia; (ii) Formula IIa; and (iii) Formula Ia and Formula IIa; all in combination with a monomer selected from acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, maleic acid, itaconic acid, citraconic anhydride, itaconic anhydride, maleic anhydride, and linear and branched (C1-C5) alkyl esters of acrylic acid, and sulfur dioxide, and mixtures thereof. Embodiments of present invention provide the capability of tailoring polymers to impart specific properties to membranes fabricated from the polymers. In particular, the polycyclic polymers of the present invention may contain only one type of ion conducting functional group or any combination of ion conducting functional groups with other functional groups that impart the ability to crosslink or to make the polymer more hydrophilic. For example, monomers having ion conducting functionalities can be polymerized with monomers having crosslinkable functionalities and with monomers that contain functionalities that can be later modified (post-functionalized) to desired functionalities, thereby providing a polymer having all three functionalities. The overall composition of the polymer can be easily adjusted by changing the type and the relative proportions of the variously functionalized monomers. Mixtures of monomer and additives can be used to further tailor the polymer composition. Upon polymerization, the monomers participate in the polymerization reaction to form a polymer, while electrolyte additives without polymerizable functionalities do not. This results in an intimately mixed composite material of polymer and additive. The additive can be a plasticizer to help improve the mechanical properties of the polymer or dopants to improve the conductivity of the polymer. Exemplary dopants are phosphoric acid, various phosphonates, and heteropolyacids such as H3Mo12PO40H2O). The additives can be added in the polymerization medium as describe above or be added to the polymer membrane casting solution. The polycycloolefin monomers in accordance with the present invention can be obtained commercially or easily synthesized via well known synthesis routes. Illustratively, an economical route for the preparation of hydrocarbyl substituted and many functionally substituted polycyloolefin monomers relies on the Diels-Alder addition reaction in which cyclopentadiene (CPD) or substituted CPD is reacted with a suitable dienophile at elevated temperatures to form the substituted norbornene-type adduct generally shown by the following reaction scheme: R1 to R4 independently represent hydrogen, hydrocarbyl, or any functional group, such as, for example, the R groups previously described under R1 to R8. In cases where the desired functional substituent can not be directly synthesized via the Diels-Alder reaction, a polycycloolefin containing a precursor substituent that can be synthesized via the Diels-Alder process and subsequently reacted with a reactant to give the desired functional group. CPD is economically obtained by the pyrolysis of dicyclopentadiene (DCPD). Higher polycycloolefin adducts can be prepared by the thermal pyrolysis of dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) in the presence of a suitable dienophile. The reaction proceeds by the initial pyrolysis of DCPD to CPD followed by the Diels-Alder addition of CPD and the dienophile to give the adduct shown below: In the above formula, n represents the number of bicyclic units in the monomer, and R1 to R4 are as described immediately above. The number of bicyclic units (n) in the monomer can be increased by allowing the Diels-Alder adduct to further react with additional CPD units. Olefinic polycycloolefins containing fused ring sultones and sultams (i.e., sultones and sultams formed by R6 and R7 taken together with the two ring carbon atoms contributed by the polycyclic moiety) can be prepared via the Diels-Alder reaction of CPD with an olefinic sultone/sultam exemplified as follows: wherein Y represents an oxygen and nitrogen atom. Other synthesis methods for obtaining the fused ring sultones and sultams are described in Synthesis and Diels-Adler reactions of α,β-unsaturated γ-sultone; Albert W. Lee et al., Chemical. Communications (Cambridge), 1997, 6; 611-612; Synthesis and Diels-Alder reactions of prop-1-ene-1,3-sultone, and chemical transformations of the Diels-Adler adducts, La Sheng Jiang et al., Tetrahedron Letters, 1999, 55(8), 2245-2262; and Synthesis and Diels-Alder reactions of unsaturated sultams, K. F. Ho et al., Tetrahedron Letters, 2001, 42(17), 3121-3124. Pendent sultone moieties can be prepared by the Diels-Aider synthesis route by reacting CPD with an alkenyl sultone as shown schematically below: Alkenyl sultones can be synthesized by reacting a sultone With an alkyllithium (e.g., n-butyllithium) followed by the addition of an alkenyl bromide (e.g., allylbromide) to yield the desired alkenyl sultone. Such reaction is schematically represented below: wherein p is 0 to 6 and b is as previously defined. Polymerization of Monomers The polycyclic monomer compositions set forth under (a), (b), (c), and (d) above can be prepared by vinyl-addition polymerization in the presence of a single or multi-component Group VIII transition metal catalyst or a free radical catalyst initiator. In one embodiment of the invention the Group VIII transition metal catalysts employ nickel and palladium compounds. Such catalysts are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,136,499; 6,303,724; and 6,455,650, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference. Free radical polymerization techniques are generally set forth in the Encyclopedia of Polymer Science, John Wiley & Sons, 13, 708 (1988). More specifically, free radical copolymerization of cyclic olefins and maleic anhydride (COMA type resins) have been disclosed in the literature by U. Okoroanyanwu, et. al., Proc. SPIE, 92, 3049 (1997). Generally, in a free radical polymerization process, the monomers are polymerized in a solvent at an elevated temperature (about 50° C. to about 150° C.) in the presence of a free radical initiator. Suitable initiators include but are not limited to azo compounds and peroxides. Examples of free radical initiators are azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN), benzoyl peroxide, lauryl peroxide, azobisisocapronitrile, azobisisovaleronitrile and t-butylhydroperoxide. In one embodiment of the invention the free radical catalyst initiators are particularly useful when polymerizing the polycycloolefin monomers set forth under Formula Ia and/or Formula IIa in combination with a monomer selected from acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, maleic acid, itaconic acid, citraconic anhydride, itaconic anhydride, maleic anhydride, and linear and branched (C1-C5) alkyl esters of acrylic acid, sulfur dioxide, and mixtures thereof. It will be recognized that when it is desired to incorporate latent crosslinking moieties into the polymer backbone via free radical polymerization, care should be taken not select monomers that contain pendant free radically polymerizable carbon-carbon unsaturation, as the polymer will crosslink during the free radical polymerization reaction. Advantageously, polymers in accordance with the present invention are tailorable in that a myriad of functional groups (in addition to combinations of different ion conducting groups) can be readily incorporated into the polymer backbone. For example, if a backbone with more hydrophilic character is desired, monomers that contain hydrophilic groups (e.g., carboxylic acids, diacids, and protected acids) are easily polymerized into the polymer. Nickel containing catalysts useful for making the polymers utilized in this invention are represented by the formula: EjNi(C6F5)2 wherein j is 1 or 2 and E represents a neutral 2 electron donor ligand. When j is 1, E preferably is a pi-arene ligand such as toluene, benzene, and mesitylene. When j is 2, E is preferably selected from diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran (THF), ethyl acetate (EtOAc) and dioxane. The ratio of monomer to catalyst in the reaction medium can range from about 5000:1 to about 50:1 in some embodiments of the invention, and in other embodiments at a ratio of about 2000:1 to about 100:1. The reaction can be run in a suitable solvent at a temperature range from about 0° C. to about 70° C. In some embodiments, the temperature can range from about 10° C. to about 50° C., and in other embodiments from about 20° C. to about 40° C. Exemplary catalysts of the above formula are (toluene)bis(perfluorophenyl) nickel, (mesitylene)bis(perfluorophenyl) nickel, (benzene)bis(perfluorophenyl) nickel, bis(tetrahydrofuran)bis(perfluorophenyl) nickel, bis(ethyl acetate)bis(perfluorophenyl) nickel and bis(dioxane)bis(perfluorophenyl) nickel. Palladium containing catalysts useful for making the polymers utilized in this invention can be prepared as a preformed single component catalyst or prepared in situ by admixing a palladium containing procatalyst with an activator in the presence of the desired monomer(s) to be polymerized. The preformed catalyst can be prepared by admixing the catalyst precursors such as a procatalyst and activator in an appropriate solvent, allowing the reaction to proceed under appropriate temperature conditions, and isolating the reaction product a preformed catalyst product. By procatalyst is meant a palladium containing compound that is converted to an active catalyst by a reaction with a cocatalyst or activator compound. The description and synthesis of representative procatalysts and activator compounds are set forth in U.S. Pat. No. 6,455,650, supra. Some palladium procatalysts suitable for the polymerization of the monomers of the invention are represented by the formula: (Allyl)Pd(P(R21)3)(L′) wherein R21 is selected from isopropyl and cyclohexyl; and L′ is selected from trifluoroacetate, and trifluoromethanesulfonate (triflate). Representative procatalyst compounds in accordance with such formula are (allyl)palladium(tricyclohexylphosphine)triflate, (allyl)palladium(triisopropylphosphine)triflate, (allyl)palladium(tricyclohexylphosphine)trifluoroacetate, and (allyl)palladium(triisopropylphosphine)trifluoroacetate. Representative activator compounds are selected from lithium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl) borate (LiFABA) and N,N-dimethylaniliniumtetrakis(pentafluorophenyl) borate (DANFABA). In another embodiment of the invention, a palladium compound, Pd(OC(O)CH3), a phosphine compound, and the activators, LiFABA or DANFABA, referred to above can be mixed in situ with the desired monomer(s) to be polymerized. Representative phosphine compounds are phosphines such as tricyclohexylphosphine and triisopropylphosphine. In one embodiment of the invention, the molar ratio of palladium procatalyst (based on the palladium metal) to activator is 1 to 2. In another embodiment, the ratio is 1 to 4, and in another embodiment the ratio is 1 to 1. It should be noted that the order of addition of the various catalyst components mentioned above to the reaction medium is not important. The palladium catalysts in accordance with the present invention exhibit a high activity at monomer to procatalyst molar ratios (i.e., monomer to palladium metal) of over 100,000:1. In some embodiments of the invention, monomer to procatalyst ratios can range from about 100,500:1 to about 1,000,000:1. In other embodiments, from about 110,000:1 to about 500,000:1, and in still other embodiments from about 120,000:1 to about 250,000:1. While these catalysts have been found to be active at monomer to catalyst metal molar ratios of over 100,000:1, it should be recognized that it is within the scope of this invention to utilize monomer to catalyst metal molar ratios of less than 100,000:1. Depending on the activity of a particular catalyst, the reactivity of a certain monomer, the desired molecular weight, or desired polymer backbone tacticity, higher concentrations of catalyst to monomer loading are well within the scope of the present invention (i.e., monomer to catalyst loadings of 50:1 to 99,999:1). The copolymerization of cyclic olefin monomers with acrylate type monomers using palladium type catalysts is disclosed in published U.S. patent application Ser. No. 20040063885 by L. Rhodes, et. al., entitled Photo-imageable compositions of norbornene and acrylate copolymers and use thereof, and assigned to Sumitomo Bakelite Co. Ltd., and Penn State Research Corporation, pertinent parts of which are incorporated herein by reference. While exemplary free radical, nickel and palladium type initiators/catalysts have been described herein, it will be understood that such are illustrative and are not intended to limit the scope of such initiators or catalysts that are within the scope and spirit of the present invention. Suitable polymerization solvents for the free radical and vinyl addition polymerization reactions include hydrocarbon and aromatic solvents. Exemplary hydrocarbon solvents include but are not limited to alkanes and cycloalkanes such as pentane, hexane, heptane and cyclohexane. Exemplary aromatic solvents include but are not limited to benzene, toluene, xylene and mesitylene. Other organic solvents such as diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran, acetates (e.g., ethyl acetate), esters, lactones, ketones and amides are also useful. Mixtures of one or more of the foregoing solvents can be utilized as a polymerization solvent. In the free radical polymerization of the monomers of the invention, molecular weight can be controlled by changing the, initiator to monomer ratio and/or the polymerization reaction time. When utilizing the vinyl-addition nickel and palladium catalysts disclosed above, the molecular weight of the polymer can be controlled by employing a chain transfer agent disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,136,499 the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. In one embodiment of the invention, α-olefins, (e.g., ethylene, propylene, 1-hexene, 1-decene, 4-methyl-1-pentene) and cyclohexene are suitable as molecular weight control agents. In one embodiment of the invention, the polymers have a weight average molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 1,000,000, in another embodiment from about 80,000 to about 300,000, and in still another embodiment from about 100,000 to about 125,000. Molecular weights of the polymers obtained were measured by use of gel permeation chromatograph (GPC) using polynorbornene standards (A modification of ASTM D3536-91). Instrument: Alcot 708 Autosampler; Waters 515 Pump; Waters 410 Refractive Index Detector. Columns: Phenomenex Phenogel Linear Column (2) and a Phenogel 106 Å Column (all columns are 10 micron packed capillary columns). Samples are run in monochloro-benzene. The absolute molecular weight of the polynorbornene standards was generated utilizing a Chromatics CMX 100 low angle laser light scattering instrument. Polymer Functionalization In some embodiments of the invention, the polycyclic polymers that encompasses one or more of the repeating units polymerized from the polycycloolefin monomer compositions described under (a), (b), (c), and (d) above can be post-functionalized (derivatized) to obtain a polymer containing recurring pendant ion conducting groups. In some embodiments, the polycyclic polymer (i.e., the precursor polymer) must contain a functional group that can be chemically derivatized to obtain a desired ion conducting group. In another embodiment of the invention, a selected pendant moiety containing an aryl group, a hydroxyl group, a primary and secondary amino group, or a fused ring and/or pendant sultone/sultam can be derivatized in the presence of an appropriate sulfonating agent or hydrolysis reagent to obtain a sulfonic acid ion conducting moiety. In one representative embodiment, a polycyclic polymer that encompasses a repeating unit containing a fused ring sultone or a fused ring sultam can be hydrolyzed in the presence of a base to yield a pendant sulfonic acid group as schematically represented below: wherein Y represents oxygen (sultone) and the heteroatom group —NR— (sultam) and R is as previously defined. When hydrolyzing the fused ring sultone moiety to the respective sulfonic acid group, the polycyclic polymer containing the fused sultone repeating unit is dissolved in an appropriate solvent (e.g., toluene or THF) and a stoichiometric amount of base (e.g., sodium hydroxide), is used as the hydrolysis reagent. By stoichiometric amount is meant the amount of base required to hydrolyze (ring-open) the sultone ring to form the respective sulfonic acid group. When conducting the hydrolysis of the fused sultam to the respective sulfonic acid group, an excess amount of base is utilized in order to completely hydrolyze the sulfonamide functionality to the sulfonic acid. Otherwise, the amine group on the sulfonamide functionality will remain intact requiring additional base to completely hydrolyze the sulfonamide to the sulfonic acid group. In another embodiment of the invention, a polycyclic polymer that encompasses a repeating unit containing a pendant sultone or sultam can be hydrolyzed to the sulfonic acid as described for the fused ring embodiments disclosed above. In another embodiment, the pendant sultone can be hydrolyzed and then derivatized in the presence of an alkali metal (C1-C5) alkoxide (e.g., sodium ethoxide), followed by hydrochloric acid to yield a derivatized sulfonic acid moiety. as shown below: When hydrolyzed in the presence of a stronger base such as aqueous sodium hydroxide followed by acidification using hydrochloric acid, the pendant sultone moiety ring-opens to yield a hydroxyl derivatized sulfonic acid moiety as shown in the reaction scheme below: In the above reaction schemes b and m are as previously defined. In other embodiments of the invention, polycyclic polymers that encompasses repeating units containing pendant hydroxyl moieties or primary and secondary amine moieties can be derivatized by reacting a substituted or unsubstituted sultone with these moieties in the presence of a base (e.g., sodium hydride), yielding a sulfonic acid group. The sultone can contain 3 to 6 carbon atoms. The reactions are schematically represented below: In the structures represented immediately above, Y′ represents hydroxyl group and a primary and secondary amine group represented by the radical —NHR, M represents a divalent bridging moiety selected from any of the hydroxyl and primary and secondary amine containing moieties set forth in the disclosure herein, and R is as previously defined. It should be noted that the carbon atoms in the sultone ring (noted by numbering) can optionally be substituted as described hereinabove. In some embodiments of the invention the carbon atoms can be substituted with fluorine. In other embodiments of the invention, a hydroxy containing moiety can be derivatized via a substitution reaction wherein the hydroxy group is replaced by chlorine by a reaction with thionyl chloride, followed by reacting the chlorinated substituent with a sulfonation reagent (e.g., sodium sulfite) to yield a sulfonic acid derivative according to the following reaction scheme: In still another embodiment, repeating units containing pendant hydroxy moieties can be reacted with sulfoacetic acid to obtain the corresponding sulfonic acid moiety as set forth in U.S. Pat. No. 6,523,699. In a further embodiment of the invention, polycyclic polymers that encompasses repeating units having pendant aryl groups (e.g., phenyl and naphthyl), can be sulfonated in the presence of a sulfonation agent. Typical sulfonation agents are known in the art and can be selected from concentrated sulfuric acid (75 wt. % to 95 wt. % in H2O), chlorosulfonic acid, and a sulfuric acid/sulfur trioxide reagent. Typical reaction schemes for the sulfonation of pendant aryl groups are set forth below: wherein M represents a divalent bridging moiety selected from any of the aryl containing moieties set forth in the disclosure herein. In another embodiment a aryloxy (e.g., phenoxy), substituent can be synthesized from the iodomethyl derivative obtained above which derivative is subsequently sulfonated as shown below: The sulfonation agent can be selected from sulfuric acid (75 wt. % to 95 wt. % in H2O), chlorosulfonic acid, and sulfuric acid/sulfur trioxide as set forth above. In a further embodiment, polymers containing repeating units having a pendant unsaturated group such as alkylidenyl (e.g., ethylidenyl), vinyl, and alkenyl (e.g., hexyl) groups in accordance with the functionalities described above, can be sulfonated in the presence of sulfur trioxide complexes such as sulfur trioxide N,N-dimethylformamide complex and sulfur trioxide dioxane complex. In another embodiment of the invention, a polycyclic homopolymer containing recurring pendant methyl acetate groups can be fully or partially derivatized to a hydroxy methyl derivative by treating the methyl acetate containing polymer with a hydroxylation agent, (e.g., aqueous sodium hydroxide with tetrabutyl ammonium bromide). The resultant hydroxy group containing polymer can then be sulfonated to the respective sulfonic acid derivative with any of the sulfonation agents described above. Copolymers containing polycyclic co-repeating units having pendant methyl acetate groups and polycyclic co-repeating units having pendant hydroxy methyl groups can be synthesized by controlling the amount of hydroxylation agent in the reaction. By regulating the stoichiometry of the reaction, the amount of methyl acetate groups that are converted to the hydroxy functionality can be controlled. Accordingly, when the hydroxy groups are derivatized to the sulfonic acid via sulfonation, copolymers having recurring methyl acetate groups and sulfonic acid groups can be obtained, as is schematically represented below: The foregoing post-functionalization reactions are conducted in the appropriate solvent(s) and at the appropriate reaction temperatures. By appropriate solvent is meant that the solvent must be able to solubilize the polymer to be functionalized and not deleteriously interfere with the selected sulfonation reagent. As one of ordinary skill in the art will recognize polymer solubility will depend on a number of factors including the type of functional moiety present on the polymer backbone. Suitable solvents include hydrocarbon solvents, aromatic solvents and chlorinated solvents. Suitable hydrocarbon solvents include but are not limited to alkanes and cycloalkanes such as pentane, hexane, heptane and cyclohexane. Exemplary aromatic solvents include but are not limited to benzene, toluene, xylene and mesitylene. Suitable chlorinated solvents include but are not limited to dichloromethane, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, ethylchloride, 1,1-dichloroethane, 1,2-dichloroethane, 1-chloropropane, 2-chloropropane, 1-chlorobutane, 2-chlorobutane, 1-chloro-2-methylpropane, and 1-chloropentane, and chlorobenzene. Other organic solvents such as diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran, anisole, acetates, esters, lactones, ketones, and amides are also useful. In one embodiment of the invention, the reactions are conducted under an inert atmosphere. The amount of sulfonating agent to employ in the foregoing sulfonation reactions will depend on the amount of sulfonation desired on the polymer backbone. The amount of reagent can range from a slight stoichiometric excess (if all co-reactive functional groups on the backbone are to be sulfonated) to a stoichiometric deficient amount (if the co-reactive functional groups on the backbone are to be partially sulfonated). Exemplary amounts of sulfonating reagent can range from about 0.1 to about 100 mole equivalents (based on the mole equivalents of co-reactive functionality on the polymer backbone). In another embodiment, the amount of sulfonating reagent employed ranges from about 1 to about 20 mole equivalents, and in further embodiment ranges from about 2 to about 5 mole equivalents. The sulfonation reaction temperature can range from about −20° C. to about 80° C. The reaction is allowed to proceed to completion, which generally can range from 1 minute to about 48 hours. Generally, the sulfonation reaction ranges from about 1 to about 2 hours. Following the sulfonation reaction, the post-functionalized polymer can be precipitated in solvent suitable for isolating the polymer from the reaction medium. Polymer Membranes The polycyclic polymers of the present invention containing recurring ion conducting moieties (e.g., pendant sulfonic acid, carboxylic acid, and phosphoric acid groups, combinations thereof and salts thereof), are suitable for use in compositions for casting polymer films and membranes. In one embodiment of the invention, the films find use in fuel cell applications as proton exchange membranes (PEM). Films for use in PEM applications can be produced by conventional methods and known processes. In one embodiment, one or more of the polycyclic polymers each containing one or more of the aforementioned ion conducting moieties is dissolved in a suitable solvent. The polymer solution is optionally filtered and degassed and then spread or coated onto a support where the solvent is removed by heating (soft baking) to a temperature sufficient to evaporate the residual solvent. Heating can occur under vacuum or in an inert atmosphere. The support can be any suitable substrate such as, for example, an electrode (e.g., anode and cathode), a glass or metal sheet, fabric, or a web. The dried polymer film is optionally removed from the substrate and rinsed with deionized water. In addition to repeating units containing pendant ion conducting groups, other repeating units containing pendant functional groups can optionally be contained in the polymer. For example, repeating units containing carboxylic acid moieties can be incorporated to increase the hydrophilic character of the polymer. Repeating units containing crosslinkable moieties can be polymerized into the backbone and subsequently crosslinked following the casting of the membrane in order to increase the physical integrity of the membrane. If a crosslinked polymer membrane is desired, a polycyclic polymer containing a crosslinkable moiety (ies) set forth above can be incorporated into the polymer as previously described. The molar amount or number of repeating units containing the crosslinkable groups should be sufficient to prevent the polymer from dissolving in solvent but not exceeding an amount that causes the crosslinked membrane material to become brittle or lose the requisite physical properties. It should also be noted that if latent crosslinking is desired, the crosslinkable moieties that are selected to be polymerized into the polymer backbone should not be sensitive to the sulfonation agent utilized in the post-functionalization step. This avoids the premature crosslinking of the polymer membrane. The polymer is first isolated from the reaction medium and purified to remove spent catalyst system components. The purified polymer is then dissolved in an appropriate inert solvent. An inert solvent is one that acts only as a carrier for the polymer and is essentially completely removed at some point in the coating or curing process. Suitable inert solvents include hydrocarbon, aromatic and organic solvents. Exemplary hydrocarbon solvents include but are not limited to alkanes and cycloalkanes such as pentane, hexane, heptane and cyclohexane. Exemplary aromatic solvents include but are not limited to benzene, toluene, xylene and mesitylene. Exemplary organic solvents such as diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), anisole, acetates, esters, lactones, ketones, and amides are also useful. Mixtures of one or more of the foregoing solvents can be utilized so long as they are capable of dissolving the polymer. Additives to enhance the physical properties of the polymer composition can be added as desired. Dopants to increase the conductivity of the membrane can also be added at this point. In some embodiments of the invention, the polymer solution has polymer solids content of from about 1 to about 50 weight % in solvent (based on the total weight of the polymer and solvent). In one embodiment, the solids content ranges from about 5 to about 30 weight %, and in still another embodiment from about 10 to about 20 wt. %. In some embodiments, solution viscosities can range from about 10 to about 25,000 centipoise (cps). In other embodiments, solution viscosities can range from about 100 cps to about 3000 cps. Exemplary methods for coating the polymer solution onto a substrate are spin coating, dip coating, brush coating, roller coating, spray coating, solution casting, fluidized bed deposition, extrusion coating, curtain coating, meniscus coating, by doctor blade, and the like. Generally, spin coating and curtain coating are preferred due to their simplicity and high uniformity. In some embodiments in accordance with the present invention, crosslinking of portions of the polymer film are crosslinked to improve the methanol permeability characteristics or mechanical properties of the membrane, This is accomplished by including into repeat units of the polymer chain that encompass latent crosslinking functional groups that can be activated photochemically, thermally or chemically. In one embodiment in accordance with the present invention, exposing the polymer film to photon radiation (e.g., electron beam, x-ray, ultraviolet or visible radiation) will initiate the crosslinking reaction. Suitable radiation sources include mercury, mercury/xenon, xenon lamps, KrF laser, x-ray or e-beam. Following exposure to photon radiation, the coated substrate is subjected to a post-exposure bake cycle. This cycle increases the reaction rate of the crosslinking reaction. The acid species have increased mobility during this cure cycle allowing the acid to find and react with non-crosslinked functionality thereby further enhancing the pattern definition. In one embodiment of the invention, the post-exposure bake is conducted in an oven under inert atmosphere (e.g., nitrogen, argon or helium) at a temperature of from about 50° C. to 200° C. for a period of time between 5 minutes and 60 minutes. In another embodiment, the cure temperature ranges from about 100° C. to about 150° C. for a time period of between 10 minutes and 40 minutes. In still another embodiment, the temperature ranges between 110° C. and 130° C. for a time period of between 15 minutes and 30 minutes. While several latent crosslinking chemistries have been discussed herein it should be recognized that any suitable crosslinking system can be employed to crosslink the films of the invention so long as it does not deleteriously detract from the operation of the invention. There are several ways of obtaining sulfonic acid groups in the polymer side chain, three of which, referred to herein as Type I, Type II and Type II are relevant to embodiments of the present invention and are discussed herein below. Type I: Ring opening of sultone groups present in the polymer side chain. Synthesis of various monomers that contain sultone groups in the side chain are envisioned. Using transition metal catalysts, one can form soluble copolymers. These copolymers can be converted to the sulfonic acid containing polymers by well known base hydrolysis of the sultone groups followed by acidification as shown in the reaction scheme below: Type II: Use of a nucleophillic bearing side group (such as an alcohol or amine functional group) to ring open a reactive sultone additive. Reaction Types I and II typically result in alkylated sulfonic acid functional groups. Type III: Sulfonation of homopolymers and copolymers of norbornene monomers that contain aromatic groups. This is accomplished by use of common homogenous and heterogeneous sulfonation reagents. Common sulfonation reagents include sulfuric acid, chlorosulfonic acid, SO3, SO3.DMF, SO3.etherate and acetyl sulfate. Along these lines one can envision using a variety of aromatic monomers to obtain polymers similar to the one described above. The aromatic monomers can be, but not limited to multicyclic species such as naphthyl containing norbornene or biphenyl containing species. Sulfonation of such polymers will likely result in multiple sulfonic acid groups per repeat unit. Another important composition is the identity of the comonomer that is used along with the aromatic species. In some cases it could be an alkyl chain or it could be a fluorinated (partially or perfluorinated alkyl group) species. One experienced in the art can envision using combinations of reactions described above, as long as the functional groups and the comonomers are not adversely affected during the process of sulfonation or reaction with the sultone. Combination of reaction types I, II and III will yield polymers that contain both alkylated and aromatic sulfonic acid functional groups. The following examples are for illustrative purposes and are not intended to limit the invention in any way. Ratios of repeating units incorporated into the polymer backbones are given in molar weight percent. TYPE I EXAMPLES Example 1 a) Synthesis of allyl sultone Under nitrogen, atmosphere 1,4-butane sultone (129.4 g, 0.95 mol) was dissolved in anhydrous tetrahydrofuran (1500 ml) in a 500 ml three-necked flask containing a mechanical stir bar. The solution was cooled to −78° C. in a dry ice acetone bath. Under nitrogen, n-butyllithium in pentane (100 ml, 10M) was slowly added over a 30 minute time period wherein some precipitate formed. After stirring for five minutes at −78° C., allylbromide (114.9 g, 0.95 mol) was added over one hour. The obtained clear colorless solution was stirred at −78° C. for two hours. The reaction mixture was poured into a separatory funnel containing ethyl acetate (500 ml), and shaken. The organic phase was separated, washed with brine, dried over magnesium sulfate and evaporated to remove solvent. 80 g (48% yield) of a colorless liquid was obtained. 1H NMR and 12C NMR confirmed the presence of the allyl sultone conforming to the structure: b) Synthesis of NB-CH2-Sultone Allyl sultone (80 g, 0.45 mol.) as synthesized in the previous example was mixed with dicyclopentadiene (15 g, 0.114 mol.) and charged into a high pressure reactor. The mixture was heated at 180° C. for 6 hours. After this the reactor was cooled and the reaction mixture was drained. The crude material was purified by distillation under vacuum. About 22 g of pure product was obtained. The purity of the monomer was confirmed by gas chromatography and 1H NMR analysis confirmed the structure. c) Copolymerization of NB-CH2-Sultone and NB-MCP To a glass vial containing a stir bar under argon was placed 2.42 g of NB-CH2-Sultone and 2.20 g of NB-MCP in a 30 wt. % toluene solution. A nickel catalyst solution was prepared in a dry-box by dissolving 0.196 g of (toluene)Ni(C6F5)2 catalyst in 0.8 g of dry toluene. The catalyst solution was added to the monomer via a dry syringe, followed by the addition of 10 g of toluene. The monomer to nickel ratio was 50:1. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for three hours where a dark brown and viscous polymer product was obtained. To the obtained product was added 100 ml of ethyl to dissolve the product. 20 ml of Amberlite® IRC-718 ion exchange resin was added to the solution and stirred overnight at room temperature. The polymer solution was filtered through a 0.22 micron Teflon® filter where a colorless filtrate was obtained. The polymer filtrate solution was concentrated by removing solvent and poured into methanol to precipitate the polymer. A white precipitate formed. The precipitate was placed in a vacuum oven at 70° C. and dried overnight to afford 4.08 g of white polymer powder. 1H NMR analysis confirmed the presence of a copolymer having repeating units conforming to structures below: Example 2 a) Synthesis of Hydroxy Functionalized Norbornene Sultone Synthesis of hydroxyl containing sultone norbornene monomer(HO-SuI-NB): In a 3-neck 250 mL round bottom flask equipped with a mechanical stirrer and a thermometer, 1,4-butane sultone (27.2 g, 0.20 mol) was dissolved in anhydrous tetrahydrofuran, THF (150 mL). To the solution at −7° C., n-Butyl Lithium 10M in hexane (21.0 mL, 0.21 mol) was added drop wise, followed by the slow addition of 5-norbornene-2-carboxaldehyde (24.4 g, 0.20 mol) by syringe. The reaction mixture was stirred overnight allowing the temperature to rise to ambient. It was worked up by pouring the reaction mixture into water. The organic extracted into an ethyl acetate solution was washed with water then dried over the MgSO4. After removal of solvents by evaporation, the crude product was purified by crystallization in ethyl acetate to give 21 g, 40.6% yield. NMR showed the endo/exo isomers ratio is 89/11. For one major endo isomer 1H NMR (500 MHz in CDCl3): 6.20 (dd, 1H), 6.04 (dd, 1H), 4.47 (m, 2H), 3.73 (m, 1H), 3.08 (m, 1H), 3.04 (m, 1H), 2.84 (m, 1H), 2.2-2.35 (m, 3H), 1.97 (m, 2H), 1.74 (m, 1H), 1.46 (m, 1H), 1.24 (m, 1H), 0.5 (d, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, in CDCl3): 138.06, 132.63, 74.21, 70.86, 62.32, 49.22, 44.15, 42.46, 41.51, 28.87, 24.40, 21.94. FI-MS m/e: 258 b) Synthesis of Copolymers of t-BuEsterNB and HO-SuI NB In a 100 ml crimped vial, t-BuEsterNB (3.4 g, 17.5 mmol) and SuIOHNB (1.94 g, 7.5 mmol) were dissolved in anhydrous toluene (40 mL). The monomer solution was then purged with nitrogen gas for 30 minutes. A nickel catalyst solution was prepared in a dry-box by dissolving of (toluene)Ni(C6F5)2 catalyst (0.25 g, 0.5 mmol) in 10 ml of dry toluene. The catalyst solution was added to the monomer via a dry syringe. The reaction mixture was then stirred overnight. The polymer was precipitated into hexane and filtered. It yielded 3.5 g of white powder. The polymer was characterized with C13 NMR (173.4 ppm, (C═O); 79.24 ppm, (tertiary C of t-butyl ester); 62-78 (br), m, (3C-alcohol, and C next to sultone), 43.7 ppm (br), 28.52 s, t-butyl groups). The polymerization reaction is schematically represented below: Example 3 a) Copolymer of HexylNorbornene and HO-SuI-NB (Prospective) In a 100 ml crimped vial, hexylnorbornene (3.12 g, 17.5 mmol) and SuIOHNB (1.94 g, 7.5 mmol) is dissolved in anhydrous toluene (40 mL). The monomer solution is then purged with nitrogen gas for 30 minutes. A nickel catalyst solution which is typically prepared in a dry-box by dissolving of (toluene)Ni(C6F5)2 catalyst (0.25 g, 0.5 mmol) in 10 ml of dry toluene. The catalyst solution is then added to the monomer via a dry syringe. The reaction mixture is then stirred at room temperature for a few hours, following which the polymer is isolated by precipitation into hexane and filtration. The resulting polymer is hydrolyzed using aqueous base conditions to a polymer containing sulfonic acid moiety. The resulting polymer is precipitated into ethanol and dried in a vacuum oven for a few hours. This polymer is then dissolved in DMSO and formulated with (3,4-epoxycyclohexylmethyl-3,4-epoxycylohexane carboxylate. The solvent is evaporated at 60° C. for 12 hours to form a dry film, which is then baked at 150° C. under vacuum to obtain a crosslinked film/membrane. TYPE II EXAMPLES Example 4 100 g of Appear™ 3000 or poly (methyl acetate norbornene) (manufactured by Promerus, LLC) was dissolved in 1L toluene with vigorous stirring. To this polymer solution was slowly added, aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide (28 g of sodium hydroxide in 200 mL of water), using an addition funnel. This was followed by slow addition of a solution of tetra n-butyl ammonium bromide (22.6 g in 100 mL of water). The reaction mixture was stirred and heated to 60° C. for 2 hours. The solution turned from transparent to opaque with eventual formation of precipitates. The solution was then poured into 5 L of methanol and the precipitates were filtered, washed with methanol and water several times. The precipitate was then dried in a vacuum oven. 72 g of white powder, poly (hydroxyl methyl norbornene), was obtained in a yield of 96%. 2.41 g of sodium hydride (55 wt % in mineral oil) and 1 L of DMSO were placed in a flask, under an atmosphere of nitrogen gas. All of the following reactions were carried out in an atmosphere of nitrogen. To this 24.8 g of poly(hydroxy methyl norbornene) (prepared by above described procedure) was added to the solution little by little under a nitrogen gas stream. The solution was then heated at 85° C. for 1 hour with stirring. Following this, 5.12 ml of 1,4-butanesultone was added thereto. Thereafter, the solution was heated at 85° C. for another 30 minutes with efficient stirring. The solution turned yellow and the viscosity of the solution decreased considerably. The solution was filtered hot and the filtrate was poured into a tray, dried at 60° C. for 12 hours. Following this, the dried material was immersed in 1 M hydrochloric acid for 12 hours, and then immersed in doubly distilled, deionized water for 12 hours, thus obtaining a film (FN-1) Structure of FN-1 Example 5 To 20 g of FN-1 in 1 L of DMSO, was added 20 ml of dehydrated pyridine and 1 L of acetic anhydride. The solution was allowed to react for 12 hours. The solution was then allowed to settle and the supernatant fluid was removed by decantation. The residual solution containing a solid on the bottom of the beaker was added to a large amount of doubly distilled, deionized water. Next, the solid was filtered, washed with deionized water three times, and then dried to obtain 25 g of a solid of FN-2 (yield: 88%). 3 g of this FN-2 was dissolved in 100 ml of dimethyl sulfoxide, and the solution was poured in a tray and then dried at 60° C. After 12 hours, the polymer was removed to obtain a free standing film. Structure of FN-2 EXAMPLES OF TYPE III Example 6 To a glass vial equipped with a stir bar and maintained under nitrogen was placed 35 g of Decyl norbornene, 70 g of phenyl ethyl norbornene and 5.3 g of 1-hexene in 400 ml of dry toluene. The solution was allowed to heat at 80° C. and stirred for an hour. A palladium catalyst solution (0.011 g of allyl palladium tricyclohexylphosphine trifluoroacetate catalyst in 0.25 ml of dry methylene chloride) and co-catalyst solution (0.064 g of DAN-FABA co-catalyst in 0.75 ml of dry methylene chloride) were prepared in a dry box. The catalyst solution and co-catalyst solution were added to the reaction mixture via a dry syringe. At these weights, the ratio of monomers to palladium catalyst to co-catalyst ratio was 25K:1:4. The reaction solution was stirred at 80° C. for two hours where the viscosity of the reaction solution was significantly increased. In order to ensure reaction termination, added 10 ml of acetonitrile. The polymer was isolated by precipitation into methanol. The obtained polymer was washed with methanol several times and dried under vacuum at 80° C. for 8 hours. The yield was determined to be 91 g of solid polymer. The ratio was determined by NMR to be 70/30 PENB/DecylNB. 70/30 Dec/PhE-PNB (10 g) as synthesized in the previous example was dissolved into 500 ml of dichloroethane and 200 ml of chloroform at room temperature. The reaction vessel was charged with nitrogen and cooled to 0° C. after the polymer was completely dissolved. A chlorosulfonic acid solution consisting of 4.15 g of chlorosulfonic acid and 4.15 g of chloroform was slowly added to the polymer solution keeping the temperature of the solution under 5° C. The solution was allowed to stir for two hours following the addition of chlorosulfonic acid. To this reaction solution 50 ml of methanol was added to terminate the reaction. The sulfonated polymer was then precipitated into about 1 L of acetonitrile. The resulting polymer was washed with 700 ml of acetonitrile and 700 ml of deionized water two times. The polymer was filtered and dried to obtain 11.2 g of a solid (FN-3). Following this, the dried FN-3 was immersed in 1 M sodium chloride aqueous solution for 12 hours to convert into the sodium sulfonate form, and then, immersed in deionized water for a further 12 hours. 1 g of this sodium-form of FN-3 was dissolved in 100 ml of dimethyl sulfoxide, and the solution was poured in a tray that is heated at 50° C. in order to evaporate the solvent. After 12 hours a free standing film was removed from the tray. This was then immersed in 1M hydrochloric acid aqueous solution to convert to the acid form. The final cleaning was done by immersing in deionized water for 12 hours, thus obtaining the film (FN-3). Structure of FN-3 Where m:n=70:30 Example 7 This prophetic example is presented to demonstrate that various multicyclic aromatic norbornene-type monomers can be prepared. Generally, such monomers are formed by first adding the multicyclic aromatic moiety to a norbornene-type structure, polymerizing the resultant monomer with other appropriate monomers and subsequently functionalizing the aromatic portion of the now repeating units of the polymer as described herein below: Synthesis of Multicyclic Aromatic Bearing Norbornene Species 5-norbornene-2-methoxy mesylate (50 g, 0.25 mol.) is weighed out into a flask along with 2-naphthol (31.09 g, 0.275 mol.) and potassium carbonate (41.5 g, 0.3 mol.). To this mixture, is added 250 mL of ethanol. This mixture is refluxed for about 12 hours. Upon filtration, followed by removal of solvent one is able to isolate the crude product, which is further purified by dissolving in dichloromethane and washing with 5% sodium bicarbonate solution in water. The product, NBCH2—O-Nap is isolated by recrystallization from hexane. In a similar fashion, other aromatic polycyclic norbornene monomers can be synthesized. Additionally, the same products can be obtained by substituting 5-norbornene-2-methoxy mesylate with 5-norbornene-2-methoxy tosylate or 5-norbornene-2-methyl halide (chloride, bromide or iodide). Naphthyl, biphenyl or other multicyclic aromatic monomers can be polymerized and subsequently functionalized with sulfonic groups as described in Example 6, above. Example 8a a) Synthesis of PENB:C6F13NB (70:30) All glassware was dried in an oven at 125® C. for at least 8 hours and then cooled under vacuum. The glassware was then transferred into a glove box and the reaction vessel was assembled inside the glove box. Trifluorotoluene (C6H5—CF3) (64 g), Phenyl ethyl norbornene (6 g, 0.03 mol) and perfluorohexyl norbornene (5.3 g, 0.013 mol) were added to the reaction vessel. This will give you a 15 wt % solution in the solvent. The reaction vessel was removed from the glove box and connected to a dry nitrogen line. The reaction solution was degassed by passing a stream of nitrogen gas through the solution for 10 minutes. Inside the glovebox, 0.42 g (0.86 mmol) of bis(perfluorophenyl) (η6-toluene) Nickel catalyst was dissolved in 3 ml of trifluorotoluene, taken up in a 5 mL syringe, removed from the glove box and injected into the reactor. The reaction was stirred at 20° C. for 5 hours or until the solution increased in viscosity. b) Purification At this time peracetic acid (50 molar equivalents based on Ni catalyst—43 mmol) solution (2.5 ml glacial acetic acid diluted with ˜50 ml deionized water and 5 g of 30 wt % hydrogen peroxide diluted with ˜50 ml deionized water) was added and the solution was stirred for 12 hours. Stirring was stopped and water and solvent layers were allowed to separate. The water layer was removed and 100 mL of distilled water was added to the remaining organic layer. The solution was stirred for 20 minutes. The water layer was permitted to separate and was removed. The wash with 100 mL of distilled water was performed a total of 3 times. c) Isolation Polymer was then precipitated from the organic layer by addition of the organic layer into MeOH or appropriate solvent. The solid polymer was recovered by filtration and dried overnight at 60° C. in a vacuum oven. Example 8b a) Synthesis PENB:C6F5 CH2 NB (50:50) All glassware was dried in an oven at 125° C. for at least 8 hours and then cooled under vacuum. The glassware was then transferred into a glove box and the reaction vessel was assembled inside the glove box. Trifluorotoluene (C6H5—CF3) (80 g), Phenyl ethyl norbornene (6 g, 0.03 mol) and perfluorohexyl norbornene (8.22 g, 0.03 mol) were added to the reaction vessel. This will give you a 15 wt % solution in the solvent. The reaction vessel was removed from the glove box and connected to a dry nitrogen line. The reaction solution was degassed by passing a stream of nitrogen gas through the solution for 10 minutes. Inside the glovebox, 0.58 g (1.2 mmol) of bis(perfluorophenyl) (η6-toluene) Nickel catalyst was dissolved in 3 ml of trifluorotoluene, taken up in a 5 mL syringe, removed from the glove box and injected into the reactor. The reaction was stirred at 20° C. for 5 hours or until the solution increased in viscosity. b) Purification At this time peracetic acid (50 molar equivalents based on Ni catalyst—60 mmol) solution (3.6 ml glacial acetic acid diluted with ˜50 ml deionized water and 6.8 g of 30 wt % hydrogen peroxide diluted with ˜50 ml deionized water) was added and the solution was stirred for 12 hours. Stirring was stopped and water and solvent layers were allowed to separate. The water layer was removed and 100 mL of distilled water was added to the remaining organic layer. The solution was stirred for 20 minutes. The water layer was permitted to separate and was removed. The wash with 100 mL of distilled water was performed a total of 3 times. c) Isolation Polymer was then precipitated from the organic layer by addition of the organic layer into MeOH or appropriate solvent. The solid polymer was recovered by filtration and dried overnight at 60° C. in a vacuum oven. Characterization of Membrane Properties Measurement of Proton Conductivity The FN-1 film was placed between two electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. The electrode/film assembly was placed into a sealed cell in a dry atmosphere, and an absolute value of impedance and a phase angle of the resultant sample at frequencies in a range of 100 to 15 MHz were measured using an impedance analyzer (HP4192A made by YOKOGAWA HEWLETT AND PACKARD, LTD.) to produce a plot of complex impedance. Proton conductivity was calculated based on the complex impedance plot, and it was determined to be 0.011 S/cm for polymer FN-1. It should be noted that the measurement was carried out in an atmosphere of 100% humidity. Immediately after the measurement, the film was taken out of the cell to measure its thickness by using a film thickness meter. A thickness of the film when swelled was 137 μm. (original thickness of 135 μm) Measurement of Methanol Permeability The film of FN-1 obtained above was arranged so that one side of the film might be brought into contact with a mixture of methanol/pure water=30/70 wt % and the other side of the film might be brought into contact with pure water over a contact area (9.9 cm2). While the solutions on both the sides were stirred, the amount of methanol permeated into the pure water side through the film at room temperature after 8 hours was measured. As per this technique, methanol permeability of FN-1 was determined to be 2.31×10−5 (mol/min·cm2). Methanol concentration in pure water was determined by use of a gas chromatograph and the number of moles of permeated methanol was calculated on the basis of the obtained methanol concentration. Determination of Ion-exchange Capacity A piece of film (FN-1) was weighed, and then immersed in 40 mL of a 0.1 mol/L aqueous NaCl solution for 12 hours. Thereafter, 20 mL of the solution was sampled and then titrated with a 0.05 mol/L aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. Ion-exchange capacity was calculated in accordance with the formula: Ion-exchange capacity (meq/g)=(0.05×f×y)/(0.5×X) wherein y (ml) is an amount of the aqueous sodium hydroxide solution required in the titration, and f is a factor of the aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. The ion-exchange capacity was determined to be 0.85 (meq/g). In this case, the titration was carried out by use of an automatic titrator, and when the pH reached 7, it was terminated. Characterization of FN-2 Various properties of the FN-2 film were measured in the same manner as for FN-1. Proton conductivity was determined to be 0.010 (S/cm). Thickness of the swelled film was 64 μm. Methanol permeability was determined to be 3.63×10−5 (mol/min·cm2), and the ion-exchange capacity was 1.09 (meq/g). Characterization of FN-3 Proton conductivity was determined to be 0.025 (S/cm). Thickness of the swelled film was 104 μm. Methanol permeability was determined to be 6.60×10−5 (mol/min·cm2), and the ion-exchange capacity was 1.69 (meq/g). EXAMPLE (COMPARATIVE) For a commercially available ion exchange film (Nafion 117 made by Du Pont), various properties were measured in the same manner as in Example 1. Proton conductivity was determined to be 0.051 (S/cm). Thickness of the swelled film was 210 μm, methanol permeability was determined to be 5.09×10−5 (mol/min·cm2), and ion-exchange capacity was determined to be 0.86 (meq/g). TABLE 1 Nafion 117 FN-1 FN-2 FN-3 Thickness (um) 180 86 172 88 (for M.P.) IEC (meq/g) 0.86 0.85 1.14 1.68/1.57* Proton conductivity 0.053 0.012 0.026 0.029 (S/cm) Methanol per- 1 0.28 0.44 1.69 meability (ratio vs Nafion117) Flexibility Normal good brittle good good state 80° C. good brittle brittle good 6 hours Swelling degree 21 — 11 14 | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Proton conducting membranes (PEM) are widely utilized in electrochemical devices which employ a chemical reaction to produce or store electricity. Exemplary electrochemical devices include fuel cells, electrolysis cells, hydrogen separation cells, and batteries. An increasingly important use for PEM materials is in fuel cells. A fuel cell generates electricity from the electrochemical reaction of a fuel (e.g., hydrogen, methane or methanol) and oxygen. A fuel cell contains a PEM interposed between an anode and a cathode, each contained in its own compartment. The anode and the cathode are connected through an external circuit which can have a load such as an electric drive motor. Anodes and cathodes are generally coated with precious metals such as platinum to catalyze the electrochemical reactions occurring at the anode and cathode. At the anode, hydrogen (from the fuel source) is oxidized to protons and electrons. The electrons are conducted by the anode through the external load and back to the cathode. The protons are transported directly across the PEM to the cathode where they are combined with electrons (returning from the external load) and oxygen to form water. The ability of the PEM to effectively conduct protons to the cathode while acting as an impermeable barrier to fuel cell gases and liquids are integral factors in maintaining fuel cell efficiency. The flow of current is sustained by a flow of protons across the PEM and electrons through the external load. Theoretically, fuel cells can produce power continuously so long as the supply of fuel and oxygen is sustained and the PEM material maintains its physical integrity and proton conducting efficiency. All fuel cells are limited by the performance of the PEM. There are many types of fuel cell configurations in common use (e.g., direct hydrogen/air fuel cell, indirect hydrogen/air fuel cell, and organic fuel cell), each having associated advantages and disadvantages. One type of fuel cell is the direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC). A DMFC utilizes methanol as the proton source. An aqueous solution of methanol is directly fed into cell, where the fuel is oxidized at the anode to produce CO 2 , electrons and protons. The protons are transported across the PEM where oxygen is reduced to water at the cathode. The PEM plays a very important role in the operation of fuel cells. On one hand it acts as a proton conducting medium, permitting the transfer of hydrated protons (H 3 O + ) from the anode to the cathode, and on the other hand it functions as a barrier that is impermeable to fuel cell gases and liquids. The PEM must meet many specifications relating to mechanical, chemical, and electrical properties. For example, the polymer must be able to be cast into thin films without defects. The mechanical properties must permit the membrane to withstand assembly operations such as being clamped between metal frames. The polymer must have good stability to hydrolysis and exhibit good resistance to harsh chemical reactions such as oxidation and reduction. The polymer must exhibit good thermal stability as well as a need to endure wide fluctuations in temperature conditions. The PEM must also have an affinity for hydration since the transport of protons across the polymer membrane occurs in the form of hydronium ions in aqueous medium. Finally, the PEM must have high proton conductivity or the ability for proton transport across the membrane. This conductivity is provided by the ability to functionalize the polymer with strong acidic groups. Heretofore, various polymers have been utilized for the PEM but with only limited success. One such polymer is Nafion® (available from DuPont) which is a sulfonated poly(perfluoroethylene). Despite this limited success, Nafion polymers are generally considered to be the current standard PEM. However, the use of such perfluoroethylene polymers as PEM's can be problematic. For example, while in many current applications the membrane is maintained at an operating temperature close to ambient (i.e., not exceeding 80° C.), higher operating temperatures (approaching 120° C. and above) are desirable from the standpoint of increasing catalyst efficiency at the anode. Perfluoroethylene polymers such as Nafion generally suffer from poor thermal stability and mechanical strength at such higher operating temperatures. Generally, after thirty days of continuous exposure to operating temperatures of 120° C. perfluoroethylene polymers are virtually unusable. It is believed that such poor thermal stability and mechanical strength of perfluoroethylene polymers are due to their lack of a crosslinked structure. Another issue with membranes fabricated from perfluoroethylene polymers arises from the requirement to maintain high levels of moisture within the membrane. A high level of hydration is necessary to facilitate trans-membrane proton transport, while reduced levels of hydration results in decreased proton transport efficiency. Accordingly, it is necessary to humidify the membrane during fuel cell operation to maintain transport efficiency. This requires additional equipment to regulate and maintain the overall water balance requirements of the fuel cell. However, as temperatures in the fuel cell are increased to take advantage of higher catalyst efficiencies, an attendant decrease in humidity levels occurs within the cell. Consequently, the fuel cell must be pressurized when cell temperatures exceed 100° C. Another problem found with perfluoroethylene polymers is in their use in direct methanol fuel cells. Since perfluoroethylene polymers can be permeable to methanol, methanol can leak from the anode compartment across the membrane into the cathode compartment reducing fuel cell efficiency. Recently, on Jan. 23, 2001, a new PEM material was disclosed in Japanese published Patent Application No. 2001-019723, assigned to Toyota Central Research & Development Lab Inc. The PEM of this application is a copolymer formed of norbornene monomers with an olefinic monomer such as trifluorostyrene. As with Nafion perfluoroethylene polymers, the polymer disclosed in the Toyota application is not crosslinked. In addition, the disclosed polymer contains only one type of functionality pendant from the polymer backbone (i.e., a sulfonic acid functionality added to the phenyl ring of the styrenic repeating unit). Therefore it would appear that this polymer would suffer some of the same drawbacks of the Nafion polymers. Accordingly, there is still an unsatisfied need for new polymers which can be readily fabricated into thin film membranes and which can be tailored to meet the stringent conditions required by operating fuel cells. Such thin film membranes should require little or no additional humidification, and should be capable of being operated at elevated temperatures, for example in excess of 120° C., and/or they should be more resistant to methanol permeability than Nafion type polymer membranes, advantageously making them advantageous for proton conducting membranes of fuel cells and the like. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20040604 | 20071225 | 20050127 | 75195.0 | 0 | CHOI, LING SIU | POLYCYCLIC POLYMERS CONTAINING PENDANT ION CONDUCTING MOIETIES | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
||||
10,860,937 | ACCEPTED | Method for producing small granules | A method for quickly forming a high value powdered feed materials, particularly pharmaceuticals, into small, durable granules using known elements of process equipment, comprising the steps of mixing the feed materials with a wetting solution in a high shear mixer or granulator, partially drying the granulated mixture in a first drying means to a state of intermediate dryness, milling the partially dried granulated product in a stream of air to create small partially dried granules of the desired physical size, and drying the product in the second drying means to the desired final Loss On Drying (LOD) percentage of wetting solution. The milled product may be conveyed by vacuum from the milling step to the second drying means through a relatively long cylindrical transfer hose to create uniformly rounded granules. | 1. A method of producing small, durable, granules having sizes falling substantially within a predetermined range, and consisting of one or more dry powder ingredients, comprising the steps of: a) Mixing said dry powder ingredients with a liquid in a mixing machine to produce a wet granulated mass; b) Partially drying said wet granulated mass in a first drying step to create a partially dried product; c) Milling said partially dried product by size reduction means to produce partially dried milled granulated particles; and d) Fully drying said partially dried and milled particles in a second drying step to produce a finished granulated product. 2. The method of claim 1 in which the step of milling said partially dried milled granulated particles is performed while sweeping said size reduction means with a stream of air. 3. The method of claim 2 in which said stream of air is applied by a vacuum source at the discharge of said size reduction means. 4. The method of claim 3 in which said partially dried milled granulated particles are transferred to said second drying step by said stream of air through a tubular transfer means. 5. The method of claim 3 when said vacuum source is a fan which is a component of a fluid bed dryer system. 6. The method of claim 1 including the further step of passing the dried granulated product through a screener for separating particles within a predetermined desired particle size range. 7. The method of claim 1 including the further step of employing a Near Infrared Analyzer (NIR) in said first drying step to determine the LOD of said partially dried product prior to said milling step. 8. The method of claim 1 including the further step of employing a Near Infrared Analyzer (NIR) in said second drying step to determine the LOD of said finished granulated product. 9. The method of claim 1 including the additional step of passing at least a portion of said partially dried granulated product through instrumentation means for providing continuous monitoring of particle size distribution of said finished granulated product. 10. The method of claim 1 including the additional step of passing at least a portion of said partially dried granulated product through instrumentation means including a Near Infrared Analyzer (NIR) to determine the LOD of said partially dried product. 11. The method of claim 1 including the additional step of passing at least a portion of said partially dried granulated product through instrumentation means including a Near Infrared Analyzer (NR) to determine the LOD of said finished granulated product. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a method for quickly and economically forming a wide variety of high value feed materials into small, durable granules. The preparation of such materials in granulated form is commonly required in the biotechnology, chemical, food, neutraceutical, pesticide, pharmaceutical and vitamin industries. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Small, durable granules, often incorporating two or more ingredients, are desired by users in the aforementioned industries for a myriad of reasons. Products in flowable granular form are durable and easy to store, package and ship without deterioration or disintegration. Also they can be incorporated relatively easily into solid dosage forms for pharmaceutical, biotechnical, neutraceutical, vitamin and process prepared food use by further processing into both capsule and pressed tablet form. It is well known that durable granules can be made in continuous or batch processes utilizing various prior art methods and process equipment. Examples of such basic prior art methods are disclosed by Tsujimoto U.S. Pat. No. 6,695,989 B 1(Feb. 24, 2004) which describes a fluidized bed granulation chamber and method of operation, and by Key U.S. Pat. No. 5,582,638 B1 (Jun. 24, 2003) which describes a simple mechanical system using a roller and a perforate screen. However, these prior art methods are often highly labor-intensive and time-consuming, and provide an uneconomically low yield of granules with physical sizes within the desired range. Other prior art methods for producing granules of pharmaceutical materials are described in the following US patents. Katdare et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,692,764 B2 (Feb. 17, 2004) discloses (cols. 2-3) a process of wet granulation for compounding pharmaceutical agents to be pressed into tablets. The disclosed process comprises forming a powder blend of active ingredient with diluents, wet grinding the mixture with water to form granules, drying the granules with heated air in a dryer (either fluid bed or tray type), milling the granules to a uniform size, adding and blending a disintegrant, adding and blending a lubricant, and finally compressing the lubricated granule into tablet form. The single milling step takes place only after the product has been dried to its final level of dryness. The process is described as relatively time-consuming, with each of the mixing, granulating drying steps variously taking 20 to 30 minutes, or even 24 hours for tray drying. Gergely, et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,645,529 B2 (Nov. 11, 2003) discloses a process of forming “instant” granules (cols. 3-4) in which a carrier material is wetted at least partially before being coated with an active substance, after which additional active substance and liquid are added, followed by drying, final milling, and sieving to desired particle size, with the drying being carried out in a vacuum mixer. The initial mixing step is followed by a single milling step, and then by a final single drying step in a vacuum mixer. Qui, et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,419,953 B1 (Jul. 16, 2002) discloses a process (cols. 4-5) involving milling and sieving a bulk drug, mixing it with polymer and excipients in a high shear mixer, and adding liquid to achieve granulation. This is followed by tray drying overnight in a single step. After mixing with lubricant, the dried product is pressed into tablets. Asgharnejad et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,123,964 (Sep. 26, 2000) discloses a wet granulation process (cols. 2-4) characterized by mixing powdered active ingredient with a two liquid diluents and a disintegrant in a mixer, wet granulating by adding a solution while mixing, drying the mixed granules in a single step for up to 24 hours, milling the dried granules to a uniform size, adding first a disintegrant and then a lubricant, and finally pressing into tablet form. Khankari et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,106,274 B 1(Apr. 24, 2001) describes as “common technique” a method of forming matrix-type particles (cols. 7-8) in which the active substance is spay dried with a solution of polymeric protective material, dried to a solid state in a single step, and then communited (milled) to form the desired particles. Schobel U.S. Pat. No. 4,687,662 (Aug. 18, 1987) discloses a process for preparing a rapid-dissolving effervescent composition (cols. 7-8) in which a granulation is formed by dissolving a granulating agent in a solvent with the active substance, drying the granulation in a single step, sizing the dried granulation in a single step, and then mixing in an effervescent system to obtain a uniform mixture of granules. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore a principal object of the present invention to provide an improved method for forming high-value powdered materials into granulated form by utilizing known elements of process equipment in a specific and novel sequence of operations, thereby resulting in the efficient and expeditious formation of a high percentage of desired small, durable, granules. A related objective is to provide such a process having an improved yield of such granules within a pre-selected desired range of sizes compared to what has been achievable by traditional prior art methods of using the same or similar equipment. As a result, and as a benefit of the method taught in this invention, the granulation process can be speeded up, often yielding a reduction of processing time of twofold or more, while at the same time producing a notably higher yield of granule particles within a pre-selected range of desired particle sizes. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING The preferred embodiment is described with references to the drawing, in which: FIG. 1 is a schematic view depicting the relative organization and sequence of use of the several components used in performing the method of the present invention, with arrows indicating the sequence and flow of the process. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT One or more dry ingredients in powder form, such as a pharmaceutical or mixture of pharmaceuticals which will comprise a major portion of a finished granular product, are loaded into a known high shear mixer or granulator such as the PHARMX® mixer manufactured by Fluid Air, Inc. of Aurora, Ill., USA. A suitable wetting liquid, such as water or an aqueous solution of other ingredients, is added. The ingredients are then mixed with the wetting solution in the high shear mixer wherein the characteristic mixing and chopping action of the device forms a thoroughly mixed, densified, wet granular mass. The wet mass is then discharged into a fluid bed bowl of a batch-type fluid bed dryer such as the MAGNAFLO® dryer, also manufactured by Fluid Air, Inc. of Aurora, Ill. USA. In the fluid bed dryer the relatively wet product is subjected to a first drying step in which it is fluidized and partially dried by the fluidizing air stream to a state of intermediate dryness, but not to its final state of predetermined desired dryness. At this point in the process, and according to a principal feature of the invention, the drying process is stopped and the bowl containing the partially dried intermediate product is removed from the fluid bed dryer and subjected to an intermediate milling step. In the illustrated example, this is done by removing the fluid bed bowl from the dryer, raising it, and inverting it to discharge its contents into a known size reduction mill such as the GRANUMILL®, also manufactured by Fluid Air, Inc. of Aurora, Ill. USA. In this step, the action of the mill rotor, assisted by sweeping the mill with a moving stream of air, creates an intermediate product consisting of small partially dried granules, which are separated and the mill's internal screen. After this intermediate milling step, the still-wet product is conveyed back to the fluid bed dryer by a vacuum source connected to the discharge end of the mill for a second drying step in which the product is dried to the desired final Loss On Drying (“LOD”) percentage of wetting solution. As shown in the drawing, the vacuum source is preferably a fan which is itself a component of the fluid bed dryer system. The transfer step back to the fluid bed dryer can be accomplished by any suitable means, but in the preferred embodiment it is done by means of a tubular transfer means, which in the illustrated embodiment is a relatively long cylindrical transfer hose utilizing the vacuum created by the fluid bed dryer's fan, such that the rolling action of the product as it passes along the wall of the hose “rounds off” the granules to a more spherical shape. Depending on the degree of rounding desired, the ratio of the length to diameter of the transfer hose is desirably between about 2 and about 200. After being finish dried in the fluid bed dryer to the desired LOD percentage, the resulting product has been found to consist predominantly of a high proportion of desirable small, durable granules, resulting in a high yield of granules falling within a desired size range. Such a desired size range for the finished product can be selected from within an overall spectrum of possible sizes from about 74 microns to about 2000 microns. The milled and finished dried granules may with the addition of a lubricant be incorporated directly into a pharmaceutical solid dosage form. Or alternatively, and most often preferred, the finish-dried granulated product can be passed through a separate screening machine to further sort out and eliminate granules falling outside of the desired preferred range. By selectively utilizing one or more screen sizes, the resulting product granules can be made highly uniform in size, compared to the product made with conventional granulation methods. The desired particular physical characteristics of the granules, as well as the size and LOD of the granules, may be achieved by varying the powdered ingredients and liquid wetting agents and binding agents, or by varying one or more of the several possible configurations and process variables of the aforementioned equipment, which include (but are not limited to): (1) The composition and quantity of dry ingredients, and composition and quantity of wetting liquid as supplied to the first mixing step; (2) The length of time of the mixing step and speeds of the mixer impeller and chopper; (3) The moisture content of the intermediate product upon discharge from the mixing step into the first fluid bed drying step; (4) The degree of dryness (LOD) of the product upon discharge from the first fluid bed drying step into the size reduction step in the milling apparatus; (5) In the important intermediate size reduction step, the hole size of the mill's internal screen, the speed of the mill rotor, the feed rate of the partially dried product into the mill inlet and the quantity of conveying air introduced along with the product into the mill inlet which quantity is regulated by the fluid bed dryer's fan which applies the vacuum to the mill discharge; (6) The type, length and diameter of the vacuum hose used to transfer product from the milling apparatus to the fluid bed dryer for the second fluid bed drying step which determines the amount of “rounding off” of the milled particles into a more spherical shape; (7) The quantity of the incoming drying air in the second fluid bed drying step and its temperature and moisture level; (8) The length of drying time to achieve the desired LOD in the second fluid bed drying step; and (9) If used, the type of screener and the size of the holes in its one or more screens. By adjusting some or all of the above variables one can optimize the method of the present invention and allow the resulting granulated product to be essentially duplicated from one batch to the next, therefore reliably assuring repeatable results. This is particularly advantageous in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products where provable consistent processing is extremely important and often legally required by applicable government regulations. According to the invention, repeatable duplication of each of the above variables is achieved during production by the operator following the instructions contained in the product's “Master Batch Record”, which would typically set forth the following: First, the ingredients are selected, including both dry and liquid ingredients, in their relative quantities and proportions. Second, the equipment must be configured and set up by the operator exactly the same for each batch, using, for example, the same size mill screen and the same vacuum transfer hose diameter and length. Third, the equipment's operating parameters are selected. The operator selects a predetermined sequence of operations from a library of batch recipes, preferably using a known recipe based control system for the equipment to be used, such as FACTROL® manufactured by Fluid Air Inc of Aurora, Ill. and described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,576,946 (Nov. 19, 1996). This system incorporates a graphical interface control program using set-point controls which assure the repeatable duplication of each of the equipment's operating parameters, such as mixer impellor and chopper speeds, mill speed, and dryer gas flow. This proprietary control system also employs analog feedback control loops for monitoring and maintaining the specified equipment operating process variables such as flow, temperature and moisture content of the drying air. Fourth, Process Analytical Control (“PAT”) techniques may be incorporated into the equipment's control systems to adjust in real time the desired values of the operating parameters to compensate for changes experienced during the preceding steps. This involves such methods as controlling the milling step by passing a portion of the partially dried granulated product entering or exiting the mill through a laser diffraction instrument to provide feedback for controlling the speed of the mill. Finally, the equipment control systems can incorporate other process analytical technology (PAT) techniques to determine process step end points, such as measuring the torque applied to the mixer shaft to achieve a desired density and moisture level of the wet mass, measuring the moisture level by viewing the product through a window in the fluid bed bowl using instrumentation means such as a Near Infrared Analyzer (“NIR”) to end the first drying step, and measuring the temperature of the product in the fluid bed bowl to end the second drying step. This type of preprogrammed control of the pieces of equipment in the processing method of the present invention dictates that the equipment duplicate the entire process from one run to the next by assessing the density of the mixed wet mass and the dryness of the intermediate partially dried product as well as the final dryness of the finished small granules. Four aspects of the procedure described above are particularly important in the practice of the processing method of the invention. The first important aspect lies in partially, but not completely, drying the wet intermediate mass to an optimal moisture content so that the resulting product will pass through the smallest possible mill screen orifice without (on the one hand) having the product revert to its original fine-powder state, or (on the other hand) being over-wet and thereby clogging the mill screen during the milling step, neither of which is desirable. The second important aspect in the practice of the invention is to select a proper hole size of the mill's internal screen to maximize the yield of particles in the desired range of sizes. The third important aspect in the practice of the invention is the introduction of air with product at the inlet of the mill via a vacuum source being applied to the discharge of the mill to assist in pushing/pulling the partially dried particles through the holes in the mill screen. The fourth important aspect in the practice of the invention is the type, diameter and length of the vacuum transfer hose as this determines the amount of rounding off of the particles into a more spherical shape. It has been found that the key to achieving a high yield of small evenly-sized granules in the desired size range using the method described is to determine, through trial and error or otherwise, the optimum combination of the variables (1) through (9) above for obtaining the desired LOD of the partially dried material after the first fluid bed drying step, and the smallest usable mill screen hole size in the milling step that follows, just before the second and final fluid bed drying step. It has also been found through experience that while one might be able to achieve the desired granule size on certain products by just using a single drying step after wet milling, there are other products in which one cannot depart from the first fluid bed drying or pre-drying step which precedes the milling step, because to do so causes unacceptable clogging and plugging of the mill screen or creation of particles too large to reside in the specified range This is particularly true when yields are required having a high percentage of granules at the small end of the desired range of sizes, because without the pre-drying step, the product either contains too much moisture to pass through the size hole selected for the mill screen, or mill screen hole size must be so large to get the product through the hole that the resulting granules have an unacceptable size distribution with too many granules falling outside or at the large end the desired range of sizes. The method of the present invention is therefore capable of yielding an high proportion of small, durable, granules falling within a desired predetermined range of sizes and moisture content (LOD), suitable for incorporation into tablets or capsules. By using the present method, such outstanding results can be repeatedly achieved with existing well-known high shear mixing, milling and fluid bed drying equipment. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Small, durable granules, often incorporating two or more ingredients, are desired by users in the aforementioned industries for a myriad of reasons. Products in flowable granular form are durable and easy to store, package and ship without deterioration or disintegration. Also they can be incorporated relatively easily into solid dosage forms for pharmaceutical, biotechnical, neutraceutical, vitamin and process prepared food use by further processing into both capsule and pressed tablet form. It is well known that durable granules can be made in continuous or batch processes utilizing various prior art methods and process equipment. Examples of such basic prior art methods are disclosed by Tsujimoto U.S. Pat. No. 6,695,989 B 1(Feb. 24, 2004) which describes a fluidized bed granulation chamber and method of operation, and by Key U.S. Pat. No. 5,582,638 B1 (Jun. 24, 2003) which describes a simple mechanical system using a roller and a perforate screen. However, these prior art methods are often highly labor-intensive and time-consuming, and provide an uneconomically low yield of granules with physical sizes within the desired range. Other prior art methods for producing granules of pharmaceutical materials are described in the following US patents. Katdare et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,692,764 B2 (Feb. 17, 2004) discloses (cols. 2-3) a process of wet granulation for compounding pharmaceutical agents to be pressed into tablets. The disclosed process comprises forming a powder blend of active ingredient with diluents, wet grinding the mixture with water to form granules, drying the granules with heated air in a dryer (either fluid bed or tray type), milling the granules to a uniform size, adding and blending a disintegrant, adding and blending a lubricant, and finally compressing the lubricated granule into tablet form. The single milling step takes place only after the product has been dried to its final level of dryness. The process is described as relatively time-consuming, with each of the mixing, granulating drying steps variously taking 20 to 30 minutes, or even 24 hours for tray drying. Gergely, et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,645,529 B2 (Nov. 11, 2003) discloses a process of forming “instant” granules (cols. 3-4) in which a carrier material is wetted at least partially before being coated with an active substance, after which additional active substance and liquid are added, followed by drying, final milling, and sieving to desired particle size, with the drying being carried out in a vacuum mixer. The initial mixing step is followed by a single milling step, and then by a final single drying step in a vacuum mixer. Qui, et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,419,953 B1 (Jul. 16, 2002) discloses a process (cols. 4-5) involving milling and sieving a bulk drug, mixing it with polymer and excipients in a high shear mixer, and adding liquid to achieve granulation. This is followed by tray drying overnight in a single step. After mixing with lubricant, the dried product is pressed into tablets. Asgharnejad et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,123,964 (Sep. 26, 2000) discloses a wet granulation process (cols. 2-4) characterized by mixing powdered active ingredient with a two liquid diluents and a disintegrant in a mixer, wet granulating by adding a solution while mixing, drying the mixed granules in a single step for up to 24 hours, milling the dried granules to a uniform size, adding first a disintegrant and then a lubricant, and finally pressing into tablet form. Khankari et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,106,274 B 1(Apr. 24, 2001) describes as “common technique” a method of forming matrix-type particles (cols. 7-8) in which the active substance is spay dried with a solution of polymeric protective material, dried to a solid state in a single step, and then communited (milled) to form the desired particles. Schobel U.S. Pat. No. 4,687,662 (Aug. 18, 1987) discloses a process for preparing a rapid-dissolving effervescent composition (cols. 7-8) in which a granulation is formed by dissolving a granulating agent in a solvent with the active substance, drying the granulation in a single step, sizing the dried granulation in a single step, and then mixing in an effervescent system to obtain a uniform mixture of granules. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is therefore a principal object of the present invention to provide an improved method for forming high-value powdered materials into granulated form by utilizing known elements of process equipment in a specific and novel sequence of operations, thereby resulting in the efficient and expeditious formation of a high percentage of desired small, durable, granules. A related objective is to provide such a process having an improved yield of such granules within a pre-selected desired range of sizes compared to what has been achievable by traditional prior art methods of using the same or similar equipment. As a result, and as a benefit of the method taught in this invention, the granulation process can be speeded up, often yielding a reduction of processing time of twofold or more, while at the same time producing a notably higher yield of granule particles within a pre-selected range of desired particle sizes. | 20040604 | 20070424 | 20051208 | 69120.0 | 1 | PAHNG, JASON Y | METHOD FOR PRODUCING SMALL GRANULES | MICRO | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,860,979 | ACCEPTED | Tri-value decoder circuit and method | A tri-value decoder and method for decoding at least three states of an input signal are provided. An exemplary tri-value decoder and method can facilitate decoding of input signals without the use of threshold values and/or forcing a tri-state input signal to a mid-rail value for tri-state detection, and with less dependence on variations in product, process and temperature. In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, an exemplary tri-value decoder circuit comprises a switch circuit, a feedback loop and a sequence detector. An exemplary switch circuit is configured to facilitate sampling of a tri-state input signal through control by the feedback loop, with the sequence detector configured for decoding the tri-state input signal into a two-bit digital signal by detecting at least two samples of the tri-state input signal during a sampling period. | 1. A tri-value decoder circuit configured to decode an input signal, said tri-value decoder circuit comprising: a switch circuit configured to facilitate sampling of the input signal; a feedback loop configured for control of the switch circuit; and a sequence detector for decoding a sampled sequence to provide a digital output signal. 2. The tri-value decoder circuit according to claim 1, wherein said switch circuit comprises a controllable pull-up switch and a controllable pull-down switch. 3. The tri-value decoder circuit according to claim 2, wherein said pull-up switch and said pull-down switch are configured with current-limiting resistors. 4. The tri-value decoder circuit according to claim 2, wherein said pull-up switch comprises a PNP-based FET transistor and said pull-down switch comprises a NPN-based FET transistor. 5. The tri-value decoder circuit according to claim 1, wherein said feedback loop comprises a flip-flop device configured for providing said sampled sequence. 6. The tri-value decoder circuit according to claim 5, wherein said feedback loop comprises an edge-triggered, delay flip-flop device. 7. The tri-value decoder circuit according to claim 5, wherein said flip-flop device comprises an output signal configured to enable operation of a controllable pull-up switch and a controllable pull-down switch of said switch circuit. 8. The tri-value decoder circuit according to claim 1, wherein said sequence detector comprises a plurality of logic devices for decoding said sampled sequence. 9. The tri-value decoder circuit according to claim 1, wherein said sequence detector comprises: a first flip-flop device and a second flip-flop device for receiving a sample signal and for providing at least two delayed output signals; a hold memory logic circuit configured for providing a two-bit digital signal; and a validity logic circuit configured for providing a valid signal for clocking said hold memory logic circuit and for providing logic sample signals to said hold memory circuit. 10. The tri-value decoder circuit according to claim 9, wherein said hold memory circuit comprises a third flip-flop configured for facilitating detection of a “zero” state and a fourth flip-flop configured for facilitating detection of a “one” state. 11. The tri-value decoder circuit according to claim 9, wherein said validity logic circuit comprises a NOR gate, AND gate, and a pair of XOR gates configured for sampling said sample signal and said at least two delayed output signals, an AND gate for receiving output signals from said pair of XOR gates, and an OR gate configured for receiving output signals from said NOR gate, said AND gate, and said pair of XOR gates. 12. The tri-value decoder circuit according to claim 9, wherein said sequence detector comprises a fifth flip-flop device for providing an error-filtering function, said fifth flip-flop configured for receiving a delayed output signal from said second flip-flop device and for providing a third delayed output signal. 13. An analog-to-digital converter circuit comprising a tri-value decoder circuit configured to decode a tri-value input signal, said tri-value decoder circuit comprising: a switch circuit comprising a pair of controllable switches; a feedback loop configured for control of said pair of switches, and for providing a sampling sequence; and a sequence detector configured for decoding said sampling sequence to provide a two-bit digital output signal. 14. The analog-to-digital converter circuit according to claim 13, wherein said pull-up switch and said pull-down switch are configured with current-limiting resistors. 15. The analog-to-digital converter circuit according to claim 13, wherein said pull-up switch comprises a PNP-based FET transistor and said pull-down switch comprises a NPN-based FET transistor. 16. The analog-to-digital converter circuit according to claim 13, wherein said feedback loop comprises an edge-triggered, delay flip-flop device. 17. The analog-to-digital converter circuit according to claim 13, wherein said flip-flop device comprises an output signal configured to enable operation of a controllable pull-up switch and a controllable pull-down switch of said switch circuit. 18. The analog-to-digital converter circuit according to claim 13, wherein said sequence detector comprises: a first flip-flop device and a second flip-flop device for receiving a sample signal and for providing at least two delayed output signals; a hold memory logic circuit configured for providing a two-bit digital signal; and a validity logic circuit configured for providing a valid signal for clocking said hold memory logic circuit and for providing logic sample signals to said hold memory circuit. 19. The analog-to-digital converter circuit according to claim 18, wherein said hold memory circuit comprises a third flip-flop configured for facilitating detection of a “zero” state and a fourth flip-flop configured for facilitating detection of a “one” state. 20. The analog-to-digital converter circuit according to claim 18, wherein said validity logic circuit comprises a NOR gate, AND gate, and a pair of XOR gates configured for sampling said sample signal and said at least two delayed output signals. 21. The analog-to-digital converter circuit according to claim 20, wherein said validity logic circuit further comprises an AND gate for receiving output signals from said pair of XOR gates, and an OR gate configured for receiving output signals from said NOR gate, said AND gate, and said pair of XOR gates. 22. A method for decoding a tri-state signal, said method comprising: receiving through a switch circuit the tri-state signal; controlling said switch circuit through a feedback loop to sample said tri-state signal; generating a delayed sample signal from said feedback loop; and decoding in a sequence detector at least two delayed sample signals to determine a logic value for said tri-state signal. 23. The method according to claim 22, wherein said generating said delayed sample comprises sampling said tri-state signal with an edge-triggered, D flip-flop. 24. The method according to claim 23, wherein said decoding comprises generating a validity signal and providing a hold memory function to decode said tri-state signal. 25. The method according to claim 22, wherein said decoding comprises decoding in said sequence detector at least three delayed sample signals. 26. A tri-value decoder circuit comprising: a switch circuit comprising a pull-up switch and a pull-down switch; a flip-flop device configured in a feedback loop for control of said pull-up switch and said pull-down switch; and a sequence detector configured for decoding samples from said flip-flop device to provide a decoded tri-state signal. | FIELD OF INVENTION The present invention relates to sampling circuits. More particularly, the present invention relates to a tri-value decoder circuit and method for decoding at least three states of an input signal. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The continued demand for improved digital systems for use in a variety of electronic systems and products has resulted in more stringent requirements for such digital systems. For example, modern digital systems must have increased flexibility and reliability, and are expected to require lower power supply levels and higher noise margins. The number of available terminal pins on a digital chip or device often limits the functionality of digital systems. In typical digital systems, each signal pin represents two logical values, namely a logical “0” value and logical “1” value. For increased functionality, a high-impedance state or tri-state assigned a logical value “Z” is introduced, requiring the use of tri-value or tri-state decoder circuits for the detection of such “Z” value states. Existing tri-value decoder circuits generally rely on the use of two threshold values, forcing a tri-state input signal to a mid-rail value, and comparing the tri-state input signal to the two threshold values. For example, with reference to FIG. 1, a prior art tri-state decoder circuit 100 comprises a pair of input buffers BUF2 and BUF1 and a digital conditioning circuit 102. Input buffers BUF2 and BUF1 are configured for receiving a tri-state input signal at input pin SIGNALIN, coupled between a resistor divider circuit and between a positive rail supply VDD and ground GND, and for providing an upper and lower threshold respectively, e.g., 0.7 of VDD and 0.3 of VDD. Digital conditioning circuit 102 is configured to receive output signals N2 and N1 from input buffers BUF2 and BUF1 and for providing output signals OUT2 and OUT1. With reference to FIG. 2, another example of an existing tri-state decoder circuit 200 is illustrated. Decoder circuit 200 is similar to decoder circuit 100 except having input buffers BUF2 and BUF1 being replaced with comparators COMP2 and COMP1, respectively, and further configured with a reference divider circuit comprising resistors R3, R4 and R5. The reference divider circuit is configured for generating the upper and lower threshold values, e.g., 0.7 of VDD and 0.3 of VDD. In both decoder circuits 100 and 200, the values selected for the mid-rail value (VDD/2), and the two threshold values require high precision for correct functionality. For example, with reference to FIG. 3, a diagram illustrating detection margins for facilitating comparison and detection of a tri-state input signal at input pin SIGNALIN demonstrates that the margin for variation for the mid-rail value VDD/2 (representative of the “Z” state) is relatively small compared to the margins for the upper and lower threshold values, requiring higher precision. The precision is affected by the matching of the various components, as well as process, temperature and power supply variations. For example, resistor mismatch, comparator offset and other like impairments can make high precision difficult to obtain. Further, as the power supply is scaled down for lower power applications, the threshold values and corresponding margins further shrink, requiring even higher precision. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with various aspects of the present invention, a tri-value decoder and method for decoding at least three logical values of an input signal are provided. An exemplary tri-value decoder and method can facilitate decoding of input signals without the use of threshold values and/or forcing a tri-state input signal to a mid-rail value for tri-state detection, and with less dependence on variations in product, process, power supply level, or temperature. In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, an exemplary tri-value decoder circuit comprises a switch circuit, a feedback loop and a sequence detector. An exemplary switch circuit is configured to facilitate sampling of a tri-state input signal through control by the feedback loop, with the sequence detector configured for decoding the tri-state input signal into a two-bit digital signal by detecting at least two samples of the tri-state input signal during a sampling period. In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, a switch circuit comprises controllable pull-up and pull-down switches that can be configured with or without current-limiting resistors, while a feedback loop can comprise a flip-flop device configured for enabling the pull-up and pull-down switches one at a time to provide a representative sampling sequence. An exemplary sequence detector can comprise various logic configurations for decoding the sampling sequence into a two-bit digital signal. In accordance with additional exemplary embodiments, an exemplary sequence detector can be configured for detecting three or more samples of the tri-state input signal during a sampling period to provide further reliability and/or error filtering. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A more complete understanding of the present invention may be derived by referring to the detailed description and claims when considered in connection with the Figures, where like reference numbers refer to similar elements throughout the Figures, and: FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of a prior art tri-state decoder; FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic diagram of another prior art tri-state decoder; FIG. 3 illustrates a diagram representative of the available detection margins for prior art tri-state decoders; FIG. 4 illustrates a schematic diagram of an exemplary tri-value decoder circuit in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 illustrates a schematic diagram of an exemplary tri-value decoder circuit in accordance with another exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 6A and 6B illustrate schematic diagrams of exemplary logic for a sequence detector circuit in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 illustrates a timing and sequence diagram for an exemplary tri-value decoder circuit in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 8 illustrates an exemplary error sequence addressed by an exemplary tri-value decoder circuit in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION The present invention may be described herein in terms of various functional components. It should be appreciated that such functional components may be realized by any number of hardware components configured to perform the specified functions. For example, the present invention may employ various integrated components, such as buffers, current mirrors, and logic devices comprised of various electrical devices, e.g., resistors, transistors, capacitors, diodes and the like, whose values may be suitably configured for various intended purposes. In addition, the present invention may be practiced in any digital or analog application. However for purposes of illustration only, exemplary embodiments of the present invention will be described herein in connection with decoder circuit as may be used in an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) or digital-to-analog converter (DAC). Further, it should be noted that while various components may be suitably coupled or connected to other components within exemplary circuits, such connections and couplings can be realized by direct connection between components, or by connection through other components and devices located thereinbetween. In accordance with various aspects of the present invention, a tri-value decoder and method for decoding at least three values of an input signal are provided. An exemplary tri-value decoder and method can facilitate decoding of input signals without the use of threshold values and/or forcing a tri-state input signal to a mid-rail value for comparison to the threshold values for tri-state detection, and with less dependence on variations in product, process, temperature or power supply levels. An exemplary tri-value decoder circuit can be configured within an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), or any other application in which tri-state decoders may be utilized. With reference to FIG. 4 in accordance with an exemplary embodiment, an exemplary tri-value decoder circuit 400 comprises a switch circuit 402, a feedback loop 404 and a sequence detector 406. Switch circuit 402 is configured to facilitate sampling of a tri-state input signal at an input terminal SIGNALIN through control by feedback loop 404, with sequence detector 406 configured for decoding the tri-state input signal into a two-bit digital signal. In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, switch circuit 402 comprises controllable pull-up and pull-down switches MP and MN configured in an inverter-like arrangement between an upper supply rail VDD and ground. Switches MP and MN can comprise FET based devices, e.g., with source terminals of transistor devices MP and MN coupled to supply rail VDD and ground, respectively, and with respective drain terminals coupled together to input terminal SIGNALIN. In addition to transistor-based devices, switches MP and MN can comprise any other device or component configured for providing switching functions. Switches MP and MN are suitably configured so as not to overpower any tri-state input signal received at input terminal SIGNALIN, e.g., switches MP and MN may be configured as weaker devices with small drive capabilities. Rather than configure as weaker devices with smaller drive capability, in accordance with another exemplary embodiment, switch circuit 402 can also be configured with current-limiting resistors. For example, with momentary reference to FIG. 5, a switch circuit 502 can comprise current-limiting resistors R2 and R1 configured with switches MP and MN. Current-limiting resistors R2 and R1 can enable greater control over switches MP and MN, for example by enabling greater control over the charging and discharging of current to and from any parasitic load capacitances realized at input terminal SIGNALIN, and thus faster switching functions. Feedback loop 404 is configured for sampling the state of the tri-state input signal received at input terminal SIGNALIN and for providing a representative sampling sequence for sequence detector 406. Feedback loop suitably enables pull-up switch MP and pull-down switch MN one at a time. For example, if a sampled value at input terminal SIGNALIN is a “0”, then feedback loop 404 enables pull-up switch MP, and if the sampled value at input terminal SIGNALIN is a “1”, then feedback loop 404 enables pull-down switch MN. In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, feedback loop 404 comprises a delay flip-flop (D flip-flop) device 408 configured for sampling the tri-state input signal at a data input terminal D and providing a delayed output signal at an output terminal Q. Flip-flop device 408 can comprise an edge-triggered device, e.g., a D flip-flop configured to provide a change in the state of output signal Q at the occurrence of a rising edge or at a falling edge of a clock signal. The output signal at terminal Q is coupled in a feedback configuration to the gate terminals of pull-up switch MP and pull-down switch MN to suitably enable switches MP and MN based on the sampled value at terminal D. In addition, D flip-flop device 408 can be suitably clocked through a clock signal CLOCK. During operation, when the tri-state input signal at input terminal SIGNALIN is sampled as a “0” by terminal D, output Q will follow with a “0” value after an edge-triggered delay, thus turning on pull-up switch MP and pulling input terminal SIGNALIN high. As long as the sampled signal remains a “0”, a sampled sequence of “0, 0, 0, 0, 0 . . . ” will be realized. In the event the tri-state input signal at input terminal SIGNALIN is sampled as a “1” by terminal D, output Q will also follow with a “1” value after an edge-triggered delay, thus enabling pull-down switch MN and pulling input terminal SIGNALIN down. As long as the sampled signal remains a “1”, a sampled sequence of “1, 1, 1, 1, 1 . . . ” will be realized. In the event the tri-state input signal is in high impedance “Z” state, switches MP and MN will be enabled sequentially. For example, during one sample period, pull-up switch MP will be enabled, thus pulling input terminal SIGNALIN high, and logic “1” will be sampled for the sampling period. During the next sample period, pull-down switch MN will be enabled, thus pulling down input terminal SIGNALIN, and logic “0” will be sampled for the sampling period. As long as the sampled signal remains in high impedance “Z” state, a sampled sequence of “1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0 . . . ” will be realized. High impedance “Z” state can also be realized through a sampled sequence of “0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1 . . . ” While feedback loop 404 can comprise a single D flip-flop device 408 for facilitating control of switch circuit 402, feedback loop 404 can comprise other configurations. For example, feedback loop 404 can comprise different flip-flop device configurations and/or additional flip-flop devices. Moreover, feedback loop 404 can comprise any other logic configuration for facilitating control of switch circuit 402 and for providing a representative sampling sequence for sequence detector 406. Sequence detector 406 is configured for receiving a sampling sequence from feedback loop 404 at an input terminal IN and for providing a two-bit digital signal at output terminals OUT2 and OUT1. Sequence detector 406 can also be suitably clocked through clock signal CLOCK. Depending on which of the above three sequences are detected, sequence detector 406 provides a two-bit digital signal representing a logical “0”, “1” or “Z” state at input terminal SIGNALIN. An exemplary sequence detector 406 can comprise various logic configurations for decoding the sampling sequence into a two-bit digital signal. For example, sequence detector 406 can be configured for decoding the tri-state input signal into a two-bit digital signal by detecting at least two samples of the tri-state input signal during a sampling period. Decoding a tri-state signal with at least two samples is necessary to determine whether in a low state “0” (0, 0), a high state “1” (1, 1) or a high impedance state “Z” (1,0 or 0,1). For greater reliability, in accordance with additional exemplary embodiments, an exemplary sequence detector can be configured for detecting three or more samples of the tri-state input signal during a sampling period to provide further reliability and/or error filtering. For example, with reference to FIG. 6A, an exemplary sequence detector 600 is configured for detecting three samples of the tri-state input signal during a sampling period. Sequence detector 600 comprises D flip-flop devices 602, 604, 606 and 608. Flip-flop device 602 is configured to sample the delayed signal IN, representative of a delayed output signal provided by a D flip-flop within feedback loop 404, and provide a delayed output Q2, while flip-flop device 604 is configured to sample delayed output Q2 and provide a delayed output Q3, thus allowing for at least three samples to be decoded before sequence detector 600 provides an output signal. Flip-flop devices 602 and 604 can be suitably triggered by clock signal CLOCK. Flip-flop devices 606 and 608 are configured to provide a hold or memory function for sequence detector 600. Flip-flop device 606 provides a delayed output signal at OUT1, i.e., as one bit in the two-bit digital output signal of detector 600, while flip-flop device 608 provides a delayed output signal at OUT2, i.e., as the second bit in the two-bit digital output signal of detector 600. An inverted clock signal ICLOCK is provided by an inverter 624 to an AND gate 610, with the output being further configured to trigger flip-flop devices 606 and 608 when both input terminals to AND gate 610 are in a “high” state. To confirm whether outputs OUT1 and OUT2 are providing reliable output signals, sequence detector 600 further comprises additional logic devices for providing a validity signal VALID to AND gate 610. In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 6A, sequence detector 600 comprises a NOR gate 612, an AND gate 614, and XOR gates 616 and 618 configured to receive signals IN, Q2 and Q3. For example, signals IN, Q2 and Q3 are sampled by NOR gate 612 and AND gate 614, signals IN and Q2 are sampled by XOR gate 616, and signals Q2 and Q3 are sampled by XOR gate 618. The output signals of NOR gate 612 and AND gate 614 can be received by an OR gate 622, while the output signals of XOR gates 616 and 618 are first received by an AND gate 620 to provide an output signal also being received by OR gate 622. The output signal of NOR gate 612 represents that a detected “zero” state is valid, the output signal of AND gate 614 represents that a detected “one” state is valid, and the output signal of AND gate 620 represents that a detected “Z” state is valid. In addition, the output signal of NOR gate 612 is suitably coupled to the input terminal of flip-flop 606, while the output signal of AND gate 614 is coupled to the input terminal of flip-flop 608. Thus, for example, with reference to a logic table 650, for a “0” value tri-state input signal, a “0” will appear at input terminal IN of flip-flop 602 and eventually at delayed output signals Q2 and Q3, resulting in the output of NOR gate 612 in a “high” state, i.e., representing a decoded state of ZERO=1, and with output-bit signals OUT2 and OUT1 providing “0” and “1” states, respectively, thus indicating a decoded “0” value for the detected tri-state signal. For a “1” value tri-state input signal, a “1” will appear at input terminal IN of flip-flop 602 and eventually at delayed output signals Q2 and Q3, resulting in the output of AND gate 614 in a “high” state, i.e., representing a decoded state of ONE=1, and with output-bit signals OUT2 and OUT1 providing “1” and “0” states, respectively, thus indicating a decoded “1” value for the tri-state signal. Finally, for a “Z” value tri-state input signal, either a “0” will appear at input terminal IN of flip-flop 602, followed by a “1” and “0” at delayed output signals Q2 and Q3, respectively, or a “1” will appear at input terminal IN of flip-flop 602, followed by a “0” and “1” at delay output signals Q2 and Q3, respectively; as a result, the output of AND gate 620 will be in a “high” state, i.e., representing a decoded state of Z=1, and both of output-bit signals OUT2 and OUT1 providing “0” states, indicating a decoded “Z” value for the tri-state signal. Accordingly, with additional reference to FIG. 7, an exemplary timing diagram 700 illustrates that for a “0” valued tri-state input signal at input terminal SIGNALIN, an input signal IN to sequence detector 600 will remain “low” until a rising edge of a clock cycle before sequencing “high”. However, a sampling sequence will suitably wait until a falling edge occurs before changing, i.e., before SEQUENCE=1. In addition, the output of sequence detector 600 will remain unchanged until three samples are obtained. Thus, for example, after three clock cycles in which input signal IN is “high”, the output of sequence detector 600 will change to a “1”, indicating a decoded “1” value for the tri-state signal. Accordingly, sequence detector 600 suitably reads three samples at a time in order to decode a tri-state input signal. In addition, a “Z” state condition realizes substantially the same noise margin as the “0” and “1” state conditions, thus enabling sequence detector 600 to be substantially immune to shrinking power supply levels. An exemplary sequence detector 600 illustrated in FIG. 6A can facilitate very reliable results so long as the tri-state input signal being sampled are valid sequences. However, in the event that sampling glitches are generated, it is possible for sequence detector 600 to decode such glitch signals incorrectly. For example, with momentary reference to a sequence diagram 800 illustrated in FIG. 8, by monitoring the first three samples “0, 0, 0, 0 . . . ” of a valid sequence 802, sequence detector 600 can suitably decode the sampled sequence to provide a “0” state; however, by monitoring the first three samples for an error sequence of “0, 1, 0, 0 . . . ”, sequence detector 600 can incorrectly provide a decoded “Z” state. To address such errors, in accordance with another exemplary embodiment, sequence detector 600 can be configured with error-filtering functions to substantially eliminate the decoding of signals in error. For example, an exemplary sequence detector 600 can be configured with one or more additional flip-flop devices to provide additional delayed sample outputs. With reference to FIG. 6B, exemplary sequence detector 600 can be configured with an additional D flip-flop 605 configured to sample delayed output Q3 and provide a delayed output Q4, thus allowing for at least four samples to be decoded before sequence detector provides an output signal. Flip-flop device 605 can also be suitably triggered by clock signal CLOCK. Additional delayed output signal Q4 can be further provided as a delayed input signal to NOR gate 612, AND gate 614, and XOR gate 618 (with delayed output signal Q2 being provided to XOR gate 616 and an additional XOR gate 617, but not XOR gate 618). Additional XOR gate 617 is introduced to prevent the decoding of an invalid sequent of “0, 1, 1, 0” or “1, 0, 0, 1” as a valid “Z” state. Thus, with reference to a logic table 660, in the event input signal IN and delayed output Q2 are in different states, e.g., a “0” state and a “1” state, and delayed output Q3 and delayed output Q4 are also in different states, e.g., a “0” state and a “1” state, then the output signal of AND gate 620 will be a “1”, i.e., a decoded state Z=1, resulting in output signals OUT1 and OUT2 providing “0” states, indicative of a “Z” state for a tri-state input signal. Thus, with momentary reference again to FIG. 8, for an error sequence of “0, 1, 0, 0 . . . ”, a fourth sample 804 as facilitated by delayed output Q4 of flip-flop 605 can allow sequence detector 600 to determine that the sequence does not represent a decoded “Z” state, but instead the “1” state is a glitch-sample, and thus the decoded state should remain “0” for the output signal of sequence detector 600. The present invention has been described above with reference to various exemplary embodiments. However, those skilled in the art will recognize that changes and modifications may be made to the exemplary embodiments without departing from the scope of the present invention. For example, the various components may be implemented in alternate ways, such as, for example, by replacing the FET-based switches with bipolar devices. Moreover, additional sample signals can be read at a time by a sequence detector, such as by adding another flip-flop device to receive delayed output Q4 and provide a delayed output Q5, or any other number of additional flip-flop devices and delayed output signals QN. These alternatives can be suitably selected depending upon the particular application or in consideration of any number of factors associated with the operation of the system. Moreover, these and other changes or modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the present invention, as expressed in the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The continued demand for improved digital systems for use in a variety of electronic systems and products has resulted in more stringent requirements for such digital systems. For example, modern digital systems must have increased flexibility and reliability, and are expected to require lower power supply levels and higher noise margins. The number of available terminal pins on a digital chip or device often limits the functionality of digital systems. In typical digital systems, each signal pin represents two logical values, namely a logical “0” value and logical “1” value. For increased functionality, a high-impedance state or tri-state assigned a logical value “Z” is introduced, requiring the use of tri-value or tri-state decoder circuits for the detection of such “Z” value states. Existing tri-value decoder circuits generally rely on the use of two threshold values, forcing a tri-state input signal to a mid-rail value, and comparing the tri-state input signal to the two threshold values. For example, with reference to FIG. 1 , a prior art tri-state decoder circuit 100 comprises a pair of input buffers BUF 2 and BUF 1 and a digital conditioning circuit 102 . Input buffers BUF 2 and BUF 1 are configured for receiving a tri-state input signal at input pin SIGNAL IN , coupled between a resistor divider circuit and between a positive rail supply VDD and ground GND, and for providing an upper and lower threshold respectively, e.g., 0.7 of VDD and 0.3 of VDD. Digital conditioning circuit 102 is configured to receive output signals N 2 and N 1 from input buffers BUF 2 and BUF 1 and for providing output signals OUT 2 and OUT 1 . With reference to FIG. 2 , another example of an existing tri-state decoder circuit 200 is illustrated. Decoder circuit 200 is similar to decoder circuit 100 except having input buffers BUF 2 and BUF 1 being replaced with comparators COMP 2 and COMP 1 , respectively, and further configured with a reference divider circuit comprising resistors R 3 , R 4 and R 5 . The reference divider circuit is configured for generating the upper and lower threshold values, e.g., 0.7 of VDD and 0.3 of VDD. In both decoder circuits 100 and 200 , the values selected for the mid-rail value (VDD/2), and the two threshold values require high precision for correct functionality. For example, with reference to FIG. 3 , a diagram illustrating detection margins for facilitating comparison and detection of a tri-state input signal at input pin SIGNAL IN demonstrates that the margin for variation for the mid-rail value VDD/2 (representative of the “Z” state) is relatively small compared to the margins for the upper and lower threshold values, requiring higher precision. The precision is affected by the matching of the various components, as well as process, temperature and power supply variations. For example, resistor mismatch, comparator offset and other like impairments can make high precision difficult to obtain. Further, as the power supply is scaled down for lower power applications, the threshold values and corresponding margins further shrink, requiring even higher precision. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with various aspects of the present invention, a tri-value decoder and method for decoding at least three logical values of an input signal are provided. An exemplary tri-value decoder and method can facilitate decoding of input signals without the use of threshold values and/or forcing a tri-state input signal to a mid-rail value for tri-state detection, and with less dependence on variations in product, process, power supply level, or temperature. In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, an exemplary tri-value decoder circuit comprises a switch circuit, a feedback loop and a sequence detector. An exemplary switch circuit is configured to facilitate sampling of a tri-state input signal through control by the feedback loop, with the sequence detector configured for decoding the tri-state input signal into a two-bit digital signal by detecting at least two samples of the tri-state input signal during a sampling period. In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, a switch circuit comprises controllable pull-up and pull-down switches that can be configured with or without current-limiting resistors, while a feedback loop can comprise a flip-flop device configured for enabling the pull-up and pull-down switches one at a time to provide a representative sampling sequence. An exemplary sequence detector can comprise various logic configurations for decoding the sampling sequence into a two-bit digital signal. In accordance with additional exemplary embodiments, an exemplary sequence detector can be configured for detecting three or more samples of the tri-state input signal during a sampling period to provide further reliability and/or error filtering. | 20040604 | 20060829 | 20051208 | 58670.0 | 0 | WAMSLEY, PATRICK G | TRI-VALUE DECODER CIRCUIT AND METHOD | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,861,099 | ACCEPTED | Method and apparatus for characterization of interactions | The invention relates to a method of characterizing interaction between two species in a liquid environment, wherein a liquid comprising said at least one species is passed as a flow through a measurement system, and wherein the interaction takes place within said measurement system. The method comprises generating a concentration gradient of at least a first one of said species or of at least one other species having an influence on the interaction or on interacted components. The flow of liquid is passed through a sensor device, and a result of interaction between said at least two species is detected. The flow of liquid is intersected at least once with a further liquid before the flow is passed through said sensor, so as to create at least two separated liquid segments having different concentrations of at least one of said species forming the concentration gradient. | 1. In a method of characterizing an interaction between at least two species in a liquid environment, wherein a liquid comprising at least one of the species is passed as a flow through a measurement system, and wherein the interaction takes place within the measurement system, which method comprises the steps of: providing, in the flow of liquid, a concentration gradient of at least one of the species; passing the flow of liquid comprising at least one of the species through a sensor device; and detecting by the sensor device a result of an interaction between the at least two species; the improvement comprising: intersecting the flow of liquid comprising the concentration gradient at least once with an additional liquid before the flow is passed through the sensor, so as to create at least two separated liquid segments having different concentrations of the species forming the concentration gradient. 2. The method of claim 1, which comprises determining at least one of the affinity, the kinetics and the assay conditions for the interaction. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein assay conditions are determined and one of the species comprises an agent associated with assay function. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the agent associated with assay function comprises a regenerating agent. 5. The method of claim 3, wherein the agent associated with assay function comprises an agent affecting interaction efficiency. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the flow of liquid is intersected more than once so as to create separated segments of liquid. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein at least one of the separated segments is discarded such that it will not be passed through the sensor. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the interaction takes place between the species and a target immobilized on a surface in a flow cell. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the additional liquid is selected form the group consisting of a buffer and a solvent. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the liquid flow is intersected a plurality of times. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the liquid flow is intersected from about 5 to about 40 times. 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the liquid flow is intersected from about 15 to about 30 times. 13. The method of claim 10, wherein the liquid flow is intersected approximately 20 times. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein consecutive segments of air and sample are injected into the sensor device, in order to prevent unwanted dispersion with running buffer to occur in the sensor device. 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the additional liquid is allowed to flow through the system at a reduced rate also during the passage of the solution through the sensor device. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the additional liquid is allowed to flow through the system at a rate of less than 5% of the nominal rate. 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the additional liquid is allowed to flow through the system at a rate of less than 1% of the nominal rate. 18. The method of claim 1, wherein a dual gradient is generated by mixing two different solutions containing different species, whereby a positive (increasing) gradient is formed for one species and a negative (decreasing) gradient is formed for the other species. 19. The method of claim 1, wherein each segment of solution is from about 8 to about 20 seconds long. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein each segment of solution is from about 10 to about 15 seconds long. 21. The method of claim 19, wherein each segment of solution is about 12 seconds long. 22. The method of claim 1, wherein each segment has a volume of from about 10 to about 40 μl. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein each segment has a volume of from about 15 to about 25 μl. 24. The method of claim 22, wherein each segment has a volume of about 20 μg. 25. The method of claim 1, wherein the flow rate for the liquid through the flow cell is from about 50 to about 200 μl/min. 26. The method of claim 1, wherein the flow rate for the liquid through the flow cell is from about 80 to about 120 μl/min. 27. The method of claim 1, wherein the flow rate for the liquid through the flow cell is about 100 μl/min. 28. The method of claim 1, wherein at least one aliquot of the liquid flow is discarded before the flow is intersected by the additional liquid. 29. The method of claim 10, wherein the majority of the segments will have different concentrations with respect to the species. 30. The method of claim 1, wherein the interaction takes place between the species in solution and a species immobilized on a surface in the measurement system. 31. The method of claim 30, wherein the immobilized species is an antibody and the species in solution is (are) an antigen to the antibody. 32. The method of claim 30, wherein the immobilized species is an antigen and the species in solution is (are) an antibody to the antigen. 33. The method of claim 1, wherein the interaction takes place between two species in solution. 34. The method of claim 33, wherein one species is an enzyme and another species is a substrate for the enzyme. 35. The method of claim 1, wherein a plurality of ligands selected from sample and other liquids are passed altematingly according to a predetermined sequence through the measurement system. 36. The method of claim 35, wherein a first liquid contains a compound binding to a target on a sensor device, a second liquid is a regeneration solution, and a third liquid comprises a buffer, and wherein the detected result of the interaction is used to determine an appropriate level of regeneration for the sensor device. 37. An apparatus for characterizing interaction between at least two species in a liquid environment, wherein a liquid comprising at least one of the species is passed as a flow through a measurement system, and wherein the interaction takes place within the measurement system, comprising: means for generating a concentration gradient of at least a first one of the species or of at least one other species having an influence on the interaction or on interacted components; means for passing the flow through a sensor device; means for intersecting the flow of liquid comprising the concentration gradient at least once with an additional liquid before the flow is passed through the sensor, so as to create at least two separated liquid segments having different concentrations of the species; and means for detecting by the sensor device a result of interaction between the at least two species. 38. A computer program product directly loadable into the internal memory of a processing means coupled to an apparatus as claimed in claim 37, comprising software code means for performing the steps of claim 1. 39. A computer program product stored on a computer usable medium, comprising a readable program for causing a processing means coupled to an apparatus as claimed in claim 37, to control an execution of the steps of claim 1. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/477,909, filed Jun. 12, 2003; and also claims priority to Swedish Patent Application No. 0301639-1, filed Jun. 6, 2003; both of these applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to analysis methods wherein it is desired to determine characteristics, such as kinetic properties or affinity for various interactions in multi-component systems. In particular it relates to methods for the analysis of interactions between species in a liquid environment, such as a compound and a target. The invention also relates to the analysis of site specific binding between species, e.g., compounds and targets. More particularly it relates to a method and apparatus for determining kinetic properties or affinity by providing a pulsed gradient of a sample containing a compound of interest, whereby the target molecule is exposed to the gradient of the compound with which it can interact, and detecting a result of said interaction. 2. Description of the Related Art In the study of candidates for new drugs (screening) it is often the case that substances exhibiting weak binding are encountered, leading to rapid events, exhibiting small time constants. Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) is a powerful technique for the study of affinity between substrates and targets, but typically designed for slower events. Instruments utilizing the principle of SPR (e.g., the instruments supplied by the assignee of the present invention, Biacore AB, Uppsala, Sweden) measure changes in refractive index of the medium next to a sensor chip, resulting from altered mass concentration at the surface. In conventional SPR assays (e.g., using the systems from Biacore AB, Uppsala, Sweden), one sample injection corresponds to one concentration of the selected compound, and the injection comprises one single segment or “plug” of sample liquid. In most cases of kinetic and affinity determination, a few injections of different concentration are sufficient to obtain reliable results of interaction rate or strength (i.e., association rate constant, dissociation rate constant and dissociation constant). However, when studying molecules with low affinity or exhibiting fast kinetics, many such measurements need to be performed. This is a relatively time-consuming process, with considerable sample losses. With the injection exhibiting the highest precision of the available injection methods, every injection requires 40 μl of sample in addition to the desired injection volume to prevent dispersion with buffer. In an article by Shan-Retzlaf et al, in Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 72, No. 17, pp. 4212-4220, entitled “Analyte Gradient-Surface Plasmon Resonance: A One-Step Method for Determining Kinetic Rates and Macromolecular Binding Affinities”, a method for determining kinetic rates and equilibrium binding affinities using SPR is disclosed. It is a one-step method making use of a gradient such that under continuous-flow conditions, the concentration of compound to be analyzed (analyte) passing over the sensor surface increases linearly with time. The rate at which analyte binds to the immobilized receptors is measured by monitoring the change in the surface plasmon resonance minimum as the analyte concentration increases. Kinetic rates are determined by fitting data to a modified version of a two-compartment model. Although representing an improvement, it still suffers from a lack of capability to perform measurements on systems exhibiting relatively fast kinetic behavior, and also in that relatively large sample quantities are needed for a full titration. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The disadvantages with the prior art methods are overcome with the present invention, in a method for the characterization of interaction between at least two species in a liquid environment, such as the affinity and/or kinetic properties and/or the assay conditions, as defined in claim 1. Thereby, a concentration gradient of at least a first one of said species is generated, and the gradient is passed through a sensor device. A result of an interaction between said at least two species is detected by said sensor device. Before passing the liquid flow through the sensor device, the flow of liquid is intersected at least once with an additional liquid, so as to create at least two separated segments of liquid. In this way, the amount of sample needed for the measurement is considerably reduced, and the time required for a completed measurement is also considerably reduced. In one embodiment of the invention one compound to be studied and one target is used. This would be the most frequently used method of studying individual compounds/substances. In another embodiment a sample liquid is employed, comprising two or more compounds, one of which has known binding characteristics and constitutes the sample gradient, the characteristics of the other compound(s) being unknown. This embodiment is employed to assess information of the strength of the binding of the compound(s) having unknown characteristics, and to decide whether the compound binds to the same site on the target molecule or not. In a further embodiment, the compound of interest is an enzyme reacting with a substrate. In still another embodiment the gradient can be used for improving assay conditions, as exemplified by finding optimal conditions (concentration or pH) for the regeneration of a sensor surface (i.e., to remove compound from target). In a further aspect of the invention there is provided an apparatus for the characterization of interaction, such as the affinity and/or kinetic properties and/or the assay conditions, of at least one compound in solution interacting with at least one target, as defined in claim 37. The apparatus is suitably run under the control of software in the form of a computer program product directly loadable into the internal memory of a processing means within or associated with the apparatus, and comprising the software code means for performing the steps of the method according to the invention. The software can also be in the form of a computer program product stored on a computer usable medium, comprising a readable program for causing a processing means in the apparatus to control an execution of the steps of the method according to the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will be described in detail below with reference to the following drawings. FIG. 1 shows schematically a system for performing the method according to the invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a non-equilibrium state in a pulse injection according to the invention; FIG. 3 is a typical sensorgram representing mass concentration near the surface as a function of time obtained with one embodiment of the method according to the invention; FIG. 4 illustrates a dual gradient; FIG. 5 shows responses of individual samples and the response of mixed samples of phenylbutazone and warfarin; FIG. 6 shows responses of individual samples and the response of mixed samples of digitoxin and warfarin; FIG. 7 illustrates the sum of added responses and the response of a mixture of digitoxin and warfarin; FIG. 8 illustrates a set up for a case where the injections comprise alternating pulses of three different liquids; FIG. 9 illustrates a response curve for a case where three pulsed injections are employed; and FIG. 10 illustrates an alternative method of creating a gradient. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION For the purpose of the present invention the following terms and expressions should be taken to have the indicated meanings: For the purpose of this application, a “species” is any entity such as a molecule, a compound, substance, antibody, antigen, cell, cell fragment, or any other moiety that can be provided in a liquid environment. In order to be detectable, it should preferably be capable of some sort of interaction with another species, a result of the interaction being detectable by some means. However, of course, in certain instances an analyte maybe does not interact with another species of interest, and thus no explicit result of interaction can be measured, but this lack of result is also detectable, and therefore this kind of non-interacting species is also included in the definition of species. “Injection” is the delivery of at least a part of an amount of liquid into a flow cell or the like of an analysis instrument. A “pulse” is a fraction of an injection, i.e., a segment of the injected amount of liquid. A “pulse series” is at least two pulses. The method according to the invention is usable with a variety of detection systems, including those relying on a label, such as a radiolabel, a chromophore, a fluorophore, marker for scattering light, electrochemically active marker, magnetically active marker, thermoactive marker, a chemiluminescent moiety or a transition metal, as well as so-called label-free detection systems. For many applications, detection is conveniently performed with a chemical sensor or a biosensor, which is broadly defined as a device using a component for molecular recognition (e.g., a layer or pattern with immobilized antibodies) in either direct conjunction with a solid state physicochemical transducer, or with a mobile carrier bead/particle being in conjunction with the transducer. While such sensors are typically based on label-free techniques, detecting, e.g., change in mass, refractive index, or thickness for the immobilized layer, there are also sensors relying on some kind of labelling. Typical sensor detection techniques include, but are not limited to, mass detection methods, such as piezoelectric, optical, thermo-optical and surface acoustic wave (SAW) device methods, and electrochemical methods, such as potentiometric, conductometric, amperometric and capacitance/impedance methods. With regard to optical detection methods, representative methods include those that detect mass surface concentration, such as reflection-optical methods, including both internal and external reflection methods, angle, wavelength, polarization, or phase resolved, for example ellipsometry and evanescent wave spectroscopy (EWS), both may include surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy, Brewster angle refractometry, critical angle refractometry, frustrated total reflection (FTR), evanescent wave ellipsometry, scattered total internal reflection (STIR), optical wave guide sensors, evanescent wave-based imaging such as critical angle resolved imaging, Brewster angle resolved imaging, SPR angle resolved imaging, and the like. Further, photometric and imaging/microscopy methods based on for example surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), surface enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy (SERRS), evanescent wave fluorescence (TIRF) and phosphorescence may be mentioned, as well as waveguide interferometers, waveguide leaking mode spectroscopy, reflective interference spectroscopy (RIfS), transmission interferometry, holographic spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy (AFR). The invention is illustrated in the examples mainly with the use of SPR, which should not be taken to be limiting on the scope of the invention. First a brief description of the SPR technique as used in the Biacore® systems will be given. In SPR, changes in refractive index of the medium next to a sensor chip, resulting from altered mass concentration at the surface, are measured. The signal is measured in response units, RU, 1,000 RU corresponding to an approximate surface concentration of 1 ng/mm2, and graphically presented as a function of time in a sensorgram. In the terminology for the purpose of this application, the molecule attached to a surface is referred to as the target, whereas the compound to be analyzed is the molecule in solution. The solution containing the compound is injected over a surface, the sensor chip, typically coated with a carboxymethyl-dextran matrix, and transported by a continuous flow. The process is driven by a system of two automated pumps, one of which maintains a constant buffer flow and the other controls injection. Target is covalently bound to the sensor chip matrix in a process called immobilization. The most commonly used immobilization technique is amine coupling, in which reactive esters are introduced into the surface matrix by modification of the carboxymethyl groups. These esters then react spontaneously with amines and other nucleophilic groups on the target to form covalent links. There are other ways besides amine coupling to link target to the matrix. For example, the so-called “ligand thiol coupling” method introduces a reactive disulphide group on to carboxyl groups of the sensor chip matrix, which are exchanged with intrinsic thiol groups of the target. The covalent coupling withstands conditions that break the bonds between target and compound, a process called regeneration. The same surface can therefore be used several times. During injection, compound molecules are continuously transported to the surface, and allowed to associate with target molecules. When the injection stops, the buffer flow washes off dissociated compounds. The association phase is described by (for 1:1 binding) dR/dt=kaC(Rmax−R)−kdR (1) At equilibrium the response is obtained as Req=kaCRmax/(kaC+kd) (2) and during dissociation as dR/dt=−kdR0 (3) where R signifies the response at any time t, Req the response at equilibrium, R0 the response at the end of an injection, and Rmax the maximum binding capacity of the surface in RU. C is the molar concentration of the compound of interest. FIG. 1 illustrates schematically a system for performing a method using the principle of the pulse injection according to the invention, in an embodiment in the form of a set up with one sample liquid (exhibiting a gradient) and one buffer. It comprises a measurement system, which for the purpose of this invention comprises tubings, pumps, valves and sensors in which the liquids to be characterized flow. At least one compound is passed as a flow through the measurement system, and the interaction takes place within said measurement system. There are means, comprising valves, pumps and a control unit for generating a concentration gradient of at least a first one of said compounds. A sensor device capable of detecting a result of an interaction between at least said first compound and another species is provided, suitably as a flow cell. The pumps and/or valves are used for passing said flow through said sensor device, and for intersecting the flow of liquid at least once with a further liquid before the flow is passed through said sensor, so as to create at least two separated segments of liquid containing the compound of interest, under the control of the control unit. Thus, the apparatus is run under the control of software in the form of a computer program product directly loadable into the internal memory of a processing means coupled to the apparatus. The program comprises the software code means for performing the steps of the method according to the invention. The software can also be in the form of a computer program product stored on a computer usable medium, comprising a readable program for causing a processing means in the apparatus to control an execution of the steps of the method according to the invention. The pulse injection method according to the present invention has two main features. Firstly, each injection contains a number of short sample pulses, suitably 4 or 5 up to 40 pulses, preferably 15-30, more preferably approximately 20 pulses, generated by an alternating sample and buffer flow, and each pulse preferably has a volume of 1-40 μl, preferably 10-40 μl, more preferably 15-25 μl, suitably about 20 μl. The duration of the pulses, i.e., each segment of solution can be 8-20, preferably about 10-15, suitably 12 seconds long, and the flow rate for the sample liquid through the flow cell may be 50-200, preferably 80-120, suitably 100 μl/min. In contrast, the conventional prior art method consists of one pulse (per injection; the entire injection is one pulse). Secondly, there is provided a concentration gradient combined with pulse injections, which taken together generate information from several concentration levels in a single injection, in that each pulse of the injection in principle constitutes one concentration. The gradient is produced when buffer and sample are allowed to mix in the tubing during sample aspiration as described below. It should also be noted that some pulses during one injection can be discarded, whereby the discarded segments will not be passed through the sensor. Alternatively, some aliquot(s) of liquid can be discarded even before performing the alternating buffer injections to create the separated segments. We refer now to FIG. 1, which is a schematic illustration of a system embodying the invention and showing the flow paths, for a description of the basic principle of the method according to the invention. As can be seen in FIG. 1, there are provided two vessels (e.g., test tubes) containing sample and buffer, respectively. There is also provided a means for aspirating liquid from the test tubes, indicated with vertical lines extending down into the test tubes. This means can suitably be a needle, and since the same needle is used for both liquids, the needle shown in the sample tube is shown by a broken line. The needle would thereby be physically moved between the tubes for the aspiration of liquids sequentially. Of course there are other possibilities of devising the aspiration means, the one shown being only exemplary. A system buffer supply is also provided. Initially the entire system is filled with buffer, i.e., all tubing contains this buffer. The respective segments of tubing (sample and system buffer, respectively) are coupled to an Integrated Fluidic Cartridge (IFC), a device enabling controlled liquid delivery to one or more flow cells. Each flow cell has a sensor surface onto which one or more suitable target(s) are immobilized. There are also provided a number of valves in the IFC for the control of the flows of the respective liquids. Alternatively, the flow in the various lines can be controlled by accurate pumps, whereby the actual flow rates can be monotonically controlled to provide the desired flow rates, ranging from zero flow to the maximum flow rates required, or combinations thereof. The first step in the procedure is to aspirate a small volume of buffer into the needle, i.e., to immerse the needle into the buffer tube, and to aspirate the appropriate volume into the needle. It is, however, not strictly necessary to fill the needle with buffer by aspiration. Instead, the needle can be filled with buffer from the other end, i.e., from the system buffer supply, by filling the entire system with buffer. Then, the needle is moved to the sample tube and a suitable volume of sample of about 500 μl is aspirated. However, the actual volume may depend on the application and the kind of sample, and can vary within wide limits, say between 1 μl and 4ml. The aspiration of sample will lead to mixing of the sample and buffer by dispersion, thereby creating a gradient in the tubing. In this case the gradient will be a decreasing gradient (as seen from the needle) running through the flow cell. If an increasing gradient is the sample required, one would have to aspirate buffer after the sample aspiration, and ensure that a non-dispersed sample trailing edge is provided by first aspirating an air bubble to protect the sample from liquid already present in the needle, second a sample and third a buffer segment. The aspiration sequence always ends with aspiration of one or a few air bubbles to protect the gradient from liquid already present in the IFC. Prior to the first step, it is preferable to perform a few alternating air and sample aspirations to provide consecutive segments of air and sample and to inject them into the IFC. In this way the sample will be protected from unwanted dispersion with running buffer in the IFC, i.e., the leading front of the aspirated sample liquid will exhibit the nominal (maximum) concentration. When a gradient has been established, it is injected via the needle into the IFC and valves v2 and v3 in the sample, and buffer flow lines are opened and closed according to a programmed sequence to enable alternating sample (exhibiting a gradient in the longitudinal direction of the tubing) and buffer pulses to be fed into the flow cells, such that the sample liquid flow is intersected at least once, preferably a plurality of times, by a further liquid, represented by the system buffer in this case. This intersection will create at least two separated segments of liquid. However, other further liquids than the system buffer are of course possible, such as pure solvent, solutions containing other species of interest, etc. Thus, the leading edge of a decreasing sample gradient flow will represent a first concentration. Most often the concentration at the leading edge will be very close to the nominal, and can be taken to represent a known concentration. However, the major part of the sample flow will exhibit a gradient, and thus the majority of said segments that are created will have different concentrations with respect to said compound. After a predetermined volume of sample gradient flow has passed into the flow cells, valve v2 is closed and valve v3 is opened, thereby injecting buffer into the line behind the sample flow. During the passage of sample over the sensor surface having targets immobilized on it, the sample will associate with the targets. The volume of sample should preferably be sufficient to enable equilibrium to establish. However, it is not always required that equilibrium be reached. As an example, FIG. 2 illustrates a non-equilibrium state, but an equilibrium level can be calculated from the graph. The time frames involved depend on sample specific binding and transport characteristics, flow rate, temperature, flow cell dimensions, etc. When sample has been injected for a sufficiently long time, buffer is injected by opening valve v3 and closing valve v2. During the passage of buffer over the surface, sample will dissociate. The process is repeated until the aspirated sample has been injected. It is not necessary to inject the complete gradient into the flow cell. During buffer injection (v3 open, v2 closed) valve 1 can be opened to discard a small segment of the gradient. This will reduce the number of pulses produced and reduce the time needed for a full injection. FIG. 3 is a typical example of a sensorgram resulting from a procedure as the one just described. In one preferred embodiment, wherein a system without valves is used, during the association phase, i.e., during the time the sample is passed through the sensor cell, the buffer flow is set to a very low value, less than 5%, and, e.g., about 1% of the regular flow. This is not strictly necessary, but prevents sample solution from leaking into the buffer line. Then a certain, predetermined amount of sample is injected into the IFC at a specified rate. The buffer flow rate is then reset to the regular rate. During the passage of buffer through the cell, sample compound that has bound to the target on the sensor surface is allowed to dissociate for a suitable time period. In one embodiment of the invention, the sample gradient can be a “dual gradient”. This is accomplished by aspirating two different sample solutions, which when they are mixed in the tubing by dispersion in the same manner as with sample and buffer, produce an increasing gradient of one sample compound and a decreasing gradient of the other sample compound. This kind of gradient can be useful for determining if two samples compete for the same binding site on the target or if they bind to different binding sites on the target. Such information is highly valuable in the drug development process, as it can indicate possible unwanted interactions between drugs in different therapeutic areas. In a further embodiment of the invention the reaction system to be studied can be an enzyme-substrate interaction. Thereby, an enzyme solution is substituted for the buffer, and a gradient of a suitable substrate for the enzyme is provided by aspiration of a suitable buffer and substrate solution in a manner similar to the principle discussed above. With reference to FIG. 10, an alternative method of creating a gradient is possible by aspirating a sample segment of known concentration and diluting it with buffer in the IFC using a connection c1 and a tubing segment m1. This allows the buffer and sample to form a homogenous mixture prior to contacting the flowcells. The pulses would be generated as previously described, i.e., by using alternating pumps or valves v2 and v3. The connection c1 could be a simple T-connection so that the concentration of the sample in the gradient is controlled by how the ratio of [flowrate (buffer)] and [flowrate (sample)] changes over time. Another possibility could be to have a two-way valve as connection c1. The concentration of the sample will be controlled by switching the inlet to ml between buffer and sample, having the two-way valve open for buffer a different time than open for sample. In the tubing segment ml the discrete connected segments of sample and buffer will form a homogenous mix due to dispersion. This method makes it possible to generate a gradient with known concentration of the sample at all times, in contrast to the dispersion concentration gradient where only the first few pulses have a known compound concentration. The method according to the invention is applicable in a general sense, i.e., for an arbitrary number of sample flows, although practical limitations restrict the actual number that is possible. If it is desirable to run a plurality of different sample or reagent solutions, a corresponding number of tubings could be provided. Thereby, a plurality of sample and/or other liquids are passed altematingly according to a predetermined sequence through the measurement system. However, it is also possible to have several components in one gradient, which then would require only one tube. This means that the physical setup may become more complex, but it is still within the inventive concept to devise such systems. The invention will now be further illustrated by the following non-limiting examples. EXAMPLES Several candidate model systems for compound—target were tested for suitable characteristics, such as rapid association and dissociation, as well as sufficient response levels (more than 20 RU). The pulse injection method was tested on myoglobin—anti-myoglobin to get an idea of what a binding curve from a system with relatively slow kinetics would look like. Interactions between lysozyme and a camel derived monoclonal anti-lysozyme antibody served as template for determination of interaction rate constants. Because of its rapid kinetics the maltose—anti-maltose system was used for steady state studies, in which equilibrium response levels are used to estimate affinity (KD). Competitive inhibition was investigated using the pulse injection method on human serum albumine, HSA, and some known binders (drugs). For all model systems used, 1:1 binding was assumed. Materials and Methods Instrumentation and Software The sensor chips that were used throughout were CM-5 surfaces (Biacore AB, Uppsala, Sweden). All interaction studies were performed with a BIACORE® 3000 biosensor (Biacore AB, Uppsala, Sweden). Data was presented as sensorgrams by the BIACORE® 3000 control software and evaluated using the BIAevaluation software, version 3.1 (Biacore AB, Uppsala, Sweden), Matlab version 5.3 (The MathWorks, Inc., Natick, MA) and Excel 97 (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, Wash.). Reagents BIA-certified HBS-EP (0.01 M Hepes, pH 7.4, 0.15 M NaCl, 3 mM EDTA, 0.005% Tween 20; Biacore AB, Uppsala, Sweden) was used as running buffer, unless otherwise stated. Monoclonal anti-myoglobin antibody and sheep myoglobin were from Biacore AB. The cAb-Lys3:s SGS, camel derived heavy chain triple mutant single domain antibody directed against lysozyme, was obtained from the Department of Ultrastructure, Vrije Universiteit, Brussels, Belgium. Hen egg-white lysozyme was from the same place. Monoclonal anti-maltose antibody, monoclonal anti-AFP antibody (clone 118B) and maltose were from Biacore AB. HSA (essentially fatty acid and globulin free, A 3782) as well as warfarin, digitoxin and phenylbutazone were from Sigma. Example 1 Slow Kinetic Interaction A monoclonal anti-myoglobin antibody was immobilized to a level of approximately 2070 and 930.RU (flowcells 2 and 4, respectively in FIG. 1) by a standard amine coupling procedure at 20° C. Following a 7-min. activation with EDC-NHS, anti-myoglobin (10 μg/ml in 10 mM sodium acetate, pH 5.0) was injected over the surface for 5 min. Unreacted esters were then deactivated by a 7-min. injection of 1 M ethanolamine, pH 8.5. Channels 1 and 3 were used as reference cells, and were activated and deactivated as above. The flow rate was 5 μl/min. Myoglobin, 20 μg/ml (initial concentration 110 nM in running buffer), was injected over all flowcells simultaneously at 20, 25 and 30° C., using the pulse injection method. The signals in flowcells 1 and 3 were subtracted from those of flowcells 2 and 4, respectively, to correct for bulk errors. Each injection was followed by two 30-sec. pulses of regeneration solution (10 mM glycine pH 3, 1 mM NaCl, 10% ethanol). The injection protocol was as follows: 1. A few alternating air and sample segments are aspirated and injected into the IFC. In this way the sample will be protected from unwanted dispersion with running buffer in the IFC. 2. The needle is filled with a certain volume of buffer. Sample is then aspirated, which will lead to a rapid mixing of the sample and buffer by dispersion. Depending on the time between aspiration and injection, diffusion probably also influences the sample concentration to some extent, although the contribution is minor. 3. The valves of the sample and buffer flow are opened to enable alternating sample and buffer pulses. FIG. 1 shows a schematic view of the flow paths. During the association phase (here 12 seconds) buffer flow is set to 1 μl/min, and a certain amount of sample (here 20 μl) is injected into the IFC (disp) at a specified rate, here 100 μl/min. The flow rate is then reset to 100 μl/min and the compound that has associated is allowed to dissociate for 12 seconds. The process is repeated until the entire aspirated sample has been injected. The signals of the reference flowcells were subtracted from the response curves of the anti-myoglobin cells. The binding curve of the pulse injections of myoglobin performed on the anti-myoglobin surface (FIG. 2) at three different temperatures corresponded well with the curve that was obtained from the computer simulations. Example 2 Estimation of Interaction Rate Constants The kinetics of the triple mutant of the camel antibody (SGS) binding to lysozyme was studied with the pulse injection method according to the invention. All experiments were performed at 30° C. 190 RU (chip 1) and 280 RU (chip 2) of lysozyme was immobilized using the amine coupling procedure described in Example 1. Upon a 2-min. activation, lysozyme (8 μg/ml in 10 mM Na2HPO4, pH 7.0) was injected for 3 min. (chip 1) and 4 min. 30 sec. (chip 2). 10 mM Na2HPO4, pH 7.0 (flow rate 5 μl/min) was used as running buffer during immobilization. SGS was injected at different initial concentrations (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 μM in HBS-EP). Results are shown in FIG. 3. Bulk errors in the sample solutions were corrected for by subtraction of the reference flow cell signals. Individual pulses were separated and aligned, using MATLAB, so that each pulse corresponded to one binding curve. The curves were superimposed in the BIAevaluation software. 15 pulses were used in every fit. The first two pulses were assumed to be of initial concentration. Global starting values of ka, kd and Rmax were fitted to the second pulse (pulse number one was omitted because of its irregular shape), since its concentration was known. These values were then used to locally fit the concentrations of all pulses. ka, kd and Rmax estimations were refined, using the new concentration information. The process was repeated until all parameters converged. Each pulse injection was evaluated separately. The fitting of the concentration resulted in a partially linear concentration gradient. Kinetic data obtained with the pulse injection method is presented together with mean values and standard deviations in Table 1 (SGS). TABLE 1 (Results fvrom a pulse injection assay with camel antibody SGS and lysozyme) C0 ka (μM)*) (M−1s−1) kd (s−1) Rmax (RU) KD (M) χ2**) Chip 1 0.5 1.75e5 0.508 137 2.9e-6 0.0972 (190 RU) 0.5 9.99e4 0.435 180 4.35e-6 0.151 0.5 1.17e5 0.484 170 4.14e-6 0.122 1 1.91e5 0.475 112 2.5e-6 0.243 1 4.6e5 0.514 72.7 1.12e-6 0.198 1 1.62e5 0.513 126 3.17e-6 0.325 Chip 2 1 4.60e5 0.466 119 1.01e-6 0.383 (280 RU) 1 1.11e5 0.462 286 4.15e-6 0.374 1 1.32e5 0.42 251 3.19e-6 0.348 2 1.87e5 0.487 188 2.60e-6 1.53 2 2.41e5 0.464 151 1.83e-6 0.816 2 2.79e5 0.421 137 1.51e-6 1.85 Average: 2.18e5 0.471 133 2.71e-6 189 St. dev: 1.25e5 0.033 29.2 1.16e-6 66.8 Rel. 57% 7% 30% 35% 43% st. dev: *)C0 is the nominal concentration of SGS **)χ2 is a statistical measure of the quality of the fit Example 3 Estimation of Affinity Approximately 15000 RU of anti-maltose antibody was immobilized in one of the four flowcells. Roughly the same amount of another antibody, anti-AFP, was immobilized in a reference flowcell in order to minimise errors in reference subtraction due to the high immobilization level. These two proteins were immobilized using the “amine coupling” procedure as follows: HBS-EP was used as running buffer with a constant flow rate of 5 μl/min. After activation for 12 min. with EDC, target (anti-maltose or anti-AFP, 50 μg/ml in 10 mM sodium acetate, pH 5.0) was injected for 7 min., followed by a 12-min. deactivation. Immobilization and all measurements on the surface were performed at 25° C. Samples of different initial concentrations (0.05 and 0.1 mM) were injected over the surface. The association and dissociation phases of each pulse were 12 seconds. This was sufficient to reach an equilibrium level and to allow the complexes to completely dissociate. Each experiment started with a blank run, i.e., a series of pulses of running buffer alone. The concentration of the first pulse, C1, was assumed to be equal to the concentration in the vial. The refractive index of maltose being relatively high, concentrations of the following pulses, Ci, could be estimated from the response in the reference flowcell as: Ci=Req(i)/Req(1)·C1 (4) Data from the sensorgrams were extracted from the BIACORE® result files in the same way as the camel antibody pulses. Response levels were obtained by taking the average of 10 data points at equilibrium. Evaluation was performed with the BIAevaluation software. The affinity constant, KA, was obtained as the negative slope in a linearly fitted Req/C versus Req plot (analogous to a Schatchard plot). KD was obtained as 1/KA. Rmax was found from the interception with the x axis. The constant multiconcentration pulse series were evaluated with a non-linearly fitted Req versus C plot, whereby KA, KD and Rmax values were obtained directly from the software. In order to compare the results obtained with pulse injections to results obtained with the conventional method, 12 maltose injections of concentrations ranging from 0 to 1500 μM were performed. The injection time was 15 sec. Data was evaluated from a Req versus C plot using the BIAevaluation software. Affinity calculated from data obtained with the pulse injection method according to the invention yielded an average KD of 90×10−4 M. A conventional affinity assay yielded a KD of 85×10−4 M. Example 4 Site Availability of Drugs Binding to HSA HSA (15 μg/ml in sodium acetate, pH 5.2) was immobilized to a level of approximately 12200 RU, using a standard amine coupling procedure (Frostell-Karlsson et al, J. Med. Chem. 2 000, 43:1986-2000). A neighboring flowcell was activated and deactivated, and used as reference. The newly immobilized surface was conditioned with three consecutive 30-sec. injections of 50 mM NaOH. The immobilization and all measurements performed on the surface were carried out at 25° C. 100 mM (phenylbutazone, digitoxin) and 10 mM (warfarin) stock solutions of compounds in 100% DMSO were diluted in 67 mM isotonic phosphate buffer (9.6 g Na2HPO4.2H2O, 1.7 g KH2PO4, 4.1 g NaCl to 1 litre, pH 7.0) to a DMSO concentration of 5%. Samples were then diluted in running buffer (67 mM isotonic phosphate buffer, 5% DMSO, pH 7.4) to a compound concentration of 50 μM. Equal volumes of two different samples were aspirated from sealed vials without separating air bubbles, and mixed by dispersion in the tubing. The presumed concentration distribution in the tubing of the two samples is shown in FIG. 4. Sample was injected using association and dissociation phases of 12 seconds each. Sample combinations are shown in table 2. Every drug was also run once combined with running buffer. Before and after each run a DMSO correction (Frostell-Karlsson et al., supra) was performed in order to compensate for DMSO bulk differences between reference and HSA flowcells. Equilibrium data from the sample—buffer runs was collected and response levels were added. The sum was compared to the response obtained when the same compounds were injected as a mixture. TABLE 2 (Combinations of drugs that were used in the HSA assay) Sample 1 Sample 2 Phenylbutazone Buffer Phenylbutazoner Warfarin Buffer Warfarin Digitoxin Warfarin Digitoxin Buffer Equilibrium response levels from the two-sample gradient assay are shown in FIGS. 5 and 6. FIG. 7 shows a comparison between added responses from individual samples (X+Y) and responses of the samples injected as a mixture (XY). Digitoxin (D) and warfarin (W) are non-competitive binders. The added responses of individual samples and the response of the mixed samples should therefore be identical (FIG. 6). On the contrary, added responses of individual samples should be higher than the response from the samples injected as a mixture in the case of phenylbutazone and warfarin, since they compete for the same site (FIG. 5). Example 5 Determination of Optimal Regeneration Conditions A problem often encountered in SPR analysis is to determine the optimal regeneration conditions. A too weak regeneration will not restore the sensor chip to a sufficient degree, and a too strong regeneration will destroy the sensor chip. Therefore, it is desirable to be able to optimize the regeneration in a reliable and quick procedure. This can be done with the pulse injection method according to the invention. FIG. 8 illustrates a setup for a case where the injections comprise alternating pulses of three different liquids. Thus, a setup with three different liquid lines is provided, namely a first line for system buffer (HBS buffer), a second line for an antibody (Anti-biotin antibody (Novocastra Laboratories Ltd, Newcastle upon Tyne U.K.)) and a third line for regeneration solution (50 mM NaOH or 10 mM Glycin pH 3.0 (both from Biacore AB). The sensor chip is Sensor Chip Biotin (Biacore AB). The injection sequence was as follows: buffer-antibody-buffer-regeneration(gradient)-buffer-antibody-buffer-regeneration(gradient)-buffer-and so on. Two experiments were performed, the results of which are shown in FIG. 9: first with a gradient of water and NaOH (broken curve), second with a gradient of water and Glycine (solid curve). For NaOH, the first (most diluted) regeneration pulse, no regeneration effect is seen. The second pulse gives a significant regeneration, pulses 3 and higher give complete regeneration. For Glycine, no regeneration is seen for any dilution. Example 6 Enzyme and Substrate Interaction A setup similar to the one in FIG. 1 is employed, but the sample line is used for providing a gradient of the enzyme MAPK2, and the buffer is replaced by a solution comprising myelic basic protein as a substrate for the enzyme. A BIACORE® sensor or a spectrophotometer is used to detect the product (phosphorylated myelic basic protein) of the enzymatic action, or the decrease in myelic basic protein concentration. The dual gradient is achieved by filling a needle with a suitable dilution solution such as a buffer containing substrate, and then aspirating enzyme solution. Dispersion will then create a gradient in the same manner as previously described. A pulse sequence similar to the one used in the discussion of FIG. 1 is used. In this application a new injection method has been disclosed. It is usable for the study of affinity, kinetics and site specificity. The above examples confirm the working of the present invention. The average of the KD values for the maltose—anti-maltose interaction produced by the pulse injection method with sample dispersion closely resembles the average KD estimated with the traditional method. The prior art method and the methods according to the invention result in comparable, and relatively low, standard deviations in kd. The average ka and kd are in the same range for both methods. One major advantage of the pulse injection method is the low sample consumption. While a conventional kinetic analysis requires several sample aspirations, each of which uses an additional amount of solution, a single aspiration is enough to obtain multiple binding curves with the pulse injection method. Furthermore, a pulse assay takes considerably less time than a conventional assay. One cycle of 20 pulses lasts about 20 minutes, compared to over an hour and a half for a traditional method (for example the conventional maltose assay in Example 3, containing 12 concentrations). | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to analysis methods wherein it is desired to determine characteristics, such as kinetic properties or affinity for various interactions in multi-component systems. In particular it relates to methods for the analysis of interactions between species in a liquid environment, such as a compound and a target. The invention also relates to the analysis of site specific binding between species, e.g., compounds and targets. More particularly it relates to a method and apparatus for determining kinetic properties or affinity by providing a pulsed gradient of a sample containing a compound of interest, whereby the target molecule is exposed to the gradient of the compound with which it can interact, and detecting a result of said interaction. 2. Description of the Related Art In the study of candidates for new drugs (screening) it is often the case that substances exhibiting weak binding are encountered, leading to rapid events, exhibiting small time constants. Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) is a powerful technique for the study of affinity between substrates and targets, but typically designed for slower events. Instruments utilizing the principle of SPR (e.g., the instruments supplied by the assignee of the present invention, Biacore AB, Uppsala, Sweden) measure changes in refractive index of the medium next to a sensor chip, resulting from altered mass concentration at the surface. In conventional SPR assays (e.g., using the systems from Biacore AB, Uppsala, Sweden), one sample injection corresponds to one concentration of the selected compound, and the injection comprises one single segment or “plug” of sample liquid. In most cases of kinetic and affinity determination, a few injections of different concentration are sufficient to obtain reliable results of interaction rate or strength (i.e., association rate constant, dissociation rate constant and dissociation constant). However, when studying molecules with low affinity or exhibiting fast kinetics, many such measurements need to be performed. This is a relatively time-consuming process, with considerable sample losses. With the injection exhibiting the highest precision of the available injection methods, every injection requires 40 μl of sample in addition to the desired injection volume to prevent dispersion with buffer. In an article by Shan-Retzlaf et al, in Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 72, No. 17, pp. 4212-4220, entitled “Analyte Gradient-Surface Plasmon Resonance: A One-Step Method for Determining Kinetic Rates and Macromolecular Binding Affinities”, a method for determining kinetic rates and equilibrium binding affinities using SPR is disclosed. It is a one-step method making use of a gradient such that under continuous-flow conditions, the concentration of compound to be analyzed (analyte) passing over the sensor surface increases linearly with time. The rate at which analyte binds to the immobilized receptors is measured by monitoring the change in the surface plasmon resonance minimum as the analyte concentration increases. Kinetic rates are determined by fitting data to a modified version of a two-compartment model. Although representing an improvement, it still suffers from a lack of capability to perform measurements on systems exhibiting relatively fast kinetic behavior, and also in that relatively large sample quantities are needed for a full titration. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The disadvantages with the prior art methods are overcome with the present invention, in a method for the characterization of interaction between at least two species in a liquid environment, such as the affinity and/or kinetic properties and/or the assay conditions, as defined in claim 1 . Thereby, a concentration gradient of at least a first one of said species is generated, and the gradient is passed through a sensor device. A result of an interaction between said at least two species is detected by said sensor device. Before passing the liquid flow through the sensor device, the flow of liquid is intersected at least once with an additional liquid, so as to create at least two separated segments of liquid. In this way, the amount of sample needed for the measurement is considerably reduced, and the time required for a completed measurement is also considerably reduced. In one embodiment of the invention one compound to be studied and one target is used. This would be the most frequently used method of studying individual compounds/substances. In another embodiment a sample liquid is employed, comprising two or more compounds, one of which has known binding characteristics and constitutes the sample gradient, the characteristics of the other compound(s) being unknown. This embodiment is employed to assess information of the strength of the binding of the compound(s) having unknown characteristics, and to decide whether the compound binds to the same site on the target molecule or not. In a further embodiment, the compound of interest is an enzyme reacting with a substrate. In still another embodiment the gradient can be used for improving assay conditions, as exemplified by finding optimal conditions (concentration or pH) for the regeneration of a sensor surface (i.e., to remove compound from target). In a further aspect of the invention there is provided an apparatus for the characterization of interaction, such as the affinity and/or kinetic properties and/or the assay conditions, of at least one compound in solution interacting with at least one target, as defined in claim 37 . The apparatus is suitably run under the control of software in the form of a computer program product directly loadable into the internal memory of a processing means within or associated with the apparatus, and comprising the software code means for performing the steps of the method according to the invention. The software can also be in the form of a computer program product stored on a computer usable medium, comprising a readable program for causing a processing means in the apparatus to control an execution of the steps of the method according to the invention. | 20040604 | 20100105 | 20050127 | 93036.0 | 0 | SKIBINSKY, ANNA | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF INTERACTIONS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,861,194 | ACCEPTED | Determining the geographical location from which an emergency call originates in a packet-based communications network | In order that emergency service vehicles can be dispatched to the correct destination promptly, accurate information about the location of the caller is needed. Another problem concerns routing emergency calls to the correct destination. For emergency calls a universal code is used such as 911 in North America and 112 in Europe. This universal code cannot be used to identify the destination of the call. These problems are particularly acute for nomadic communications systems such as voice over internet protocol communications networks. That is because user terminals change network location. These problems are solved by enabling the geographical location of the emergency caller to be determined by entities within a packet-based network without the need for modification of existing emergency services network infrastructure. | 1. A method of providing a routing key for routing an emergency call from a packet-based communications network node to an emergency services network node in a switched telephone network, said method comprising the steps of: (i) at a node in the packet-based communications network, receiving information about the geographical location from which the emergency call originates; (ii) generating a routing key on the basis of the received information and pre-specified information about geographical locations served by particular emergency service network nodes. 2. A method as claimed in claim 1 wherein said step (i) further comprises receiving at the node a call-back number from which the emergency call originates. 3. A method as claimed in claim 1 which further comprises storing said generated routing key together with the received information about geographical location at the node in the packet-based communications network. 4. A method as claimed in claim 3 which further comprises providing the stored information to the switched telephone network for receipt by a public safety answering point (PSAP). 5. A method as claimed in claim 4 wherein said stored information is provided via an E2 interface. 6. A packet-based communications network node for providing a routing key for routing an emergency call from the packet-based communications network to an emergency services network node in a switched telephone network, said node comprising: (i) an input arranged to receive information about the geographical location from which the emergency call originates; (ii) a processor arranged to generate a routing key on the basis of the received information and pre-specified information about geographical locations served by particular emergency service network nodes. 7. A packet-based communications network comprising a node as claimed in claim 6. 8. A method of routing an incoming emergency call in a packet-based communications network to an appropriate emergency services answering point in a switched telephone network, said method comprising: (i) at a packet-based call server, receiving the emergency call; (ii) at a location gateway server, receiving a geographical location from which the call originated and using that to generate a routing key; (iii) at the call server, routing the emergency call using the generated routing key. 9. A method as claimed in claim 8 wherein said geographical location information is received at the location gateway server as a result of polling a location information server. 10. A method as claimed in claim 8 wherein said geographical location information is received at the location gateway server from the call server. 11. A method as claimed in claim 8 wherein said emergency call comprises a geographical location from which the call originated. 12. A method as claimed in claim 8 wherein said packet-based communications network is a voice over internet protocol network. 13. A method as claimed in claim 8 wherein said emergency call originates from a nomadic entity. 14. A method as claimed in claim 8 which further comprises, at the location gateway server, storing the generated routing key together with the determined geographical location. 15. A method as claimed in claim 14 which further comprises making the stored information accessible to an automatic location identification node in an emergency services network. 16. A computer program stored on a computer readable medium and arranged to control a location gateway server in a packet-based communications network in order to carry out the method of claim 1. | The present invention relates to a method and apparatus for determining the geographical location from which an emergency call originates in a packet-based communications network. The invention also relates to a method and apparatus for providing a routing key for routing an emergency call from a packet-based communications network node to an emergency services network node. BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION There are a number of particular problems in dealing with emergency calls that do not arise for regular calls. For example, in order that emergency service vehicles or other assistance can be dispatched to the correct destination promptly, accurate information about the location of the caller is needed. Previously, in conventional switched telephone networks, it has been possible to provide the caller location information relatively easily because telephone handsets are typically fixed in particular locations. Static database entries can then be made in a database accessible to the emergency services associating for example, a subscribers' home address and telephone number. However, for mobile communication systems and also for nomadic systems use of such static database entries is not possible because the location of a communications terminal varies over time. Another problem concerns routing emergency calls to the correct destination. For regular calls this is not such an issue because the caller enters specific details of the required call destination. However, for emergency calls a universal code is used such as 911 in North America and 112 in Europe. This universal code cannot be used to identify the destination of the call. Generally, an emergency call needs to be routed to a particular geographical answering point for servicing. This answering point is often referred to as a Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP). The jurisdiction for emergency services answering points is typically quite small, for example, at the county level in the USA. This information about the location of the caller is needed to determine which emergency services answering point to route the call to. Misrouting of calls to the wrong answering point leads to costs in transferring calls, impacts reliability, and leads to delays which are significant in life threatening situations. Previously, in conventional switched telephone networks, this location information was relatively easy to obtain because static database entries could be used as mentioned above. However, this is not possible for mobile and nomadic communications systems. One proposal has been to update or refresh the database entries every 24 hours. However, this approach cannot cope with situations where a user terminal changes location more than once a day. Also, changes to the existing emergency services network infrastructure are required in order to enable the database to be updated daily. More detail about how existing voice networks interface to the emergency services network is now given. The primary existing voice networks that do interface to emergency services are the PSTN (public switched telephone network) as served by LECs (local exchange carriers) and the various mobile networks operated by the cellular carriers. The emergency services network, from this perspective, can be regarded as being made up of Selective Routers (SRs), Automatic Location Identification (ALI) databases, both local and national, and the Public Safety Answering Points (PSAPs) themselves with their various CAMA (centralized automatic message accounting), and other, trunk connections and various data connections for querying the ALIs. Of course, beyond these network elements are the public safety organisations themselves (Police, Fire, Ambulance) and the communications networks that support them. The location of the subscriber, who is dialing emergency services, is used for two key purposes. The first is routing of the call, ultimately to the right PSAP, and the second is in the delivery of the location, for display, to the PSAP operator in order that emergency response units can be dispatched to the correct location. In wireline voice networks, there is an association between the phone number of the subscriber (The Calling Line Identifier—CLID) and that subscriber's location. This is generally, the home address of the subscriber as maintained by their local exchange carrier. In this case, the CLID becomes a ready-reference to location. Similarly, the incoming line to the local exchange switch and the switch itself provides an explicit indication of the appropriate routing of 911 calls. This permits the local exchange to work from a static configuration in terms of selecting the outgoing trunk on which to place the call so it goes to the correct selective router. The selective router, in turn, can use the same static association and CLID information to ensure that the call is routed to the correct serving PSAP for the subscriber's address. In cellular systems, the association between the subscriber's location and their CLID is lost. Being, by definition, mobile a cellular subscriber can be anywhere within the wireless network's area of coverage. Similarly, there is no physical wired line corresponding to the source of the call from which to associate a route to the correct destination. In cellular networks, however, there is a physical serving cell from which the call is initiated. The geographic granularity of these cell locations is generally sufficiently fine for the mobile switch to determine the correct trunk route to a corresponding selective router. In many cases, this also provides sufficient accuracy for the selective router to determine which PSAP the caller should be connected with. It is an internal procedure for the mobile switch to associate an outgoing trunk route with a serving cell. However, some signaling is required for an MSC (mobile switching center) to pass this same information along to the selective router so that it can determine the correct PSAP. The TR45 standard, J-STD-036 “Enhanced Wireless 9-1-1 Phase 2”, Telecommunications Industry Association, 2000, defines mechanisms for doing this. The routing information is passed to the selective router in the ISUP (ISDN user part) call setup signaling in one or other newly defined parameters called the Emergency Services Routing Digits (ESRD) or the Emergency Services Routing Key (ESRK). The selective router examines the value of the ESRD/ESRK parameter in the call setup signaling and routes the call to the correct PSAP based on this value. Note that there are circumstances where cell boundaries can span the boundaries of PSAP catchment areas. In this case, and ESRD or ESRK determined from a serving cell may not provide a reliable indication of a route to the correct PSAP. Both ANSI-41 (generally TDMA, and CDMA) and 3GPP (generally GSM, EDGE, and UMTS) cellular networks have identified functionality to address this. In ANSI-41 networks a functional element known as a Coordinate Routing Database (CRDB) is defined. The network can consult the CRDB and, based on the geographic location of the caller (determined by different positioning technologies such as forward link trilateration, pilot strength measurements, time of arrival measurements, etc.), it will return an appropriate value of the routing parameter. As long as the geographic location is an improvement in accuracy over the cell location, this mitigates the problem of misrouted calls. Similarly 3GPP networks allow the switch to request a refined routing key value from the Gateway Mobile Location Center (GMLC) based on the geographic location of the caller. The second, independent, area in which location comes into play in E911 calling is the display of the caller's location to the PSAP operator. The need for this is that the PSAP operator can facilitate more rapid despatch of the emergency service response units if the network can deliver the location rather than relying on getting this information from the caller—particularly where the caller may be unable to provide this information. In a wireline voice network, necessary subscriber (or, at least, calling line) address information is stored in a database known as an Automatic Location Identification, or ALI, database. On receipt of an emergency call and, armed with the caller's CLID, the PSAP is able to query this database and receive, in return, the street address (also known as a civic address) information associated with the CLID. The physical interface over which the PSAP makes this query is variable. It may be an IP based interface over dial-up or broadband or it may be made over an X.25 packet interface. Similarly, the ALI may physically be co-located within the LEC and selective router, or it may be a remote national ALI handling the request directly or in tandem from the local ALI. Similarly, the protocol may vary but one known as PAM (PSAP to ALI message specification) is in common usage. These details are contained within the emergency network itself and not generally a concern of the larger voice network on the far side of the selective router. In a cellular network, the same level of detachment with respect to this function is not possible. To begin with, the location of the caller is variable both initially and during the period of an emergency call. It is no longer possible to rely on a static database of location information that can provide an address against a CLID. It now becomes necessary for the PSAP to be able to request a dynamic location both for the initial position of the caller but also for any changes during the call. In addition, a civic address may no longer be pertinent to the location of the caller. By nature, cellular networks cover wide and varying types of territory. A conventional street address may no longer apply to a caller's location. Indeed, they may not even be in or by a street as the term is commonly understood. For this reason, a more universal reference system for location needs to be used. The solution generally adopted and, once more defined in J-STD-036 as referenced above, is to use geospatial co-ordinates—or latitude and longitude—as defined in the WGS-84 coordinate system (Military Standard WGS84 Metric MIL-STD-2401 (11 Jan. 1994): “Military Standard Department of Defence World Geodetic System (WGS)”). While J-STD-036 does define mechanism whereby this geospatial location can be delivered in the ISUP call setup signaling, it can be generally acknowledged that PSAPs do not support the necessary signaling interfaces nor customer premises equipment to receive and display this information. Also, there is no mechanism whereby an updated location can be delivered in the ISUP signaling. For these reasons, J-STD-036 identifies a new interface that the emergency network can use to query the cellular network. This interface is assigned the identifier of E2 and both J-STD-036 and NENA “NENA Standard for the Implementation of the Wireless Emergency Service Protocol E2 Interface” define a protocol which can be used over this interface called the emergency services protocol. On receipt of an emergency call arising from a cellular network, the PSAP can initiate, via the serving ALI, a request on the cellular network to provide the geodetic location of the caller. This request is made over the E2 interface in a message called the EPOSREQ (Emergency Position Request) with the response message identified as the esposreq. The location of the caller is determined by positioning capabilities native to the cellular network itself and different systems of network measurement, triangulation, or special handset capabilities such as GPS (Global Positioning System) are used. As described above, the network mechanisms and procedures defined in JSTD-036 are around the provision of a geodetic (latitude and longitude) type location for the caller. This obviously implies a capability on the part of the PSAP to display location information of this type to the PSAP operator. There is also consideration supported in the E2 interface messaging that allows the delivery of civic address type information. One application of this facility is in the support of PSAPs which are not equipped with the capability to receive and display geodetic type location information. This is part of what is often referred to as a Phase 1 E911 capability for cellular networks. Enhanced 911 calling was introduced in two phases into the cellular and emergency services networks. Phase 2 defined the capabilities for delivering, generally more accurate, geodetic location information from the network. Phase 1 was generally targeted at providing location information to the accuracy of a serving base station location but, perhaps more importantly, that location information is delivered to the PSAP as a more conventional street, or civic, address associated with that base station. Depending on the nature of the PSAP, the ALI may provide the geodetic position and/or the phase1 civic address type information in response to the location bid. Just as cellular networks have specific characteristics that result in new considerations for E911 compared to conventional wireline voice networks, so too do IP based voice (VoIP) networks. VoIP network users have much in common with cellular network users in that there is no specific physical point of connection which dictates their identity. Just as a cellular phone can attach to the network anywhere that there is a point of coverage, so too can an IP based phone client attach to an IP network at many and varied points and take advantage of the voice service. From this perspective, it becomes necessary to view VoIP clients as essentially nomadic or even fully mobile to ensure that all usage scenarios are covered. For certain, many VoIP clients may be relatively static in terms of location (for example, a conventional form factor desktop phone with integrated VoIP client software will tend to be as stationary as any conventional wireline desktop phone) however, this situation is not explicitly predictable by the network, so an architecture that addresses mobility ensures that all usage scenarios are covered. In terms of emergency call routing, the VoIP network introduces some additional challenges over wireline or cellular networks. In particular, the access network associated with a VoIP network can be highly distended. That is to say, in wireline the phone is tied to the specific local switch by the incoming line, in cellular the mobile switch has specific knowledge of the serving cell which has some degree of geographic association with that switch. But, in VoIP, the client may be attached to the network in another city, state, or, even, country than the one in which the serving call server is located. There is not an immediate association to location that the call server can use to directly determine a route to a selective router before, even, the correct PSAP can be selected. Similarly, in terms of location delivery and display, a VoIP client may be appropriately identified by a street address, being on a relatively static access point, or it may be more appropriately identified against a geodetic location, as in the case of a VoIP client connected by a wide area broadband wireless network. OBJECT TO THE INVENTION The invention seeks to provide a method and apparatus for determining the geographical location from which an emergency call originates in a packet-based communications network which overcomes or at least mitigates one or more of the problems mentioned above. The invention also seeks to provide a method and apparatus for providing a routing key for routing an emergency call from a packet-based communications network node to an emergency services network node which overcomes or at least mitigates one or more of the problems noted above. Further benefits and advantages of the invention will become apparent from a consideration of the following detailed description given with reference to the accompanying drawings, which specify and show preferred embodiments of the invention. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to an aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of providing a routing key for routing an emergency call from a packet-based communications network node to an emergency services network node in a switched telephone network, said method comprising the steps of: receiving information about the geographical location from which the emergency call originates; generating a routing key on the basis of the received information and pre-specified information about geographical locations served by particular emergency service network nodes. This provides the advantage that an emergency call can be routed using the routing key to an appropriate emergency services network node. This is achieved in a packet-based network without the need to access information from the emergency services network. Thus an existing emergency services network can be used without the need for modification. Preferably the method comprises storing said generated routing key together with the received information about geographical location. The method also comprises providing the stored information to an automatic location identification (ALI) database. In this way the geographical location information is made available to an existing emergency services communications network comprising an ALI. The emergency services network is then able to display that information and use it to dispatch emergency services vehicles. According to another aspect of the present invention there is provided a packet-based communications network node for providing a routing key for routing an emergency call from the packet-based communications network to an emergency services network node in a switched telephone network, said node comprising: an input arranged to receive information about the geographical location from which the emergency call originates; a processor arranged to generate a routing key on the basis of the received information and pre-specified information about geographical locations served by particular emergency service network nodes. According to another aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of routing an incoming emergency call in a packet-based communications network to an appropriate emergency services answering point in a switched telephone network, said method comprising: at a call server, receiving the emergency call; at a location gateway server, receiving a geographical location from which the call originated and using that to generate a routing key; at the call server, routing the emergency call using the generated routing key. Preferably a location information server is used to provide the geographical location information. This provides the advantage that the location gateway server need not be concerned with the particular methods used to determine the geographical location information. Also, the routing key is determined and delivered dynamically within the life of the emergency call. This is achieved by using the location information server to provide the geographical location information as and when needed. This reduces and need for static information to be retained in the network including an emergency services network. In addition, it is possible to deal with nomadic entities and mobile entities whose geographical location changes over time. In a preferred embodiment the location gateway server interfaces to the emergency services network using a known interface protocol. This enables the present invention to be used with existing emergency services equipment that already operates the specified interface protocol. This reduces costs and the need for modification of network equipment. The invention also encompasses computer software for implementing any of the methods described above and herein. The preferred features may be combined as appropriate, as would be apparent to a skilled person, and may be combined with any of the aspects of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In order to show how the invention may be carried into effect, embodiments of the invention are now described below by way of example only and with reference to the accompanying figures in which: FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a packet based communications network comprising a location gateway server; FIG. 2 is a flow diagram of a method of operating a call server to route an emergency call; FIG. 3 shows the communications network of FIG. 1 with a connection between the location gateway server and location information sever; FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of the communications network of FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of a communications network comprising a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server suitable for use in an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of an enterprise client and call server using a carrier Location Gateway Server (LGS) and Trunk Media Gateway (TMG) to route emergency calls into an emergency network; FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of a carrier voice over internet protocol (VoIP) deployment serving enterprise customers with network based VoIP service from legacy clients connected via conventional managed switches; FIG. 8 is a message sequence chart for several embodiments of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION Embodiments of the present invention are described below by way of example only. These examples represent the best ways of putting the invention into practice that are currently known to the Applicant although they are not the only ways in which this could be achieved. The term “geographical location information” is used to refer to information about the physical position of an entity in the physical environment as opposed to a communications network address. For example, it comprises a civic address, postal address, street address, latitude and longitude information or geodetic location information. The term “nomadic communications system” is used to refer to a communications network in which user terminals can access the network from different, geographically separated, network access points without the need for modification of the terminal in order to access the network from those different access points. FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a packet-based communications network 10 with a core network region 11, an access network region 12, and a local exchange region 13. A plurality of public safety answering points (PSAPs) 14 are shown, each being for serving a different geographical region as known in the art. Each PSAP has an associated selective router 15 which is a switch for routing calls, location information and other details to the PSAP. Each selective router 15 is connected to its associated PSAP by a trunk 16 or other suitable communications link as known in the art. Each selective router 15 is linked via the communications network 10 to a local automatic location identification (ALI) database 17. This database comprises pre-specified information about a geographical address associated with each customer or user account and details of an identifier for a communications terminal for that customer account. Only information about customer accounts with geographic addresses local to the particular selective router 15 are stored in the local ALI 17. A national ALI 18 is also provided. This comprises pre-specified information about which geographical regions each local ALI 17 serves. For example, details of every valid postal address in the USA are stored and each address is associated with a particular local ALI 17 and selective router 15. The local ALIs 17, selective routers 15, national ALI 18, PSAPs 14 and trunks 16 are all known in the art of conventional switched telephone networks. An advantage of the present invention is that this emergency service network infrastructure is reused without the need for modification. The existing emergency service network infrastructure is integrated or connected to the packet-based communications network core 11 as using media gateways of any suitable type as known in the art. Communications terminals 19, also referred to as clients, which are of any suitable type, are connected to a switch 20 in the access part 12 of the communications network 10. The terminals 19 are either physically connected to the network or connected via a wireless link. The switch is connected via the network to a call server 21 in the core of the network 11. Only one call server 21 and switch 20 are shown for reasons of clarity, however, many switches 20 are typically served by one call server 21 and there can be a plurality of call servers 21. When a communications terminal connects to the network 10 on start-up of the terminal, or if the terminal is newly connected, then a registration request is sent to the call server 21 for that region of the network 10. This process is known in the art. The registration process involves the terminal sending, via the switch 20, details of its network address. The call server 21 is then able to keep track of all the terminals 19 under its remit. In the present invention a location information server (LIS) 23 is provided. FIG. 1 shows the LIS in the access part of the network 12 although it can also reside in an Enterprise network or an access network for residential services. The LIS can also be split into two entities: probes and a main server, with the probes in an Enterprise network for example and the main server in an access network. The LIS is arranged to detect terminals connecting to the network and determine their geographic locations. The LIS passes this information to the terminals when requested and the terminals pass it on to the call server. In addition, the LIS is able to pass the geographic location information to another entity, a Location Gateway Server (LGS) as described in more detail below with reference to FIG. 3. In that case the LGS polls the LIS for the location information. As mentioned above the LIS determines geographic location of terminals. It does this in any suitable known manner. For example, it comprises or has access to a wiremap. This wiremap comprises details of network addresses of access ports in the access network served by the call server 21 and geographic location details associated with each network address. For example, a building address and a particular quadrant of that building. This information is pre-configured at the LIS, for example, by service providers or other network administrators. Thus when a terminal 19 is connected to a particular access port in the access portion of the network 12 there is a network address associated with that port and at the LIS geographic location details associated with the same port or network address. However, it is not essential for the LIS to use a wiremap. Any suitable type of positioning technology can be used. An advantage of using an LIS in this way is that the LGS need not be concerned with the nature of the positioning technology used. The core network 11 also comprises a location gateway server (LGS) 22 connected to the call server 21 and also linked to the national ALI 18. The LGS is a novel network entity for use in the present invention. The LGS 22 is arranged to determine routing keys also known as emergency services routing keys (ESRKs). A routing key is used by the call server 21 to route an incoming emergency call to an appropriate selective router 15 and PSAP 14. In order to determine the routing keys the LGS operates in conjunction with the LIS 12 and national ALI 18. In a first embodiment of the present invention the LIS is arranged to detect when a terminal newly starts up or connects to the network. The LIS determines a geographic location for that newly connected terminal using any suitable method as known in the art. For example, the LIS accesses a wiremap as mentioned above and uses that together with a network address of the terminal to determine an associated geographic location. Alternatively, a global positioning system is used or an emergency caller specifies his or her own location. In the event that an emergency call is made from one of the terminals 19 that terminal 19 sends a request via switch 20 to the LIS 23 for its geographical location (see box 30 of FIG. 2). That geographic location information is returned and sent by the terminal 19 to the call server 21 as part of the call set-up process (see box 31 of FIG. 2). The call server then sends the geographical location information to the LGS. For example, this information is sent in the form of a subscriber location report (SLR) and comprises a call back number for the emergency caller as well as the geographical location information (see box 32 of FIG. 2.) However, this is not essential, any suitable form of message can be used to send the geographical location information. The LGS uses the geographical location information to determine the relevant selective router 15 and PSAP 14 and generates an appropriate routing key. The LGS stores the geographical location information together with the routing key in a cache or other suitable memory. The routing key is made available to the call server (see box 32 of FIG. 2) which then routes the emergency call to the specified selective router 15 (see box 33 of FIG. 2) via a media gateway. The selective router 15 then delivers the emergency call to the appropriate PSAP together with the routing key generated by the LGS. In some cases instead of a routing key a pseudo-ANI generated by the selective router and the local ALI is sent to the PSAP instead of the routing key. In the method described above with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2 the LIS is arranged to provide geographical location information to terminals which then provide it to the call server. However, in some situations the location information does not reach the LGS. For example, if there is an error in transmission and packets are dropped. Also, there are situations in which the user terminal is a wireless device that is moving. In that case it may not be possible for the LGS to keep up to date with the rapidly changing location of the mobile terminal. A second method for enabling the location information to reach the call server is therefore proposed and is now described with reference to FIG. 3. This method is preferably used in conjunction with that of FIG. 1 although that is not essential; the two methods can be used independently of one another. Using the methods independently, although not as fool-proof as using them together, is acceptable in some cases. For example, where location information is available via another means. This other means can be for example, explanation from the emergency caller him or herself or a separate global positioning system device of the emergency caller. FIG. 3 shows the same components as in FIG. 1 and the same reference numerals are used as appropriate. In this second method the LGS 22 polls or queries the LIS 23. For each port at the switch 20 to which a terminal is connected the LIS determines an associated geographical location as described above with reference to FIG. 1. Thus in this second method the LGS polls the LIS rather than waiting for geographic information sent from the call server. The LGS is also able to do both these things; that is, poll the LIS for the geographic information and receive it from the call server. Consider the situation when an emergency call is made from one of the terminals 19. This call reaches the call server 21 as known in the art and the call server 21 receives an identifier of the calling terminal as part of the call process. The call server then sends a message to the LGS requesting geographical location information for the emergency calling terminal. The message comprises a subscriber location report or any other suitable type of message. The message comprises the identifier of the calling terminal as well as details of the LIS associated with the call server 21. The LGS itself does not have the geographical location information requested and so it queries the LIS for that information using the identifier of the calling terminal. As in the method described with reference to FIG. 1, the LGS uses the geographical location information to determine the relevant selective router 15 and PSAP 14 and generates an appropriate routing key. The method then proceeds as described above with reference to FIG. 1 such that the emergency call is routed to the appropriate PSAP and the location information is also delivered to the PSAP. Thus both the first and second methods described above involve using the LIS to determine the location from which an emergency call originates. In the first method the LIS sends this geographical information to a terminal which sends it to the call server during call set up. In the second method the LGS actively polls the LIS for the geographical location information. The methods described thus far enable an emergency call to be routed to the appropriate PSAP. In order for the PSAP to also obtain the geographical location information of the emergency caller an interface is provided between the LGS and the emergency services network. This is now described with reference to FIG. 4. FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of the network of FIG. 1. The same reference numerals are used as appropriate. An emergency services network 40 as known in the art of conventional switched telephone networks is connected to a packet-based communications network 41 via one or more media gateways 42. A conventional public switched telephone network 43 is also connected to the emergency services network 40 via any suitable type of interface such as an ISDN User Part (ISUP) interface, as is a conventional cellular network 44. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention an interface between the LGS 22 and the emergency services network 40 is provided using the same method as used to interface between location gateway entities in a cellular network and an emergency services network. At least part of the present invention lies in the realisation that an interface from a cellular network can be reused to integrate a packet-based network and a conventional emergency services network. Preferably the E2 interface standard defined in TR45 J-STD-036 “Enhanced Wireless 9-1-1 Phase 2” Telecommunications Industry Association, 2000 is chosen although any other suitable interface method can be used. The aforementioned document is incorporated herein by reference. FIG. 4 shows the LGS 22 connected to the local and/or national ALI of the emergency services network 40 using an E2 emergency services protocol (ESP) as mentioned above. This ESP allows the emergency network to make a request for a caller location which is then delivered for display to a PSAP operator. For example, the PSAP sends a query to the local ALI 17. In FIG. 4 this query is referred to as ESPOSREQ (ESRK). The query contains details of the routing key and requests the associated geographical location information. The local ALI 17 forwards the query (also known as a bid) to the national ALI 18 which in turn forwards the query to the appropriate LGS 22. The LGS has previously stored the routing key together with the geographical location information and so it is able to return the geographical location information to the national ALI. This is shown in FIG. 4 as esposreq (Position). From there it is returned, via the local ALI, to the PSAP. At the LGS, the cached routing key and location information are cleared from memory when appropriate. For example, after a pre-specified time interval or at the end of the emergency call. In the latter case, the call server 21 is arranged to send a message indicating call terminal to the LGS. The message is of any suitable form such as a subscriber location report. More detail about particular examples of the present invention is now given. Emergency Call Routing For the sake of simplicity, the following discussion is based on the assumption that the Selective Router will use an ESRK provided in the ISUP call setup (IAM—Initial Address Message) to select the correct outgoing CAMA trunk for the corresponding serving PSAP. However, it is not essential to use an ESRK. Any suitable key such as an ESRD can be used instead. Trunk Media Gateway (TMG) to Selective Router Routing Opening up the VoIP network cloud, we can see that an emergency call needs to be delivered into the wireline voice network in order to enter the existing emergency services network. In VoIP networks, this is done by transiting the call out of the IP network and into wireline network via a Trunk Media Gateway (TMG). Since there are no dialed digits that can be used to effect routing of the emergency call (911 does not identify a unique destination), it is necessary for the TMG selected to have direct ISUP trunking capability to the selective router(s) that it supports routing to. To reuse the cellular mechanism for call routing, the TMG needs to provide a unique ESRK to the selective router. That is, the TMG ISUP signaling preferably supports the inclusion of this parameter in the IAM message. Further, if the TMG has outgoing trunks to more than one selective router, it needs to be instructed as to which trunk to select based on the ESRK. That is, in the absence of routing based on dialed digits, the TMG needs to be told which outgoing voice trunk and ISUP signaling destination to select based on the value of the ESRK for that call. This implies a routing table that the network will use to ensure that the TMG is appropriately directed. Call Server to TMG Routing Looking further back into the VoIP network cloud, we see that the VoIP call itself is under the control of a call server. This network entity provides at least the equivalent functionality of a wireline switch or a cellular mobile switching center. The call server is responsible for setting up the initial state associated with an emergency call and routing it to the correct destination. As has been noted at each step, the dialed digits do not provide a definitive route to the destination and, as noted in the previous section, the TMG outgoing trunk needs to be selected based on the ESRK so the appropriate selective router is trunked to. Since the call is delivered to the TMG by the call server, it is the responsibility of the call server to provide this ESRK in the IP based call setup and corresponding trunk selection through the TMG. Since the call server has the responsibility to select a TMG based on the ESRK, the existence of a routing table within the call server is implied. This table allows the call server to associate a TMG with a given ESRK value. Location Based Emergency Call Routing This section describes an example of how the call server determines the ESRK associated with final destination PSAP. This is addressed by the introduction of a new network entity called the Location Gateway Server (LGS). This network entity supports two key functions: On request from a call server, and given the identity of an emergency caller/client, it obtains the location of that client from the IP access network. For routing purposes, this location may be provided as a geodetic (latitude/longitude) location. Based on the location determined, and using a native spatial database capability which can identify an emergency services zone corresponding to a destination PSAP, it generates a unique and applicable ESRK value that will indicate a route to the correct serving PSAP. A single message and response is defined between the call server and the LGS which is used by the call server to request the ESRK. These are the EmergencyCallRequest (ECR) and the ECResponse messages. The key parameters of the request and response are the client ID in the former and the ESRK in the latter. A second message, ECTerminate, is also required to indicate the termination of the emergency call. The LGS maintains transient state information associated with emergency calls in progress. It needs to allocate an ESRK out of a pool of available numbers and it needs to be able to return the ESRK to this pool at the conclusion of the call. Thus, it is important for the call server to provide a message to the LGS indicating that the call is terminated. The ESRK associated with the call and provided in the call termination indication message provides the necessary state association for the LGS. It is also possible for the call server to provide the initial location of the client in the message to the LGS. This is also useful in a situation where there is no LIS and clients/users specify their own location (e.g. picked from a menu). Emergency Caller Location Delivery The question of how an LGS determines the location of a client device is described later. Before looking into that question, the other aspect of location—the delivery of it to the PSAP operator—is examined. As has been noted, the location of a VoIP client can be a transitory piece of information. As such, it is not adequate—as a general solution—to rely on a static data entry accessible by the emergency network and keyed against the CLID. As with cellular networks, the information associated with a subscriber should be determined, and is only valid, within the time that the call is active. Outside the period of duration of the emergency call, the emergency network stores no information and has no knowledge related to the identity or location of the subscriber. In order to support Phase 2 E911 requirements, J-STD-036 defined the E2 interface between the ALI entities in the emergency services network and the location gateway entities (GMLCs and MPCs) in the connecting cellular networks. The emergency services protocol (ESP) supported over this interface was defined by both J-STD-036 and in the NENA publication mentioned above. An embodiment of this invention teaches that this same E2 interface and ESP protocol specification be reused on the LGS to support the delivery of location information associated with VoIP emergency calls. The ESRK becomes a reference to the call in progress as well as being the routing indicator used in call setup. ESP allows the emergency network to make a request for a caller location which can then be delivered for display to the PSAP operator. The LGS already has the location information for the client since it was used to deliver the call routing information. By caching this location in conjunction with the ESRK call-in-progress, state, the LGS is able to provide this location information in the esposreq sent in response to a request made over the E2 interface by the emergency network. Mid-Call Location Updates Since cellular subscribers can, by definition, be mobile, the ESP semantics also support the ability for the emergency network to request an updated location for the caller. Using the same call identifier (e.g. the ESRK) as was used to request the location initially, the same ESPOSREQ message is used to request an updated location. That is, there is a parameter in this message to indicate which type of location—initial or updated—that the emergency network would like. If an updated location is required, the cellular network knows that it should utilize its resources to see if a more up to date location is available. This same mechanism is used in an embodiment of the present invention for the VoIP network. While in initial deployments, the IP access networks may only return relatively static locations (e.g. from switch port wire mappings), future deployments will be able to exploit advanced positioning technologies that can track a mobile IP device, just as they can a mobile cellular device today. Since the semantics for requesting an updated location are already supported on the E2 interface, there will be no changes necessary to the emergency network in order for it to exploit this tracking capability. Civic Address and Geodetic Location Support The introduction of Phase 2 E911 support for cellular emergency callers introduced the concept, and the precedent, that the location of the caller may actually be provided to the PSAP as a geodetic location. This has necessitated changes to PSAPs such that to be Phase 2 capable they need not only the ability to display a location in this format to an operator but also that these PSAPs have the necessary procedures and policies in place to relay location information in this form to emergency response teams and be able deal with accuracy that can vary below 100 meters at the 67th percentile and approach arbitrary levels of inaccuracy for the other ⅓ of calls. This precedent can be taken advantage of for VoIP clients where, in the absence of a civic address which can be displayed to the PSAP operator, a geodetic location—just as is used for phase 2 cellular location—is provided in an embodiment of this invention. However, this does not mean that emergency calls from IP based voice networks need always be restricted to geodetic based location reporting. As discussed, the ESP signaling parameters as defined by NENA includes a parameter called “location description”. The NENA specification defines a number of different XML tag based fields that can be used to constitute this parameter. This opens the possibility that the LGS, in responding to an ESPOSREQ request over the E2 interface, can utilise this parameter to also provide a civic address for the caller. In cellular systems, this parameter has a nominal use around supporting phase 1 capable PSAPs where the location description provided will generally correspond to a street address identifier for the serving base station in the cellular network. However, this use does not preclude the alternative use in IP based voice networks. Where VoIP clients have a relatively static location—for example, where the client is a conventional telephone form factor device with a relatively fixed desktop location—then the access network, which provides location to the LGS, may opt to provide a civic address encoding in addition to the geodetic location. A discussion on general location determination and the associated signaling is given below. A valid question is how the emergency services network can know that it is receiving a civic address for the caller rather than a nominal base station address. This can be discriminated in a number of ways. The key is that the emergency network can be aware that it is interfacing to an IP based voice network rather than a cellular network. Three potential ways to perform this discrimination are: The emergency network will generally select the E2 interface that it needs to send a request to on the basis of the ESRK associated with the call. ESRKs tend to be allocated to network operators in pools. This same association can allow the emergency network to infer the nature of the connecting network. The esposreq response contains a parameter which is the Company ID. This can be used by the emergency network to distinguish IP vs cellular carriers. The position data parameter in the esposreq which contains the geodetic location also contains a sub-parameter called “position source” which indicates the technology used to establish the location. New code points can be allocated for IP network positioning technologies. This could be used by the emergency network to establish that the location is being provided by an IP voice network. The example mechanisms discussed above identify how the existing cellular E911 phase 2 infrastructure and interfaces in the emergency network can be effectively reused with little or no modification to support the delivery of caller location from IP based voice networks. In order to minimise the need to transform and translate the information related to location, in a preferred embodiment the specifications used for this on the E2 interface are reused within the signaling of the IP network. That is the geodetic location coding defined by NENA in the document referred to above as well as the XML tag encodings defined in “Real Time ALI Exchange Interface Agreement—Issue 6.1”, AT&T and Pacific Bell, Mar. 25, 1995 by NENA are also preferred for use between the IP network elements as they are delivered through to the LGS. End to End—Adding Location Determination There are numerous approaches to location determination within IP networks and any suitable approach can be used in the present invention. A number of things will affect the type of solution put in place. Amongst these are: The nature of the connection used by the client. That is, whether it is a domestic broadband connection, an enterprise IP switch connected client, a wireless client connecting via a campus wireless LAN, etc. Legacy circumstances. That is, the extent to whether the clients, access devices, and switches have native support for location delivery versus the need to overlay a solution for location determination on existing infrastructure. The type of location information and accuracy required for a given target environment. For example, are static civic addresses with sufficient geodetic accuracy for routing sufficient or is a more accurate geodetic location required in the absence of a civic address? The NENA website itself has a number of submissions and proposals around different positioning technologies for IP and any one of these may be adopted in a given access network. The Location Identification Server—LIS An embodiment of this invention proposes that an intermediate network entity be defined which provides a uniform query interface to the LGS network element such that it need not be concerned with the nature of the positioning technology used. The newly identified network element is the Location Identification Server (LIS). This network element sits between the LGS and the access network and invokes the applicable positioning technologies. It supports a simple request/response message that allows the LGS obtain the location of a client. Client Identifier Options In order to do this, the LGS needs to provide a client identifier which is meaningful to the LIS and significant within the access network that the client is attached through. Types of potential client identifier vary but some candidates are: Ethernet MAC address MSISDN—international encoding of corresponding dialable digits RFC 2486 Network Address Indicator—user@realm style address SIP URL address Some other network element, e.g. LIS, generated handle to the client that is independent of other addressing schemes. The above list is by no means definitive but the definition of the query messaging between the LIS and the LGS is defined such that these and other forms of client identification can be supported over this interface. An important driver of the form of client identification supported is which identifier can be provided by the call server function in its request to the LGS. Any practical network deployment will need to ensure that the same client identifier form can be used meaningfully by the call server, LGS, and LIS. By way of example, in initial implementations of this architecture where the access network and client devices are largely legacy, and without native location determination capabilities, the likely candidate for many deployments may be the MAC address. An example of an end to end solution using a LIS that employs SNMP bridge MIB polling and MAC address association is described below with reference to FIG. 7. Geodetic vs Civic Address Location—Revisited As discussed above, location may be provided as a geodetic location for the purposes of call routing plus, optionally, a civic address that can be displayed to the PSAP operator. The parameter in the response message from the LIS to the LGS that specifies the returned location preferably supports a coding that supports both of the location formats concurrently. The geodetic location is provided in order to support emergency call routing. Also as discussed above, it is preferred that the specifications used for coding location are the same as those on the E2 interface. That is the geodetic location coding as well as the XML tag encodings defined by NENA are preferably used to encode the location provided to the LGS by the LIS. This eliminates the need to translate and transform this information as it is passed from the LGS to the emergency services network. The architecture that has been described herein—from the LIS through the LGS, call server, and PVG network entities interfacing to the emergency services network ISUP and E2 interfaces—should meet the needs of emergency calling from VoIP networks well into the future. Further, as more standardisation occurs at the IP access and native positioning support is deployed, this transition to more reliable and accurate location determination will be able to occur seamlessly without impacting the VoIP to emergency network interface. The changes will be perceived as an improvement in coverage and quality of service for VoIP emergency callers as well as ease of deployment for VoIP operators but without impacting the operation of the emergency network generally. In addition to the above, as the emergency network infrastructure evolves away from the current legacy of CAMA trunks and PAM interfaces, individual PSAPs will be able to interface directly to the IP network. The same functions of call routing and location delivery will still be needed and the mechanisms described can still be utilized. Instead of routing out to ISUP trunks, the call server can direct the call to a direct VoIP based ACD function. The ESP messaging referred to above is already IP based and the option becomes available for updated PSAPs to query the LGS directly instead of their requests being proxied through an ALI. Using DHCP to Improve Client Integration Since the identity, location, and capabilities of the LIS will vary from access network to access network, it is preferred that in some embodiments DHCP be used to advise IP clients of the identity of the serving LIS. This permits two major optimisations: The client will be able to explicitly register with the LIS so that it is known to that entity for purposes of location. This will also establish a signaling relationship that can be used for advanced positioning mechanisms if supported. It also offers the opportunity for the LIS to assign a client-specific identifier which the client can provide to network services such that no other client key is required for the purposes of location requests through the LGS/LIS network. The call setup signaling to the call server can be modified to support the ability of the client to forward the serving LIS identity to the call server. This in turn can be communicated as part of the location request to the LGS, permitting the LGS to have explicit knowledge of the appropriate LIS to query. These embodiments are illustrated in FIG. 5. Supporting International Emergency Calling It is an interesting characteristic of VoIP networks that the distance between a client user and the call server handling the call processing may be arbitrarily great. A VoIP client can typically use the same call server regardless of the point of attachment to the network. So, the client may be in a different city, a different state, or even a different country. It has been an implicit assumption in the discussion to date, that the call server has inbuilt knowledge of the LGS that it should inform of the incidence of an emergency call and request routing information from. While this may hold true of a nationwide carrier with points of presence across many states, it may prove difficult for some VoIP network operators to provide the same ubiquity of presence. When the question of supporting international calling is raised, then it becomes even less likely that this assumption will apply. This constraint will likely continue for the short term. However, the use of DHCP may, in the future, also provide a mechanism for dealing with this. In this instance, the registration of a client on a local network involves not only an indication of the serving LIS identity but also an indication of the applicable emergency LGS (eLGS). With this facility, the client can provide the eLGS identity to the call server. This introduces the possibility of a network of regional LGS platforms to serve the VoIP network. The ESRK allocation pools can be efficiently distributed between these LGS and they can retain the responsibility of maintaining the spatial boundary information for the emergency service (PSAP) zones in their regions. The signaling associated with this scenario is also shown in FIG. 5. Note that the call server was able to refer to an eLGS in the visited network rather than the one in the subscriber's home network. This allowed the appropriate ESRK for the PSAP in the visited network operator's region to be allocated by that operator. Further, the PSAP in that region only needs to have an E2 interface association with that network's LGS and not the home network LGS. The arrow labeled in FIG. 5 shows that the DHCP server provides LIS and eLGS identities to the client on initialization. Arrow 1a represents the optional step whereby the client registers with the LIS to establish a signaling relationship for future positioning. As shown by arrow 2 the client then provides eLGS and LIS identities to call server on emergency call initiation. Then in the step shown by arrow 3 the call server provides LIS identity to eLGS in emergency call request. Enterprise Versus Carrier VoIP Network Deployment In the embodiments described so far it has been an assumption that the VoIP network operator has sufficient points of presence in each of the regions of interest to be able to route the emergency calls onto the local network and into the emergency services network. This is typically true of a public carrier network which operates its own PVG platforms that tandem directly into the public wireline network but it is less likely for an enterprise operating a VoIP network over its intranet. In the case of an enterprise VoIP operator, this may not be an issue where the PABX or other PSTN gateway utilised by that enterprise is colocated with its user population. However, if the user population is widely geographically distributed via a wide area intranet and/or VPN links and they share a common PSTN gateway, then there is no native mechanism to support routing to the correct PSAP. For a colocated user population, the class 5 switch in the local operator network which provides the enterprise service looks after the subsequent routing of the 911 call to the correct selective router and PSAP. This local exchange interface does not support the use of an ESRK in the call setup signaling to indicate a preferred route and a local exchange will not tend to support the necessary trunking to remote selective routers for out-of-region callers. For small and medium enterprises, it would not necessarily be economical to operate an LGS nor would it be optimal to distribute ESRK pools around arbitrary numbers of enterprises. Despite these constraints, it is still desirable to utilise the embodiments that have been described herein as the challenge of routing calls from geographically distributed callers needs to be addressed. While there are alternative proposals these tend to rely on direct dialing local access numbers for PSAPs. While this is effective in the short term, it is by definition bypassing the existing mechanisms and processes for emergency call distribution. At least two possible approaches to supporting the enterprise environment in the long term exist. Through the standards process, the local operator switch interface could be modified such that the ESRK can be delivered in the call setup. This approach has a number of limitations including the fact that the time lag in defining this signaling and having switch vendors implement and deploy it can be very large. More significantly, it doesn't address the concern that the local operator and switch is unlikely to maintain direct trunks to all required destination selective routers. Enterprises can seek emergency service support from public network carriers that support VoIP deployments. This means utilising the LGS and PVG resources of the public carrier but only for the purposes of emergency call routing. In this situation, the enterprise would still provide the LIS functionality within their intranet IP access. Using the equivalent of the DHCP mechanism described above, the enterprise client can be advised of the carrier LGS applicable to emergency calls in that location and relay this to the call server at call setup. At the same time the identity of the serving LIS can also be relayed via the call server to the LGS. This arrangement is illustrated in FIG. 6. FIG. 7 shows a simplified example of a VoIP deployment where the network operator is a carrier 70 and the subscriber population are within enterprise managed networks 71, 72. That is, this shows virtual private voice network deployment, where the call services are operated on an IP network with call serving functionality outsourced from the enterprise to the carrier. In this example, it is assumed that each of the enterprises operates the voice network under the constraint that all voice clients need to be connected via specific IP switches supporting a standard SNMP bridge MIB 73 that permits port scanning to occur and also permits the MAC address of connected clients to be retrieved. Further, the client implementation and protocol are conventional but include the delivery of the client MAC address as part of the native call signaling with the call server. These constraints permit the operation of the network such that the MAC address can be used as a query key between the call server and LGS (Lv) interface and the LGS and LIS (Li) interface. The LIS implementation in this case involves the continuous SNMP polling of managed switches according to provisioned data which includes the list of managed switches, their ports, and the nominal location of the end-cabling attached to those ports—as both a geodetic location and, optionally, a civic address. On each poll cycle, the LIS stores any connected MAC address values against the port records within this wire map. A query to the LIS from the LGS, then, simply results in the stored location information in this wire map being keyed from the provided client MAC address in the query. This location information is returned for subsequent processing by the LGS as described herein. This example illustrates how the complexities of location determination in the access network are abstracted away from the rest of the emergency call handling. Other examples of LIS implementations would be those that could map a DSLAM port to a physical home address location for ADSL broadband internet based subscribers. Again, the details of how this particular LIS performed this function would be hidden from the rest of the VoIP network. This embodiment provides the advantage that there is now a seamless migration path to native positioning systems that will not impact the network beyond the access interface to the LIS. Call Back Number Considerations One of the current limitations of the existing emergency services network is the ability to support callback number reporting to the PSAP where that callback number exceeds the number of digits used for a normal local dialable number. Examples of callback numbers that may not be supported are: International callback numbers such as international roaming cellular callers or, in future, international roaming VoIP callers. Enterprise callers to emergency services where the terminal callback number is not delivered in the call setup information. The use of E2 as a dynamic query interface also facilitates the delivery of callback information. Since this information is delivered out of band from the call setup, it isn't subject to the same constraints as imposed by the selective router and CAMA trunk infrastructure. The callback number is one of the parameters in the esposreq message in ESP. This allows the originating voice network which uses the E2 interface the ability to deliver an appropriate callback number, if available, for the particular call in progress. The LGS then can also be used to query the access network or be informed by the Call Server, as appropriate, of a callback number to cache in anticipation of the PSAP query. FIG. 8 is a message sequence chart showing a consolidated end to end signaling flow for several of the embodiments described herein. It includes the scenario of a mid-call location update request from the PSAP. | <SOH> BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION <EOH>There are a number of particular problems in dealing with emergency calls that do not arise for regular calls. For example, in order that emergency service vehicles or other assistance can be dispatched to the correct destination promptly, accurate information about the location of the caller is needed. Previously, in conventional switched telephone networks, it has been possible to provide the caller location information relatively easily because telephone handsets are typically fixed in particular locations. Static database entries can then be made in a database accessible to the emergency services associating for example, a subscribers' home address and telephone number. However, for mobile communication systems and also for nomadic systems use of such static database entries is not possible because the location of a communications terminal varies over time. Another problem concerns routing emergency calls to the correct destination. For regular calls this is not such an issue because the caller enters specific details of the required call destination. However, for emergency calls a universal code is used such as 911 in North America and 112 in Europe. This universal code cannot be used to identify the destination of the call. Generally, an emergency call needs to be routed to a particular geographical answering point for servicing. This answering point is often referred to as a Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP). The jurisdiction for emergency services answering points is typically quite small, for example, at the county level in the USA. This information about the location of the caller is needed to determine which emergency services answering point to route the call to. Misrouting of calls to the wrong answering point leads to costs in transferring calls, impacts reliability, and leads to delays which are significant in life threatening situations. Previously, in conventional switched telephone networks, this location information was relatively easy to obtain because static database entries could be used as mentioned above. However, this is not possible for mobile and nomadic communications systems. One proposal has been to update or refresh the database entries every 24 hours. However, this approach cannot cope with situations where a user terminal changes location more than once a day. Also, changes to the existing emergency services network infrastructure are required in order to enable the database to be updated daily. More detail about how existing voice networks interface to the emergency services network is now given. The primary existing voice networks that do interface to emergency services are the PSTN (public switched telephone network) as served by LECs (local exchange carriers) and the various mobile networks operated by the cellular carriers. The emergency services network, from this perspective, can be regarded as being made up of Selective Routers (SRs), Automatic Location Identification (ALI) databases, both local and national, and the Public Safety Answering Points (PSAPs) themselves with their various CAMA (centralized automatic message accounting), and other, trunk connections and various data connections for querying the ALIs. Of course, beyond these network elements are the public safety organisations themselves (Police, Fire, Ambulance) and the communications networks that support them. The location of the subscriber, who is dialing emergency services, is used for two key purposes. The first is routing of the call, ultimately to the right PSAP, and the second is in the delivery of the location, for display, to the PSAP operator in order that emergency response units can be dispatched to the correct location. In wireline voice networks, there is an association between the phone number of the subscriber (The Calling Line Identifier—CLID) and that subscriber's location. This is generally, the home address of the subscriber as maintained by their local exchange carrier. In this case, the CLID becomes a ready-reference to location. Similarly, the incoming line to the local exchange switch and the switch itself provides an explicit indication of the appropriate routing of 911 calls. This permits the local exchange to work from a static configuration in terms of selecting the outgoing trunk on which to place the call so it goes to the correct selective router. The selective router, in turn, can use the same static association and CLID information to ensure that the call is routed to the correct serving PSAP for the subscriber's address. In cellular systems, the association between the subscriber's location and their CLID is lost. Being, by definition, mobile a cellular subscriber can be anywhere within the wireless network's area of coverage. Similarly, there is no physical wired line corresponding to the source of the call from which to associate a route to the correct destination. In cellular networks, however, there is a physical serving cell from which the call is initiated. The geographic granularity of these cell locations is generally sufficiently fine for the mobile switch to determine the correct trunk route to a corresponding selective router. In many cases, this also provides sufficient accuracy for the selective router to determine which PSAP the caller should be connected with. It is an internal procedure for the mobile switch to associate an outgoing trunk route with a serving cell. However, some signaling is required for an MSC (mobile switching center) to pass this same information along to the selective router so that it can determine the correct PSAP. The TR45 standard, J-STD-036 “Enhanced Wireless 9-1-1 Phase 2”, Telecommunications Industry Association, 2000, defines mechanisms for doing this. The routing information is passed to the selective router in the ISUP (ISDN user part) call setup signaling in one or other newly defined parameters called the Emergency Services Routing Digits (ESRD) or the Emergency Services Routing Key (ESRK). The selective router examines the value of the ESRD/ESRK parameter in the call setup signaling and routes the call to the correct PSAP based on this value. Note that there are circumstances where cell boundaries can span the boundaries of PSAP catchment areas. In this case, and ESRD or ESRK determined from a serving cell may not provide a reliable indication of a route to the correct PSAP. Both ANSI-41 (generally TDMA, and CDMA) and 3GPP (generally GSM, EDGE, and UMTS) cellular networks have identified functionality to address this. In ANSI-41 networks a functional element known as a Coordinate Routing Database (CRDB) is defined. The network can consult the CRDB and, based on the geographic location of the caller (determined by different positioning technologies such as forward link trilateration, pilot strength measurements, time of arrival measurements, etc.), it will return an appropriate value of the routing parameter. As long as the geographic location is an improvement in accuracy over the cell location, this mitigates the problem of misrouted calls. Similarly 3GPP networks allow the switch to request a refined routing key value from the Gateway Mobile Location Center (GMLC) based on the geographic location of the caller. The second, independent, area in which location comes into play in E911 calling is the display of the caller's location to the PSAP operator. The need for this is that the PSAP operator can facilitate more rapid despatch of the emergency service response units if the network can deliver the location rather than relying on getting this information from the caller—particularly where the caller may be unable to provide this information. In a wireline voice network, necessary subscriber (or, at least, calling line) address information is stored in a database known as an Automatic Location Identification, or ALI, database. On receipt of an emergency call and, armed with the caller's CLID, the PSAP is able to query this database and receive, in return, the street address (also known as a civic address) information associated with the CLID. The physical interface over which the PSAP makes this query is variable. It may be an IP based interface over dial-up or broadband or it may be made over an X.25 packet interface. Similarly, the ALI may physically be co-located within the LEC and selective router, or it may be a remote national ALI handling the request directly or in tandem from the local ALI. Similarly, the protocol may vary but one known as PAM (PSAP to ALI message specification) is in common usage. These details are contained within the emergency network itself and not generally a concern of the larger voice network on the far side of the selective router. In a cellular network, the same level of detachment with respect to this function is not possible. To begin with, the location of the caller is variable both initially and during the period of an emergency call. It is no longer possible to rely on a static database of location information that can provide an address against a CLID. It now becomes necessary for the PSAP to be able to request a dynamic location both for the initial position of the caller but also for any changes during the call. In addition, a civic address may no longer be pertinent to the location of the caller. By nature, cellular networks cover wide and varying types of territory. A conventional street address may no longer apply to a caller's location. Indeed, they may not even be in or by a street as the term is commonly understood. For this reason, a more universal reference system for location needs to be used. The solution generally adopted and, once more defined in J-STD-036 as referenced above, is to use geospatial co-ordinates—or latitude and longitude—as defined in the WGS-84 coordinate system (Military Standard WGS84 Metric MIL-STD-2401 (11 Jan. 1994): “Military Standard Department of Defence World Geodetic System (WGS)”). While J-STD-036 does define mechanism whereby this geospatial location can be delivered in the ISUP call setup signaling, it can be generally acknowledged that PSAPs do not support the necessary signaling interfaces nor customer premises equipment to receive and display this information. Also, there is no mechanism whereby an updated location can be delivered in the ISUP signaling. For these reasons, J-STD-036 identifies a new interface that the emergency network can use to query the cellular network. This interface is assigned the identifier of E2 and both J-STD-036 and NENA “NENA Standard for the Implementation of the Wireless Emergency Service Protocol E2 Interface” define a protocol which can be used over this interface called the emergency services protocol. On receipt of an emergency call arising from a cellular network, the PSAP can initiate, via the serving ALI, a request on the cellular network to provide the geodetic location of the caller. This request is made over the E2 interface in a message called the EPOSREQ (Emergency Position Request) with the response message identified as the esposreq. The location of the caller is determined by positioning capabilities native to the cellular network itself and different systems of network measurement, triangulation, or special handset capabilities such as GPS (Global Positioning System) are used. As described above, the network mechanisms and procedures defined in JSTD-036 are around the provision of a geodetic (latitude and longitude) type location for the caller. This obviously implies a capability on the part of the PSAP to display location information of this type to the PSAP operator. There is also consideration supported in the E2 interface messaging that allows the delivery of civic address type information. One application of this facility is in the support of PSAPs which are not equipped with the capability to receive and display geodetic type location information. This is part of what is often referred to as a Phase 1 E911 capability for cellular networks. Enhanced 911 calling was introduced in two phases into the cellular and emergency services networks. Phase 2 defined the capabilities for delivering, generally more accurate, geodetic location information from the network. Phase 1 was generally targeted at providing location information to the accuracy of a serving base station location but, perhaps more importantly, that location information is delivered to the PSAP as a more conventional street, or civic, address associated with that base station. Depending on the nature of the PSAP, the ALI may provide the geodetic position and/or the phase1 civic address type information in response to the location bid. Just as cellular networks have specific characteristics that result in new considerations for E911 compared to conventional wireline voice networks, so too do IP based voice (VoIP) networks. VoIP network users have much in common with cellular network users in that there is no specific physical point of connection which dictates their identity. Just as a cellular phone can attach to the network anywhere that there is a point of coverage, so too can an IP based phone client attach to an IP network at many and varied points and take advantage of the voice service. From this perspective, it becomes necessary to view VoIP clients as essentially nomadic or even fully mobile to ensure that all usage scenarios are covered. For certain, many VoIP clients may be relatively static in terms of location (for example, a conventional form factor desktop phone with integrated VoIP client software will tend to be as stationary as any conventional wireline desktop phone) however, this situation is not explicitly predictable by the network, so an architecture that addresses mobility ensures that all usage scenarios are covered. In terms of emergency call routing, the VoIP network introduces some additional challenges over wireline or cellular networks. In particular, the access network associated with a VoIP network can be highly distended. That is to say, in wireline the phone is tied to the specific local switch by the incoming line, in cellular the mobile switch has specific knowledge of the serving cell which has some degree of geographic association with that switch. But, in VoIP, the client may be attached to the network in another city, state, or, even, country than the one in which the serving call server is located. There is not an immediate association to location that the call server can use to directly determine a route to a selective router before, even, the correct PSAP can be selected. Similarly, in terms of location delivery and display, a VoIP client may be appropriately identified by a street address, being on a relatively static access point, or it may be more appropriately identified against a geodetic location, as in the case of a VoIP client connected by a wide area broadband wireless network. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to an aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of providing a routing key for routing an emergency call from a packet-based communications network node to an emergency services network node in a switched telephone network, said method comprising the steps of: receiving information about the geographical location from which the emergency call originates; generating a routing key on the basis of the received information and pre-specified information about geographical locations served by particular emergency service network nodes. This provides the advantage that an emergency call can be routed using the routing key to an appropriate emergency services network node. This is achieved in a packet-based network without the need to access information from the emergency services network. Thus an existing emergency services network can be used without the need for modification. Preferably the method comprises storing said generated routing key together with the received information about geographical location. The method also comprises providing the stored information to an automatic location identification (ALI) database. In this way the geographical location information is made available to an existing emergency services communications network comprising an ALI. The emergency services network is then able to display that information and use it to dispatch emergency services vehicles. According to another aspect of the present invention there is provided a packet-based communications network node for providing a routing key for routing an emergency call from the packet-based communications network to an emergency services network node in a switched telephone network, said node comprising: an input arranged to receive information about the geographical location from which the emergency call originates; a processor arranged to generate a routing key on the basis of the received information and pre-specified information about geographical locations served by particular emergency service network nodes. According to another aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of routing an incoming emergency call in a packet-based communications network to an appropriate emergency services answering point in a switched telephone network, said method comprising: at a call server, receiving the emergency call; at a location gateway server, receiving a geographical location from which the call originated and using that to generate a routing key; at the call server, routing the emergency call using the generated routing key. Preferably a location information server is used to provide the geographical location information. This provides the advantage that the location gateway server need not be concerned with the particular methods used to determine the geographical location information. Also, the routing key is determined and delivered dynamically within the life of the emergency call. This is achieved by using the location information server to provide the geographical location information as and when needed. This reduces and need for static information to be retained in the network including an emergency services network. In addition, it is possible to deal with nomadic entities and mobile entities whose geographical location changes over time. In a preferred embodiment the location gateway server interfaces to the emergency services network using a known interface protocol. This enables the present invention to be used with existing emergency services equipment that already operates the specified interface protocol. This reduces costs and the need for modification of network equipment. The invention also encompasses computer software for implementing any of the methods described above and herein. The preferred features may be combined as appropriate, as would be apparent to a skilled person, and may be combined with any of the aspects of the invention. | 20040604 | 20070213 | 20050901 | 61795.0 | 1 | WOO, STELLA L | DETERMINING THE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION FROM WHICH AN EMERGENCY CALL ORIGINATES IN A PACKET-BASED COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,861,374 | ACCEPTED | Modular frame connector system | A modular frame connection is formed by abutting a front camming surface of a front camming end of a front fastening plate against a rear camming surface of a rear camming end of a rear fastening plate while a front pierced end of the front fastening plate and rear pierced end of the rear fastening plate are separated, inserting the front and rear camming ends between a front and rear flanges of a post or beam, rotating the front pierced end toward the rear pierced end until a front finger surface of the front camming end is disposed insertably between a front lip of the front flange and a web of the post or beam and abutably to the front flange and a front abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the front fastening plate is disposed abutably to the web, rotating the rear pierced end toward the front pierced end until a rear finger surface of the rear camming end is disposed insertably between a rear lip of the rear flange and the web of the post or beam and abutably to the rear flange and a rear abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the rear fastening plate is disposed abutably to the web. | 1. A modular frame connector system comprising: a post having a web and a front and rear flanges disposed fixedly on said web; a front lip disposed fixedly on a lower surface of said front flange distal from said web; a front fastening plate having a front camming end disposed insertably between said front and rear flanges and a front pierced end, said front camming end comprising further: a front abutment surface substantially orthogonal to said front fastening plate and disposed abutably to said web; a front finger surface disposed insertably between said front lip and said web and abutably to said front flange; a front complementary surface disposed substantially parallel to said front fastening plate; and a front camming surface disposed at a first predetermined angle to said front abutment surface and said front complementary surface; a rear lip disposed fixedly on an upper surface of said rear flange substantially opposite said front lip and distal from said web; a rear fastening plate having a rear camming end disposed insertably between said front complementary surface and said rear flange and a rear pierced end, said rear camming end comprising further: a rear abutment surface substantially orthogonal to said rear fastening plate and disposed abutably to said web; a rear finger surface disposed insertably between said rear lip and said web and abutably to said rear flange; a rear complementary surface disposed substantially parallel to said rear fastening plate and abutably to said front complementary surface; and a rear camming surface disposed at a second predetermined angle to said rear abutment surface and said rear complementary surface; wherein said front camming surface is disposed abutably against said rear camming surface while said front and rear pierced ends are separated to insert said front and rear camming end between said front and rear flanges. 2. The modular frame connector system of claim 1, comprising further a structural member disposed insertably between said front and rear pierced ends. 3. The modular frame connector system of claim 2, wherein said structural member is selected from the group consisting of: a second post, a beam, a joist, a stud, a panel, and a fastener. 4. The modular frame connector system of claim 2, comprising further a fastener disposed pierceably through said front and rear pierced ends and said structural member. 5. The modular frame connector system of claim 4, wherein said fastener is selected from the group consisting of: a pin, a bolt, a rivet, and a spike. 6. The modular frame connector system of claim 1, wherein said post comprises a beam. 7. A modular frame connector system comprising: a post having a web and a front and rear flanges disposed fixedly on said web; a front lip disposed fixedly on a lower surface of said front flange distal from said web; a front fastening plate having a front camming end disposed insertably between said front and rear flanges and a front pierced end, said front camming end comprising further: a front abutment surface substantially orthogonal to said front fastening plate and disposed abutably to said web; a front finger surface disposed insertably between said front lip and said web and abutably to said front flange; a front complementary surface disposed substantially parallel to said front fastening plate; and a front camming surface disposed at a first predetermined angle to said front abutment surface and said front complementary surface; wherein said front camming surface is disposed abutably against said rear flange while said front pierced end is raised to insert said front camming end between said front and rear flanges. 8. The modular frame connector system of claim 7, comprising further a structural member disposed proximate to said front pierced end. 9. The modular frame connector system of claim 8, wherein said structural member is selected from the group consisting of: a second post, a beam, a joist, a stud, a panel, and a fastener. 10. The modular frame connector system of claim 8, comprising further a fastener disposed pierceably through said front pierced end and said structural member. 11. The modular frame connector system of claim 10, wherein said fastener is selected from the group consisting of: a pin, a bolt, a rivet, and a spike. 12. The modular frame connector system of claim 7, wherein said post comprises a beam. 13. A method of modular frame connection comprising: abutting a front camming surface of a front camming end of a front fastening plate against a rear camming surface of a rear camming end of a rear fastening plate while a front pierced end of said front fastening plate and rear pierced end of said rear fastening plate are separated; inserting said front and rear camming ends between a front and rear flanges of a post; rotating said front pierced end toward said rear pierced end until a front finger surface of said front camming end is disposed insertably between a front lip of said front flange and a web of said post and abutably to said front flange and a front abutment surface substantially orthogonal to said front fastening plate is disposed abutably to said web; rotating said rear pierced end toward said front pierced end until a rear finger surface of said rear camming end is disposed insertably between a rear lip of said rear flange and said web of said post and abutably to said rear flange and a rear abutment surface substantially orthogonal to said rear fastening plate is disposed abutably to said web. 14. The method of modular frame connection of claim 13, comprising further inserting a structural member between said front and rear pierced ends. 15. The method of modular frame connection of claim 13, comprising further fastening said front and rear pierced ends and said structural member together. 16. The method of modular frame connection of claim 13, wherein said post comprises a beam. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to modular frame connectors, such as those that might be used for connecting structural framing, and framing structures utilizing the modular frame connectors. 2. Description of the Related Art Structures such as houses have been built traditionally with roofs and walls supported by frames made of lumber. The frames are often secured by nails or bolts. Nailing or bolting a structural frame together requires considerable skill. Frames that are nailed or bolted may not be adjusted easily after assembly to accommodate shifting foundations or misalignments. It would be desirable if a frame connection were quickly and easily made. It would be desirable if a location of a frame connection were adjustable after connection. It would be desirable for future additions to the structure to be easily attached. It would be desirable for all elements of the structure to be easily de-mountable so that they may be replaced or re-used. Modular construction was developed to reduce the costs associated with building custom structures. Modular construction utilizes standardized parts, many of which can be fabricated at a factory, that are delivered to a building site and assembled. Several modular buildings can be assembled at once, in the manner of an assembly line. Such modular buildings may be used to make affordable low-income housing more widely available. Modular construction, however, presents special problems. Modular structures are built ideally in assembly line fashion from relatively standardized components. Components made from lumber may be difficult to standardize. Since lumber takes years to produce, it may fluctuate in price. It would be desirable if a frame and its connectors could be fabricated from a metal or a polymer, or a combination thereof. It would further be desirable if structural connection could be made quickly and easily. Finally, it would be desirable if connectors could be adapted to structural elements with relatively well-known strength properties, such as wide-flange beams. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A primary object of the invention is to overcome the deficiencies of the related art described above by providing a novel modular frame connector. The present invention achieves these objects and others by providing a modular frame connector system. In particular, in a first aspect of the invention, a modular frame connector system includes a beam or post having a web and a front and rear flanges disposed fixedly on the web, a front lip disposed fixedly on a lower surface of the front flange distal from the web, a front fastening plate having a front camming end disposed insertably between the front and rear flanges and a front pierced end, the front camming end comprising further, a front abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the front fastening plate and disposed abutably to the web, a front finger surface disposed insertably between the front lip and the web and abutably to the front flange, a front complementary surface disposed substantially parallel to the front fastening plate, and a front camming surface disposed at a first predetermined angle to the front abutment surface and the front complementary surface, a rear lip disposed fixedly on an upper surface of the rear flange substantially opposite the front lip and distal from the web, a rear fastening plate having a rear camming end disposed insertably between the front complementary surface and the rear flange and a rear pierced end, the rear camming end comprising further, a rear abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the rear fastening plate and disposed abutably to the web, a rear finger surface disposed insertably between the rear lip and the web and abutably to the rear flange, a rear complementary surface disposed substantially parallel to the rear fastening plate and abutably to the front complementary surface, and a rear camming surface disposed at a second predetermined angle to the rear abutment surface and the rear complementary surface, wherein the front camming surface is disposed abutably against the rear camming surface while the front and rear pierced ends are separated to insert the front and rear camming end between the front and rear flanges. In a second aspect of the invention, a modular frame connector system includes a beam or post having a web and a front and rear flanges disposed fixedly on the web, a front lip disposed fixedly on a lower surface of the front flange distal from the web, a front fastening plate having a front camming end disposed insertably between the front and rear flanges and a front pierced end, the front camming end comprising further, a front abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the front fastening plate and disposed abutably to the web, a front finger surface disposed insertably between the front lip and the web and abutably to the front flange, a front complementary surface disposed substantially parallel to the front fastening plate, and a front camming surface disposed at a first predetermined angle to the front abutment surface and the front complementary surface, wherein the front camming surface is disposed abutably against the rear flange while the front pierced end is raised to insert the front camming end between the front and rear flanges. In a third aspect of the invention, a method of modular frame connection includes abutting a front camming surface of a front camming end of a front fastening plate against a rear camming surface of a rear camming end of a rear fastening plate while a front pierced end of the front fastening plate and rear pierced end of the rear fastening plate are separated, inserting the front and rear camming ends between a front and rear flanges of a beam or post, rotating the front pierced end toward the rear pierced end until a front finger surface of the front camming end is disposed insertably between a front lip of the front flange and a web of the post and abutably to the front flange and a front abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the front fastening plate is disposed abutably to the web, rotating the rear pierced end toward the front pierced end until a rear finger surface of the rear camming end is disposed insertably between a rear lip of the rear flange and the web of the post and abutably to the rear flange and a rear abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the rear fastening plate is disposed abutably to the web. The above and other features and advantages of the present invention, as well as the structure and operation of various embodiments of the present invention, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form part of the specification, illustrate various embodiments of the present invention and, together with the description, further serve to explain the principles of the invention and to enable a person skilled in the pertinent art to make and use the invention. In the drawings, like reference numbers indicate identical or functionally similar elements. A more complete appreciation of the invention and many of the attendant advantages thereof will be readily obtained as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in connection with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a plan view of a modular frame connector system according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a post/beam section for use with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a post/beam section for use with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a post/beam section for use with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 5A through 5F are post/beam sections for use with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a modular frame connector system according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 7A and 7B are alternate views of the embodiment shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 8 is a rafter connection using the embodiment shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 9 is a framing structure for use with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a framing structure for use with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a roof peak connection joint using the embodiment shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 12 is a fastening plate for use with an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 13 is a three-quarter view, partially cut away, of the embodiment shown in FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In FIG. 1 is shown a modular frame connector system 100 according to a first embodiment of the present invention. Modular frame connector system 100 may include a beam, stanchion, column, pillar, or post 102 having a web 104 and a front and rear flanges 106 and 108 which are disposed fixedly on web 104. The designations “front” and “rear” as used herein are merely convenient labels for various elements and are not intended to imply any particular physical orientation or order of installation. In several embodiments, post 102 may be similar to an I-beam or a W-beam, such as a modified wide flange beam as shown in FIG. 1. This profile and others shown in FIGS. 2-4, 5D and 5F may be used as a post, beam or rafter. In several embodiments, post 102 may have a skin made of a brake-formed or extruded metal substantially resistant to oxidation, such as aluminum. The skin may also be made of a coated cold- or hot-rolled steel, such as galvanized steel. Post 102 may have either no core at all, as shown in FIG. 5F, or a core made of a polymer such as high density polyethylene (HDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a recycled automotive polymer product, an aluminum-polymer matrix, or any filler material suitable for providing some resistance to deformation, as shown in FIGS. 5C and 5D. In alternative embodiments, the skin of post 102 itself may be extruded, hydro-formed, cast, forged, or drawn. A front lip 110 is disposed fixedly on a lower surface 112 of front flange 106 distal from web 104. In one embodiment, front lip 110 may have a front inner surface 150 substantially parallel to web 104. In another embodiment, front inner surface 150 is inclined relative to web 104. A front fastening plate 114 may have a front camming end 116 disposed insertably between front and rear flanges 106 and 108 as shown in FIG. 1. Front fastening plate 114 may also have a front pierced end 118 distal from front camming end 116. Front pierced end 118 may have an aperture 152a suitable for insertion of a fastener 132. Front camming end 116 may also have a front abutment surface 120 substantially orthogonal to a front complimentary surface 124 of front fastening plate 114. Front abutment surface 120 is disposed so as to abut web 104 when front camming end 116 is inserted between front and rear flanges 106 and 108. A front finger surface 122 of front camming end 116 is disposed insertably between front lip 110 and web 104 and abutably to front flange 106. Front complimentary surface 124 is disposed substantially parallel to front fastening plate 114, and a front camming surface 128 is disposed at a predetermined angle to front abutment surface 120 and front complimentary surface 124. A rear lip 134 may be disposed fixedly on an upper surface 136 of rear flange 108 substantially opposite front lip 110 and distal from web 104 as shown in FIG. 1. In one embodiment, rear lip 134 may have a rear inner surface 154 substantially parallel to web 104. In another embodiment, rear inner surface 154 may be inclined relative to web 104. A rear fastening plate 138, also shown in FIG. 12, having a rear camming end 140 is disposed insertably between front complimentary surface 124 and rear flange 108, as shown in FIG. 1. A rear lip 134 may be disposed fixedly on an upper surface 136 of rear flange 108 substantially opposite front lip 110 and distal from web 104 as shown in FIG. 1. In one embodiment, rear lip 134 may have an rear inner surface 154 substantially parallel to web 104. In another embodiment, rear inner surface 154 may be inclined relative to web 104. A rear fastening plate 138, shown in FIG. 12, having a rear camming end 140 is disposed insertably between front complimentary surface 124 and rear flange 108, as shown in FIG. 1. Rear fastening plate 138 may also have a rear pierced end 142 distal from rear camming end 140, as shown in FIG. 12. Rear pierced end 138 may have an aperture 152b suitable for insertion of fastener 132. Rear camming end 140 may have a rear abutment surface 144 substantially orthogonal to rear fastening plate 138 and disposed abutably to web 104. A rear finger surface 146 is disposed insertably between rear lip 134 and web 104 and abutably to rear flange 108. A rear complementary surface 148 is disposed substantially parallel to rear fastening plate 138 and abutably to front complimentary surface 124. A rear camming surface 126 is disposed at a predetermined angle to rear abutment surface 144 and rear complementary surface 148. In one embodiment, web 104 and front and rear flanges 106 and 108 form a channel 158 as shown in FIG. 1. Channel 158 may receive front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138. If both front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 are used they may be referred to collectively as a type “A” fastener. In one embodiment, front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 are inserted “back to back” in channel 158. In other embodiments, front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 are inserted into channel 158 simultaneously or separately. In one embodiment, front and rear pierced ends 118 and 142 are separated to insert front and rear camming ends 116 and 140 between front and rear flanges 106 and 108. In this embodiment, front camming surface 128 is disposed abutably against rear camming surface 126 so front and rear camming ends 116 and 140 clear front and rear lips 110 and 134. In one embodiment, front and rear camming ends 116 and 140 are inserted until front and rear abutment surfaces 120 and 144 bottom out against web 104. In this embodiment, front and rear pierced ends 118 and 142 are rotated together after front and rear abutment surfaces 120 and 144 bottom out against web 104. A structural member 130 may be grasped between front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 and fastener 132 inserted through apertures 152a and 152b and structural member 130 to secure front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 to structural member 130. In one embodiment, structural member 130 is disposed insertably between front and rear pierced ends 118 and 142 while they are separated. In another embodiment, a space 156 is formed between front and rear pierced ends 118 and 142 into which structural member 130 is inserted after front and rear pierced ends 118 and 142 have been rotated together. In other embodiments, structural member 130 may be a second post, a beam, a joist, a stud, a panel, or a fastener. In one embodiment, a fastener 132 is disposed pierceably through front and rear pierced ends 118 and 142 and structural member 130. In some embodiments, fastener 132 is any suitable fastening device such as, for example, a pin, a bolt, a rivet, or a spike. A width of channel 158 and a length 164 of post 102 may be set to accommodate common light gauge metal framing elements such as, for example, panels, corrugated sheeting, or light gauge metal joists and studs. In one illustrative embodiment, the width of channel 158 and the length 164 of post 102 may be set to accommodate common light gauge metal framing elements such as, for example, 4×8 foot panels, ½ inch corrugated sheeting, or 3 inch light gauge metal joists and studs. Inner or outer walls, barriers, ceilings, and roofs could be formed from elements such as these. Front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 may connect post 102 to structural member 130 by the insertion of front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 into channel 158 and by grasping structural member 130 between front and rear pierced ends 118 and 142 as shown in FIG. 1. Fastener 132 may be inserted through apertures 152a and 152b to secure front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 to structural member 130 while allowing a loading due to a rotational moment 162 of structural member 130 about front and rear abutment surfaces 120 and 144 to be transferred to channel 158, as shown in FIG. 7A. As a result, shear forces may be focused at surfaces 120 and 144, web 104, and front and rear inner surfaces 150 and 154, thus jamming front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 in channel 158. In another embodiment, the loading is resolved into pressures at front and rear abutment surfaces 120 and 144, web 104, and front and rear inner surfaces 150 and 154 that produce shear forces along their surfaces. These forces jam front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 in channel 158. A section through the structural member 130 surrounded by front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 is shown in FIG. 7B. In one embodiment, a single fastener 132 is used to secure front and rear pierced ends 118 and 142 and structural member 130. In this embodiment, front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 may act as a moment arm when loaded. In this embodiment, a rotation of front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 about front and rear abutment surfaces 120 and 144 may allow the plates to jam in channel 158, as shown in FIG. 7A. Jamming may arrest substantially a tendency for front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 to travel along channel 158. In another embodiment, a load on structural member 130 may cause front and rear fastening plates 114 and 138 to rotate about fastener 132, jamming front and rear abutment surfaces 120 and 144 against web 104. This rotation may focus shear forces between front and rear abutment surfaces 120 and 144 and web 104, preventing structural member 130 from sliding in channel 158. In one embodiment, friction between front and rear abutment surfaces 120 and 144 and web 104 may prevent structural member 130 from moving in channel 158. The coefficient of friction (μ) at the interface of front and rear abutment surfaces 120 and 144 and web 104 may be enhanced by knurling or by coating front and rear abutment surfaces 120 and 144 or web 104 with a high-μ compound, such as a silica impregnated paint. In FIG. 13 is shown a partial cut-away view of the first embodiment. Rear lip 134 may be disposed fixedly on an upper surface 136 of rear flange 108 substantially distal from web 104. Front fastening plate 114 having front camming end 116 is disposed against web 104. Front fastening plate 114 may also have a front pierced end 118 distal from front camming end 116. Front pierced end 118 may have an aperture suitable for insertion of a fastener 132 through structural member 130. Several additional embodiments of posts 102, to be used as beams and rafters as well, are illustrated in FIGS. 2 through 4. In FIG. 2, for example, four sets of front and rear flanges 206 and 208 form four channels 258. Similarly, in FIG. 3, three sets of front and rear flanges 306 and 308 form three channels 358. Two sets of front and rear flanges 406 and 408 form three channels 458 in FIG. 4. FIGS. 5A through 5D illustrate shells 502 being assembled over a core 504. In a preferred embodiment, shells 502 are made of a brake-formed aluminum. Also in a preferred embodiment, core 504 is made of a high density polyethylene (HDPE). FIGS. 5E and 5F illustrate shells 502 being assembled without a core. In a second embodiment of the invention, illustrated in FIG. 6, one or more fastening plates 614 may be used. This embodiment may be referred to as a type “B” fastener. This embodiment may be used with a structural member 630 that has been rotated 90° with respect to a channel 658, as may be the case for joists, purlins or certain wall conditions such as ties. Aperture 652 in fastening plate 614 may flank structural member 630. Fastener 632 may be inserted through aperture 652 and structural member 630. More than one fastener 632 may be used. In one embodiment, structural member 630 may be disposed proximate to a pierced end 618. In one embodiment, a fastener may be disposed pierceably through aperture 652 and structural member 630. In one embodiment, the fastener is any suitable fastening device such as, for example, a pin, a bolt, a rivet, or a spike. In several embodiments, structural member 630 is a second post, a beam, a joist, a stud, a panel, or a fastener. In one embodiment, a post 602 has a web 604 and a front and rear flanges 606 and 608 disposed fixedly on web 604. A front lip 610 is disposed fixedly on a lower surface 612 of front flange 606 distal from web 604. In one embodiment, front lip 610 may have an inner surface 650 substantially parallel to web 604. In another embodiment, inner surface 650 is inclined relative to web 604. Front fastening plate 614 may have a front camming end 616 disposed insertably between front and rear flanges 606 and 608 as shown in FIG. 6. Fastening plate 614 may also have a front pierced end 618 distal from front camming end 616. Front pierced end 618 may have an aperture 652a suitable for insertion of a fastener 632. Front camming end 616 may also have a front abutment surface 620 substantially orthogonal to a front complimentary surface 624 of fastening plate 614. Front abutment surface 620 is disposed so as to abut web 604 when front camming end 616 is inserted between front and rear flanges 606 and 608. A front finger surface 622 of front camming end 616 is disposed insertably between front lip 610 and web 604 and abutably to front flange 606. Front complimentary surface 624 is disposed substantially parallel to fastening plate 614, and a front camming surface 628 is disposed at a predetermined angle to front abutment surface 620 and front complimentary surface 624. FIG. 8 illustrates a type A fastener 800 used to support a rafter as structural member 830. Cross-sections of posts 802 reveal front fastener plate 814 within front and rear flanges 806 and 808. A size of fastener 800 may be made larger or smaller if necessary. A smaller version of a type A fastener 800 may be known as a type Aa fastener. Of course, the fasteners of the present invention are not limited to any particular size and can be made of any size suitable for a particular application. FIG. 9 illustrates a framing structure 900 according to one embodiment of the present invention. In this embodiment, a frame 966 is assembled into a gable end structure. In one illustrative example, frame 966 is assembled into a 16 foot×16 foot gable end structure 968. This embodiment may include joists 970 on rafters 972. In this embodiment, posts 902 may receive floor loads via metal joists 970 (gauge to be determined) that are inserted into channels 958 at centers with metal spacers around the bay perimeter. Load bearing points may be distributed nine square. In a preferred embodiment, posts 902 may receive floor loads via 3-inch metal joists 970 (gauge to be determined) that are inserted into channels 958 at 16-inch centers with 3-inch metal spacers around the bay perimeter. Of course, larger or smaller sizes may be used in accordance with the present invention. A deck 974 made, for example, of sine wave corrugated sheet metal may be spot-welded to aluminum sheet (gauges to be determined) and fastened to the joists 970. In one embodiment, the sine wave corrugated sheet metal is ½ inch sine wave corrugated sheet metal. The exterior cladding for the walls may be attached to studs arranged in a manner that is similar to the deck. In one illustrative embodiment, the exterior cladding for the walls may be attached to 3-inch studs arranged in a manner similar to the deck but with 2-foot spacing. The framing around the openings for windows and doors may be determined by that manufacturer's installation specifications. A roofing surface of sine wave corrugated aluminum may be fastened to this framing in a manner that is much like the deck. This prototype may have a pitched roof. In one illustrative embodiment, the rafters are plumb cut to meet the post and may be secured with the fastener, as shown in FIG. 11. The post that supports the ridge beam may also be cut to match the pitch so that it may extend fully to the underside of the roofing. In FIG. 10 is shown the framing structure 900 of FIG. 9 with a roof 980 and walls 982. Framing structure 900 may continue indefinitely along the axis 990 of the ridge 992. This may be the case for schools or hospitals. In one embodiment, the other axis may extend from approximately 10 to 30 feet, preferably from approximately 13 to 25 feet, and more preferably from approximately 16 to 20 feet. Of course, larger or smaller sizes may be used in accordance with the present invention. The foregoing has described the principles, embodiments, and modes of operation of the present invention. However, the invention should not be construed as being limited to the particular embodiments described above, as they should be regarded as being illustrative and not restrictive. It should be appreciated that variations may be made in those embodiments by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the present invention. While the invention has been described in detail above, the invention is not intended to be limited to the specific embodiments as described. It is evident that those skilled in the art may now make numerous uses and modifications of and departures from the specific embodiments described herein without departing from the inventive concepts. While various embodiments of the present invention have been described above, they should be understood to have been presented by way of examples only, and not limitation. Thus, the breadth and scope of the present invention should not be limited by the above described embodiments. Obviously, numerous modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to modular frame connectors, such as those that might be used for connecting structural framing, and framing structures utilizing the modular frame connectors. 2. Description of the Related Art Structures such as houses have been built traditionally with roofs and walls supported by frames made of lumber. The frames are often secured by nails or bolts. Nailing or bolting a structural frame together requires considerable skill. Frames that are nailed or bolted may not be adjusted easily after assembly to accommodate shifting foundations or misalignments. It would be desirable if a frame connection were quickly and easily made. It would be desirable if a location of a frame connection were adjustable after connection. It would be desirable for future additions to the structure to be easily attached. It would be desirable for all elements of the structure to be easily de-mountable so that they may be replaced or re-used. Modular construction was developed to reduce the costs associated with building custom structures. Modular construction utilizes standardized parts, many of which can be fabricated at a factory, that are delivered to a building site and assembled. Several modular buildings can be assembled at once, in the manner of an assembly line. Such modular buildings may be used to make affordable low-income housing more widely available. Modular construction, however, presents special problems. Modular structures are built ideally in assembly line fashion from relatively standardized components. Components made from lumber may be difficult to standardize. Since lumber takes years to produce, it may fluctuate in price. It would be desirable if a frame and its connectors could be fabricated from a metal or a polymer, or a combination thereof. It would further be desirable if structural connection could be made quickly and easily. Finally, it would be desirable if connectors could be adapted to structural elements with relatively well-known strength properties, such as wide-flange beams. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A primary object of the invention is to overcome the deficiencies of the related art described above by providing a novel modular frame connector. The present invention achieves these objects and others by providing a modular frame connector system. In particular, in a first aspect of the invention, a modular frame connector system includes a beam or post having a web and a front and rear flanges disposed fixedly on the web, a front lip disposed fixedly on a lower surface of the front flange distal from the web, a front fastening plate having a front camming end disposed insertably between the front and rear flanges and a front pierced end, the front camming end comprising further, a front abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the front fastening plate and disposed abutably to the web, a front finger surface disposed insertably between the front lip and the web and abutably to the front flange, a front complementary surface disposed substantially parallel to the front fastening plate, and a front camming surface disposed at a first predetermined angle to the front abutment surface and the front complementary surface, a rear lip disposed fixedly on an upper surface of the rear flange substantially opposite the front lip and distal from the web, a rear fastening plate having a rear camming end disposed insertably between the front complementary surface and the rear flange and a rear pierced end, the rear camming end comprising further, a rear abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the rear fastening plate and disposed abutably to the web, a rear finger surface disposed insertably between the rear lip and the web and abutably to the rear flange, a rear complementary surface disposed substantially parallel to the rear fastening plate and abutably to the front complementary surface, and a rear camming surface disposed at a second predetermined angle to the rear abutment surface and the rear complementary surface, wherein the front camming surface is disposed abutably against the rear camming surface while the front and rear pierced ends are separated to insert the front and rear camming end between the front and rear flanges. In a second aspect of the invention, a modular frame connector system includes a beam or post having a web and a front and rear flanges disposed fixedly on the web, a front lip disposed fixedly on a lower surface of the front flange distal from the web, a front fastening plate having a front camming end disposed insertably between the front and rear flanges and a front pierced end, the front camming end comprising further, a front abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the front fastening plate and disposed abutably to the web, a front finger surface disposed insertably between the front lip and the web and abutably to the front flange, a front complementary surface disposed substantially parallel to the front fastening plate, and a front camming surface disposed at a first predetermined angle to the front abutment surface and the front complementary surface, wherein the front camming surface is disposed abutably against the rear flange while the front pierced end is raised to insert the front camming end between the front and rear flanges. In a third aspect of the invention, a method of modular frame connection includes abutting a front camming surface of a front camming end of a front fastening plate against a rear camming surface of a rear camming end of a rear fastening plate while a front pierced end of the front fastening plate and rear pierced end of the rear fastening plate are separated, inserting the front and rear camming ends between a front and rear flanges of a beam or post, rotating the front pierced end toward the rear pierced end until a front finger surface of the front camming end is disposed insertably between a front lip of the front flange and a web of the post and abutably to the front flange and a front abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the front fastening plate is disposed abutably to the web, rotating the rear pierced end toward the front pierced end until a rear finger surface of the rear camming end is disposed insertably between a rear lip of the rear flange and the web of the post and abutably to the rear flange and a rear abutment surface substantially orthogonal to the rear fastening plate is disposed abutably to the web. The above and other features and advantages of the present invention, as well as the structure and operation of various embodiments of the present invention, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings. | 20040607 | 20090825 | 20051229 | 65484.0 | 0 | WENDELL, MARK R | MODULAR FRAME CONNECTOR SYSTEM | MICRO | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,861,590 | ACCEPTED | Enhanced erythropoiesis and iron metabolism | The present invention relates to methods and compounds for regulating or enhancing erthropoiesis and iron metabolism, and for treating or preventing iron deficiency and anemia of chronic disease. | 1. A method for treating or preventing iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing iron deficiency in the subject. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the iron deficiency is associated with anemia. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the iron deficiency is associated with a disorder selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the iron deficiency is functional iron deficiency. 5. A method for treating or preventing functional iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing functional iron deficiency in the subject. 6. A method for regulating or enhancing iron metabolism or an iron metabolic process in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby regulating or enhancing iron metabolism or the iron metabolic process in the subject. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the iron metabolic process is selected from the group consisting of iron uptake, iron absorption, iron transport, iron storage, iron processing, iron mobilization, and iron utilization. 8. A method for increasing iron absorption in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron absorption in the subject. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the iron absorption is in the intestine. 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the iron absorption is absorption of dietary iron. 11. The method of claim 8, wherein the iron absorption is in duodenal enterocytes. 12. A method for increasing iron transport in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron transport in the subject. 13. A method for increasing iron storage in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron storage in the subject. 14. A method for increasing iron uptake in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron uptake in the subject. 15. A method for increasing iron processing in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron processing in the subject. 16. A method for increasing iron mobilization in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron mobilization in the subject. 17. A method for increasing iron utilization in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron utilization in the subject. 18. A method for increasing iron availability for erythropoiesis in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron availability for erythropoesis in the subject. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the increasing iron availability for erythropoiesis is increasing iron availability for heme synthesis. 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the increasing iron availability for erythropoiesis is increasing iron availability for hemoglobin production. 21. The method of claim 18, wherein the increasing iron availability for erythropoiesis is increasing iron availability for red blood cell production. 22. A method for increasing transferrin receptor expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin receptor expression in the subject. 23. A method for increasing transferrin expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin expression in the subject. 24. A method for increasing ceruloplasmin expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing ceruloplasmin expression in the subject. 25. A method for increasing NRAMP2 (slc11a2) expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing NRAMP2 expression in the subject. 26. A method for increasing duodenal cytochrome b reductase 1 expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing duodenal cytochrome b reductase 1 expression in the subject. 27. A method for increasing 5-aminolevulinate synthase expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing 5-aminolevulinate synthase expression in the subject. 28. A method for increasing serum iron in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing serum iron in the subject. 29. A method for increasing transferrin saturation in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin saturation in the subject. 30. A method for increasing soluble transferrin receptor levels in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing soluble transferrin receptor levels in the subject. 31. A method for decreasing hepcidin expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby decreasing hepcidin expression in the subject. 32. A method for treating or preventing a disorder associated with iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing a disorder associated with iron deficiency in the subject. 33. The method of claim 32, wherein the iron deficiency is functional iron deficiency. 34. The method of claim 32, wherein the disorder is selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder. 35. The method of claim 32, wherein the disorder is selected from a group consisting of anemia of chronic disease, iron deficiency anemia, and microcytic anemia. 36. A method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject, wherein the subject has or is at risk for having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the iron deficiency is functional iron deficiency. 38. A method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject, wherein the subject has or is at risk for having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the chronic disease is selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder. 40. A method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject, wherein the subject has or is at risk for having anemia of chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. 41. A method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject wherein the subject is resistent to erythropoietin therapy, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. 42. The method of claim 41, wherein the method further comprises administering at least one supplement selected from the group consisting of erythropoietin, iron, and B vitamins. 43. A method for treating or preventing anemia of chronic disease in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing anemia of chronic disease. 44. The method of claim 43, wherein the anemia of chronic disease is associated with a condition selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder. 45. A method for increasing reticulocytes in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing reticulocytes in the subject. 46. A method for increasing hematocrit in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hematocrit in the subject. 47. A method for increasing hemoglobin in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hemoglobin in the subject. 48. A method for increasing red blood cell count in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing red blood cell count in the subject. 49. A method for increasing mean corpuscular volume in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular volume in the subject. 50. A method for increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in the subject. 51. A method for increasing serum iron in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing serum iron in the subject. 52. A method for increasing transferrin saturation in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin saturation in the subject. 53. A method for increasing reticulocytes in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing reticulocytes in the subject. 54. A method for increasing hematocrit in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hematocrit in the subject. 55. A method for increasing hemoglobin in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hemoglobin in the subject. 56. A method for increasing red blood cell count in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing red blood cell count in the subject. 57. A method for increasing mean corpuscular volume in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular volume in the subject. 58. A method for increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in the subject. 59. A method for increasing serum iron in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing serum iron in the subject. 60. A method for increasing transferrin saturation in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin saturation in the subject. 61. A method for overcoming or ameliorating cytokine-induced impairment of erythropoiesis in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby overcoming or ameliorating the cytokine-induced impairment of erythropoiesis in the subject. 62. The method of claim 61, wherein the cytokine-induced impairment of erythropoiesis is suppression of EPO production. 63. The method of claim 61, wherein the cytokine-induced impairment of erythropoiesis is impairment of iron metabolism. 64. The method of claim 61, wherein the cytokine is an inflammatory cytokine. 65. The method of claim 61, wherein the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. 66. A method for overcoming or ameliorating cytokine-induced increase in VCAM-1 expression, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby overcoming or ameliorating the cytokine-induced increase in VCAM-1 expression in the subject. 67. A method for overcoming or ameliorating cytokine-induced increase in E-selectin expression, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby overcoming or ameliorating the cytokine-induced increase in E-selectin expression in the subject. 68. A method for treating or preventing a disorder associated with cytokine activity in a subject, wherein the disorder is selected from the group consisting of iron deficiency, functional iron deficiency, iron deficiency anemia, anemia of chronic disease, and microcytic anemia, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing the disorder associated with cytokine activity. 69. A method for treating or preventing a disorder associated with cytokine activity in a subject, wherein the disorder is associated with a condition selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing the disorder associated with cytokine activity. 70. A method for increasing EPO production in the presence of a cytokine in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing EPO production in the subject. 71. A method for treating or preventing microcytosis in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing microcytosis in a subject. 72. The method of claim 71, wherein the microcytosis is associated with a disorder selected from the group consisting of chronic disease, anemia of chronic disease, iron deficiency, functional iron deficiency, and anemia of iron deficiency. 73. A method for treating or preventing iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα and at least one supplement selected from the group consisting of erythropoietin, iron, and B vitamins, thereby treating or preventing iron deficiency in the subject. 74. The method of claim 73, wherein the iron deficiency is functional iron deficiency. 75. A method for treating or preventing anemia of chronic disease in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα and at least one supplement selected from the group consisting of erythropoietin, iron, and B vitamins, thereby treating or preventing anemia of chronic disease in the subject. 76. A kit, comprising a compound that stablizes HIFα and at least one supplement selected from the group consisting of erythropoietin, iron, and B vitamins. 77. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound that stablizes HIFα and at least one supplement selected from the group consisting of erythropoietin, iron, and B vitamins. | This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/476,704, filed on 6 Jun. 2003; U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/566,488, filed on 29 Apr. 2004; U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/566,237, filed on 29 Apr. 2004; and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/569,797, filed on 10 May 2004, each of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to methods and compounds for regulating or enhancing erthropoiesis and iron metabolism, and for treating or preventing iron deficiency and anemia of chronic disease. BACKGROUD OF THE INVENTION Anemia generally refers to any abnormality in hemoglobin or erythrocytes that leads to reduced oxygen levels in the blood. Anemia can also develop in association with chronic diseases, e.g., chronic infection, neoplastic disorders, chronic inflammatory disorders, including disorders with consequent inflammatory suppression of marrow, etc. Anemia of chronic disease is one of the most common syndromes in medicine. Anemia of chronic disease (ACD) is often associated with iron deficiencies. ACD can develop from inadequate availability of iron (e.g., anemia of iron deficiency) or, in cases where total body iron is adequate but the requirements for hemoglobin production are defective (e.g., functional iron deficiency). Iron is required for production of red blood cell hemoglobin in erythropoietic precursor cells of the bone marrow. Numerous physiologic deficiencies are observed in patients with anemia of chronic disease, including reduced erythropoietin (EPO) production, reduced EPO responsiveness of the bone marrow, and reduced iron metabolism, including reduced iron absorption from the gut, reduced iron trans-enterocyte transport, reduced iron oxidation to the ferric state by hephaestin or ceruloplasmin, reduced iron binding and uptake by transferrin and transferrin receptor, and reduced iron transport to the marrow where iron utilization occurs, including heme synthesis. Individually and together, these physiologic deficiencies contribute to ineffective or impaired erythropoiesis, which can lead to microcytic anemia and hypochromic red blood cells associated with reduced hemoglobin production and reduced oxygen transport. Anemia of chronic disease is associated with increased production of inflammatory cytokines (Means (1995) Stem cells 13:32-37 and Means (1999) Int J Hematol 70:7-12.), including, for example, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and interferon-γ (IFN-γ). In several in vitro and in vivo animal model systems, inflammatory cytokines negatively affected the ability to mediate EPO production, EPO responsiveness, and the coordinate regulation of iron metabolism (Roodman et al. (1989) Adv Exp Med Biol 271:185-196; Fuchs et al. (1991) Eur J Hematol 46:65-70; Jelkmann et al. (1994) Ann NY Acad Sci 718:300-311; Vannucchi et al. (1994) Br J Hematol 87:18-23; and Oldenburg et al. (2001) Aliment Pharmacol Ther 15:429-438.) Administration of erythropoietin failed to reverse anemia in mice continuously exposed to TNF-α (Clibon et al. (1990) Exp Hematol 18:438-441). Increased levels of inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and INF-γ, contribute to defective EPO production and EPO resistance observed in patients with anemia of chronic disease (Jelkmann et al. (1991) Ann NY Acad Sci 718:300-311 and Macdougall and Cooper (2002) Neprol Dial Transplant 17(11):39-43.). Therefore, various cytokines, e.g., inflammatory cytokines and cytokines associated with inflammation, are involved in many aspects of the pathogenesis of anemia of chronic disease, including inhibition of erythroid progenitors, inhibition of EPO production, and impairment of iron release and iron availability for erythropoiesis. There is thus a need in the art for methods of treating or preventing anemia of chronic disease. There is a need in the art for methods of overcoming the deficiencies in current use of recombinant EPO to treat anemia of chronic disease. In particular, there remains a need for methods and compounds effective at overcoming suppressed EPO production and decreased EPO responsiveness associated with anemia of chronic disease, for methods and compounds effective at enhancing regulation of iron metabolism and overcoming deficiencies of altered or abnormal iron metabolism and utilization, and for methods and compounds effective at enhancing total or complete erythropoiesis by improving the metabolic pathways related to EPO production, EPO responsiveness and signaling, and iron availability, utilization, uptake, transport, processing, etc. There is a need in the art for methods of overcoming or of ameliorating the consequences of cytokine-induced effects in subjects having anemia of chronic disease. Iron deficiency is one of the most common nutritional deficiencies worldwide and is the leading cause of anemia on a global basis. Iron balance is fundamentally regulated by the rate of erythropoiesis and the size of iron stores. Iron deficiency can occur with or without anemia, and has been associated with impaired cognitive development. Iron deficiency is defined as inadequate iron supply (levels or stores) or as inadequate availability or utilization of iron in the body. This can be due to nutritional deficiencies, e.g., lack of iron in the diet; to iron malabsorption, due, for example, to surgery (post-gastrectomy) or disease (Crohn's disease); or to a depletion in iron supply or increased iron loss due to chronic or acute blood loss resulting from injury or trauma, menses, blood donation, phlebotomy (such as due to various procedures, surgeries); from increased iron demand, e.g., due to rapid growth in infancy or adolescence, pregnancy, erythropoietin therapy, etc. Iron deficiency can also be functional iron deficiency, e.g., iron deficiency characterized by the subject's impaired ability to access and utilize iron stores. Iron is not available at a rate sufficient to allow normal hemoglobinization of erythrocytes, leading to reduced reticulocyte and erythrocyte cellular hemoglobin content. Functional iron deficiency is often seen in healthy individuals with apparently normal or even increased iron stores but with impaired iron availability, as measured, e.g., by low levels of percent transferrin saturation. This type of iron deficiency is frequently associated with acute or with chronic inflammation. Iron deficiency of any kind can lead to iron-deficient or iron-restricted erythropoiesis, in which red blood cell numbers decrease and circulating red blood cells are smaller than normal (microcytic) and lack adequate hemoglobin, and as such are pale in color (hypochromic). Subjects with iron deficiency, including functional iron deficiency, can develop impaired hemoglobin synthesis, reduced % transferrin saturation, and decreased hemoglobin and hematocrit levels, leading to iron deficiency anemia. Iron deficiency anemia is the most common anemia in the world. Iron is an essential component of hemoglobin; without iron, the marrow is unable to produce hemoglobin effectively. Iron deficiency anemia may occur in subjects with depleted or impaired iron supply, or may occur in subjects having functional iron deficiency, when iron is present in storage but is unavailable, e.g., for hemoglobin production. In view of the above, there is a need in the art for methods of treating or preventing disorders associated with iron metabolism, and a need in the art for methods of enhancing iron metabolism. There is a need for methods of treating or preventing iron deficiency, including functional iron deficiency, and for treating or preventing associated conditions such as microcytosis and iron deficiency anemia. The present invention provides methods and compounds for enhancing the metabolic and physiologic pathways that contribute to complete and effective erythropoiesis, and in particular, for treating anemia of chronic disease. Methods and compounds for overcoming the suppressive/inhibitory effects of inflammatory cytokines on EPO production and responsiveness are also provided. Additionally the present invention provides methods and compounds for enhancing iron metabolism, and for treating or preventing conditions associated with impaired iron metabolism, such as iron deficiency, including functional iron deficiency, iron deficiency anemia, microcytosis, iron-deficient erythropoiesis, etc. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to methods and compounds for inducing enhanced or complete erythropoiesis in a subject. In particular, the methods comprise inducing enhanced or complete erythropoiesis by stabilizing HIFα in a subject. Methods of inducing enhanced erythropoiesis by inhibiting HIF prolyl hydroxylase are specifically contemplated. In specific embodiments, the methods comprise administering to a subject a compound of the invention. In various embodiments, the subject can be a cell, tissue, organ, organ system, or whole organism. The subject is, in various embodiments, a cell, tissue, organ, organ system, or whole organism. In particular embodiments, the organism is a mammal, preferably, a human. In one aspect, the method increases the production of factors required for differentiation of erythrocytes from hematopoietic progenitor cells including, e.g., hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), CFU-GEMM (colony-forming-unit-granulocyte/erythroid/monocyte/megakaryocyte) cells, etc. Factors that stimulate erythropoiesis include, but are not limited to, erythropoietin. In another aspect, the methods increase the production of factors required for iron uptake, transport, and utilization. Such factors include, but are not limited to, erythroid aminolevulinate synthase, transferrin, transferrin receptor, ceruloplasmin, etc. In yet another aspect, the method increases factors required for differentiation of erythrocytes and additionally factors required for iron uptake, transport, and utilization. In another embodiment, the methods of the invention enhance responsiveness of hematopoietic precursors to erythropoietin. As described above, such precursors include HSCs, CFU-GEMMs, etc. The responsiveness of the precursor cells can be augmented, e.g., by altering expression of erythropoietin receptors, intracellular factors involved in erythropoietin signaling, and secreted factors that facilitate interaction of erythropoietin with the receptors. In another aspect, the methods can be used to overcome inhibition of erythropoiesis induced by inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and the like. In particular aspects, the methods can be used to treat anemia that is refractive to treatment with exogenously administered erythropoietin. Such anemia can be caused, e.g., by chronic inflammatory or autoimmune disorders including, but not limited to, chronic bacterial endocarditis, osteomyelitis, rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis. In certain embodiments, the methods of the invention can be used to treat anemia of chronic disease. Methods for inducing enhanced or complete erythropoiesis in patients with anemia of chronic disease are specifically provided. In particular embodiments, the methods increase the amount of iron available to make new red blood cells. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods for enhancing EPO responsiveness of the bone marrow. Methods for inhibiting TNFα suppression of EPO are specifically provided, as are methods for inhibiting IL-1β suppression of EPO. The present invention relates to methods for the treatment/prevention of anemia of chronic disease, and methods for regulation of iron processing and treatment/prevention of conditions associated with deficiencies in iron and/or iron processing. In one aspect, the invention provides a method for treating anemia of chronic disease in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), thereby treating anemia of chronic disease in the subject. Methods for achieving specific physiological effects in a subject having anemia of chronic disease are also provided; in particular, methods for increasing reticulocytes, increasing mean corpuscular cell volume, increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin, increasing hematocrit, increasing hemoglobin, and increasing red blood cell count, etc., in a subject having anemia of chronic disease, each method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), thereby achieving the desired physiological effect. In various aspects, the anemia of chronic disease is associated with, e.g., inflammation, autoimmune disease, iron deficiency, microcytosis, malignancy, etc. In various embodiments, the subject is a cell, tissue, or organ. In other embodiments, the subject is an animal, preferably a mammal, most preferably a human. When the subject is a cell, the invention specifically contemplates that the cell can be an isolated cell, either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. In the case that the subject is a tissue, the invention specifically contemplates both endogenous tissues and in vitro tissues, e.g., tissues grown in culture. In preferred embodiments, the subject is an animal, particularly, an animal of mammalian species including rat, rabbit, bovine, ovine, porcine, murine, equine, and primate species. In a most preferred embodiment, the subject is human. Stabilization of HIFα can be accomplished by any of the methods available to and known by those of skill in the art, and can involve use of any agent that interacts with, binds to, or modifies HIFα or factors that interact with HIFα, including, e.g., enzymes for which HIFα is a substrate. In certain aspects, the present invention contemplates providing a constitutively stable HIFα variant, e.g., stable HIF muteins, etc, or a polynucleotide encoding such a variant. In other aspects, the present invention contemplates that stabilizing HIFα comprises administering an agent that stabilizes HIFα. The agent can be composed of polynucleotides, e.g. antisense sequences; polypeptides; antibodies; other proteins; carbohydrates; fats; lipids; and organic and inorganic substances, e.g., small molecules, etc. In a preferred embodiment, the present invention contemplates stabilizing HIFα, e.g., in a subject, by administering to the subject an agent that stabilizes HIFα wherein the agent is a compound, e.g., small molecule compound, etc., that stabilizes HIFα. In various aspects, HIFα is HIF1α, HIF2α, or HIF3α. In a preferred aspect, stabilizing HIFα comprises administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that inhibits HIF hydroxylase activity. In certain aspects, the HIF hydroxylase is selected from the group consisting of EGLN1, EGLN2, and EGLN3. In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for increasing mean corpuscular volume in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method for increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In another embodiment, the present invention encompasses a method for reducing microcytosis in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). The invention further provides a method for treating or preventing microcytic anemia, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In one aspect, the invention relates to a method for treating or preventing a condition associated with iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In a particular aspect, the invention provides a method for improving iron processing in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). A method for treating or preventing a condition associated with compromised iron availability in a subject is also provided, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In other embodiments, the invention relates to a method for overcoming cytokine-induced effects in a subject. In particular, the invention provides in one aspect a method for overcoming cytokine-suppression of EPO production in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). The invention further provides a method for overcoming cytokine-suppression of iron availability in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In another aspect, the present invention encompasses a method for treating or preventing cytokine-associated anemia in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). Methods for increasing EPO production in the presence of a cytokine in a subject, the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), are also provided. In specific embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α and IL-1β. In one aspect, the invention provides a method for reducing cytokine-induced VCAM expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In a specific aspect, the cytokine is TNF-α or IL-1β. In one aspect, the method applies to reduction of cytokine-induced VCAM expression in endothelial cells in the subject. In another aspect, the subject has a condition selected from the group consisting of inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, and anemia of chronic disease. In another aspect, the invention provides a method for reducing cytokine-induced E-selectin expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor. In a specific aspect, the cytokine is TNF-α or IL-1β. In one aspect, the method applies to reduction of cytokine induced E-selectin expression in endothelial cells in the subject. In another aspect, the subject has a condition selected from the group consisting of inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, and anemia of chronic disease. The invention provides various methods of regulating/enhancing iron processing and iron metabolism. In one aspect, the invention provides methods for increasing iron transport, uptake, utilization, and absorption in a subject, each of the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In particular embodiments, the invention provides methods for increasing transferrin expression, transferrin receptor expression, IRP-2 expression, ferritin expression, ceruloplasmin expression, NRAMP2 expression, sproutin expression, and ALAS-2 expression in a subject, each method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In other embodiments, the invention provides methods for decreasing hepcidin expression, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). Methods for increasing heme synthesis in a subject by administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) are also provided. In certain aspects, the invention contemplates methods for increasing serum iron, increasing transferrin saturation, increasing soluble transferrin receptor levels, and increasing serum ferritin levels in a subject, the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In a further aspect, the invention provides a method for increasing iron transport to bone marrow in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In one aspect, the present methods are applied to treatment of or manufacture of a medicament for a subject, preferably a human subject, having any of the disorders and conditions discussed herein. It is to be understood that various parameters associated with clinical conditions vary according to age, gender, etc. In one aspect, the subject has a serum ferritin level below normal range, e.g., below 50-200 μg/L; thus, a subject having serum ferritin levels below 200 ng/ml, below 150 ng/ml, below 100 ng/ml, below 75 ng/ml, and below 50 ng/ml could be a suitable subject for treatment with the methods or use of medicaments provided by the present invention. Alternatively, a suitable subject could be identified by demonstrating a total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) of less than normal range, e.g., less than TIBC 300-360 μg/dL. In another embodiment, the subject has a serum iron level below the normal range, e.g., below serum iron levels of 50-150 μg/dL. Other appropriate parameters for identifying suitable subjects include transferrin saturation measurements of below 30-50%, marrow sideroblast measurements of below 40-60%, and hemoglobin levels of below about 10 to 11 g/dL. Any of the above parameters are measured, e.g., as in standard hematological tests, blood chemistry and complete blood count (CBC) analysis, typically presented as a measurement of several blood parameters, and obtained, e.g., by analysis of blood by an automated instrument which measures, for example, red blood cell count, white blood cell count, platelet count, and red cell indices. Measurement may be by any standard means of measurement of hematological and/or biochemical blood analysis, including, e.g., automated systems such as the CELL DYN 4000 analyzer (Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park Ill.), the Coulter GenS analyzer (Beckman Coulter, Inc., Fullerton Calif.), the Bayer ADVIA 120 analyzer (Bayer Healthcare AG, Leverkusen, Germany), etc. In one aspect, the invention encompasses a method for treating or preventing iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing iron deficiency in the subject. In further aspects, the iron deficiency is functional iron deficiency; is associated with anemia; is associated with a disorder selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, infection, immunodeficiency disorder, and neoplastic disorder; or is associated with a disorder selected from the group consisting of anemia of chronic disease, iron deficiency anemia (IDA), and microcytic anemia. A subject of the invention could be a subject with any clinically accepted standard measurement indicative of iron deficiency or of a risk for developing iron deficiency. For example, in certain embodiments, the subject has low serum ferritin levels (<20 ng/ml), or reduced % transferrin saturation, e.g., less than 16% (in adults). Serum ferritin levels of below 50 ng/ml, below 40 ng/ml, below 30 ng/ml, and below 20 ng/ml are specifically contemplated. It is noted that if the subject has or is at risk for having an iron deficiency that is functional iron deficiency, the serum ferritin levels could be increased above normal range, e.g., 200 ng/ml and above. Iron deficiency can be observed through onset of iron-restricted/iron-deficient erythropoiesis (impairment of hemoglobin synthesis that is observed typically when % transferrin saturation falls below 15 to 20%). These iron parameters can be measured using any standard CBC or biochemical analysis described above, and/or by use of automated devices more specifically directed to iron analysis, e.g., the Unimate 5 Iron and Unimate 7 UIBC kits (Roche, Switzerland). A subject that might benefit from the present methods of treating or preventing could be a subject having or at risk for having iron deficiency anemia; for example, a subject having a transferrin saturation % of 10-15% or of below 10%. In one aspect, the subject having or at risk for having iron deficiency has or is at risk for having functional iron deficiency. A reticulocyte hemoglobin content of less than 28 picograms/cell could be indicative of such a condition. In another aspect, the subject having or at risk for having functional iron deficiency displays greater than 5% hypochromic red cells. In certain embodiments, the subject is one having or at risk for having anemia of chronic disease. Such a subject could display mild or moderate anemia, e.g., hemoglobin levels of around 10-13 g/dL, or, more particularly, 10-11 g/dL. In other embodiments, more acute anemia is displayed, e.g., hemoglobin levels below 10 g/dL, including levels below 5 g/dL, and levels below 3 g/dL. In some embodiments, the subject having or at risk for having anemia of chronic disease displays abnormalities in iron distribution. Such abnormalities could be, e.g., serum iron levels below around 60 μg/dL, or serum ferritin levels above normal range, e.g., of above 200 ng/ml, above 300 ng/ml, or above 400 ng/ml. In certain aspects, the subject could have or be at risk for having microcytic anemia. Such a subject may, for example, demonstrate a mean corpuscular volume of less than 80 femtoliters measured, e.g., as part of complete blood count analysis. In other aspects, the subject has a mean corpuscular volume of less than the normal value of 90+/−8 femtoliters. The subject can have, in various aspects, a reduced mean cell hemoglobin count, for example, a mean cell hemoglobin count of less than 30+/−3 picograms of hemoglobin/cell; or a reduced mean cell hemoglobin concentration, e.g., a mean cell hemoglobin concentration of less than 33+/−2%. A method for treating or preventing functional iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing functional iron deficiency, is also provided. In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method for regulating or enhancing iron metabolism or an iron metabolic process in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby regulating or enhancing iron metabolism or the iron metabolic process in the subject. In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for regulating or enhancing an iron metabolic process selected from the group consisting of iron uptake, iron absorption, iron transport, iron storage, iron processing, iron mobilization, and iron utilization, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby regulating or enhancing the iron metabolic process in the subject. A method for increasing iron absorption in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron absorption in the subject, is also provided herein. In certain aspects, the iron absorption is in the intestine; is absorption of dietary iron; or is in duodenal enterocytes. The following methods are also contemplated herein: a method for increasing iron transport in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron transport in the subject; a method for increasing iron storage in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron storage in the subject; a method for increasing iron uptake in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron uptake in the subject; a method for increasing iron processing in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron processing in the subject; a method for increasing iron mobilization in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron mobilization in the subject; and a method for increasing iron utilization in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron utilization in the subject. In one embodiment, the invention contemplates a method for increasing iron availability for erythropoiesis in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron availability for erythropoesis in the subject. In various embodiments, the increasing iron availability for erythropoiesis is increasing iron availability for heme synthesis; is increasing iron availability for hemoglobin production; or is increasing iron availability for red blood cell production. The invention further provides methods for regulating expression of iron regulatory factors in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby regulating expression of iron metabolic factors in the subject. Methods for increasing expression of certain iron regulatory factors are encompassed herein, including: a method for increasing transferrin receptor expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin receptor expression in the subject; a method for increasing transferrin expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin expression in the subject; a method for increasing ceruloplasmin expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing ceruloplasmin expression in the subject; a method for increasing NRAMP2 (slc11a2) expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing NRAMP2 expression in the subject; a method for increasing duodenal cytochrome b reductase 1 expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing duodenal cytochrome b reductase 1 expression in the subject; and a method for increasing 5-aminolevulinate synthase expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing 5-aminolevulinate synthase expression in the subject. In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for increasing serum iron in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing serum iron in the subject. In certain embodiments, the subject is a human, and the serum iron levels are increased to a value between 50 to 150 μg/dL. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods for increasing total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) in a subject. The method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing TIBC in the subject. In a preferred aspect, the subject is a human and the total iron-binding capacity is increased to a value between 300 to 360 μg/dL. Methods and compounds for modulating serum ferritin levels in a subject are provided. In a certain embodiment, the subject is a human, and the serum ferritin levels are increased above 15 μg/L. In a further embodiment, the subject is a human adult male, and the serum ferritin level is increased to a value of about 100 μg/L. In another embodiment, the subject is a human adult female, and the serum ferritin level is increased to a level of about 30 μg/L. In one aspect, the invention includes a method for increasing transferrin saturation in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin saturation in the subject. In one aspect, the transferrin saturation is increased above a level selected from the group consisting of 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%. The present invention encompasses methods for increasing percent transferrin saturation in a subject. In one embodiment, the subject is a human and the percent transferrin saturation is increased to a value above 18%. In another embodiment, the percent transferrin saturation is increased to a value between 25 to 50%. Percent transferrin is typically calculated using the formula: (serum iron)(100)/(TIBC). Methods for increasing soluble transferrin receptor levels in a subject, the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing soluble transferrin receptor levels in the subject, are also provided. The invention further provides methods for increasing total erythroid marrow mass as measured by, e.g., serum transferrin receptor levels. In one aspect, the subject is human and the serum transferrin receptor level is increased to 4 to 9 μg/L as determined by immunoassay. A method for decreasing hepcidin expression in a subject is provided, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby decreasing hepcidin expression in the subject. In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for treating or preventing a disorder associated with iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing the disorder associated with iron deficiency in the subject. In one embodiment, the iron deficiency is functional iron deficiency. In various embodiments, the disorder is selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder; or is selected from the group consisting of anemia of chronic disease, iron deficiency anemia, and microcytic anemia. The invention provides a method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject having or at risk for having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. It is contemplated in a certain aspect that the iron deficiency is functional iron deficiency. The invention further provides a method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject, wherein the subject has or is at risk for having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. In various aspects, the chronic disease is selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder. A method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject, wherein the subject has or is at risk for having anemia of chronic disease, is additionally provided, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. In one embodiment, the invention encompasses a method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject wherein the subject is refractory to EPO therapy, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. A method for treating or preventing anemia of chronic disease in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing anemia of chronic disease in the subject, is also provided. It is contemplated in certain aspects that the anemia of chronic disease is associated with a condition selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder. The invention specifically contemplates the following: a method for increasing reticulocytes in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing reticulocytes in the subject; a method for increasing hematocrit in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hematocrit in the subject; a method for increasing hemoglobin in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing red blood cell count in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing red blood cell count in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular volume in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular volume in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing serum iron in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing serum iron in the subject; and a method for increasing transferrin saturation in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin saturation in the subject. In any one of these methods, the chronic disease is in certain embodiments selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder; or is selected from the group consisting of anemia of chronic disease, anemia of iron deficiency, iron deficiency, functional iron deficiency, and microcytic anemia. The following methods are additionally provided: a method for increasing reticulocytes in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing reticulocytes in the subject; a method for increasing hematocrit in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hematocrit in the subject; a method for increasing hemoglobin in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing red blood cell count in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing red blood cell count in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular volume in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular volume in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing serum iron in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing serum iron in the subject; and a method for increasing transferrin saturation in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin saturation in the subject. In any one of these methods, the iron deficiency in certain embodiments is functional iron deficiency. The following methods are further contemplated: a method for increasing reticulocytes in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing reticulocytes in the subject; a method for increasing hematocrit in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hematocrit in the subject; a method for increasing hemoglobin in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing red blood cell count in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing red blood cell count in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular volume in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular volume in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing serum iron in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing serum iron in the subject; and a method for increasing transferrin saturation in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin saturation in the subject. In one aspect, the invention includes a method for overcoming or ameliorating the consequences of a cytokine-induced impairment of erythropoiesis in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby overcoming or ameliorating the consequences of the cytokine-induced impairment of erythropoiesis in the subject. In various aspects, the cytokine-induced impairment of erythropoiesis is suppression of EPO production; or impairment of iron metabolism. In any of the above-described methods, the cytokine is an inflammatory cytokine. In further embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. Methods for decreasing cytokine induction of VCAM-1 expression or/and E-selectin expression are also provided, the methods comprising administering to a subject in need an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thus decreasing cytokine induction of VCAM-1 expression or/and E-selectin expression. In any of the above-described methods, the cytokine is an inflammatory cytokine. In further embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. Methods for treating or preventing a disorder associated with cytokine activity in a subject, wherein the disorder is selected from the group consisting of iron deficiency, functional iron deficiency, iron deficiency anemia, anemia of chronic disease, and micocytic anemia, are provided herein, the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing the disorder associated with cytokine activity. In any of the above-described methods, the cytokine is an inflammatory cytokine. In further embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. Methods for treating or preventing a disorder associated with cytokine activity in a subject, wherein the disorder is associated with a condition selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency, and a neoplastic disorder, the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing the disorder associated with cytokine activity, are also provided. In any of the above-described methods, the cytokine is an inflammatory cytokine. In further embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. In one aspect, the invention encompasses a method for increasing EPO production in the presence of a cytokine in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing EPO production in the subject. A method for treating or preventing microcytosis in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing microcytosis in a subject, is also provided herein. In further aspects, the microcytosis is associated with a disorder selected from the group consisting of chronic disease, anemia of chronic disease, iron deficiency, functional iron deficiency, and anemia of iron deficiency. In any of the above-described methods, the cytokine is an inflammatory cytokine. In further embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. In any of the present methods for treating or preventing, it is contemplated that a compound of the invention can be administered as part of a combinatorial therapy, additionally comprising administration of another therapeutic agent, for example, EPO, iron, and vitamins, e.g., B vitamins, etc. A kit, comprising a compound that stabilizes HIFα and at least one other supplement is provided herein. In one aspect, the supplement is selected from the group consisting of erythropoietin, iron, and B vitamins, is provided herein, as is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound that stablizes HIFα and at least one supplement selected from the group consisting of erythropoietin, iron, and B vitamins. The present invention provides compounds and methods for treating or preventing anemia of chronic disease, wherein the anemia of chronic disease is associated with increased cytokine levels. In particular, the invention provides methods and compounds for use in overcoming or ameliorating the consequences of cytokine-induced effects in a subject having increased cytokine levels, e.g., cytokine suppression of EPO production, cytokine-induced expression of various cell adhesion factors, etc. In one embodiment, the invention provides methods and compounds for overcoming cytokine suppression of EPO production. These methods and compounds are useful in overcoming TNFα and/or IL-1β suppression of EPO production, as measured, e.g., by the ability to overcome TNFα and/or IL-1β suppression of EPO production in cultured Hep3B cells. In one embodiment, the invention provides methods and compounds for reducing cytokine-induced increase in expression of various cell adhesion factors. The methods and compounds can be used to overcome TNFα, IL-1β, and IFN-γ-induced increases in expression of endothelial cell adhesion factors, e.g., VCAM-1 and E-selectin, as measured by, e.g., a decrease in expression level of VCAM-1 or E-selectin in endothelial cells (HUVEC, etc.). The invention provides methods and compounds for treating or preventing iron deficiency in a subject. In particular, the present methods and compounds can be used to enhance iron metabolism, or to treat or prevent diseases and disorders associated with impaired iron metabolism, e.g., impaired iron uptake, storage, processing, transport, mobilization, and utilization, etc. In one aspect, the methods and compounds modulate expression of factors involved in iron metabolism, e.g., transport, utilization, storage, etc. For example, the methods and compounds increase expression of transferrin receptor, as measured by, e.g., increased expression of transferrin receptor in liver cells (e.g., Hep3B, HepG2), kidney cells (e.g., HK-2), or lymphocytes (e.g., THP-1), or by increased soluble transferrin receptor levels in human subjects. The present methods and compounds increase ceruloplasmin gene expression, as measured, e.g., by increased gene expression in mouse kidney and in Hep3B cells. In one aspect, the invention provides methods and compounds that decrease hepcidin gene expression, for example, as measured by reduced gene expression of hepcidin in mouse liver. In a further aspect, methods and compounds of the present invention are used to increase expression of factors including NRAMP2, duodenal cytochrome b reductase 1, etc., as measured, e.g., by increased gene expression in mouse intestine. The present methods and compounds increase expression of 5-aminolevulinate synthase, the first enzyme in the heme synthetic pathway and rate-limiting enzyme for heme synthesis, as measured, e.g., by increased gene expression in mouse intestine. The present methods and compounds can be used to enhance iron metabolism. In particular, the present methods and compounds enhance iron metabolism, as measured by, e.g., increased serum iron levels, increased percent transferrin saturation, and reduced microcytosis in a rat model of impaired iron metabolism. The present invention provides methods and compounds for inducing enhanced erythropoiesis. In particular, the present methods and compounds enhance erythropoiesis, e.g., as measured by increases in reticulocyte count, hematocrit, and red blood cell count, in a rat model of impaired erythropoiesis and in human subjects, or as measured by, e.g., increased hemoglobin levels in a rat model of impaired erythropoiesis. The present methods and compounds reduce microcytosis as measured, e.g., by increased mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels and increased mean corpuscular volume in a rat model of impaired erythropoiesis. The present methods comprise administering to a subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα. Such stabilization can be through, e.g., inhibition of HIF hydroxylase activity. A preferred compound of the invention is a compound that inhibits HIF prolyl hydroxylase activity. The inhibition can be direct or indirect, can be competitive or non-competitive, etc. In various embodiments, a compound of the invention is selected from the group consisting of 2-oxoglutarate mimetics, iron chelators, and proline analogs. In one aspect, a 2-oxoglutarate mimetic is a heterocyclic carbonyl glycine of Formula I, Ia, or Ib. In another aspect, an iron chelator is a hydroxamic acid of Formula III. In particular embodiments, as exemplified herein, the compound is Compound D. Exemplary compounds of the invention include [(1-Chloro-4-hydroxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid (compound A), [(4-Hydroxy-7-phenoxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid (compound B), [(4-Hydroxy-7-phenylsulfanyl-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid (compound C), and 3-{[4-(3,3-Dibenzyl-ureido)-benzenesulfonyl]-[2-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-ethyl]-amino}-N-hydroxy-propionamide (compound D). Additional compounds according to the present invention and methods for identifying additional compounds of the present invention are provided, infra. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A and 1B set forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention overcome the suppressive effects of TNF-α on EPO production. FIGS. 2A and 2B set forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention overcome the suppressive effects of TNF-α on EPO production in cells pre-treated with TNF-α. FIGS. 3A and 3B set forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention overcome the suppressive effects of IL-β on EPO production. FIGS. 4A and 4B set forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention overcome the suppressive effects of IL-1β on EPO production in cells pre-treated with IL-1β. FIG. 5 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention reduce VCAM-1 expression associated with TNF-α. FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 6C set forth data showing increased expression of transferrin receptor and iron transporter (FIG. 6A), intestinal iron transport protein (FIG. 6B), and 5-aminolevulinate synthase (FIG. 6C) following treatment of mice with compounds of the present invention. FIG. 7 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention increased reticulocyte counts in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 8 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention increased hematocrit in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 9 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention increased hemoglobin levels in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 10 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention increased red cell count in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 11 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention reduced microcytosis in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 12 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention increased mean corpuscular hemoglobin and improved hypochromia in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 13 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention increased hematocrit in normal animals and in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 14 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention increased hemoglobin levels in normal animals and in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 15 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention increased red blood cell counts in normal animals and in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 16 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention improved mean corpuscular volume in normal animals and in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 17 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention improved mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels in normal animals and in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIGS. 18A and 18B set forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention increased serum iron levels (FIG. 18A) and transferrin saturation (FIG. 18B) in normal animals and in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 19 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention increased gene expression of NRAMP2 (slc112a) and sproutin (CYBRD1, duodenal cytochrome b reductase 1) in normal animals and in an animal model of anemia of chronic disease. FIG. 20 sets forth data showing increased reticulocytes following administration of compound of the present invention to healthy human subjects. FIG. 21 sets forth data showing increased red blood cell counts in healthy human subjects administered compound of the present invention. FIG. 22 sets forth data showing increased soluble transferrin receptor levels following administration of compound of the present invention to healthy human subjects. FIG. 23 sets forth data showing decreased serum ferritin levels in healthy human subjects administered compound of the present invention. FIGS. 24A and 24B set forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention reduced VCAM-1 and E-selectin expression associated with TNF-α. FIG. 25 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention reduced VCAM-1 expression associated with TNF-α and IL-1β. FIG. 26 sets forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention reduced E-selectin expression associated with TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. FIGS. 27A and 27B set forth data showing methods and compounds of the present invention and IL-6 synergistically increased EPO levels in hepatocytes. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Before the present compositions and methods are described, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the particular methodologies, protocols, cell lines, assays, and reagents described, as these may vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is intended to describe particular embodiments of the present invention, and is in no way intended to limit the scope of the present invention as set forth in the appended claims. It must be noted that as used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural references unless context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, a reference to “a fragment” includes a plurality of such fragments; a reference to a “compound” is a reference to one of more compounds and to equivalents thereof as described herein and ask known to those skilled in the art, and so forth. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, the preferred methods, devices, and materials are now described. All publications cited herein are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for the purpose of describing and disclosing the methodologies, reagents, and tools reported in the publications that might be used in connection with the invention. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the invention is not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior invention. The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional methods of chemistry, biochemistry, molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, immunology and pharmacology, within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature. See, e.g., Gennaro, A. R., ed. (1990) Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th ed., Mack Publishing Co.; Hardman, J. G., Limbird, L. E., and Gilman, A. G., eds. (2001) The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 10th ed., McGraw-Hill Co.; Colowick, S. et al., eds., Methods In Enzymology, Academic Press, Inc.; Weir, D. M., and Blackwell, C. C., eds. (1986) Handbook of Experimental Immunology, Vols. I-IV, Blackwell Scientific Publications; Maniatis, T. et al., eds. (1989) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd edition, Vols. I-III, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; Ausubel, F. M. et al., eds. (1999) Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, 4th edition, John Wiley & Sons; Ream et al., eds. (1998) Molecular Biology Techniques: An Intensive Laboratory Course, Academic Press; Newton, C. R., and Graham, A., eds. (1997) PCR (Introduction to Biotechniques Series), 2nd ed., Springer Verlag. Definitions The term “anemia of chronic disease” refers to any anemia that develops as a result of, e.g., extended infection, inflammation, neoplastic disorders, etc. The anemia which develops is often characterized by a shortened red blood cell life span and sequestration of iron in macrophages, which results in a decrease in the amount of iron available to make new red blood cells. Conditions associated with anemia of chronic disease include, but are not limited to, chronic bacterial endocarditis, osteomyelitis, rheumatic fever, ulcerative colitis, and neoplastic disorders. Further conditions include other diseases and disorders associated with infection, inflammation, and neoplasms, including, e.g., inflammatory infections (e.g., pulmonary abscess, tuberculosis, osteomyelitis, etc.), inflammatory noninfectious disorders (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythrematosus, Crohn's disease, hepatitis, inflammatory bowel disease, etc.), and various cancers, tumors, and malignancies (e.g., carcinoma, sarcoma, lymphoma, etc.). The terms “disorders” and “diseases” and “conditions” are used inclusively and refer to any condition deviating from normal. The term “erythropoietin” refers to any recombinant or naturally occurring erythropoietin including, e.g., human erythropoietin (GenBank Accession No. AAA52400; Lin et al. (1985) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82:7580-7584), EPOETIN human recombinant erythropoietin (Amgen, Inc., Thousand Oaks Calif.), ARANESP human recombinant erythropoietin (Amgen), PROCRIT human recombinant erythropoietin (Ortho Biotech Products, L.P., Raritan N.J.), etc. The term “HIFα” refers to the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor protein. HIFα may be any human or other mammalian protein, or fragment thereof, including human HIF-1α (Genbank Accession No. Q16665), HIF-2α (Genbank Accession No. AAB41495), and HIF-3α (Genbank Accession No. AAD22668); murine HIF-1α (Genbank Accession No. Q61221), HIF-2α (Genbank Accession No. BAA20130 and AAB41496), and HIF-3α (Genbank Accession No. AAC72734); rat HIF-1α (Genbank Accession No. CAA70701), HIF-2α (Genbank Accession No. CAB96612), and HIF-3α (Genbank Accession No. CAB96611); and bovine HIF-1α (Genbank Accession No. BAA78675). HIFα may also be any non-mammalian protein or fragment thereof, including Xenopus laevis HIF-1α (Genbank Accession No. CAB96628), Drosophila melanogaster HIF-1α (Genbank Accession No. JC4851), and chicken HIF-1α (Genbank Accession No. BAA34234). HIFα gene sequences may also be obtained by routine cloning techniques, for example by using all or part of a HIFα gene sequence described above as a probe to recover and determine the sequence of a HIFα gene in another species. Fragments of HIFα include the regions defined by human HIF-1α from amino acid 401 to 603 (Huang et al., supra), amino acid 531 to 575 (Jiang et al. (1997) J Biol Chem 272:19253-19260), amino acid 556 to 575 (Tanimoto et al., supra), amino acid 557 to 571 (Srinivas et al. (1999) Biochem Biophys Res Commun 260:557-561), and amino acid 556 to 575 (Ivan and Kaelin (2001) Science 292:464-468). Further, a fragment of HIFα includes any fragment containing at least one occurrence of the motif LXXLAP, e.g., as occurs in the HIFα native sequence at L397TLLAP and L559EMLAP. Additionally, a fragment of HIFα includes any fragment retaining at least one functional or structural characteristic of HIFα. The terms “HIF prolyl hydroxylase” and “HIF PH” refer to any enzyme capable of hydroxylating a proline residue in the HIF protein. Preferably, the proline residue hydroxylated by HIF PH includes the proline found within the motif LXXLAP, e.g., as occurs in the human HIF-1α native sequence at L397TLLAP and L559EMLAP. HIF PH includes members of the Egl-Nine (EGLN) gene family described by Taylor (2001, Gene 275:125-132), and characterized by Aravind and Koonin (2001, Genome Biol 2:RESEARCH0007), Epstein et al. (2001, Cell 107:43-54), and Bruick and McKnight (2001, Science 294:1337-1340). Examples of HIF prolyl hydroxylase enzymes include human SM-20 (EGLN1) (GenBank Accession No. AAG33965; Dupuy et al. (2000) Genomics 69:348-54), EGLN2 isoform 1 (GenBank Accession No. CAC42510; Taylor, supra), EGLN2 isoform 2 (GenBank Accession No. NP—060025), and EGLN3 (GenBank Accession No. CAC42511; Taylor, supra); mouse EGLN1 (GenBank Accession No. CAC42515), EGLN2 (GenBank Accession No. CAC42511), and EGLN3 (SM-20) (GenBank Accession No. CAC42517); and rat SM-20 (GenBank Accession No. AAA19321). Additionally, HIF PH may include Caenorhabditis elegans EGL-9 (GenBank Accession No. AAD56365) and Drosophila melanogaster CG1114 gene product (GenBank Accession No. AAF52050). HIF prolyl hydroxylase also includes any fragment of the foregoing full-length proteins that retain at least one structural or functional characteristic. The term “prolyl hydroxylase inhibitor” or “PHI,” as used herein, refers to any compound that reduces or otherwise modulates the activity of an enzyme that hydroxylates amino acid residues. Although enzymatic activity wherein proline residues are hydroxylated is preferred, hydroxylation of other amino acids including, but not limited to, arginine, is also contemplated. Compounds that can be used in the methods of the invention include, for example, iron chelators, 2-oxoglutarate mimetics, and modified amino acid, e.g., proline, analogs. In particular embodiments, the present invention provides for use of structural mimetics of 2-oxoglutarate. Such compounds may inhibit the target 2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase enzyme family member competitively with respect to 2-oxoglutarate and noncompetitively with respect to iron. (Majamaa et al. (1984) Eur J Biochem 138:239-245; and Majamaa et al. (1985) Biochem J 229:127-133.) PHIs specifically contemplated for use in the present methods are described, e.g., in Majamaa et al., supra; Kivirikko and Myllyharju (1998) Matrix Biol 16:357-368; Bickel et al. (1998) Hepatology 28:404-411; Friedman et al. (2000) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:4736-4741; Franklin (1991) Biochem Soc Trans 19):812 815; Franklin et al. (2001) Biochem J 353:333-338; and International Publication Nos. WO 03/053977 and WO 03/049686, each incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Exemplary PHIs, including [(1-Chloro-4-hydroxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid (compound A), [(4-Hydroxy-7-phenoxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid (compound B), [(4-Hydroxy-7-phenylsulfanyl-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid (compound C), and 3-{[4-(3,3-Dibenzyl-ureido)-benzenesulfonyl]-[2-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-ethyl]-amino}-N-hydroxy-propionamide (compound D) are used in the present examples to demonstrate the methods of the invention described herein. Invention The present invention relates to methods and compounds for inducing enhanced or complete erythropoiesis in a subject. In particular, the methods comprise inducing enhanced or complete erythropoiesis by stabilizing HIFα in a subject. Methods of inducing enhanced erythropoiesis by inhibiting HIF prolyl hydroxylase are specifically contemplated. In specific embodiments, the methods comprise administering to a subject a compound of the invention. In various embodiments, the subject can be a cell, tissue, organ, organ system, or whole organism. Anemia of chronic disease is the most common form of anemia in hospitalized patients. Anemia of chronic disease occurs in patients having inflammatory or malignant disorders, including inflammatory infections (e.g., pulmonary abscess, tuberculosis, osteomyelitis, etc.), inflammatory noninfectious disorders (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythrematosus, Crohn's disease, hepatitis, inflammatory bowel disease, etc.), and various cancers, tumors, and malignancies (e.g., carcinoma, sarcoma, lymphoma, etc.), chronic bacterial endocarditis, osteomyelitis, rheumatic fever, ulcerative colitis, and neoplastic disorders. In one aspect, the invention provides methods for inducing enhanced or complete erythropoiesis to treat anemia of chronic disease. Anemia of chronic disease is associated with numerous chronic disorders, including, for example, rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, vasculitis, neoplastic disorders, etc., as well as chronic infection and chronic inflammation. Reduced or ineffective erythropoiesis is a common pathology in patients with anemia of chronic disease. Reduced or ineffective erythropoiesis can result from various metabolic abnormalities in the erythropoietic pathway, including, for example, suppressed EPO production, decreased EPO responsiveness in the bone marrow, and abnormal iron processing, including, for example, abnormal or ineffective iron uptake, mobilization, storage, and absorption. A physiological feature of disorders associated with anemia of chronic disease is increased production of inflammatory cytokines (Means (1995) Stem Cells 13:32-37 and Means (1999) Int J Hematol 70:7-12.), including, for example, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interferon-γ (IFN-γ), which negatively affect the ability to mediate EPO production, EPO responsiveness, and the coordinate regulation of iron metabolism. (See, e.g., Roodman et al. (1989) Adv Exp Med Biol 271:185-196; Fuchs et al. (1991) Eur J Hematol 46:65-70; Jelkmann et al. (1991) Ann NY Acad Sci 718:300-311; Vannucchi et al. (1994) Br J Hematol 87:18-23; and Oldenburg et al. (2001) Aliment Pharmacol Ther 15:429-438.) The present invention provides methods for improving metabolic and physiologic pathways related to EPO production, EPO signaling, and iron utilization, resulting in complete or enhanced erythropoiesis and reduction or amelioration of anemia of chronic disease. The present invention provides advantages over existing therapies for anemia of chronic disease, such as, for example, recombinant EPO administration. Reduced EPO production is only one aspect of decreased erythropoiesis and it is recognized that administration of recombinant EPO does not address other deficiencies associated with reduced erythropoiesis that exist in patients with anemia of chronic disease. (See, e.g., Clibon et al. (1990) Exp Hematol 18:438-441 and Macdougall and Cooper (2002) Neprol Dial Transplant 17(11):39-43.) These deficiencies include, for example, reduced EPO responsiveness of the bone marrow, as well as numerous aspects of iron metabolism that contribute to complete or total erythropoiesis, including iron absorption from the gut, trans-enterocyte transport, oxidation of iron to the ferric state by hephaestin or ceruloplasmin, binding and uptake of iron by transferrin and transferrin receptor, and iron transport to the marrow where iron utilization occurs, including heme synthesis. Many patients are refractory to administration of recombinant EPO for the reasons described above, in which responses to recombinant EPO administration are reduced or absent, even at high doses of recombinant EPO. The prevalence of inflammatory cytokines in anemia of chronic disease leads to, e.g., decreased serum iron levels and increased iron storage, primarily in macrophages, within a cell compartment not readily accessible to emerging erythroid progenitors, which require iron for appropriate heme synthesis. The invention provides methods for enhancing the metabolic pathways contributing to complete and total erythropoiesis. In one embodiment, the therapeutic is administered in combination with supplements that further enhance its efficacy, e.g. iron and B vitamins. Anemia of chronic disease is associated with increased levels of ferritin. Despite high levels of ferritin, subjects with anemia of chronic disease are not able to utilize iron effectively. High levels of ferritin are indicative of reduced iron recycling to the marrow and enhanced iron storage, a functional iron deficiency often associated with anemia of chronic disease and a pseudo-inflammatory state often existing in uremic chronic kidney disease patients. By decreasing ferritin levels, methods and compounds of the present invention decrease stored iron and enhance iron recycling through transferrin and transferrin receptor. Reduced serum ferritin levels would be indicative of enhanced iron utilization and enhanced iron recycling to the marrow, thus increasing iron availability for heme production and erythropoiesis. The genomic response to hypoxia includes changes in gene expression and cell physiology to ameliorate the acute and chronic effects of oxygen deprivation. Hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) is a transcription factor composed of an oxygen-regulated alpha subunit (HIFα) and a constitutively expressed beta subunit (HIFβ). HIFα is destabilized in normoxic environments due to hydroxylation of specific proline residues by HIF-specific proline hydroxylases (HIF-PHs). However, when oxygen becomes limiting, e.g., in hypoxic environments, HIF-PH cannot hydroxylate HIFα, the subunit is not degraded, and active HIF complexes form, translocate to the nucleus, and activate gene transcription. In certain aspects, the present invention provides methods treating anemia of chronic disease by pharmaceutically mimicking hypoxia. In certain aspects, the methods enhance EPO production in a manner that is resistant to the suppressive effects of inflammatory cytokines. EPO production is normally induced by hypoxia or low oxygen but expression and secretion remain depressed in the presence of inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ, prevalent in chronic disease patients. (See, e.g., Means (1995) Stem Cells 13:32-37; Means (1999) Int J Hematol 70:7-12; Roodman et al. (1989) Adv Exp Med Biol 271:185-196; Fuchs et al. (1991) Eur J Hematol 46:65-70; Jelkmann et al. (1991) Ann NY Acad Sci 718:300-311; and Vannucchi et al. (1994) Br J Hematol 87:18-23.) Prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors overcome the suppressive effects of inflammatory cytokines on EPO production, at least in part, as evidenced by the capacity of Hep3B cells to secrete EPO to levels above that observed in the presence of inflammatory cytokines. (See, e.g., FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, 3A, 3B, 4A, and 4B.) Agents such as the iron chelator, desferrioxamine, have also shown some efficacy in studies of erythropoietin-resistant anemia, e.g., anemia of chronic disease. (See, e.g., Salvarani et al. (1996) Rheumatol Int 16:45-48 and Goch et al. (1995) Eur J Hematol 55:73-77.) In other aspects, the present invention provides methods for improved signaling by the EPO receptor in the presence of inflammatory cytokines. The prevalence of inflammatory cytokines in chronic disease patients results in reduced efficacy of EPO signaling, evidenced by the inability of many patients to respond to recombinant EPO with enhanced erythropoiesis. This is thought to occur by a decreased sensitivity to EPO bioactivity, as well as defects in bone marrow architecture and/or microenvironment. (See, e.g., Clibon et al. (1990) Exp Hematol 18:438-441 and Macdougall and Cooper (2002) Neprol Dial Transplant 17(11):39-43.) In certain embodiments, the present invention provides methods for inducing total and complete erythropoiesis by restoring the sensitivity of appropriate cells to signal transduction through the EPO receptor. Iron deficiency is one of the most common nutritional deficiencies worldwide and is the leading cause of anemia on a global basis. Iron balance is fundamentally regulated by the rate of erythropoiesis and the size of iron stores. Iron deficiency can occur with or without anemia, and has been associated with impaired cognitive development. Iron deficiency is defined as inadequate iron supply (levels or stores) or as inadequate availability or utilization of iron in the body. This can be due to nutritional deficiencies, e.g., lack of iron in the diet; to iron malabsorption, due, for example, to surgery (post-gastrectomy) or disease (Crohn's disease); or to a depletion in iron supply or increased iron loss due to chronic or acute blood loss resulting from injury or trauma, menses, blood donation, phlebotomy (such as due to various procedures, surgeries); from increased iron demand, e.g., due to rapid growth in infancy or adolescence, pregnancy, erythropoietin therapy, etc. Iron deficiency can also be functional iron deficiency, e.g., iron deficiency characterized by the subject's impaired ability to access and utilize iron stores. Iron is not available at a rate sufficient to allow normal hemoglobinization of erythrocytes, leading to reduced reticulocyte and erythrocyte cellular hemoglobin content. Functional iron deficiency is often seen in healthy individuals with apparently normal or eeven increased iron stores but with impaired iron availability, as measured, e.g., by low levels of percent transferrin saturation. This type of iron deficiency is frequently associated with acute or with chronic inflammation. Iron deficiency of any kind can lead to iron-deficient or iron-restricted erythropoiesis, in which red blood cell numbers decrease and circulating red blood cells are smaller than normal (microcytic) and lack adequate hemoglobin, and as such are pale in color (hypochromic). Subjects with iron deficiency, including functional iron deficiency, can develop impaired hemoglobin synthesis, reduced % transferrin saturation, and decreased hemoglobin and hematocrit levels, leading to iron deficiency anemia. Iron deficiency anemia is the most common anemia in the world. Iron is an essential component of hemoglobin; without iron, the marrow is unable to produce hemoglobin effectively. Iron deficiency anemia may occur in subjects with depleted or impaired iron supply, or may occur in subjects having functional iron deficiency, when iron is present in storage but is unavailable, e.g., for hemoglobin production. Iron metabolism encompasses in general the processes by which a cell, tissue, organ, organ system, or whole organism maintains iron homeostasis by altering, e.g., increasing or decreasing, specific processes of iron metabolism. Iron metabolism or iron metabolic processes encompass processes involving iron processing, transport, uptake, utilization, storage, mobilization, absorption, etc. Specific aspects of iron metabolism and processing include expression of iron transporters and enzymes which facilitate movement of iron across a cell membrane and retention or secretion of iron by a cell; alteration in expression of proteins involved in iron transport in blood; alteration in expression of transferrin and transferrin receptors; alteration in expression and/or activity of proteins involved in iron absorption; alteration in expression and activity of iron associated transcriptional and translational regulatory proteins; and alteration of iron distribution within body or culture fluids, including, e.g., interstitial (i.e. extracellular), intracellular, blood, bone marrow, and the like. In certain aspects, the present invention provides methods for improving iron uptake, transport, processing, and utilization. Anemia of chronic disease is associated with defects in iron utilization that negatively affect heme synthesis and hemoglobin formation, resulting in reduced erythropoiesis. (See, e.g., Oldenburg et al. (2001) Aliment Pharmacol Ther 15:429-438.) Decreased serum iron levels, iron mobilization, and any associated increases in iron storage in chronic disease patients, may relate to a microbial defense mechanism of macrophage under conditions of long-lasting inflammation. (See, Fuchs et al. (1991) Eur J Hematol 46:65-70.) In some aspects, the present invention provides methods for increasing effective metabolism of iron by stabilizing HIFα. Numerous proteins mediate iron metabolism, including proteins such as erythroid 5-aminolevulinate acid synthase (ALAS) (the first and rate-limiting step in heme synthesis) (Bottomley and Muller-Eberhard (1988) Semin Hematol 25:282-302 and Yin et al. (1998) Blood, Cells, Molecules, and Diseases 24(3):41-533), transferrin, transferrin receptor, iron transporters (involved in iron transport), ceruloplasmin, etc. Increases in transferrin and transferrin receptor expression stimulate iron uptake by erythroid progenitors and facilitate iron uptake and transport to marrow by macrophage (Goswami et al. (2002) Biochem Cell Biol 80:679-689.). Ceruloplasmin increases the oxidation of ferrous iron to ferric so that binding to transferrin occurs (Goswami et al. (2002) Biochem Cell Biol 80:679-689.). In certain aspects, methods of the present invention increase iron metabolism by increasing expression or activity of proteins involved in iron metabolism, including erythroid 5-aminolevulinate synthase, transferrin, transferrin receptor, NRAMP2, sproutin (duodenal cytochrome b reductase 1), and ceruloplasmin. In other aspects, methods of the present invention increase iron metabolism by decreasing expression or activity hepcidin and by modulating expression of ferritin. In one embodiment, the invention provides methods and compounds for increasing expression of genes whose products are involved in iron metabolism and processing, including iron uptake, storage, transport, absorption, etc. Such genes include, but are not limited to, transferrin receptor, ceruloplasmin, NRAMP2, 5-aminolevulinate synthase, sproutin (CYBRD1), etc. Therapeutic upregulation of genes involved in iron metabolism and processing will effectively increase iron availability and, thereby, produce a beneficial effect in patients with anemia of chronic disease, anemia of iron deficiency, functional iron deficiency, etc. In another embodiment, the invention provides methods and compounds for decreasing expression of hepcidin, a protein associated with iron regulation. Proper iron metabolism is regulated, in part, by iron response-element binding proteins (IRPs), which bind to iron-responsive elements (IREs) found in the 5′- and/or 3′-UTRs of mRNAs encoding, e.g., ferritin (iron storage), mitochondrial aconitase (energy metabolism), erythroid-aminolevulinate synthase, and transferrin receptor. IRP binding to a 5′-IRE, as occurs, e.g., in the ferritin transcript, inhibits translation of the mRNA; whereas binding to a 3′-IRE, as occurs in, e.g., the transferrin transcript, protects the mRNA from degradation. IRP-2 is made constitutively within cells, but is degraded and thus inactivated under iron-replete conditions. IRP-2 is stabilized, however, under iron deplete and/or hypoxic conditions (Hanson et al. (1999) J Biol Chem 274:5047-5052.). As IRP-2 decreases expression of ferritin, which is responsible for long-term storage of iron, and increases expression of transferrin and transferrin receptor, IRP-2 facilitates iron uptake, transport, and utilization, thus enhancing erythropoiesis (Klausner et al. (1993) Cell 72:19-28.). Recently, IREs have been described in other genes that are also necessary for erythropoiesis, including 5-aminolevulinate synthase, the NRAMP2 iron transporter (also known as Slc11a2, DCT1, DMT1, mk (microcytic anemia gene locus in mouse)), and the iron transporter that mediates iron absorption from dietary sources in the duodenum (Haile (1999) Am J Med Sci 318:230-240 and Gunshin et al. (2001) FEBS Lett 509:309-316.). The methods of the present invention, by mimicking conditions of hypoxia, potentially stabilize IRP-2 in addition to HIFα, thus producing a synergistic effect involving both endogenous EPO production and enhanced iron uptake, transport, and utilization in the production of functional erythrocytes. Among adults, iron absorption of dietary iron averages approximately 6% for men and 13% for non-pregnant women. NRAMP2 (also known as DMT1, DCT1, slc11a2) is a ubiquitously expressed divalent metal transporter involved in transmembrane transport of non-transferrin bound iron. NRAMP2 is an iron transport protein associated with iron transport from gastrointestinal lumen into duodenal enterocytes and from erythroblast endosomes to cytoplasm. In animals experiencing dietary iron starvation, NRAMP2 (slc11a2) expression was dramatically increased in the apical pole of enterocytes in the columnar absorptive epithelium of the proximal duodenum. (See, e.g., Canonne-Hergaux et al. (1999) Blood 93:4406-4417.) Genetic rodent models have linked this gene with anemias associated with iron deficiency, including hypochromic and microcytic anemic mice (mk mice) having a mutated NRAMP2 gene. MK mice exhibit severe defects in iron absorption and erythroid iron utilization. In certain aspects, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing iron absorption of dietary iron. The present invention provides methods and compounds for increasing expression of genes associated with iron transport absorption. In particular, compounds of the present invention were effective at increasing expression of NRAMP2 in intestine. Increased NRAMP2 (slc11a2) expression would be desirable for increasing iron absorption of iron, e.g., dietary iron, from the gut. In addition, the present invention provides data showing increased sproutin gene expression in the intestine of animals treated with a compound of the present invention. Sproutin intestinal iron reductase, also known as Dcytb and Cybrd1 (CYBRD1, duodenal cytochrome b reductase 1), is a ferric reductase, and catalyzes the reduction of extracellular ferric to ferrous iron associated with iron absorption. Sproutin is co-expressed with NRAMP2 in iron-starved animals in the apical region of duodenal villi (See, e.g., McKie et al. (2001) Science 291:1755-1759.) Methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing ceruloplasmin gene expression. Ceruloplasmin, also known as a ferroxidase-1, converts reduced iron released from storage sites (such as ferritin) to the oxidized form. Oxidized iron is able to bind to its plasma transport protein, transferrin. Ceruloplasmin deficiencies are associated with accumulation of iron in liver and other tissues. Evidence indicates that ceruloplasmin promotes efflux of iron from the liver and promotes influx of iron into iron-deficient cells. (See, e.g., Tran et al. (2002) J Nutr 132:351-356.) Compounds of the present invention reduced expression of hepcidin mRNA in mouse liver. Inflammation leads to IL-6 production, which acts on hepatocytes to induce hepcidin production. Hepcidin inhibits macrophage iron release and intestinal iron absorption, reducing iron availability and leading to, for example, hypoferremia. Decreased hepcidin expression is associated with increased iron release from reticuloendothelial cells and increased intestinal iron absorption. Therefore, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for decreasing hepcidin expression, increasing intestinal iron absorption, and reducing hypoferremia. Methods for treating anemia associated with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection are specifically contemplated. Current therapy for HCV infection include interferon-α and ribaviron in combination. This combination therapy is associated with decreases in hemoglobin concentrations and anemia. In one aspect, methods and compounds are provided for treating anemia associated with HCV infection. In another aspect, methods and compounds for treating anemia associated with interferon-α therapy for HCV infection are provided. In another aspect, the present invention provides compounds and methods useful for treating anemia associated with ribavirin therapy for HCV infection. Methods for increasing the production of factors required for differentiation of erythrocytes from hematopoietic progenitor cells including, e.g., hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), CFU-GEMM (colony-forming-unit-granulocyte/erythroid/monocyte/megakaryocyte) cells, etc., are also contemplated. Factors that stimulate erythropoiesis include, but are not limited to, erythropoietin. In another aspect, the methods increase the production of factors required for iron uptake, transport, and utilization. Such factors include, but are not limited to, erythroid aminolevulinate synthase, transferrin, transferrin receptor, ceruloplasmin, ferritin, etc. In yet another aspect, the method increases factors required for differentiation of erythrocytes and additionally factors required for iron uptake, transport, and utilization. Methods for enhancing responsiveness of hematopoietic precursors to erythropoietin are also contemplated. As described above, such precursors include HSCs, CFU-GEMMs, etc. The responsiveness of the precursor cells can be augmented, e.g., by altering expression of erythropoietin receptors, intracellular factors involved in erythropoietin signaling, and secreted factors that facilitate interaction of erythropoietin with the receptors. The present invention provides methods for enhancing EPO responsiveness of the bone marrow, for example, by increasing EPO receptor expression. Methods Various methods are provided herein. In one aspect, the methods comprise administering to a subject an agent that stabilizes HIFα. Stabilization of HIFα can be accomplished by any of the methods available to and known by those of skill in the art, and can involve use of any agent that interacts with, binds to, or modifies HIFα or factors that interact with HIFα, including, e.g., enzymes for which HIFα is a substrate. In certain aspects, the present invention contemplates providing a constitutively stable HIFα variant, e.g., stable HIF muteins, etc, or a polynucleotide encoding such a variant. (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,562,799 and 6,124,131; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,432,927.) In other aspects, the present invention contemplates that stabilizing HIFα comprises administering an agent that stabilizes HIFα. The agent can be composed of polynucleotides, e.g. antisense sequences (see, e.g., International Publication No. WO 03/045440); polypeptides; antibodies; other proteins; carbohydrates; fats; lipids; and organic and inorganic substances, e.g., small molecules, etc. In a preferred embodiment, the present invention contemplates stabilizing HIFα, e.g., in a subject, by administering to the subject an agent that stabilizes HIFα wherein the agent is a compound, e.g., small molecule compound, etc., that stabilizes HIFα. In other embodiments, the methods of the invention comprise stabilizing HIFα by inhibiting the activity of at least one enzyme selected from 2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase family. In a preferred embodiment, the enzyme is a HIF hydroxylase enzyme, e.g., EGLN-1, EGLN-2, EGLN-3, etc. (See, e.g., Taylor (2001) Gene 275:125-132; Epstein et al. (2001) Cell 107:43-54; and Bruick and McKnight (2001) Science 294:1337-1340.) It is specifically contemplated, however, that the enzyme be any enzyme selected from the 2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase enzyme family, including, for example, procollagen lysyl hydroxylase, procollagen prolyl 3-hydroxylase, procollagen prolyl 4-hydroxylase α(I) and α(II), thymine 7-hydroxylase, aspartyl (asparaginyl) β-hydroxylase, ε-N-trimethyllysine hydroxylase, and γ-butyrobetaine hydroxylase, etc. (See, e.g., Majamaa et al. (1985) Biochem J 229:127-133; Myllyharju and Kivirikko (1997) EMBO J 16:1173-1180; Thornburg et al. (1993) 32:14023-14033; and Jia et al. (1994) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:7227-7231.) In certain embodiments, the methods comprise treating anemia of chronic disease or regulating iron metabolism by administering to a subject an effective amount of an agent that stabilizes HIFα. In preferred embodiments, the agent is a compound of the present invention. In one aspect, the compound stabilizes HIFα by inhibiting the hydroxylation of certain residues of HIFα, e.g., proline residues, asparagine residues, etc. In a preferred embodiment, the residues are proline residues. In specific embodiments, the residues can be the P564 residue in HIF-1α or a homologous proline in another HIFα isoform, or the P402 residue in HIF-1α or a homologous proline in another HIFα isoform, etc. In other embodiments, the present methods may encompass inhibiting hydroxylation of HIFα asparagine residues, e.g., the N803 residue of HIF-1α or a homologous asparagine residue in another HIFα isoform. Compounds In preferred methods, the present methods comprise administering to a subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα. Exemplary compounds are disclosed in, e.g., International Publication No. WO 03/049686 and International Publication No. WO 03/053997, incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. Specifically, compounds of the invention include the following. In certain embodiments, a compound of the invention is a compound that inhibits HIF hydroxylase activity. In various embodiments, the activity is due to a HIF prolyl hydroxylase, such as, for example, EGLN1, EGLN2, or EGLN3, etc. In other embodiments, the activity is due to a HIF asparaginyl hydroxylase, such as, for example, including, but not limited to, FIH. A preferred compound of the invention is a compound that inhibits HIF prolyl hydroxylase activity. The inhibition can be direct or indirect, can be competitive or non-competitive, etc. In one aspect, a compound of the invention is any compound that inhibits or otherwise modulates the activity of a 2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase enzyme. 2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase enzymes include, but are not limited to, hydroxylase enzymes. Hydroxylase enzymes hydroxylate target substrate residues and include, for example, prolyl, lysyl, asparaginyl (asparagyl, aspartyl) hydroxylases, etc. Hydroxylases are sometimes described by target substrate, e.g., HIF hydroxylases, procollagen hydroxylases, etc., and/or by targeted residues within the substrate, e.g., prolyl hydroxylases, lysyl hydroxylases, etc., or by both, e.g., HIF prolyl hydroxylases, procollagen prolyl hydroxylases, etc. Representative 2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase enzymes include, but are not limited to, HIF hydroxylases, including HIF prolyl hydroxylases, e.g., EGLN1, EGLN2, and EGLN3, HIF asparaginyl hydroxylases, e.g., factor inhibiting HIF (FIH), etc.; procollagen hydroxylases, e.g., procollagen lysyl hydroxylases, procollagen prolyl hydroxylases, e.g., procollagen prolyl 3-hydroxylase, procollagen prolyl 4-hydroxylase α(I) and α(II), etc.; thymine 7-hydroxylase; aspartyl (asparaginyl) β-hydroxylase; ε-N-trimethyllysine hydroxylase; γ-butyrobetaine hydroxylase, etc. Although enzymatic activity can include any activity associated with any 2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase, the hydroxylation of amino acid residues within a substrate is specifically contemplated. Although hydroxylation of proline and/or asparagine residues within a substrate is specifically included, hydroxylation of other amino acids is also contemplated. In one aspect, a compound of the invention that shows inhibitory activity toward one or more 2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase enzyme may also show inhibitory activity toward one or more additional 2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase enzymes, e.g., a compound that inhibits the activity of a HIF hydroxylase may additionally inhibit the activity of a collagen prolyl hydroyxlase, a compound that inhibits the activity of a HIF prolyl hydroylxase may additionally inhibit the activity of a HIF asparaginyl hydroylxase, etc. As HIFα is modified by proline hydroxylation, a reaction requiring oxygen and Fe2+, the present invention contemplates in one aspect that the enzyme responsible for HIFα hydroxylation is a member of the 2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase family. Such enzymes include, but are not limited to, procollagen lysyl hydroxylase, procollagen prolyl 3-hydroxylase, procollagen prolyl 4-hydroxylase α(I) and α(II), thymine 7-hydroxylase, aspartyl (asparaginyl) β-hydroxylase, ε-N-trimethyllysine hydroxylase, and γ-butyrobetaine hydroxylase, etc. These enzymes require oxygen, Fe2+, 2-oxoglutarate, and ascorbic acid for their hydroxylase activity. (See, e.g., Majamaa et al. (1985) Biochem J 229:127-133; Myllyharju and Kivirikko (1997) EMBO J 16:1173-1180; Thornburg et al. (1993) 32:14023-14033; and Jia et al. (1994) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:7227-7231.) In one aspect, a compound of the invention is a compound that stabilizes HIFα. Preferably, the compound stabilizes HIFα through inhibition of HIF hydroxylase activity. It is thus specifically contemplated that a compound of the invention be selected from previously identified modulators of hydroxylase activity. For example, small molecule inhibitors of prolyl 4-hydroxylase have been identified. (See, e.g., Majamaa et al. (1984) Eur J Biochem 138:239-245; Majamaa et al.(1985) Biochem J 229:127-133; Kivirikko and Myllyharju (1998) Matrix Biol 16:357-368; Bickel et al. (1998) Hepatology 28:404-411; Friedman et al. (2000) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:4736-4741; and Franklin et al. (2001) Biochem J 353:333-338; all incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.) The present invention contemplates the use of these compounds in the methods provided herein. In some aspects, compounds of the present invention include, for example, structural mimetics of 2-oxoglutarate. Such compounds may inhibit the target 2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase enzyme family member competitively with respect to 2-oxoglutarate and noncompetitively with respect to iron. (Majamaa et al. (1984) Eur J Biochem 138:239-245; and Majamaa et al. Biochem J 229:127-133.) In certain embodiments, compounds used in the methods of the invention are selected from a compound of the formula (I) wherein A is 1,2-arylidene, 1,3-arylidene, 1,4-arylidene; or (C1-C4)-alkylene, optionally substituted by one or two halogen, cyano, nitro, trifluoromethyl, (C1-C6)-alkyl, (C1-C6)-hydroxyalkyl, (C1-C6)-alkoxy, —O—[CH2]x—CfH(2f+1−g)Halg, (C1-C6)-fluoroalkoxy, (C1-C8)-fluoroalkenyloxy, (C1-C8)-fluoroalkynyloxy, —OCF2Cl, —O—CF2—CHFCl; (C1-C6)-alkylmercapto, (C1-C6)-alkylsulfinyl, (C1-C6)-alkylsulfonyl, (C1-C6)-alkylcarbonyl, (C1-C6)-alkoxycarbonyl, carbamoyl, N—(C1-C4)-alkylcarbamoyl, N,N-di-(C1-C4)-alkylcarbamoyl, (C1-C6)-alkylcarbonyloxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl, phenyl, benzyl, phenoxy, benzyloxy, anilino, N-methylanilino, phenylmercapto, phenylsulfonyl, phenylsulfinyl, sulfamoyl, N—(C1-C4)-alkylsulfamoyl, N,N-di-(C1-C4)-alkylsulfamoyl; or by a substituted (C6-C12)-aryloxy, (C7-C11)-aralkyloxy, (C6-C12)-aryl, (C7-C11)-aralkyl radical, which carries in the aryl moiety one to five identical or different substituents selected from halogen, cyano, nitro, trifluoromethyl, (C1-C6)-alkyl, (C1-C6)-alkoxy, —O—[CH2]x—CfH(2f+1−g)Halg, —OCF2Cl, —O—CF2—CHFCl, (C1-C6)-alkylmercapto, (C1-C6)-alkylsulfinyl, (C1-C6)-alkylsulfonyl, (C1-C6)-alkylcarbonyl, (C1-C6)-alkoxycarbonyl, carbamoyl, N—(C1-C4)-alkylcarbamoyl, N,N-di-(C1-C4)-alkylcarbamoyl, (C1-C6)-alkylcarbonyloxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl, sulfamoyl, N—(C1-C4)-alkylsulfamoyl, N,N-di-(C1-C4)-alkylsulfamoyl; or wherein A is —CR5R6 and R5 and R6 are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C1-C6)-alkyl, (C3-C7)-cycloalkyl, aryl, or a substituent of the α-carbon atom of an α-amino acid, wherein the amino acid is a natural L-amino acid or its D-isomer. B is —CO2H, —NH2, —NHSO2CF3, tetrazolyl, imidazolyl, 3-hydroxyisoxazolyl, —CONHCOR′″, —CONHSOR′″, CONHSO2R′″, where R′″ is aryl, heteroaryl, (C3-C7)-cycloalkyl, or (C1-C4)-alkyl, optionally monosubstituted by (C6-C12)-aryl, heteroaryl, OH, SH, (C1-C4)-alkyl, (C1-C4)-alkoxy, (C1-C4)-thioalkyl, (C1-C4)-sulfinyl, (C1-C4)-sulfonyl, CF3, Cl, Br, F, I, NO2, —COOH, (C2-C5)-alkoxycarbonyl, NH2, mono-(C1-C4-alkyl)-amino, di-(C1-C4-alkyl)-amino, or (C1-C4)-perfluoroalkyl; or wherein B is a CO2—G carboxyl radical, where G is a radical of an alcohol G—OH in which G is selected from (C1-C20)-alkyl radical, (C3-C8) cycloalkyl radical, (C2-C20)-alkenyl radical, (C3-C8)-cycloalkenyl radical, retinyl radical, (C2-C20)-alkynyl radical, (C4-C20)-alkenynyl radical, where the alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, and alkenynyl radicals contain one or more multiple bonds; (C6-C16)-carbocyclic aryl radical, (C7-C16)-carbocyclic aralkyl radical, heteroaryl radical, or heteroaralkyl radical, wherein a heteroaryl radical or heteroaryl moiety of a heteroaralkyl radical contains 5 or 6 ring atoms; and wherein radicals defined for G are substituted by one or more hydroxyl, halogen, cyano, trifluoromethyl, nitro, carboxyl, (C1-C12)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl, (C5-C8)-cycloalkenyl, (C6-C12)-aryl, (C7-C16)-aralkyl, (C2-C12)-alkenyl, (C2-C12)-alkynyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxy, (C6-C12)-aryloxy, (C7-C16)-aralkyloxy, (C1-C8)-hydroxyalkyl, —O—[CH2]x—CfH(2f+1−g)—Fg, —OCF2Cl, —OCF2—CHFCl, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonyl, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylcarbonyl, cinnamoyl, (C2-C12)-alkenylcarbonyl, (C2-C12)-alkynylcarbonyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxycarbonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkoxycarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxycarbonyl, (C2-C12)-alkenyloxycarbonyl, (C2-C12)-alkynyloxycarbonyl, acyloxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyloxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyloxy, (C6-C12)-aryloxycarbonyloxy, (C7-C16) aralkyloxycarbonyloxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxycarbonyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkenyloxycarbonyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkynyloxycarbonyloxy, carbamoyl, N—(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyl, N.N-di(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyl, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-carbamoyl, N—(C6-C16)-arylcarbamoyl, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C6-C16)-arylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyl, N—((C1-C10)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C1-C10)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C6-C16)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyloxy, N.N-di-(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C6-C12)-arylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C6-C12)-arylcarbamoyloxy, N(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyloxy, N—((C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C1-C10)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, amino, (C1-C12)-alkylamino, di-(C1-C12)-alkylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylamino, (C2-C12)-alkenylamino, (C2-C12)-alkynylamino, N—(C6-C12)-arylamino, N—(C-C11)-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-arylamino, (C1-C12)-alkoxyamino, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonylamino, (C6-C12) arylcarbonylamino, (C7-C16)-aralkylcarbonylamino, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonyl-N—(C1-C10)alkylamino, (C7-C11)-aralkylcarbonyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonylamino-(C1-C8)alkyl, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C7-C12)-aralkylcarbonylamino(C1-C8)-alkyl, amino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, N—(C1-C10) alkylamino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, N.N-di-(C1-C10)-alkylamino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, (C3-C8)cycloalkylamino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, (C1-C12)-alkylmercapto, (C1-C12)-alkylsulfinyl, (C1-C12)-alkylsulfonyl, (C6-C16)-arylmercapto, (C6-C16)-arylsulfinyl, (C6-C12)-arylsulfonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylmercapto, (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfinyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfonyl, sulfamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkylsulfamoyl, N.N-di(C1-C10)-alkylsulfamoyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylsulfamoyl, N—(C6-C12)-alkylsulfamoyl, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylsulfamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C6-C12)-arylsulfamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C7-C16)-aralkylsulfamoyl, (C1-C10)-alkylsulfonamido, N—((C1-C10)-alkyl)-(C1-C10)-alkylsulfonamido, (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfonamido, or N—((C1-C10)-alkyl-(C7-C16)-aralkylsulfonamido; wherein radicals which are aryl or contain an aryl moiety, may be substituted on the aryl by one to five identical or different hydroxyl, halogen, cyano, trifluoromethyl, nitro, carboxyl, (C1-C12)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl, (C6-C12)-aryl, (C7-C16)-aralkyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)alkyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1 C12)alkoxy, (C6-C12)-aryloxy, (C7-C16)-aralkyloxy, (C1-C8)-hydroxyalkyl, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-carbonyl, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonyl, (C7-C16) aralkylcarbonyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxycarbonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkoxycarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxycarbonyl, (C2-C12)-alkenyloxycarbonyl, (C2-C12)-alkynyloxycarbonyl, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonyloxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonyloxy, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonyloxy, (C7-C16)-aralkylcarbonyloxy, cinnamoyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkenylcarbonyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkynylcarbonyloxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyloxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyloxy, (C6-C12)-aryloxycarbonyloxy, (C7-C16)-aralkyloxycarbonyloxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxycarbonyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkenyloxycarbonyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkynyloxycarbonyloxy, carbamoyl, N—(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyl, N.N-di-(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyl, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbamoyl, N—(C6-C12)-arylcarbamoyl, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C6-C12)-arylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyl, N—((C1-C10)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C1-C10)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyloxy, N.N-di-(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C6-C12)-arylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C6-C12)-arylcarbamoyloxy, N(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyloxy, N—((C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C1-C10)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, amino, (C1-C12)-alkylamino, di-(C1-C12)-alkylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylamino, (C3-C12)-alkenylamino, (C3-C12)-alkynylamino, N—(C6-C12)-arylamino, N—(C7-C11)-aralkylamino, N-alkylaralkylamino, N-alkyl-arylamino, (C1-C12)-alkoxyamino, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonylamino, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonylamino, (C7-C16)-alkylcarbonylamino, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C7-C11)-aralkylcarbonyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylcarbonylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, amino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino-(C1-C10)alkyl, N.N-di-(C1-C10)-alkylamino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylamino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, (C1-C12)-alkylmercapto, (C1-C12)-alkylsulfinyl, (C1-C12)-alkylsulfonyl, (C6-C12)-arylmercapto, (C6-C12)-arylsulfinyl, (C6-C12)-arylsulfonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylmercapto, (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfinyl, or (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfonyl; X is O or S; Q is O, S, NR′, or a bond; where, if Q is a bond, R4 is halogen, nitrile, or trifluoromethyl; or where, if Q is O, S, or NR′, R4 is hydrogen, (C1-C10)-alkyl radical, (C2-C10)-alkenyl radical, (C2-C10)-alkynyl radical, wherein alkenyl or alkynyl radical contains one or two C—C multiple bonds; unsubstituted fluoroalkyl radical of the formula —[CH2]x—CfH(2f+1−g)—Fg, (C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl radical, (C1-C6)-alkoxy-(C1-C4)-alkoxy-(C1-C4)-alkyl radical, aryl radical, heteroaryl radical, (C7-C11)-aralkyl radical, or a radical of the formula Z —[CH2]v—[O]w—[CH2]t-E (Z) where E is a heteroaryl radical, a (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl radical, or a phenyl radical of the formula F v is 0-6, w is 0 or 1, t is 0-3, and R7, R8, R9, R10, and R11 are identical or different and are hydrogen, halogen, cyano, nitro, trifluoromethyl, (C1-C6)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl, (C1-C6)-alkoxy, —O—[CH2]x—CfH(2f+1−g)—Fg, —OCF2—Cl, —O—CF2—CHFCl, (C1-C6)-alkylmercapto, (C1-C6)-hydroxyalkyl, (C1-C6)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkoxy, (C1-C6)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C1-C6)-alkylsulfinyl, (C1-C6)-alkylsulfonyl, (C1-C6)-alkylcarbonyl, (C1-C8)-alkoxycarbonyl, carbamoyl, N—(C1-C8)-alkylcarbamoyl, N,N-di-(C1-C8)-alkylcarbamoyl, or (C7-C11)-aralkylcarbamoyl, optionally substituted by fluorine, chlorine, bromine, trifluoromethyl, (C1-C6)-alkoxy, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbamoyl, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C4)-alkylcarbamoyl, (C1-C6)-alkylcarbonyloxy, phenyl, benzyl, phenoxy, benzyloxy, NRYRZ wherein Ry and Rz are independently selected from hydrogen, (C1-C12)-alkyl, (C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C7-C12)-aralkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C3-C10)-cycloalkyl, (C3-C12)-alkenyl, (C3-C12)-alkynyl, (C6-C12)-aryl, (C7-C11)-aralkyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxy, (C7-C12)aralkoxy, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonyl, (C6-C12) arylcarbonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylcarbonyl; or further wherein Ry and Rz together are —[CH2]h, in which a CH2 group can be replaced by O, S, N—(C1-C4)-alkylcarbonylimino, or N—(C1-C4)-alkoxycarbonylimino; phenylmercapto, phenylsulfonyl, phenylsulfinyl, sulfamoyl, N—(C1-C8)-alkylsulfamoyl, or N,N-di-(C1-C8)-alkylsulfamoyl; or alternatively R7 and R8, R8 and R9, R9 and R10, or R10 and R11, together are a chain selected from —[CH2]n— or —CH═CH—CH═CH—, where a CH2 group of the chain is optionally replaced by O, S, SO, SO2, or NRY; and n is 3, 4, or 5; and if E is a heteroaryl radical, said radical can carry 1-3 substituents selected from those defined for R7-R11, or if E is a cycloalkyl radical, the radical can carry one substituent selected from those defined for R7-R11; or where, if Q is NR′, R4 is alternatively R″, where R′ and R″ are identical or different and are hydrogen, (C6-C12)-aryl, (C7-C11)-aralkyl, (C1-C8)-alkyl, (C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C7-C12)-aralkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C1-C10)-alkylcarbonyl, optionally substituted (C7-C16)-aralkylcarbonyl, or optionally substituted C6-C12)-arylcarbonyl; or R′ and R″ together are —[CH2]h, in which a CH2 group can be replaced by O, S, N-acylimino, or N—(C1-C10)-alkoxycarbonylimino, and h is 3 to 7. Y is N or CR3; R1, R2 and R3 are identical or different and are hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, cyano, trifluoromethyl, nitro, carboxyl, (C1-C20)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl, (C3-C8)cycloalkyl-(C1-C12)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C12)-alkoxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyloxy-(C1-C12)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyloxy -(C1-C12)-alkoxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C8)-alkyl-(C1-C6)-alkoxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyloxy-(C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkoxy, (C6-C12)-aryl, (C7-C16)-aralkyl, (C7-C16)-aralkenyl, (C7-C16)-aralkynyl, (C2-C20)-alkenyl, (C2-C20)-alkynyl, (C1-C20)-alkoxy, (C2-C20)-alkenyloxy, (C2-C20)-alkynyloxy, retinyloxy, (C1-C20)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxy, (C7-C16)-aralkyloxy, (C6-C12)aryloxy-(C1-C6)-alkoxy, (C7-C16)-aralkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkoxy, (C1-C16)-hydroxyalkyl, (C6-C16)-aryloxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C7-C16)-aralkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C7-C12)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C2-C20)-alkenyloxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C2-C20)-alkynyloxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, retinyloxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, —O—[CH2]xCfH(2f+1−g)Fg, —OCF2Cl, —OCF2-CHFCl, (C1-C20)-alkylcarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonyl, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylcarbonyl, cinnamoyl, (C2-C20)-alkenylcarbonyl, (C2-C20)-alkynylcarbonyl, (C1-C20)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxycarbonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkoxycarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxycarbonyl, (C2-C20)-alkenyloxycarbonyl, retinyloxycarbonyl, (C2-C20)-alkynyloxycarbonyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C6)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C6)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonyloxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonyloxy, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonyloxy, (C7-C16)-aralkylcarbonyloxy, cinnamoyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkenylcarbonyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkynylcarbonyloxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyloxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyloxy, (C6-C12)-aryloxycarbonyloxy, (C7-C16)-aralkyloxycarbonyloxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxycarbonyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkenyloxycarbonyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkynyloxycarbonyloxy, carbamoyl, N—(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyl, N,N-di-(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyl, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbamoyl, N,N-dicyclo-(C3-C8)-alkylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbamoyl, N—((C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C6)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—(C1-C6)-alkyl-N—((C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C6)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N-(+)-dehydroabietylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C6)-alkyl-N-(+)-dehydroabietylcarbamoyl, N—(C6-C12)-arylcarbamoyl, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C6-C16)-arylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyl, N—((C1-C18)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—((C6-C16)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N-((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C1-C10)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl; CON(CH2)h, in which a CH2 group can be replaced by O, S, N—(C1-C8)-alkylimino, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylimino, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C4)-alkylimino, N—(C6-C12)-arylimino, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylimino, N—(C1-C4)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkylimino, and h is from 3 to 7; a carbamoyl radical of the formula R in which Rx and Rv are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C1-C6)-alkyl, (C3-C7)-cycloalkyl, aryl, or the substituent of an α-carbon of an α-amino acid, to which the L- and D-amino acids belong, s is 1-5, T is OH, or NR*R**, and R*, R** and R*** are identical or different and are selected from hydrogen, (C6-C12)-aryl, (C7-C11)-aralkyl, (C1-C8)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl, (+)-dehydroabietyl, (C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C7-C12)-aralkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C1-C10)-alkanoyl, optionally substituted (C7-C16)-aralkanoyl, optionally substituted (C6-C12)-aroyl; or R* and R** together are —[CH2]h, in which a CH2 group can be replaced by O, S, SO, SO2, N-acylamino, N—(C1-C10)-alkoxycarbonylimino, N—(C1-C8)-alkylimino, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylimino, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C4)-alkylimino, N—(C6-C12)-arylimino, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylimino, N—(C1-C4)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkylimino, and h is from 3 to 7; carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyloxy, N,N-di-(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C6-C12)-arylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C7-c16)-aralkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C1)-alkyl-N—(C6-C12)-arylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyloxy, N—((C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N-((C1-C10)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyloxyamino, (C1-C12)-alkylamino, di-(C1-C12)-alkylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylamino, (C3-C12)-alkenylamino, (C3-C12)-alkynylamino, N—(C6-C12)-arylamino, N—(C7-C11)-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-arylamino, (C1-C12)-alkoxyamino, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C1-C12)-alkanoylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkanoylamino, (C6-C12)-aroylamino, (C7-C16)-aralkanoylamino, (C1-C12)-alkanoyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkanoyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C6-C12)-aroyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C7-C11)-aralkanoyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C1-C12)-alkanoylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkanoylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-aroylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C7-C16)-aralkanoylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, amino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, N,N-di(C1-C10)-alkylamino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylamino(C1-C10)-alkyl, (C1-C20)-alkylmercapto, (C1-C20)-alkylsulfinyl, (C1-C20)-alkylsulfonyl, (C6-C12)-arylmercapto, (C6-C12)-arylsulfinyl, (C6-C12)-arylsulfonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylmercapto, (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfinyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfonyl, (C1-C12)-alkylmercapto-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C1-C12)-alkylsulfinyl-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C1-C12)-alkylsulfonyl-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-arylmercapto-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-arylsulfinyl-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-arylsulfonyl-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylmercapto-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfinyl-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfonyl-(C1-C6)-alkyl, sulfamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkylsulfamoyl, N,N-di-(C1-C10)-alkylsulfamoyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylsulfamoyl, N—(C6-C12)-arylsulfamoyl, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylsulfamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C6-C12)-arylsulfamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C7-C16)-aralkylsulfamoyl, (C1-C10)-alkylsulfonamido, N—((C1-C10)-alkyl)-(C1-C10)-alkylsulfonamido, (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfonamido, and N—((C1-C10)-alkyl-(C7-C16)-aralkylsulfonamido; where an aryl radical may be substituted by 1 to 5 substituents selected from hydroxyl, halogen, cyano, trifluoromethyl, nitro, carboxyl, (C2-C16)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C12)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C12)-alkoxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C12)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyloxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C8)-alkyl-(C1-C6)-alkoxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl(C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyloxy-(C1-C8-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkoxy, (C6-C12)-aryl, (C7-C16)-aralkyl, (C2-C16)-alkenyl, (C2-C12)-alkynyl, (C1-C16)-alkoxy, (C1-C16)-alkenyloxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxy(C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxy, (C7-C16)-aralkyloxy, (C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C6)-alkoxy, (C7-C16)-aralkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkoxy, (C1-C8)-hydroxyalkyl, (C6-C16)-aryloxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C7-C16)-aralkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, (C7-C12)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkyl, —O—[CH2]xCfH(2f+1−g)Fg, —OCF2Cl, —OCF2—CHFCl, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonyl, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylcarbonyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxycarbonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkoxycarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxycarbonyl, (C2-C12)-alkenyloxycarbonyl, (C2-C12)-alkynyloxycarbonyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C6)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C6)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkoxycarbonyl, (C1-C12)-alkylcarbonyloxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbonyloxy, (C6-C12)-arylcarbonyloxy, (C7-C16)-aralkylcarbonyloxy, cinnamoyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkenylcarbonyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkynylcarbonyloxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyloxy, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-(C1-C12)-alkoxycarbonyloxy, (C6-C12)-aryloxycarbonyloxy, (C7-C16)-aralkyloxycarbonyloxy, (C3-C8)-cycloalkoxycarbonyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkenyloxycarbonyloxy, (C2-C12)-alkynyloxycarbonyloxy, carbamoyl, N—(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyl, N,N-di(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyl, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbamoyl, N,N-dicyclo-(C3-C8)-alkylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbamoyl, N—((C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C6)-alkyl)carbamoyl, N—(C1-C6)-alkyl-N—((C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C6)-alkyl)carbamoyl, N-(+)-dehydroabietylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C6)-alkyl-N-(+)-dehydroabietylcarbamoyl, N—(C6-C12)-arylcarbamoyl, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C6-C16)-arylcarbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyl, N—((C1-C16)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)carbamoyl, N—((C6-C16)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)carbamoyl, N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C1-C10)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)carbamoyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)-carbamoyl, CON(CH2)h, in which a CH2 group can be replaced by, O, S, N—(C1-C8)-alkylimino, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylimino, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkyl-(C1-C4)-alkylimino, N—(C6-C12)-arylimino, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylimino, N—(C1-C4)-alkoxy-(C1-C6)-alkylimino, and h is from 3 to 7; carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyloxy, N,N-di-(C1-C12)-alkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C3-C8)-cycloalkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C6-C16)-arylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C6-C12)-arylcarbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—(C7-C16)-aralkylcarbamoyloxy, N—((C1-C10)-alkyl)carbamoyloxy, N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)carbamoyloxy, N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C1-C10)-alkoxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)carbamoyloxy, N—(C1-C10)-alkyl-N—((C7-C16)-aralkyloxy-(C1-C10)-alkyl)carbamoyloxy, amino, (C1-C12)-alkylamino, di-(C1-C12)-alkylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylamino, (C3-C12)-alkenylamino, (C3-C12)-alkynylamino, N—(C6-C12)-arylamino, N—(C7-C11)-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-arylamino, (C1-C12)-alkoxyamino, (C1-C12)-alkoxy-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C1-C12)-alkanoylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkanoylamino, (C6-C12)-aroylamino, (C7-C16)-aralkanoylamino, (C1-C12)-alkanoyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C3-C8)-cycloalkanoyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C6-C12)-aroyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C7-C11)-aralkanoyl-N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino, (C1-C12)-alkanoylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkanoylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-aroylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C7-C16)-aralkanoylamino-(C1-C8)-alkyl, amino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, N—(C1-C10)-alkylamino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, N,N-di-(C1-C10)-alkylamino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, (C3-C8)-cycloalkylamino-(C1-C10)-alkyl, (C1-C12)-alkylmercapto, (C1-C12)-alkylsulfinyl, (C1-C12)-alkylsulfonyl, (C6-C16)-arylmercapto, (C6-C16)-arylsulfinyl, (C6-C16)-arylsulfonyl, (C7-C16)-aralkylmercapto, (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfinyl, or (C7-C16)-aralkylsulfonyl; or wherein R1 and R2, or R2 and R3 form a chain [CH2]o, which is saturated or unsaturated by a C═C double bond, in which 1 or 2 CH2 groups are optionally replaced by O, S, SO, SO2, or NR′, and R′ is hydrogen, (C6-C12)-aryl, (C1-C8)-alkyl, (C1-C8)-alkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C7-C12)-aralkoxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C6-C12)-aryloxy-(C1-C8)-alkyl, (C1-C10)-alkanoyl, optionally substituted (C7-C16)-aralkanoyl, or optionally substituted (C6-C12)-aroyl; and o is 3, 4 or 5; or wherein the radicals R1 and R2, or R2 and R3, together with the pyridine or pyridazine carrying them, form a 5,6,7,8-tetrahydroisoquinoline ring, a 5,6,7,8-tetrahydroquinoline ring, or a 5,6,7,8-tetrahydrocinnoline ring; or wherein R1 and R2, or R2 and R3 form a carbocyclic or heterocyclic 5- or 6-membered aromatic ring; or where R1 and R2, or R2 and R3, together with the pyridine or pyridazine carrying them, form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring systems selected from thienopyridines, furanopyridines, pyridopyridines, pyrimidinopyridines, imidazopyridines, thiazolopyridines, oxazolopyridines, quinoline, isoquinoline, and cinnoline; where quinoline, isoquinoline or cinnoline preferably satisfy the formulae Ia, Ib and Ic: and the substituents R12 to R23 in each case independently of each other have the meaning of R1, R2 and R3; or wherein the radicals R1 and R2, together with the pyridine carrying them, form a compound of Formula Id: where V is S, O, or NRk, and Rk is selected from hydrogen, (C1-C6)-alkyl, aryl, or benzyl; where an aryl radical may be optionally substituted by 1 to 5 substituents as defined above; and R24, R25, R26, and R27 in each case independently of each other have the meaning of R1, R2 and R3; f is 1 to 8; g is 0 or 1 to(2f+1); x is 0 to 3; and h is 3 to 7; including the physiologically active salts and prodrugs derived therefrom. Exemplary compounds according to Formula (I) are described in European Patent Nos. EP0650960 and EP0650961. All compounds listed in EP0650960 and EP0650961, in particular, those listed in the compound claims and the final products of the working examples, are hereby incorporated into the present application by reference herein. Exemplary compounds of Formula (I) include, but are not limited to, [(3-Hydroxy-pyridine-2-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid and [(3-methoxy-pyridine-2-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid. Additionally, exemplary compounds according to Formula (I) are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,658,933. All compounds listed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,658,933, in particular, those listed in the compound claims and the final products of the working examples, are hereby incorporated into the present application by reference herein. Exemplary compounds of Formula (I) include, but are not limited to, 3-methoxypyridine-2-carboxylic acid N-(((hexadecyloxy)-carbonyl)-methyl)-amide hydrochloride, 3-methoxypyridine-2-carboxylic acid N-(((1-octyloxy)-carbonyl)-methyl)-amide, 3-methoxypyridine-2-carboxylic acid N-(((hexyloxy)-carbonyl)-methyl)-amide, 3-methoxypyridine-2-carboxylic acid N-(((butyloxy)-carbonyl)-methyl)-amide, 3-methoxypyridine-2-carboxylic acid N-(((2-nonyloxy)-carbonyl)-methyl)-amide racemate, 3-methoxypyridine-2-carboxylic acid N-(((heptyloxy)-carbonyl)-methyl)-amide, 3-benzyloxypyridine-2-carboxylic acid N-(((octyloxy)-carbonyl)-methyl)-amide, 3-benzyloxypyridine-2-carboxylic acid N-(((butyloxy)-carbonyl)-methyl)-amide, 5-(((3-(1-butyloxy)-propyl)-amino)-carbonyl)-3-methoxypyridine-2-carboxylic acid N-((benzyloxycarbonyl)-methyl)-amide, 5-(((3-(1-butyloxy)-propyl)-amino)-carbonyl)-3-methoxypyridine-2-carboxylic acid N-(((1-butyloxy)-carbonyl)-methyl)-amide, and 5-(((3-lauryloxy)-propyl)amino)-carbonyl)-3-methoxypyridine-2-carboxylic acid N-(((benzyloxy)-carbonyl)-methyl)-amide. Additional compounds according to Formula (I) are substituted heterocyclic carboxyamides described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,620,995; 3-hydroxypyridine-2-carboxamidoesters described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,020,350; sulfonamidocarbonylpyridine-2-carboxamides described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,607,954; and sulfonamidocarbonyl-pyridine-2-carboxamides and sulfonamidocarbonyl-pyridine-2-carboxamide esters described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,610,172 and 5,620,996. All compounds listed in these patents, in particular, those compounds listed in the compound claims and the final products of the working examples, are hereby incorporated into the present application by reference herein. Exemplary compounds according to Formula (Ia) are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,719,164 and 5,726,305. All compounds listed in the foregoing patents, in particular, those listed in the compound claims and the final products of the working examples, are hereby incorporated into the present application by reference herein. Exemplary compounds of Formula (Ia) include, but are not limited to, N-((3-hydroxy-6-isopropoxy-quinoline-2-carbonyl)-amino)-acetic acid, N-((6-(1-butyloxy)-3-hydroxyquinolin-2-yl)-carbonyl)-glycine, [(3-hydroxy-6-trifluoromethoxy-quinoline-2-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid, N-((6-chloro-3-hydroxyquinolin-2-yl)-carbonyl)-glycine, N-((7-chloro-3-hydroxyquinolin-2-yl)-carbonyl)-glycine, and [(6-chloro-3-hydroxy-quinoline-2-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid. Exemplary compounds according to Formula (Ib) are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,093,730. All compounds listed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,093,730, in particular, those listed in the compound claims and the final products of the working examples, are hereby incorporated into the present application by reference herein. Exemplary compounds of Formula (1b) include, but are not limited to, N-((1-chloro-4-hydroxy-7-(2-propyloxy)isoquinolin-3-yl)-carbonyl)-glycine, N-((1-chloro-4-hydroxy-6-(2-propyloxy) isoquinolin-3-yl)-carbonyl)-glycine, N-((1-chloro-4-hydroxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino)-acetic acid (compound A), N-((1-chloro-4-hydroxy-7-methoxyisoquinolin-3-yl)-carbonyl)-glycine, N-((1-chloro-4-hydroxy-6-methoxyisoquinolin-3-yl)-carbonyl)-glycine, N-((7-butyloxy)-1-chloro-4-hydroxyisoquinolin-3-yl)-carbonyl)-glycine, N-((6-benzyloxy-1-chloro-4-hydroxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino)-acetic acid, ((7-benzyloxy-1-chloro-4-hydroxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino)-acetic acid methyl ester, N-((7-benzyloxy-1-chloro-4-hydroxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino)-acetic acid, N-((8-chloro-4-hydroxyisoquinolin-3-yl)-carbonyl)-glycine, N-((7-butoxy-4-hydroxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino)-acetic acid. Additionally, compounds related to Formula (I) that can also be used in the methods of the invention include, but are not limited to, 6-cyclohexyl-1-hydroxy-4-methyl-1H-pyridin-2-one, 7-(4-methyl-piperazin-1-ylmethyl)-5-phenylsulfanylmethyl-quinolin-8-ol, 4-nitro-quinolin-8-ol, 5-butoxymethyl-quinolin-8-ol, [(4-Hydroxy-7-phenoxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid (compound B), and [(4-Hydroxy-7-phenylsulfanyl-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid (compound C). Further, the invention provides additional exemplary compounds wherein, e.g., position A and B together may be, e.g., hexanoic acid, cyanomethyl, 2-aminoethyl, benzoic acid, 1H-benzoimidazol-2-ylmethyl, etc. In other embodiments, compounds used in the methods of the invention are selected from a compound of the formula (III) or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein: a is an integer from 1 to 4; b is an integer from 0 to 4; c is an integer from 0 to 4; Z is selected from the group consisting of (C3-C10) cycloalkyl, (C3-C10) cycloalkyl independently substituted with one or more Y1, 3-10 membered heterocycloalkyl and 3-10 membered heterocycloalkyl independently substituted with one or more Y1; (C5-C20) aryl, (C5-C20) aryl independently substituted with one or more Y1, 5-20 membered heteroaryl and 5-20 membered heteroaryl independently substituted with one or more Y1; Ar1 is selected from the group consisting of (C5-C20) aryl, (C5-C20) aryl independently substituted with one or more Y2, 5-20 membered heteroaryl and 5-20 membered heteroaryl independently substituted with one or more Y2; each Y1 is independently selected from the group consisting of a lipophilic functional group, (C5-C20) aryl, (C6-C26) alkaryl, 5-20 membered heteroaryl and 6-26 membered alk-heteroaryl; each Y2 is independently selected from the group consisting of —R′, —OR′, —OR″, —SR′, —SR″, —NR′R′, —NO2, —CN, -halogen, -trihalomethyl, trihalomethoxy , —C(O)R′, —C(O)OR′, —C(O)NR′R′, —C(O)NR′OR′, —C(NR′R′)═NOR′, —NR′—C(O)R′, —SO2R′, —SO2R″, —NR′—SO2—R′, —NR′—C(O)—NR′R′, tetrazol-5-yl, —NR′—C(O)—OR′, —C(NR′R′)═NR′, —S(O)—R′, —S(O)—R″, and —NR′—C(S)—NR′R′; and each R′ is independently selected from the group consisting of —H, (C1-C8) alkyl, (C2-C8) alkenyl, and (C2-C8) alkynyl; and each R″ is independently selected from the group consisting of (C5-C20) aryl and (C5-C20) aryl independently substituted with one or more —OR′, —SR′, —NR′R′, —NO2, —CN, halogen or trihalomethyl groups, or wherein c is 0 and Ar1 is an N′ substituted urea-aryl, the compound has the structural formula (IIIa): or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein: a, b, and Z are as defined above; and R35 and R36 are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C1-C8) alkyl, (C2-C8) alkenyl, (C2-C8) alkynyl, (C3-C10) cycloalkyl, (C5-C20) aryl, (C5-C20) substituted aryl, (C6-C26) alkaryl, (C6-C26) substituted alkaryl, 5-20 membered heteroaryl, 5-20 membered substituted heteroaryl, 6-26 membered alk-heteroaryl, and 6-26 membered substituted alk-heteroaryl; and R37 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C1-C8) alkyl, (C2-C8) alkenyl, and (C2-C8) alkynyl. Exemplary compounds of Formula (III) are described in International Publication No. WO 00/50390. All compounds listed in WO 00/50390, in particular, those listed in the compound claims and the final products of the working examples, are hereby incorporated into the present application by reference herein. Exemplary compounds of Formula (III) include 3-{[4-(3,3-dibenzyl-ureido)-benzenesulfonyl]-[2-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-ethyl]-amino}-N-hydroxy-propionamide (compound D), 3-{{4-[3-(4-chloro-phenyl)-ureido]-benzenesulfonyl}-[2-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-ethyl]-amino}-N-hydroxy-propionamide, and 3-{{4-[3-(1,2-diphenyl-ethyl)-ureido]-benzenesulfonyl}-[2-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-ethyl]-amino}-N-hydroxy-propionamide. Methods for identifying compounds of the invention are also provided. In certain aspects, a compound of the invention is one that stabilizes HIFα. The ability of a compound to stabilize or activate HIFα can be measured, for example, by direct measurement of HIFα in a sample, indirect measurement of HIFα, e.g., by measuring a decrease in HIFα associated with the von Hippel Lindau protein (see, e.g., International Publication No. WO 00/69908), or activation of HIF responsive target genes or reporter constructs (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,942,434). Measuring and comparing levels of HIF and/or HIF-responsive target proteins in the absence and presence of the compound will identify compounds that stabilize HIFα and/or activate HIF. In other aspects, a compound of the invention is one that inhibits HIF hydroxylase activity. Assays for hydroxylase activity are standard in the art. Such assays can directly or indirectly measure hydroxylase activity. For example, an assay can measure hydroxylated residues, e.g., proline, asparagine, etc., present in the enzyme substrate, e.g., a target protein, a synthetic peptide mimetic, or a fragment thereof. (See, e.g., Palmerini et al. (1985) J Chromatogr 339:285-292.) A reduction in hydroxylated residue, e.g., proline or asparagine, in the presence of a compound is indicative of a compound that inhibits hydroxylase activity. Alternatively, assays can measure other products of the hydroxylation reaction, e.g., formation of succinate from 2-oxoglutarate. (See, e.g., Cunliffe et al. (1986) Biochem J 240:617-619.) Kaule and Gunzler (1990; Anal Biochem 184:291-297) describe an exemplary procedure that measures production of succinate from 2-oxoglutarate. Procedures such as those described above can be used to identify compounds that modulate HIF hydroxylase activity. Target protein may include HIFα or a fragment thereof, e.g., HIF(556-575). Enzyme may include, e.g., HIF prolyl hydroxylase (see, e.g., GenBank Accession No. AAG33965, etc.) or HIF asparaginyl hydroxylase (see, e.g., GenBank Accession No. AAL27308, etc.), obtained from any source. Enzyme may also be present in a crude cell lysate or in a partially purified form. For example, procedures that measure HIF hydroxylase activity are described in Ivan et al. (2001, Science 292:464-468; and 2002, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:13459-13464) and Hirsila et al. (2003, J Biol Chem 278:30772-30780); additional methods are described in International Publication No. WO 03/049686. Measuring and comparing enzyme activity in the absence and presence of the compound will identify compounds that inhibit hydroxylation of HIFα. A compound of the invention is one that further produces a measurable effect, as measured in vitro or in vivo, as demonstrated by enhanced erythropoiesis, enhanced iron metabolism, or therapeutic improvement of conditions including, e.g., iron deficiency, including functional iron deficiency; anemia of chronic disease, iron deficiency, and microcytosis or microcytic anemia; or a condition associated with inflammation, infection, immunodeficiency, or neoplastic disorder. The measurable effect can be any one of the following parameters: increased hemoglobin, hematocrit, reticulocyte, red blood cell count, plasma EPO, etc.; improved iron metabolism, as measured by lessening of observed symptoms, including, e.g., mitigation of chronic fatigue, pallor, dizziness, etc., or by increased serum iron levels, altered serum ferritin levels, % transferrin saturation, total iron binding capacity, improved reticulocyte counts, hemoglobin, hematocrit, e.g., all as measured by standard blood count analysis. Pharmaceutical Formulations and Routes of Administration The compositions of the present invention can be delivered directly or in pharmaceutical compositions containing excipients, as is well known in the art. Present methods of treatment can comprise administration of an effective amount of a compound of the present invention to a subject having or at risk for a metabolic disorder; particularly a disorder associated with glucose regulation, e.g., diabetes, hyperglycemia, etc. In a preferred embodiment, the subject is a mammalian subject, and in a most preferred embodiment, the subject is a human subject. An effective amount, e.g., dose, of compound or drug can readily be determined by routine experimentation, as can an effective and convenient route of administration and an appropriate formulation. Various formulations and drug delivery systems are available in the art. (See, e.g., Gennaro, ed. (2000) Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, supra; and Hardman, Limbird, and Gilman, eds. (2001) The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, supra.) Suitable routes of administration may, for example, include oral, rectal, topical, nasal, pulmonary, ocular, intestinal, and parenteral administration. Primary routes for parenteral administration include intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous administration. Secondary routes of administration include intraperitoneal, intra-arterial, intra-articular, intracardiac, intracisternal, intradermal, intralesional, intraocular, intrapleural, intrathecal, intrauterine, and intraventricular administration. The indication to be treated, along with the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the drug, dictate the type of formulation and the route of administration to be used, as well as whether local or systemic delivery would be preferred. Pharmaceutical dosage forms of a compound of the invention may be provided in an instant release, controlled release, sustained release, or target drug-delivery system. Commonly used dosage forms include, for example, solutions and suspensions, (micro-) emulsions, ointments, gels and patches, liposomes, tablets, dragees, soft or hard shell capsules, suppositories, ovules, implants, amorphous or crystalline powders, aerosols, and lyophilized formulations. Depending on route of administration used, special devices may be required for application or administration of the drug, such as, for example, syringes and needles, inhalers, pumps, injection pens, applicators, or special flasks. Pharmaceutical dosage forms are often composed of the drug, an excipient(s), and a container/closure system. One or multiple excipients, also referred to as inactive ingredients, can be added to a compound of the invention to improve or facilitate manufacturing, stability, administration, and safety of the drug, and can provide a means to achieve a desired drug release profile. Therefore, the type of excipient(s) to be added to the drug can depend on various factors, such as, for example, the physical and chemical properties of the drug, the route of administration, and the manufacturing procedure. Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients are available in the art, and include those listed in various pharmacopoeias. (See, e.g., USP, JP, EP, and BP, FDA web page (www.fda.gov), Inactive Ingredient Guide 1996, and Handbook of Pharmaceutical Additives, ed. Ash; Synapse Information Resources, Inc. 2002.) Pharmaceutical dosage forms of a compound of the present invention may be manufactured by any of the methods well-known in the art, such as, for example, by conventional mixing, sieving, dissolving, melting, granulating, dragee-making, tabletting, suspending, extruding, spray-drying, levigating, emulsifying, (nano/micro-) encapsulating, entrapping, or lyophilization processes. As noted above, the compositions of the present invention can include one or more physiologically acceptable inactive ingredients that facilitate processing of active molecules into preparations for pharmaceutical use. Proper formulation is dependent upon the desired route of administration. For intravenous injection, for example, the composition may be formulated in aqueous solution, if necessary using physiologically compatible buffers, including, for example, phosphate, histidine, or citrate for adjustment of the formulation pH, and a tonicity agent, such as, for example, sodium chloride or dextrose. For transmucosal or nasal administration, semisolid, liquid formulations, or patches may be preferred, possibly containing penetration enhancers. Such penetrants are generally known in the art. For oral administration, the compounds can be formulated in liquid or solid dosage forms and as instant or controlled/sustained release formulations. Suitable dosage forms for oral ingestion by a subject include tablets, pills, dragees, hard and soft shell capsules, liquids, gels, syrups, slurries, suspensions, and emulsions. The compounds may also be formulated in rectal compositions, such as suppositories or retention enemas, e.g., containing conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter or other glycerides. Solid oral dosage forms can be obtained using excipients, which may include, fillers, disintegrants, binders (dry and wet), dissolution retardants, lubricants, glidants, antiadherants, cationic exchange resins, wetting agents, antioxidants, preservatives, coloring, and flavoring agents. These excipients can be of synthetic or natural source. Examples of such excipients include cellulose derivatives, citric acid, dicalcium phosphate, gelatine, magnesium carbonate, magnesium/sodium lauryl sulfate, mannitol, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, silicates, silicium dioxide, sodium benzoate, sorbitol, starches, stearic acid or a salt thereof, sugars (i.e. dextrose, sucrose, lactose, etc.), talc, tragacanth mucilage, vegetable oils (hydrogenated), and waxes. Ethanol and water may serve as granulation aides. In certain instances, coating of tablets with, for example, a taste-masking film, a stomach acid resistant film, or a release-retarding film is desirable. Natural and synthetic polymers, in combination with colorants, sugars, and organic solvents or water, are often used to coat tablets, resulting in dragees. When a capsule is preferred over a tablet, the drug powder, suspension, or solution thereof can be delivered in a compatible hard or soft shell capsule. In one embodiment, the compounds of the present invention can be administered topically, such as through a skin patch, a semi-solid or a liquid formulation, for example a gel, a (micro-) emulsion, an ointment, a solution, a (nano/micro)-suspension, or a foam. The penetration of the drug into the skin and underlying tissues can be regulated, for example, using penetration enhancers; the appropriate choice and combination of lipophilic, hydrophilic, and amphiphilic excipients, including water, organic solvents, waxes, oils, synthetic and natural polymers, surfactants, emulsifiers; by pH adjustment; and use of complexing agents. Other techniques, such as iontophoresis, may be used to regulate skin penetration of a compound of the invention. Transdermal or topical administration would be preferred, for example, in situations in which local delivery with minimal systemic exposure is desired. For administration by inhalation, or administration to the nose, the compounds for use according to the present invention are conveniently delivered in the form of a solution, suspension, emulsion, or semisolid aerosol from pressurized packs, or a nebuliser, usually with the use of a propellant, e.g., halogenated carbons dervided from methan and ethan, carbon dioxide, or any other suitable gas. For topical aerosols, hydrocarbons like butane, isobutene, and pentane are useful. In the case of a pressurized aerosol, the appropriate dosage unit may be determined by providing a valve to deliver a metered amount. Capsules and cartridges of, for example, gelatin, for use in an inhaler or insufflator, may be formulated. These typically contain a powder mix of the compound and a suitable powder base such as lactose or starch. Compositions formulated for parenteral administration by injection are usually sterile and, can be presented in unit dosage forms, e.g., in ampoules, syringes, injection pens, or in multi-dose containers, the latter usually containing a preservative. The compositions may take such forms as suspensions, solutions, or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, and may contain formulatory agents, such as buffers, tonicity agents, viscosity enhancing agents, surfactants, suspending and dispersing agents, antioxidants, biocompatible polymers, chelating agents, and preservatives. Depending on the injection site, the vehicle may contain water, a synthetic or vegetable oil, and/or organic co-solvents. In certain instances, such as with a lyophilized product or a concentrate, the parenteral formulation would be reconstituted or diluted prior to administration. Depot formulations, providing controlled or sustained release of a compound of the invention, may include injectable suspensions of nano/micro particles or nano/micro or non-micronized crystals. Polymers such as poly(lactic acid), poly(glycolic acid), or copolymers thereof, can serve as controlled/sustained release matrices, in addition to others well known in the art. Other depot delivery systems may be presented in form of implants and pumps requiring incision. Suitable carriers for intravenous injection for the molecules of the invention are well-known in the art and include water-based solutions containing a base, such as, for example, sodium hydroxide, to form an ionized compound, sucrose or sodium chloride as a tonicity agent, for example, the buffer contains phosphate or histidine. Co-solvents, such as, for example, polyethylene glycols, may be added. These water-based systems are effective at dissolving compounds of the invention and produce low toxicity upon systemic administration. The proportions of the components of a solution system may be varied considerably, without destroying solubility and toxicity characteristics. Furthermore, the identity of the components may be varied. For example, low-toxicity surfactants, such as polysorbates or poloxamers, may be used, as can polyethylene glycol or other co-solvents, biocompatible polymers such as polyvinyl pyrrolidone may be added, and other sugars and polyols may substitute for dextrose. For composition useful for the present methods of treatment, a therapeutically effective dose can be estimated initially using a variety of techniques well-known in the art. Initial doses used in animal studies may be based on effective concentrations established in cell culture assays. Dosage ranges appropriate for human subjects can be determined, for example, using data obtained from animal studies and cell culture assays. A therapeutically effective dose or amount of a compound, agent, or drug of the present invention refers to an amount or dose of the compound, agent, or drug that results in amelioration of symptoms or a prolongation of survival in a subject. Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of such molecules can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, e.g., by determining the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio of toxic to therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index, which can be expressed as the ratio LD50/ED50. Agents that exhibit high therapeutic indices are preferred. The effective amount or therapeutically effective amount is the amount of the compound or pharmaceutical composition that will elicit the biological or medical response of a tissue, system, animal, or human that is being sought by the researcher, veterinarian, medical doctor, or other clinician, e.g., regulation of glucose metabolism, decrease in elevated or increased blood glucose levels, treatment or prevention of a disorder associated with altered glucose metabolism, e.g., diabetes, etc Dosages preferably fall within a range of circulating concentrations that includes the ED50 with little or no toxicity. Dosages may vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and/or the route of administration utilized. The exact formulation, route of administration, dosage, and dosage interval should be chosen according to methods known in the art, in view of the specifics of a subject's condition. Dosage amount and interval may be adjusted individually to provide plasma levels of the active moiety that are sufficient to achieve the desired effects, e.g., regulation of glucose metabolism, decrease in blood glucose levels, etc., i.e., minimal effective concentration (MEC). The MEC will vary for each compound but can be estimated from, for example, in vitro data and animal experiments. Dosages necessary to achieve the MEC will depend on individual characteristics and route of administration. In cases of local administration or selective uptake, the effective local concentration of the drug may not be related to plasma concentration. The amount of agent or composition administered may be dependent on a variety of factors, including the sex, age, and weight of the subject being treated, the severity of the affliction, the manner of administration, and the judgment of the prescribing physician. The present compositions may, if desired, be presented in a pack or dispenser device containing one or more unit dosage forms containing the active ingredient. Such a pack or device may, for example, comprise metal or plastic foil, such as a blister pack, or glass and rubber stoppers such as in vials. The pack or dispenser device may be accompanied by instructions for administration. Compositions comprising a compound of the invention formulated in a compatible pharmaceutical carrier may also be prepared, placed in an appropriate container, and labeled for treatment of an indicated condition. These and other embodiments of the present invention will readily occur to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of the disclosure herein. EXAMPLES The invention will be further understood by reference to the following examples, which are intended to be purely exemplary of the invention. These examples are provided solely to illustrate the claimed invention. The present invention is not limited in scope by the exemplified embodiments, which are intended as illustrations of single aspects of the invention only. Any methods that are functionally equivalent are within the scope of the invention. Various modifications of the invention in addition to those described herein will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description and accompanying figures. Such modifications are intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims. Example 1 Overcoming Suppressive Effects of TNF-α on EPO Production Hep3B cells were treated with various concentrations (0, 0.4, 2, 10 ng/ml) of TNF-α in the absence or presence of compound A or compound B for 3 days. Secreted EPO levels were determined using a commercially available ELISA kit (R&D Systems, catalog no. DEP00). In the absence of compound, treatment of Hep3B cells with TNF-α reduced EPO production in a dose-dependent manner. Hep3B cells treated with various concentrations of either compound A (FIG. 1A) or compound B (FIG. 1B) in the absence of TNF-α showed a dose-dependent increase in EPO production. Addition of either compound in the presence of TNF-α greatly reduced the inhibitory effects of TNF-α on EPO production. Overcoming the suppressive effect of TNF-α on EPO production by prolyl hydroxylase inhibition was observed in the presence of low (e.g., 0.4 ng/ml) and high (e.g., 10 ng/ml) concentrations of TNF-α. Therefore, inhibitory effects of the inflammatory cytokine TNF-α on EPO production were overcome by inhibition of prolyl hydroxylase activity using compounds and methods of the present invention. These results suggested that compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for increasing EPO production in the presence of the inflammatory cytokine TNF-α. Further, the methods and compounds of the present invention are useful to increase EPO production and, therefore, to treat anemia in a subject, for example, wherein the subject has a disorder associated with TNF-α such as acute or chronic inflammation or other anemia of chronic disease. A series of experiments were performed to examine the effects of compounds of the present invention on EPO production following exposure of cells to the inflammatory cytokine TNF-α (i.e., in cells already exposed to TNF-α). In these experiments, TNF-α signaling would therefore be initiated prior to the addition of a prolyl hydroxylase inhibitor. Hep3B cells were treated with various concentrations (0, 0.4, 2, 10 ng/ml) of TNF-α for 2 hours, after which various concentrations of compound A or compound B were added to the cultured cells. Secreted EPO levels were determined as described above 3 days following compound addition. As shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B, compound A and compound B overcame the suppressive effects of TNF-α on EPO production following a 2-hour pre-treatment of Hep3B cells with TNF-α. This data indicated that compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for increasing EPO production in cells exposed to TNF-α. These results also suggested that treatment with compound of the present invention provides useful means to increase EPO production and treat anemia in a subject in which EPO production has been suppressed by TNF-α. Addition of compounds of the present invention greatly reduced the inhibitory effects of TNF-α on EPO production. Therefore, compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for treating or preventing anemia of associated with increased TNF-α, e.g., inflammatory disorders. Example 2 Overcoming Suppressive Effects of IL-1β on EPO Production Hep3B cells were treated with various concentrations (0, 0.4, 2, 10 ng/ml) of IL-1β in the absence or presence of compound A or compound B for 3 days. Secreted EPO levels were determined using a commercially available ELISA kit (R&D Systems, catalog no. DEP00). In the absence of compound, treatment of Hep3B cells with IL-1β reduced EPO production in a dose-dependent manner. Hep3B cells treated with various concentrations of either compound A (FIG. 3A) or compound B (FIG. 3B) in the absence of IL-1β showed a dose-dependent increase in EPO production. Addition of either compound in the presence of IL-1β greatly reduced the inhibitory effects of IL-1β on EPO production. Overcoming the suppressive effects of IL-1β on EPO production by prolyl hydroxylase inhibition was observed in the presence of low (e.g., 0.4 ng/ml) and high (e.g., 10 ng/ml) concentrations of IL-1β. Therefore, inhibitory effects of the inflammatory cytokine IL-1β on EPO production were overcome by inhibition of prolyl hydroxylase activity using compounds and methods of the present invention. These results suggested that compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for increasing EPO production in the presence of the inflammatory cytokine IL-1β. Further, the methods and compounds of the present invention are useful to increase EPO production and, therefore, to treat anemia in a subject, for example, wherein the subject has a disorder associated with IL-1β such as acute or chronic inflammation or other anemia of chronic disease. A series of experiments were performed to examine the effects of compounds of the present invention on EPO production following exposure of cells to the inflammatory cytokine IL-1β (i.e., in cells already exposed to IL-1β). In these experiments, IL-1β signaling would therefore be initiated prior to the addition of a prolyl hydroxylase inhibitor. Hep3B cells were treated with various concentrations (0, 0.4, 2, 10 ng/ml) of IL-1β for 2 hours, after which various concentrations of compound A or compound B were added to the cultured cells. Secreted EPO levels were determined as described above 3 days following compound addition. As shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B, compound A and compound B overcame the suppressive effects of IL-1β on EPO production following a 2-hour pre-treatment of Hep3B cells with IL-1β. This data indicated that compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for increasing EPO production in cells exposed to IL-1β. These results also suggested that treatment with compound of the present invention provides useful means to increase EPO production and treat anemia in a subject in which EPO production has been suppressed by IL-1β. Addition of compounds of the present invention greatly reduced the inhibitory effects of IL-1β on EPO production. Therefore, compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for treating or preventing anemia associated with IL-1β, e.g., inflammatory disorders. Example 3 Inhibition of TNF-α Induced VCAM-1 Expression Endothelial cell adhesiveness for lymphocytes occurs, in part, by endothelial cell expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1. VCAM-1 expression in endothelial cells is induced by various inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α. To investigate the effect of HIF prolyl hydroxylase inhibition on TNF-α induced VCAM-1 expression, HUVEC (human umbilical vein endothelial cells) were stimulated with TNF-α in the absence or presence of various concentrations of compound B or compound C for 1 day. VCAM expression was then measured. As shown in FIG. 5, TNF-α (1 ng/ml) induced VCAM-1 expression in HUVEC cells. Addition of compound B or compound C to TNF-α stimulated cells, however, resulted in a does-dependent inhibition of TNF-α induced VCAM-1 expression. This data indicated that methods and compounds of the present invention are effective at reducing VCAM-1 expression associated with the inflammatory cytokine TNF-α. The results further suggested that compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for inhibiting VCAM-1 expression associated with various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as, for example, anemia of chronic disease. Example 4 Inhibition of IL-1β Induced VCAM-1 Expression VCAM-1 expression in endothelial cells is also induced by the inflammatory cytokine IL-1β. To investigate the effect of HIF prolyl hydroxylase inhibition on IL-1β induced VCAM-1 expression, HUVEC (human umbilical vein endothelial cells) were stimulated with IL-1β in the absence or presence of various concentrations of compound B or compound C for 1 day. VCAM expression was then measured. IL-1β (1 ng/ml) induced VCAM-1 expression in HUVEC cells. Addition of compound B or compound C to IL-1β stimulated cells, however, resulted in a does-dependent inhibition of IL-1β induced VCAM-1 expression. (Data not shown.) These results indicated that methods and compounds of the present invention are effective at reducing VCAM-1 expression associated with the inflammatory cytokine IL-1β. The results further suggested that compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for inhibiting VCAM-1 expression associated with various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as, for example, anemia of chronic disease. Example 5 Inhibition of TNF-α and IL-1β, Induced VCAM-1 Expression on Endothelial Cells HUVEC were treated with vehicle control or various concentrations (0, 20, 40, 80 μM) of compound B or compound C for 24 hours. Cells were washed and then stimulated with either 1 ng/ml TNF-α or 1 ng/ml IL-1β for 4 hours. Cell surface VCAM-1 expression was then measured by cell-based ELISA. As shown in FIG. 25, pretreatment with prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors decreased the induction of cell surface VCAM-1 expression induced by the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β. These results indicated that compounds and methods of the invention inhibited the inflammatory function of TNF-α and IL-1β and inhibited the expression of cell surface adhesion molecules important for mediating heterocellular leukocyte adhesion. Inhibition of leukocyte adhesion by treatment with the present compounds provides an effective means for decreasing inflammatory cascades, thereby reducing inflammation and reducing the inflammatory effect of limiting EPO production and suppressing erythropoiesis. Example 6 Inhibition of TNF-α Induced E-selectin Expression Endothelial E-selectin belongs to the selectin family of cellular adhesion molecules mediating the initial attachment of leukocytes to vascular endothelial cells in inflammatory events. IL-1, TNF-α, and lipopolysaccharides each induce the expression of E-selectin. (See, e.g., Bevilacqua et al. (1987) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84:9238-9242 and Bevilacqua and van Furth (1993) J Leukoc Biol 54:363-378.) To investigate the effect of HIF prolyl hydroxylase inhibition on TNF-α induced E-selectin expression, HUVECs were stimulated with 1 ng/ml TNF-α in the absence or presence of various concentrations of compound B or compound C for 1 day. E-selectin and VCAM expression were then measured. As shown in FIGS. 24A and 24B, compound B and compound C showed a dose-dependent inhibition of TNF-α induced VCAM and E-selectin expression in HUVECs. Data in FIGS. 24A and 24B is presented as percent inhibition of VCAM and E-selectin expression observed in response to various concentrations of compound B (FIG. 24A) or compound C (FIG. 24B). Greater than 60% inhibition of VCAM and E-selectin expression was observed in HUVEC treated with 50 μM compound B or compound C. This data indicated that methods and compounds of the present invention are effective at reducing VCAM and E-selectin expression in endothelial cells associated with the inflammatory cytokine TNF-α. The results further suggested that compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for inhibiting VCAM and E-selectin expression associated with various inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, such as, for example, anemia of chronic disease. Additionally, inhibition of endothelial cell expression of adhesion molecules, including VCAM and E-selectin, by methods and compounds of the present invention provides means for reducing early events in vascular inflammation. Example 7 Inhibition of IL-1β Induced E-selectin Expression To investigate the effect of HIF prolyl hydroxylase inhibition on IL-1β induced E-selectin expression, HUVECs were stimulated with 1 ng/ml IL-1β in the absence or presence of various concentrations of compound B or compound C for 1 day. E-selectin expression was then measured. Compound B and compound C showed a dose-dependent inhibition of IL-1β induced E-selectin expression in HUVECs. (Data not shown.) These results indicated that methods and compounds of the present invention are effective at reducing E-selectin expression in endothelial cells associated with the inflammatory cytokine IL-1β. The results further suggested that compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for inhibiting E selectin expression associated with various inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, such as, for example, anemia of chronic disease. Additionally, inhibition of endothelial cell expression of adhesion molecules, including VCAM and E-selectin, by methods and compounds of the present invention provides means for reducing early events in vascular inflammation. Example 8 Inhibition of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ Induced E-selectin Expression HUVEC were treated with vehicle control or various concentrations of compound B or compound C for 24 hours. Cells were washed and then stimulated with either 1 ng/ml TNF-α, 1 ng/ml IL-1β, or a combination of 1 ng/ml each of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ for 4 hours. Cell surface expression of E-selectin was measured by cell-based ELISA. As shown in FIG. 26, pretreatment of HUVEC with compound B or compound C inhibited the induction of cell surface E-selectin expression induced by the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α or IL-1β. In addition, pretreatment with either compound decreased E-selectin expression in the presence of three inflammatory cytokines known to increase E-selectin expression (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ). These results indicated that the present compounds blocked the inflammatory function of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ on endothelial cells, as exemplified by inhibition of the expression of cell surface adhesion molecules that mediate rolling of leukocytes on activated endothelium. Since leukocyte adhesion to activated endothelium via E-selectin is an early step in perpetuating inflammatory cascades, inhibition of leukocyte rolling by inhibiting E-selectin expression provides a means for decreasing inflammatory cascades that further limit EPO production and suppress erythropoiesis. Example 9 Synergistic Increase in EPO Production Hep3B cells were treated with various concentrations (0, 0.1, 1, 10 ng/ml) of IL-6 in the absence of presence of various concentrations (3 μM, 10 μM, 30 μM) of compound A or compound B for 1 or 3 days. Secreted EPO levels were determined using a commercially available ELISA kit (R&D Systems, catalog no. DEP00). In the absence of compound, treatment of Hep3B cells with IL-6 had a minimal effect on EPO production. As shown in FIGS. 27A and 27B, Hep3B cells treated with IL-6 increased EPO expression slightly above that in non-treated cells. Specifically, EPO levels in control cells was approximately 20 mIU/ml, while that in cells treated with 10 ng/ml IL-6 was approximately 50 mIU/ml. Hep3B cells treated with compound A or compound B without IL-6 showed increased EPO levels in a dose-dependent manner. Hep3B cells treated with compound A or compound B in the presence of IL-6, however, showed a significant increase in EPO levels. (See FIGS. 27A and 27B.) The effect of compound treatment on EPO production in the presence of IL-6 was synergistic. For example, Hep3B cells treated with 10 ng/ml IL-6 showed approximately 50 mIU/ml EPO levels. Treatment of Hep3B cells with 10 mM compound A or compound B in the absence of IL-6 resulted in approximately 60 mIU/ml EPO and 220 mIU/ml, respectively. In the presence of 10 ng/ml IL-6, compound A and compound B addition increased EPO levels to approximately 270 mIU/ml and to greater than 400 mIU/ml, respectively. Therefore, compounds of the present invention acted synergistically with IL-6 at inducing EPO expression in hepatocytes. Example 10 Overcoming Cytokine-induced Suppression of EPO Receptor Signaling The cell line TF-1 (human erythroleukemia; ATCC cat #CRL-2003) is stimulated to proliferate in response to EPO addition. In the presence of various pro-inflammatory cytokines, the EPO-mediated increase in TF-1 cell proliferation is attenuated. To determine the effects of prolyl hydroxylase inhibition on TF-1 cell proliferation, TF-1 cells are treated with the various concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α, or IFN-γ in the absence or presence of prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors, and EPO-mediated cell proliferation is measured as follows. Triplicate wells of cells cultured in 96-well microtiter plates are incubated with serum-free medium in the absence or presence of EPO for 24 hours. During the final 4 hours of culture, 1 μCi of tritiated thymidine (3H-TdR; Amersham) is added to each well. Cell responsiveness to EPO receptor signaling is determined by measuring cell proliferation. Cell proliferation is measured by quantitating the amount of 3H-TdR incorporated into cells, first by lysing the cells with water and then capturing the DNA on nylon filters in a cell harvester. Alternatively, single cell suspensions of splenic cells obtained from phenylhydrazine-treated animals, which lead to prevalence of EPO responsive progenitors in spleen, are used as the source of EPO responsive cells. EPO-mediated proliferation is then assessed ex vivo as described above. TF-1 cells treated with EPO results in an increase in cell proliferation, as determined by an increase in tritiated thymidine incorporation. Addition of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α, or IFN-γ to EPO-treated TF-1 cells results in decreased responsiveness to EPO, leading to decreased cell proliferation. The effect of addition of the present compounds on the inhibitory effects of pro-inflammatory cytokines on EPO-mediated cell proliferation in TF-1 cells is determined. Increased cell proliferation, as measured by increased tritiated thymidine incorporation, in TF-1 cells treated with EPO and pro-inflammatory cytokines indicates that compounds and methods of the present invention overcome the suppressive effects of pro-inflammatory cytokines on EPO-mediated increase in cell proliferation. Example 11 Increasing Transferrin Receptor Expression The effect of compounds of the invention on transferrin receptor expression was examined as follows. Various cells (Hep3B, HepG2, HK-2) were incubated with compound A or compound B for 1 day. The cells were then analyzed for transferrin receptor expression by FACS analysis using CD71-PE antibody (Ancell, catalog no. 223-050). The results are shown below in Table 1. TABLE 1 Cell Type Treatment Mean FL Hep3B DMSO 40.21 Compound A 40.89 Compound B 42.43 HepG2 DMSO 49.59 Compound A 56.52 Compound B 53.53 HK-2 DMSO 10.80 Compound A 12.20 Compound B 18.92 As shown above in Table 1, addition of various compounds of the present invention to cells increased expression of transferrin receptor. Inhibition of HIF prolyl hydroxylation using prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors of the present invention increased transferrin receptor expression in cells. Increased transferrin receptor expression using prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors of the present invention was observed in liver cells (e.g., Hep3B, HepG2), kidney cells (e.g., HK-2), and lymphocytes (e.g., THP-1). Therefore, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing transferrin receptor expression in various cell types. In addition, increased transferrin receptor expression would result in increased transferrin receptor-mediated endocytosis of ferric transferrin, thereby increasing iron transport, utilization, storage, and metabolism. Therefore, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for enhancing erythropoiesis by increasing iron transport, utilization, storage, and metabolism. Example 12 Increasing Transferrin Receptor Expression and Iron Uptake in Vitro The effect of compounds on iron uptake in cells is determined as follows. Primary monocytes and macrophage, and monocyte and macrophage cell lines (e.g., THP-1), are treated for one, two, or three days with various concentrations of prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors. Cells are then examined for the presence of cell surface transferrin receptor using fluorescent immunostaining and flow cytometry. Results showing that addition of prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors increase cell surface transferrin receptor expression indicates effectiveness of prolyl hydroxylase inhibition at increasing transferrin binding and, therefore, iron binding, to cells. A change in iron uptake by cells treated with prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors is determined as follows. Cells are treated with compound in the presence of 59Fe. Increased iron uptake by cells treated with prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors is determined by measuring cell-associated 59Fe. An increase in cell-associated 59Fe indicates increased iron uptake in cells. Example 13 Increasing Iron-regulatory Protein-2 Levels and Activity The regulation of iron uptake, storage, and utilization occur, in part, through the expression and activity of key proteins involved in iron metabolism, including trans-acting proteins known as iron-regulatory proteins (IRPs). IRP-1 and IRP-2 control mRNA stability and translation by binding to specific iron-responsive elements in various mRNAs of proteins involved in iron metabolism, thereby affecting virtually all aspects of iron metabolism. Iron deficiency increases IRP activity, resulting in increased transferrin receptor expression and reduced ferritin expression. Likewise, in the presence of iron, IRP activity decreases, leading to decreased transferrin receptor expression and increased ferritin expression. To examine the effect of the present compounds on various aspects of iron metabolism, the following experiment is performed. Mouse Hepa-1 cells are treated with prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors for up to 48 hours. The cells are then harvested and cell lysates analyzed for IRP-2 expression by immunoblotting using an antibody specific for IRP-2 (Alpha Diagnostic International, Inc., San Antonio Tex.). Results showing increased levels of cytoplasmic IRP-2 following addition of compound demonstrates that methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing IRP levels and therefore iron metabolism. The effect of compounds of the invention on IRP-2 activity, as measured by changes in ferritin and transferrin expression, is determined as follows. Mouse RAW 264.1 macrophage cell line is treated with prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors for up to 48 hours. Cells are then harvested and analyzed for ferritin and transferrin protein expression by immunoblotting (ADI, catalogue #IRP21-S). Decreased levels of ferritin expression and increased levels of transferrin expression following prolyl hydroxylase inhibition indicates that methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for stabilizing and increasing the activity of IRP-2. Increased expression of IRP-2 decreases expression of ferritin, which is responsible for long-term storage of iron, and increases expression of transferrin and transferrin receptor, facilitating iron uptake, transport, and utilization, thus enhancing erythropoiesis. By increasing expression and activity of MRP-2, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for decreasing expression of ferritin and associated long-term storage of iron, and increasing expression of transferrin and transferrin receptor. Therefore, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing iron uptake, transport, and utilization, and are thus useful for enhancing erythropoiesis. Example 14 Enhancing Iron Utilization Rats are administered either vehicle control or HIF prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors prior to intravenous injection with 59Fe-radiolabeled ferrous citrate (Amersham). Serial samples of blood are drawn from the tail vein and total free plasma and erythrocyte-associated radioactivity is measured in a scintillation counter to detect iron transport and incorporation into erythrocyte heme and hemoglobin synthesis. Increase in erythrocyte-associated 59Fe indicates that the present compounds are useful for enhancing iron utilization necessary for heme synthesis, hemoglobin production, and erythropoiesis. Example 15 Enhanced Expression of Erythropoiesis Genes in Vitro Hep3B cells (ATCC No. HB-8064) were grown in DMEM containing 8% fetal bovine serum. Hep3B cells were seeded into 6-well culture dishes at ˜500,000 cells per well. After 8 hours, the media was changed to DMEM containing 0.5% fetal bovine serum and the cells were incubated for an additional 16 hours. Compound B or compound D was added to the cells (25 μM final concentration) and the cells were incubated for various times. Control cells (no compound treatment, addition of DMSO alone) were harvested at 0, 6 and 48 hours. Harvested cells were assessed for cell viability (GUAVA), or added to RNA extraction buffer (RNeasy, Qiagen) and stored at −20° C. for subsequent RNA purification. Replicate microarrays were generated using RNA isolated from replicate experiments conducted on different days. Total RNA was isolated from cells using the RNeasy kit (Qiagen). RNA was precipitated in 0.3 M sodium acetate (pH 5.2), 50 ng/ml glycogen, and 2.5 volumes of ethanol for one hour at −20° C. Samples were centrifuged and pellets were washed with cold 80% ethanol, dried, and resuspend in water. Double stranded cDNA was synthesized using a T7-(dT)24 first strand primer (Affymetrix, Inc., Santa Clara Calif.) and the SUPERSCRIPT CHOICE system (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The final cDNA was extracted with an equal volume of 25:24:1 phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol using a PHASE LOCK GEL insert (Brinkman, Inc., Westbury N.Y.). The aqueous phase was collected and cDNA was precipitated using 0.5 volumes of 7.5 M ammonium acetate and 2.5 volumes of ethanol. Alternatively, cDNA was purified using the GENECHIP sample cleanup module (Affymetrix) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Biotin-labeled cRNA was synthesized from the cDNA in an in vitro translation (IVT) reaction using a BIOARRAY HighYield RNA transcript labeling kit (Enzo Diagnostics, Inc., Farmingdale N.Y.) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Final labeled product was purified and fragmented using the GENECHIP sample cleanup module (Affymetrix) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Hybridization cocktail was prepared by bringing 5 μg probe to 100 μl in 1× hybridization buffer (100 mM MES, 1 M [Na+], 20 mM EDTA, 0.01% Tween 20), 100 μg/ml herring sperm DNA, 500 μg/ml acetylated BSA, 0.03 nM contol oligo B2 (Affymetrix), and 1× GENECHIP eukaryotic hybridization control (Affymetrix). The cocktail was sequentially incubated at 99° C. for 5 minutes and 45° C. for 5 minutes, and then centrifuged for 5 minutes. The Human Genome U133A array (Affymetrix) was brought to room temperature and then prehybridized with 1× hybridization buffer at 45° C. for 10 minutes with rotation. The buffer was then replaced with 80 μl hybridization cocktail and the array was hybridized for 16 hours at 45° C. at 60 rpm with counter balance. Following hybridization, arrays were washed once with 6×SSPE, 0.1% Tween 20, and then washed and stained using R-phycoerythrin-conjugated streptavidin (Molecular Probes, Eugene Oreg.), goat anti-streptavidin antibody (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame Calif.), and a GENECHIP Fluidics Station 400 instrument (Affymetrix) according to the manufacturer's micro—1v1 protocol (Affymetrix). Arrays were analyzed using a GENEARRAY scanner (Affymetrix) and Microarray Suite software (Affymetrix). The Human Genome U133A array (Affymetrix) represents all sequences in the Human Unigene database build 133 (National Center for Biotechnology Information, Bethesda Md.), including approximately 14,500 well-characterized human genes. RNA quality was monitored by capillary electrophoresis (Agilent Bioanalyzer). Hybridization cocktails were prepared as described (Affymetrix), and hybridized to Affymetrix human U133A arrays containing 22,283 probe sets. Array performance was analyzed with Affymetrix MicroArray Suite (MAS) software and individual probe sets were assigned “present”, “marginal, and “absent” calls according to software defaults. Statistical analyses and filtered probe set lists were prepared using GeneSpring software (Silicon Genetics). Cutoffs for “expressed” probe sets used a combination of Affymetrix “P” calls and absolute expression values derived from Genespring's intrinsic data error model Data was normalized to averaged control samples. As shown in Table 2 below, expression of genes (fold-increase in mRNA levels above control) encoding erythropoietic proteins was increased in Hep3B cells treated with compound of the present invention. (Two ceruloplasmin data points for each condition are presented below in Table 2.) Specifically, ceruloplasmin and transferrin receptor 2 gene expression were increased in Hep3B cells treated with various compounds of the present invention. TABLE 2 Ceruloplasmin Transferrin Receptor Compound Time (CP) (TFR2) D 6 hr 2.06/2.387 Not Determined B 1 hr 1.142/0.946 0.575 B 3 hr 1.123/0.955 0.558 B 6 hr 1.555/1.103 0.822 B 12 hr 2.366/2.507 1.253 B 24 hr 5.136/4.909 2.522 B 48 hr 5.82/4.678 4.169 Example 16 Animal Dosing Animals used in the following examples include Swiss Webster male mice (30-32 g), Sprague Dawley male rats (200-350 g) and Lewis female rates obtained from Simonsen, Inc. (Gilroy Calif.), Charles River (Hollister, Calif.), or Harlan. Animals were maintained using standard procedures, and food and water were available to the animals ad libitum. During treatment, animals were monitored for changes in body weight and signs of overt toxicity and mortality. Compounds were generally administered orally by gavage or IV administration. Animals treated by oral gavage received a 4-10 ml/kg volume of either 0.5% carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis Mo.) with or without 0.1% Polysorbate 80 (0 mg/kg/day) or varying doses of a compound of the present invention (e.g., a HIF prolyl hydroxylase inhibitor) in 0.5% CMC, with or without 0.1% Polysorbate 80, using various dosing regimens. Blood samples were collected at appropriate intervals during treatment from, e.g., tail vein (rats), or abdominal vein or cardiocentesis (mice or rats). Generally, animals were anesthetized with isoflurane and blood samples were collected into MICROTAINER serum separator tubes (Becton-Dickinson, Franklin Lakes N.J.). For measurement of serum components, the tubes were incubated at room temperature for 30 minutes, and then centrifuged at 8,000 rpm at 4° C. for 10 minutes. The serum fraction was then processed and analyzed for the presence of specific components, e.g., serum iron (assay performed by Quality Clinical Labs, Mountain View, Calif.). For determination of hematocrit, blood samples were collected into MICROTAINER EDTA-2K tubes (Becton-Dickinson); EDTA-blood was then drawn into 75 mm×1.1-1.2 mm I.D. capillary tubes (Chase Scientific Glass, Inc., Rockwood Tenn.) to approximately ¾ length, one end of the tube was sealed with CRITOSEAL sealant (Sherwood Medical Company), and the tubes were centrifuged in a J-503M MICROHEMATOCRIT centrifuge (Jorgensen Laboratories, Inc., Loveland Colo.) at 12,000 rpm for 5 minutes. Hematocrit was read against a reader card. When indicated, complete blood count (CBC) analysis, including blood hemoglobin level, reticulocyte number, and hematocrit, was performed by Quality Clinical Labs (Mountain View, Calif.). At the end of each study, animals were euthanized, e.g. by exsanguinations under general anesthesia or by CO2 asphyxiation, and organ and tissue samples were collected. Tissues were either fixed in neutral buffered formalin or stored frozen at −70° C. Tissues for genomic analysis were placed in RNAlater. Example 17 Increased Expression of Genes Encoding Iron-processing Proteins in Vivo Swiss Webster male mice were treated as described above with a single dose of 0.5% CMC (Sigma-Aldrich) (0 mg/kg) or 100 mg/kg compound A. At 4, 8, 16, 24, 48, or 72 hours post-administration, animals were anesthetized, sacrificed, and tissue samples of kidney, liver, brain, lung, and heart were isolated and stored in RNALATER solution (Ambion) at −80° C. Alternatively, animals were treated to 4 consecutive daily doses of 0.5% CMC (0 mg/kg/day), 7.5 mg/ml compound A in 0.5% CMC (30 mg/kg/day), or 25 mg/ml compound A in 0.5% CMC (100 mg/kg/day). Four hours after administration of the final dose, animals were anesthetized, sacrificed, and approximately 150 mg of liver and each kidney were isolated and stored in RNALATER solution (Ambion) at −20° C. RNA isolation was carried out using the following protocol. A section of each organ was diced, 875 μl of RLT buffer (RNEASY kit; Qiagen Inc., Valencia Calif.) was added, and the pieces were homogenized for about 20 seconds using a rotor-stator POLYTRON homogenizer (Kinematica, Inc., Cincinnati Ohio). The homogenate was micro-centrifuged for 3 minutes to pellet insoluble material, the supernatant was transferred to a new tube and RNA was isolated using an RNEASY kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The RNA was eluted into 80 μL of water and quantitated with RIBOGREEN reagent (Molecular Probes, Eugene Oreg.). The absorbance at 260 and 280 nm was measured to determine RNA purity and concentration. Alternatively, tissue samples were diced and homogenized in TRIZOL reagent (Invitrogen Life Technologies, Carlsbad Calif.) using a rotor-stator POLYTRON homogenizer (Kinematica). Homogenates were brought to room temperature, 0.2 volumes chloroform was added, and samples were mixed vigorously. Mixtures were incubated at room temperature for several minutes and then were centrifuged at 12,000 g for 15 min at 4° C. The aqueous phase was collected and 0.5 volumes of isopropanol were added. Samples were mixed, incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes, and centrifuged for 10 min at 12,000 g at 4° C. The supernatant was removed and the pellet was washed with 75% EtOH and centrifuged at 7,500 g for 5 min at 4° C. The absorbance at 260 and 280 nm was measured to determine RNA purity and concentration. RNA was precipitated in 0.3 M sodium acetate (pH 5.2), 50 ng/ml glycogen, and 2.5 volumes of ethanol for one hour at −20° C. Samples were centrifuged and pellets were washed with cold 80% ethanol, dried, and resuspend in water. Double stranded cDNA was synthesized using a T7-(dT)24 first strand primer (Affymetrix, Inc., Santa Clara Calif.) and the SUPERSCRIPT CHOICE system (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The final cDNA was extracted with an equal volume of 25:24:1 phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol using a PHASE LOCK GEL insert (Brinkman, Inc., Westbury N.Y.). The aqueous phase was collected and cDNA was precipitated using 0.5 volumes of 7.5 M ammonium acetate and 2.5 volumes of ethanol. Alternatively, cDNA was purified using the GENECHIP sample cleanup module (Affymetrix) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Biotin-labeled cRNA was synthesized from the cDNA in an in vitro translation (IVT) reaction using a BIOARRAY HighYield RNA transcript labeling kit (Enzo Diagnostics, Inc., Farmingdale N.Y.) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Final labeled product was purified and fragmented using the GENECHIP sample cleanup module (Affymetrix) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Hybridization cocktail was prepared by bringing 5 μg probe to 100 μl in 1× hybridization buffer (100 mM MES, 1 M [Na+], 20 mM EDTA, 0.01% Tween 20), 100 μg/ml herring sperm DNA, 500 μg/ml acetylated BSA, 0.03 nM contol oligo B2 (Affymetrix), and 1× GENECHIP eukaryotic hybridization control (Affymetrix). The cocktail was sequentially incubated at 99° C. for 5 minutes and 45° C. for 5 minutes, and then centrifuged for 5 minutes. The Murine genome MOE430Aplus2 array (Affymetrix) was brought to room temperature and then prehybridized with 1× hybridization buffer at 45° C. for 10 minutes with rotation. The buffer was then replaced with 80 μl hybridization cocktail and the array was hybridized for 16 hours at 45° C. at 60 rpm with counter balance. Following hybridization, arrays were washed once with 6×SSPE, 0.1% Tween 20, and then washed and stained using R-phycoerythrin-conjugated streptavidin (Molecular Probes, Eugene Oreg.), goat anti-streptavidin antibody (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame Calif.), and a GENECHIP Fluidics Station 400 instrument (Affymetrix) according to the manufacturer's EukGE-WS2v4 protocol (Affymetrix). Arrays were analyzed using a GENEARRAY scanner (Affymetrix) and Microarray Suite software (Affymetrix). The Murine Genome MOE430Aplus2 array (Affymetrix) represents all sequences in the Murine UniGene database build 107 (National Center for Biotechnology Information, Bethesda Md.), including approximately 14,000 well-characterized mouse genes. Table 3 below shows ceruloplasmin mRNA expression in mouse kidney following administration of compound A. Data was normalized to the average value of that observed in control non-treated animals. TABLE 3 Ceruloplasmin Condition (relative mRNA levels) Untreated 0.81 CMC control 1.26 Compound A - 4 hours 1.16 Compound A - 8 hours 1.39 Compound A - 16 hours 1.22 Compound A - 24 hours 2.45 Compound A - 48 hours 1.44 Compound A - 72 hours 2.10 Data shown in Table 3 above demonstrated that methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing ceruloplasmin gene expression. Ceruloplasmin, also known as a ferroxidase-1, converts reduced iron released from storage sites (such as ferritin) to the oxidized form. Oxidized iron is able to bind to its plasma transport protein, transferrin. Ceruloplasmin deficiencies are associated with accumulation of iron in liver and other tissues. Evidence indicates that ceruloplasmin promotes efflux of iron from the liver and promotes influx of iron into iron-deficient cells. (See, e.g., Tran et al. (2002) J Nutr 132:351-356.) Table 4 below shows hepcidin mRNA expression in mouse liver following administration of compound A. Data was normalized to that observed in control non-treated animals. TABLE 4 Condition/ Hepcidin Animal Study Time (relative mRNA levels) Control — 1.0 I - multi high dose — 0.275 II - multi high dose — 0.703 II - multi low dose — 0.129 III 4 hour 0.672 III 8 hour 0.305 III 16 hour 0.119 As shown above in Table 4, administration of compound A resulted in reduced expression of hepcidin mRNA in mouse liver. Decreased hepcidin expression is associated with increased iron release from reticuloendothelial cells and increased intestinal iron absorption. Therefore, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for decreasing hepcidin expression and increasing intestinal iron absorption. FIG. 6A shows relative expression levels of the transferrin receptor (gray bars) in kidney, and the gut duodenal iron transporter NRAMP2 (natural-resistance-associated macrophage protein 2) (also known as Slc11a2 (solute carrier family 11, proton-coupled divalent metal ion transporter, member 2), alternatively called DCT1 (divalent cation transporter 1), DMT1 (divalent metal transporter 1)) (black bars). In another experiment, mRNA was isolated from small intestine harvested 4 hours following IV administration of 60 mg/kg compound A, compound B, and compound C to mice. Probes were prepared from each of two animals from 5 treatment groups, and hybridized to Affymetrix mouse MOE430Aplus2 microarrays (one animal per array). Statistical comparisons of data obtained from arrays from treated versus non-treated animals was performed. FIG. 6B shows relative expression levels of NRAMP2 mRNA in small intestine in animals treated with compound A, compound B, and compound C. Expression levels are shown as fold-induction over control, untreated animals for each expressed gene. The results from these experiments indicated that methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing expression of NRAMP2 in intestine. These results further suggested that methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing iron absorption, thereby increasing iron availability for heme synthesis, hemoglobin synthesis, red blood cell production, and erythropoiesis. FIG. 6C shows the fold-induction of 5-aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS-2) expression in treated animals as compared to vehicle control. The data showed that treatment of normal animals with prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors resulted in increased expression of genes involved in iron metabolism, including genes involved in iron absorption from the gut and iron transport in the periphery via transferrin receptors. Expression of these genes returned to baseline (control) levels 16 hours after dosing. The data also showed coordinate expression of ALAS-2, the first enzyme in the heme synthetic pathway and rate-limiting enzyme for heme synthesis, in the indicated tissues after prolyl hydroxylase inhibitor treatment. Together these results showed compounds of the present invention coordinated increases in expression of genes encoding proteins involved in promoting erythropoiesis, including iron absorption, iron transport, and heme synthesis. Alternatively, flow cytometry analysis is used to measure macrophage cell surface marker CD11c and transferrin receptor levels in double immunostained peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Activity is shown for compound treatment by detecting increased macrophage transferrin receptor expression. Also, plasma can be collected and tested for levels of transferrin using a commercially available ELISA kit (see, e.g., KomaBiotech, Korea). Example 18 Enhanced Erythropoiesis in Vivo The effect of administration of the present compounds on erythropoiesis is determined as follows. Normal mice are made anemic and maintained in an anemic state by chronic administration of TNF-α, a regimen known to inhibit erythropoiesis due to lack of EPO production and signaling in response to TNF-α. After inducing anemia over a one- to four-week period, animals are administered prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors. Tissues are examined for BFU-E and CFU-E production, and blood samples are analyzed for composition. Results showing increases in the numbers of BFU-E and CFU-E in the marrow, spleen, and periphery, and/or increases serum hemoglobin, reticulocytes, and hematocrit in animals treated with PHIs demonstrate efficacy. Another experimental animal model is useful for examining the effect of administration of prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors on erythropoiesis. In this model, transgenic mice develop anemia of chronic disease as a result of constitutively over expressing TNF-α. Following onset of anemia in these mice, prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors are administered for various periods of time and using various dosing strategies. Tissue and blood samples are then collected and analyzed. As described above, results showing increases in the numbers of BFU-E and CFU-E in the marrow, spleen and periphery, and/or increased serum hemoglobin, reticulocytes and hematocrit, effectively demonstrate that anemia associated with TNF-α overproduction in transgenic animals is treated by administration of prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors using methods and compounds of the present invention. Example 19 Increasing Serum Iron Levels Male and female rats were treated twice weekly (Monday and Thursday) with various concentrations (0, 20, 60, or 150 mg/kg) of compound A for 93 days. Total serum iron levels were determined. TABLE 5 Serum Iron (□g/dL) Serum Iron (□g/dL) Dose Male Rats (Mean +/− SD) Female Rats (Mean +/− SD) 0 mg/kg 158 +/− 37 342 +/− 91 20 mg/kg 198 +/− 64 505 +/− 41* 60 mg/kg 357 +/− 111* 445 +/− 46* 150 mg/kg 307 +/− 142* 399 +/− 117 As shown in Table 5, administration of compound A increased serum iron levels in both male and female rats. (Data in Table 5 is presented as serum iron levels+/−standard deviation. * indicates a significant difference in serum iron levels from non-treated animals.) These results indicated that methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing serum iron levels, thereby useful for treating disorders associated with iron deficiency. Example 20 Efficacy in Animal Model of Anemia of Chronic Disease/Impaired Erythropoiesis/Impaired Iron Metabolism Anemia of chronic disease (ACD) is associated with various inflammatory conditions, including arthritis, neoplastic disease, and other disorders associated with chronic inflammation. A rat model of ACD was used to examine the effects of HIF stabilization using methods and compounds of the present invention on treating anemia associated with chronic disease. In this animal model, ACD is induced in rats by peptidoglycan-polysaccharide polymers. (See, e.g., Sartor et al. (1989) Infection and Immunity 57:1177-1185.) In this model, animals develop severe, acute anemia in the initial stages, followed by moderately severe chronic microcytic anemia in later stages. Animal Model of ACD—Experimental Series 1: Female Lewis rats of approximately 160 grams were challenged with PG-PS 10S (Lee Laboratories, 15 μg/gm body weight, intra-peritoneal). PG-PS 10S contains purified peptidoglycan-polysaccharide polymers isolated from the cell wall of Streptococcus pyogenes, Group A, D58 strain. Arthritis and anemia were allowed to develop for 35 days. On day 35, blood samples (approximately 400 μl) were taken from the tail vein under general anesthesia (Isoflurane) for CBC and reticulocyte counts (performed by Quality Clinical Labs). Animals with a spun hematocrit level at or above 45% were considered non-anemic and were removed from the study. On day 35 following PG-PS injection, anemic animals received vehicle alone or were treated with compound A (60 mg/kg, PO) for two consecutive days per week for two weeks. Automated complete blood counts (CBC) were measured on day 35 (see above), 39, 42, and 49; serum iron levels were measured on day 49. Reticulocyte Count As shown in FIG. 7, administration of compound A to anemic animals increased reticulocyte count at day 39 (i.e., 5 days after initiation of compound dosing). Reticulocytes levels were approximately 2% and 4% of red cells in control (non-anemic) and anemic (PG-PS treated) animals, respectively. Reticulocyte levels in treated animals, however, were approximately 10% of red cell counts. Compound A treatment increased reticulocyte count in anemic animals. Therefore, compound A stimulated erythropoiesis in a rat animal model of ACD. Hematocrit Hematocrit levels were increased in anemic animals treated with compound A. Hematocrit levels (measured by Baker 9000 at Quality Clinical Labs) in anemic animals (PG-PS treated) were less than 35%, compared to 41% in control non-anemic animals. (See FIG. 8.) Administration of compound A to anemic animals increased hematocrit levels to approximately 37% as early as 5 days after initiation of compound treatment. Following a second dosing of compound A, hematocrit levels increased to approximately 40%, comparable to hematocrit levels observed in control non-anemic animals. Compound A increased hematocrit in anemic animals using a rat model of ACD. Therefore, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing hematocrit and treating anemia of chronic disease. Hemoglobin Compound A administration also increased hemoglobin levels in anemic animals. As shown in FIG. 9, at day 35, control non-anemic animals had hemoglobin levels of approximately 15 gm/dL, whereas hemoglobin levels in PG-PS treated animals (i.e., anemic animals) were approximately 13 gm/dL. As shown in FIG. 9, compound A increased hemoglobin levels in anemic animals as early as 5 days (day 39) following compound administration. Hemoglobin levels remained elevated at day 49, reaching a level comparable to control non-anemic animals, indicating compound of the present invention restored normal hemoglobin levels in anemic animals. These results showed compound A increased hemoglobin in anemic animals using a rat model of ACD. Therefore, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing hemoglobin and treating anemia of chronic disease. Red Blood Cell Count Administration of compound A increased red blood cell count in anemic animals. As shown in FIG. 10, red blood cell counts were increased in anemic animals treated with compound A compared to non-treated anemic animals as early as 5 days after initiation of compound administration (i.e., day 39 in FIG. 10). Compound A increased red blood cell count in anemic animals using a rat model of ACD. Therefore, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing red blood cell count and treating anemia of chronic disease. Mean Corpuscular Volume Anemic animals showed reduced mean corpuscular volume compared to non-anemic control animals. (See FIG. 11.) Anemic animals treated with compound A showed increased mean corpuscular volume as early as 5 days after treatment (day 39 in FIG. 11) compared to non-treated anemic animals. Mean corpuscular volume in treated animals remained elevated compared to non-treated anemic animals over the duration of the experiment. These results showed that compound A improved (i.e., reduced) the level of microcytosis (i.e., microcythemia, the presence of many microcytes, abnormally small red blood cells associated with various forms of anemia). Therefore methods and compounds of the present invention improve/reduce microcytosis in anemia of chronic disease. Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Anemic animals also showed reduced mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels. As shown in FIG. 12, treatment of anemic animals with compound A increased mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels above those observed in non-treated anemic animals. These results indicated that methods and compounds of the present invention are useful to increase mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels. Animal Model of ACD—Experimental Series 2: Female Lewis rats (approximately 150-200 gm) were injected with PG-PS (intraperitoneal). Arthritis and anemia were allowed to develop for 28 days. Animals were administered compound A by oral gavage twice a week (Monday and Thursday) for six weeks, corresponding to days 28, 31, 35, 38, 42, 45, 49, 52, 56, 59, 63, 66, and 70 from PG-PS injection. Whole blood was collected via the tail vein for CBC analysis on days 28, 42, 56, and 70. In addition, serum was collected on day 70 for iron binding analysis. CBC and iron binding analysis were performed by Quality Clinical Labs (Mountain View, Calif.). Hematocrit Hematocrit levels were reduced in animals 28 days following challenge with PG-PS. FIG. 13 shows animals injected with PG-PS were anemic, having a hematocrit of 85% of that in non-challenged (i.e., non-anemic) animals. (Week 0 in FIG. 13 corresponds to day 28 in this experimental protocol.) Non-challenged (i.e., non-anemic) animals treated with compound A (40 mg/kg) showed an increase in hematocrit levels over time, to greater than 110% of that in non-challenged non-treated animals. As shown in FIG. 13, administration of compound A to anemic animals resulted in increased hematocrit levels. Hemoglobin Compound A administration increased hemoglobin levels in both anemic and non-anemic animals. As shown in FIG. 14, hemoglobin levels in non-anemic animals treated with compound A (40 mg/kg) increased to approximately 110% of that in non-treated control animals. (Week 0 in FIG. 14 corresponds to day 28 in this experimental protocol.) In anemic animals, hemoglobin levels increased upon administration twice weekly of 10 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg, or 40 mg/kg compound A. Hematocrit levels continued to increase for at least 4 weeks. Red Blood Cell Count Anemic animals had lower red blood cell counts than non-anemic animals. Specifically, red blood cell counts in anemic animals were less than 90% of that observed in non-anemic animals at 28 days following PG-PS injection. As shown in FIG. 15, red blood cell counts were increased in anemic animals treated with compound A compared to non-treated animals. (Week 0 in FIG. 15 corresponds to day 28 in this experimental protocol.) Increased red blood cell counts were observed at 2 weeks following administration of compound, and continued to increase over the 6 week experimental period. Mean Corpuscular Volume Anemic animals showed reduced mean corpuscular volume compared to non-anemic (no challenge) animals. As shown in FIG. 16, mean corpuscular volume in animals treated with PG-PS continued to decrease over time, indicating the effects of anemia of chronic disease resulted in microcytic anemia (characterized, in part, by lower red cell number and smaller red cells), and the inability to produce hemoglobin due to iron stores being unavailable for utilization. (Week 0 in FIG. 16 corresponds to day 28 in this experimental protocol.) Administration of compound A to anemic animals resulted in reduction of the decrease in mean corpuscular volume. Therefore, inhibition of prolyl hydroxylase using compounds and methods of the present invention was effective at reducing the decrease in mean corpuscular volume associated with anemia of chronic disease and anemia associated with iron deficiency, restoring mean corpuscular volume, maintaining mean corpuscular volume, etc. This data further indicated that methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing iron availability from storage for use in hemoglobin production. Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Anemic animals had decreased mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels compared to control animals, indicating anemia of chronic disease affected hemoglobin production. As shown in FIG. 17, anemic animals administered compound A showed a reduction in the decrease in mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels over time. (Week 0 in FIG. 17 corresponds to day 28 in this experimental protocol.) Iron Status—Serum Iron and Transferrin Saturation Patients with anemia of chronic disease are clinically characterized by reduced plasma iron concentrations and transferrin saturation. The effect of the present compounds on serum iron and transferrin saturation in normal and anemic animals was determined. Using an animal model of anemia of chronic disease, anemia was induced in rats by IP injection of peptidoglycan-polysaccharide polymers, as described above. Arthritis and anemia were allowed to develop for 28 days. Animals were then treated with various concentrations of compound A, twice weekly, for 6 weeks. Serum iron levels and transferrin saturation were determined by Quality Clinical Labs. As shown in FIG. 18A, anemic animals (PG-PS) had lower serum iron levels compared to non-anemic animals (sham). Administration of compound A resulted in increased serum iron levels in both anemic (PG-PS) and non-anemic control (sham) animals. Animals treated with compound A had increased transferrin saturation compared to non-treated non-anemic animals and to non-treated anemic animals. (See FIG. 18B.) These results indicated that methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing serum iron levels and percent transferrin saturation. Iron Absorption At week 6 following administration of compound A in anemic animals (40 mg/kg, twice a week), microarray analysis was performed to examine expression of genes encoding proteins involved with iron transport and absorption in intestine. Microarray analysis was performed using methods described above, using The Rat Genome 230A array (Affymetirx), which represents all sequence in the Rat Unigene database build 99 (National Center for Biotechnology Information, Bethesda, Md.), including approximately 4,699 well-characterized rat genes and approximately 10,467 EST sequences and approximately 700 non-EST sequences. As shown in FIG. 19, administration of compound A to control animals increased intestinal expression of mRNA for NRAMP2 (open bars) and sproutin (solid bars). Non-treated anemic animals (PG-PS) had reduced mRNA expression levels for both NRAMP2 and sproutin. These results indicated that anemia of chronic disease is associated with reduced expression of proteins involved in iron absorption. Anemic animals treated with compound A, however, showed increased expression of both NRAMP2 and sproutin in intestine (FIG. 19). These results indicated that methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for increasing expression of genes associated with iron transport and absorption. Additionally, these results suggested that compounds of the present invention increase iron absorption and transport in healthy subjects and in subjects with anemia of chronic disease. Example 21 Enhanced Erythropoiesis in Human Subjects The effect of prolyl hydroxylase inhibition on erythropoiesis in human subjects was examined as follows. An oral dose of 20 mg/kg of compound A was administered either two or three times per week for four weeks to healthy human volunteers. At various times following compound administration, blood was drawn for analysis of EPO, hemoglobin, hematocrit, red blood cell counts, soluble transferrin receptor, and serum ferritin levels. Reticulocyte Count As shown in FIG. 20, administration of compound A to human subjects increased reticulocyte counts above that of placebo control. Increased reticulocyte counts occurred in subjects administered compound twice or three-times weekly. Reticulocyte levels increased to greater than approximately 1.7% of red blood cells in treated individuals, compared to levels of approximately 1.4% in non-treated individuals. Compound A administration increased reticulocyte counts in human subjects. Therefore, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for enhancing erythropoiesis and thereby increasing reticulocyte levels. Hematocrit Hematocrit levels were increased in human subjects treated with compound A. In human subjects administered compound A twice weekly for three weeks, hematocrit levels were greater than 46% compared to approximately 44% in placebo control subjects. Compound A increased hematocrit in human subjects. Therefore, compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for enhancing erythropoiesis and thereby increasing hematocrit. Red Blood Cell Count Administration of compound A increased red blood cell count in human subjects. As shown in FIG. 21, red blood cell counts were increased in human subjects treated with 20 mg/kg compound A, either twice weekly or three-times per week, compared to non-treated placebo control subjects. These data indicated that methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for enhancing erythropoiesis and thereby increasing red blood cell count. Iron Status—Soluble Transferrin Receptor and Serum Ferritin Results shown above indicated methods and compounds of the present invention are effective at increasing reticulocyte count, red blood cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit in human subjects. As shown in FIG. 22, administration of compound A to human subjects increased soluble transferrin receptor levels above that observed in non-treated control subjects. Increased soluble transferrin levels were observed human subjects treated twice or three-times weekly. A maximum response of 35% and 31% was observed on day 21 in patients treated 2-times and 3-times per week, respectively. Mean plasma concentrations of sTfR in placebo patients was unchanged. Additionally, serum ferritin levels decreased approximately 46% in human subject treated with compound A, indicative of increased iron utilization in these subjects. (See FIG. 23.) Taken together, these data indicated that HIF stablization using compounds and methods of the present invention resulted in increased mobilization of iron stores, increased transport of iron to bone marrow, and increased utilization of iron for hemoglobin synthesis, erythropoiesis, and red cell production. Various modifications of the invention, in addition to those shown and described herein, will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description. Such modifications are intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims. All references cited herein are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. | <SOH> FIELD OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to methods and compounds for regulating or enhancing erthropoiesis and iron metabolism, and for treating or preventing iron deficiency and anemia of chronic disease. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to methods and compounds for inducing enhanced or complete erythropoiesis in a subject. In particular, the methods comprise inducing enhanced or complete erythropoiesis by stabilizing HIFα in a subject. Methods of inducing enhanced erythropoiesis by inhibiting HIF prolyl hydroxylase are specifically contemplated. In specific embodiments, the methods comprise administering to a subject a compound of the invention. In various embodiments, the subject can be a cell, tissue, organ, organ system, or whole organism. The subject is, in various embodiments, a cell, tissue, organ, organ system, or whole organism. In particular embodiments, the organism is a mammal, preferably, a human. In one aspect, the method increases the production of factors required for differentiation of erythrocytes from hematopoietic progenitor cells including, e.g., hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), CFU-GEMM (colony-forming-unit-granulocyte/erythroid/monocyte/megakaryocyte) cells, etc. Factors that stimulate erythropoiesis include, but are not limited to, erythropoietin. In another aspect, the methods increase the production of factors required for iron uptake, transport, and utilization. Such factors include, but are not limited to, erythroid aminolevulinate synthase, transferrin, transferrin receptor, ceruloplasmin, etc. In yet another aspect, the method increases factors required for differentiation of erythrocytes and additionally factors required for iron uptake, transport, and utilization. In another embodiment, the methods of the invention enhance responsiveness of hematopoietic precursors to erythropoietin. As described above, such precursors include HSCs, CFU-GEMMs, etc. The responsiveness of the precursor cells can be augmented, e.g., by altering expression of erythropoietin receptors, intracellular factors involved in erythropoietin signaling, and secreted factors that facilitate interaction of erythropoietin with the receptors. In another aspect, the methods can be used to overcome inhibition of erythropoiesis induced by inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and the like. In particular aspects, the methods can be used to treat anemia that is refractive to treatment with exogenously administered erythropoietin. Such anemia can be caused, e.g., by chronic inflammatory or autoimmune disorders including, but not limited to, chronic bacterial endocarditis, osteomyelitis, rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis. In certain embodiments, the methods of the invention can be used to treat anemia of chronic disease. Methods for inducing enhanced or complete erythropoiesis in patients with anemia of chronic disease are specifically provided. In particular embodiments, the methods increase the amount of iron available to make new red blood cells. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods for enhancing EPO responsiveness of the bone marrow. Methods for inhibiting TNFα suppression of EPO are specifically provided, as are methods for inhibiting IL-1β suppression of EPO. The present invention relates to methods for the treatment/prevention of anemia of chronic disease, and methods for regulation of iron processing and treatment/prevention of conditions associated with deficiencies in iron and/or iron processing. In one aspect, the invention provides a method for treating anemia of chronic disease in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), thereby treating anemia of chronic disease in the subject. Methods for achieving specific physiological effects in a subject having anemia of chronic disease are also provided; in particular, methods for increasing reticulocytes, increasing mean corpuscular cell volume, increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin, increasing hematocrit, increasing hemoglobin, and increasing red blood cell count, etc., in a subject having anemia of chronic disease, each method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), thereby achieving the desired physiological effect. In various aspects, the anemia of chronic disease is associated with, e.g., inflammation, autoimmune disease, iron deficiency, microcytosis, malignancy, etc. In various embodiments, the subject is a cell, tissue, or organ. In other embodiments, the subject is an animal, preferably a mammal, most preferably a human. When the subject is a cell, the invention specifically contemplates that the cell can be an isolated cell, either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. In the case that the subject is a tissue, the invention specifically contemplates both endogenous tissues and in vitro tissues, e.g., tissues grown in culture. In preferred embodiments, the subject is an animal, particularly, an animal of mammalian species including rat, rabbit, bovine, ovine, porcine, murine, equine, and primate species. In a most preferred embodiment, the subject is human. Stabilization of HIFα can be accomplished by any of the methods available to and known by those of skill in the art, and can involve use of any agent that interacts with, binds to, or modifies HIFα or factors that interact with HIFα, including, e.g., enzymes for which HIFα is a substrate. In certain aspects, the present invention contemplates providing a constitutively stable HIFα variant, e.g., stable HIF muteins, etc, or a polynucleotide encoding such a variant. In other aspects, the present invention contemplates that stabilizing HIFα comprises administering an agent that stabilizes HIFα. The agent can be composed of polynucleotides, e.g. antisense sequences; polypeptides; antibodies; other proteins; carbohydrates; fats; lipids; and organic and inorganic substances, e.g., small molecules, etc. In a preferred embodiment, the present invention contemplates stabilizing HIFα, e.g., in a subject, by administering to the subject an agent that stabilizes HIFα wherein the agent is a compound, e.g., small molecule compound, etc., that stabilizes HIFα. In various aspects, HIFα is HIF1α, HIF2α, or HIF3α. In a preferred aspect, stabilizing HIFα comprises administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that inhibits HIF hydroxylase activity. In certain aspects, the HIF hydroxylase is selected from the group consisting of EGLN1, EGLN2, and EGLN3. In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for increasing mean corpuscular volume in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method for increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In another embodiment, the present invention encompasses a method for reducing microcytosis in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). The invention further provides a method for treating or preventing microcytic anemia, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In one aspect, the invention relates to a method for treating or preventing a condition associated with iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In a particular aspect, the invention provides a method for improving iron processing in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). A method for treating or preventing a condition associated with compromised iron availability in a subject is also provided, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In other embodiments, the invention relates to a method for overcoming cytokine-induced effects in a subject. In particular, the invention provides in one aspect a method for overcoming cytokine-suppression of EPO production in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). The invention further provides a method for overcoming cytokine-suppression of iron availability in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In another aspect, the present invention encompasses a method for treating or preventing cytokine-associated anemia in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). Methods for increasing EPO production in the presence of a cytokine in a subject, the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), are also provided. In specific embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α and IL-1β. In one aspect, the invention provides a method for reducing cytokine-induced VCAM expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In a specific aspect, the cytokine is TNF-α or IL-1β. In one aspect, the method applies to reduction of cytokine-induced VCAM expression in endothelial cells in the subject. In another aspect, the subject has a condition selected from the group consisting of inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, and anemia of chronic disease. In another aspect, the invention provides a method for reducing cytokine-induced E-selectin expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor. In a specific aspect, the cytokine is TNF-α or IL-1β. In one aspect, the method applies to reduction of cytokine induced E-selectin expression in endothelial cells in the subject. In another aspect, the subject has a condition selected from the group consisting of inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, and anemia of chronic disease. The invention provides various methods of regulating/enhancing iron processing and iron metabolism. In one aspect, the invention provides methods for increasing iron transport, uptake, utilization, and absorption in a subject, each of the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In particular embodiments, the invention provides methods for increasing transferrin expression, transferrin receptor expression, IRP-2 expression, ferritin expression, ceruloplasmin expression, NRAMP2 expression, sproutin expression, and ALAS-2 expression in a subject, each method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In other embodiments, the invention provides methods for decreasing hepcidin expression, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). Methods for increasing heme synthesis in a subject by administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) are also provided. In certain aspects, the invention contemplates methods for increasing serum iron, increasing transferrin saturation, increasing soluble transferrin receptor levels, and increasing serum ferritin levels in a subject, the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In a further aspect, the invention provides a method for increasing iron transport to bone marrow in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). In one aspect, the present methods are applied to treatment of or manufacture of a medicament for a subject, preferably a human subject, having any of the disorders and conditions discussed herein. It is to be understood that various parameters associated with clinical conditions vary according to age, gender, etc. In one aspect, the subject has a serum ferritin level below normal range, e.g., below 50-200 μg/L; thus, a subject having serum ferritin levels below 200 ng/ml, below 150 ng/ml, below 100 ng/ml, below 75 ng/ml, and below 50 ng/ml could be a suitable subject for treatment with the methods or use of medicaments provided by the present invention. Alternatively, a suitable subject could be identified by demonstrating a total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) of less than normal range, e.g., less than TIBC 300-360 μg/dL. In another embodiment, the subject has a serum iron level below the normal range, e.g., below serum iron levels of 50-150 μg/dL. Other appropriate parameters for identifying suitable subjects include transferrin saturation measurements of below 30-50%, marrow sideroblast measurements of below 40-60%, and hemoglobin levels of below about 10 to 11 g/dL. Any of the above parameters are measured, e.g., as in standard hematological tests, blood chemistry and complete blood count (CBC) analysis, typically presented as a measurement of several blood parameters, and obtained, e.g., by analysis of blood by an automated instrument which measures, for example, red blood cell count, white blood cell count, platelet count, and red cell indices. Measurement may be by any standard means of measurement of hematological and/or biochemical blood analysis, including, e.g., automated systems such as the CELL DYN 4000 analyzer (Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park Ill.), the Coulter GenS analyzer (Beckman Coulter, Inc., Fullerton Calif.), the Bayer ADVIA 120 analyzer (Bayer Healthcare AG, Leverkusen, Germany), etc. In one aspect, the invention encompasses a method for treating or preventing iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing iron deficiency in the subject. In further aspects, the iron deficiency is functional iron deficiency; is associated with anemia; is associated with a disorder selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, infection, immunodeficiency disorder, and neoplastic disorder; or is associated with a disorder selected from the group consisting of anemia of chronic disease, iron deficiency anemia (IDA), and microcytic anemia. A subject of the invention could be a subject with any clinically accepted standard measurement indicative of iron deficiency or of a risk for developing iron deficiency. For example, in certain embodiments, the subject has low serum ferritin levels (<20 ng/ml), or reduced % transferrin saturation, e.g., less than 16% (in adults). Serum ferritin levels of below 50 ng/ml, below 40 ng/ml, below 30 ng/ml, and below 20 ng/ml are specifically contemplated. It is noted that if the subject has or is at risk for having an iron deficiency that is functional iron deficiency, the serum ferritin levels could be increased above normal range, e.g., 200 ng/ml and above. Iron deficiency can be observed through onset of iron-restricted/iron-deficient erythropoiesis (impairment of hemoglobin synthesis that is observed typically when % transferrin saturation falls below 15 to 20%). These iron parameters can be measured using any standard CBC or biochemical analysis described above, and/or by use of automated devices more specifically directed to iron analysis, e.g., the Unimate 5 Iron and Unimate 7 UIBC kits (Roche, Switzerland). A subject that might benefit from the present methods of treating or preventing could be a subject having or at risk for having iron deficiency anemia; for example, a subject having a transferrin saturation % of 10-15% or of below 10%. In one aspect, the subject having or at risk for having iron deficiency has or is at risk for having functional iron deficiency. A reticulocyte hemoglobin content of less than 28 picograms/cell could be indicative of such a condition. In another aspect, the subject having or at risk for having functional iron deficiency displays greater than 5% hypochromic red cells. In certain embodiments, the subject is one having or at risk for having anemia of chronic disease. Such a subject could display mild or moderate anemia, e.g., hemoglobin levels of around 10-13 g/dL, or, more particularly, 10-11 g/dL. In other embodiments, more acute anemia is displayed, e.g., hemoglobin levels below 10 g/dL, including levels below 5 g/dL, and levels below 3 g/dL. In some embodiments, the subject having or at risk for having anemia of chronic disease displays abnormalities in iron distribution. Such abnormalities could be, e.g., serum iron levels below around 60 μg/dL, or serum ferritin levels above normal range, e.g., of above 200 ng/ml, above 300 ng/ml, or above 400 ng/ml. In certain aspects, the subject could have or be at risk for having microcytic anemia. Such a subject may, for example, demonstrate a mean corpuscular volume of less than 80 femtoliters measured, e.g., as part of complete blood count analysis. In other aspects, the subject has a mean corpuscular volume of less than the normal value of 90+/−8 femtoliters. The subject can have, in various aspects, a reduced mean cell hemoglobin count, for example, a mean cell hemoglobin count of less than 30+/−3 picograms of hemoglobin/cell; or a reduced mean cell hemoglobin concentration, e.g., a mean cell hemoglobin concentration of less than 33+/−2%. A method for treating or preventing functional iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing functional iron deficiency, is also provided. In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method for regulating or enhancing iron metabolism or an iron metabolic process in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby regulating or enhancing iron metabolism or the iron metabolic process in the subject. In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for regulating or enhancing an iron metabolic process selected from the group consisting of iron uptake, iron absorption, iron transport, iron storage, iron processing, iron mobilization, and iron utilization, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby regulating or enhancing the iron metabolic process in the subject. A method for increasing iron absorption in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron absorption in the subject, is also provided herein. In certain aspects, the iron absorption is in the intestine; is absorption of dietary iron; or is in duodenal enterocytes. The following methods are also contemplated herein: a method for increasing iron transport in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron transport in the subject; a method for increasing iron storage in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron storage in the subject; a method for increasing iron uptake in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron uptake in the subject; a method for increasing iron processing in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron processing in the subject; a method for increasing iron mobilization in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron mobilization in the subject; and a method for increasing iron utilization in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron utilization in the subject. In one embodiment, the invention contemplates a method for increasing iron availability for erythropoiesis in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing iron availability for erythropoesis in the subject. In various embodiments, the increasing iron availability for erythropoiesis is increasing iron availability for heme synthesis; is increasing iron availability for hemoglobin production; or is increasing iron availability for red blood cell production. The invention further provides methods for regulating expression of iron regulatory factors in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby regulating expression of iron metabolic factors in the subject. Methods for increasing expression of certain iron regulatory factors are encompassed herein, including: a method for increasing transferrin receptor expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin receptor expression in the subject; a method for increasing transferrin expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin expression in the subject; a method for increasing ceruloplasmin expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing ceruloplasmin expression in the subject; a method for increasing NRAMP2 (slc11a2) expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing NRAMP2 expression in the subject; a method for increasing duodenal cytochrome b reductase 1 expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing duodenal cytochrome b reductase 1 expression in the subject; and a method for increasing 5-aminolevulinate synthase expression in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing 5-aminolevulinate synthase expression in the subject. In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for increasing serum iron in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing serum iron in the subject. In certain embodiments, the subject is a human, and the serum iron levels are increased to a value between 50 to 150 μg/dL. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods for increasing total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) in a subject. The method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing TIBC in the subject. In a preferred aspect, the subject is a human and the total iron-binding capacity is increased to a value between 300 to 360 μg/dL. Methods and compounds for modulating serum ferritin levels in a subject are provided. In a certain embodiment, the subject is a human, and the serum ferritin levels are increased above 15 μg/L. In a further embodiment, the subject is a human adult male, and the serum ferritin level is increased to a value of about 100 μg/L. In another embodiment, the subject is a human adult female, and the serum ferritin level is increased to a level of about 30 μg/L. In one aspect, the invention includes a method for increasing transferrin saturation in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin saturation in the subject. In one aspect, the transferrin saturation is increased above a level selected from the group consisting of 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%. The present invention encompasses methods for increasing percent transferrin saturation in a subject. In one embodiment, the subject is a human and the percent transferrin saturation is increased to a value above 18%. In another embodiment, the percent transferrin saturation is increased to a value between 25 to 50%. Percent transferrin is typically calculated using the formula: (serum iron)(100)/(TIBC). Methods for increasing soluble transferrin receptor levels in a subject, the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing soluble transferrin receptor levels in the subject, are also provided. The invention further provides methods for increasing total erythroid marrow mass as measured by, e.g., serum transferrin receptor levels. In one aspect, the subject is human and the serum transferrin receptor level is increased to 4 to 9 μg/L as determined by immunoassay. A method for decreasing hepcidin expression in a subject is provided, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby decreasing hepcidin expression in the subject. In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for treating or preventing a disorder associated with iron deficiency in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing the disorder associated with iron deficiency in the subject. In one embodiment, the iron deficiency is functional iron deficiency. In various embodiments, the disorder is selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder; or is selected from the group consisting of anemia of chronic disease, iron deficiency anemia, and microcytic anemia. The invention provides a method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject having or at risk for having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. It is contemplated in a certain aspect that the iron deficiency is functional iron deficiency. The invention further provides a method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject, wherein the subject has or is at risk for having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. In various aspects, the chronic disease is selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder. A method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject, wherein the subject has or is at risk for having anemia of chronic disease, is additionally provided, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. In one embodiment, the invention encompasses a method for enhancing erythropoiesis in a subject wherein the subject is refractory to EPO therapy, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby enhancing erythropoiesis in the subject. A method for treating or preventing anemia of chronic disease in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing anemia of chronic disease in the subject, is also provided. It is contemplated in certain aspects that the anemia of chronic disease is associated with a condition selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder. The invention specifically contemplates the following: a method for increasing reticulocytes in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing reticulocytes in the subject; a method for increasing hematocrit in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hematocrit in the subject; a method for increasing hemoglobin in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing red blood cell count in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing red blood cell count in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular volume in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular volume in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing serum iron in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing serum iron in the subject; and a method for increasing transferrin saturation in a subject having a chronic disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin saturation in the subject. In any one of these methods, the chronic disease is in certain embodiments selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency disorder, and a neoplastic disorder; or is selected from the group consisting of anemia of chronic disease, anemia of iron deficiency, iron deficiency, functional iron deficiency, and microcytic anemia. The following methods are additionally provided: a method for increasing reticulocytes in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing reticulocytes in the subject; a method for increasing hematocrit in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hematocrit in the subject; a method for increasing hemoglobin in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing red blood cell count in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing red blood cell count in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular volume in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular volume in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing serum iron in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing serum iron in the subject; and a method for increasing transferrin saturation in a subject having iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin saturation in the subject. In any one of these methods, the iron deficiency in certain embodiments is functional iron deficiency. The following methods are further contemplated: a method for increasing reticulocytes in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing reticulocytes in the subject; a method for increasing hematocrit in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hematocrit in the subject; a method for increasing hemoglobin in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing red blood cell count in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing red blood cell count in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular volume in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular volume in the subject; a method for increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing mean corpuscular hemoglobin in the subject; a method for increasing serum iron in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing serum iron in the subject; and a method for increasing transferrin saturation in a subject having functional iron deficiency, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing transferrin saturation in the subject. In one aspect, the invention includes a method for overcoming or ameliorating the consequences of a cytokine-induced impairment of erythropoiesis in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby overcoming or ameliorating the consequences of the cytokine-induced impairment of erythropoiesis in the subject. In various aspects, the cytokine-induced impairment of erythropoiesis is suppression of EPO production; or impairment of iron metabolism. In any of the above-described methods, the cytokine is an inflammatory cytokine. In further embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. Methods for decreasing cytokine induction of VCAM-1 expression or/and E-selectin expression are also provided, the methods comprising administering to a subject in need an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thus decreasing cytokine induction of VCAM-1 expression or/and E-selectin expression. In any of the above-described methods, the cytokine is an inflammatory cytokine. In further embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. Methods for treating or preventing a disorder associated with cytokine activity in a subject, wherein the disorder is selected from the group consisting of iron deficiency, functional iron deficiency, iron deficiency anemia, anemia of chronic disease, and micocytic anemia, are provided herein, the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing the disorder associated with cytokine activity. In any of the above-described methods, the cytokine is an inflammatory cytokine. In further embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. Methods for treating or preventing a disorder associated with cytokine activity in a subject, wherein the disorder is associated with a condition selected from the group consisting of an inflammation, an infection, an immunodeficiency, and a neoplastic disorder, the methods comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing the disorder associated with cytokine activity, are also provided. In any of the above-described methods, the cytokine is an inflammatory cytokine. In further embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. In one aspect, the invention encompasses a method for increasing EPO production in the presence of a cytokine in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby increasing EPO production in the subject. A method for treating or preventing microcytosis in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα, thereby treating or preventing microcytosis in a subject, is also provided herein. In further aspects, the microcytosis is associated with a disorder selected from the group consisting of chronic disease, anemia of chronic disease, iron deficiency, functional iron deficiency, and anemia of iron deficiency. In any of the above-described methods, the cytokine is an inflammatory cytokine. In further embodiments, the cytokine is selected from the group consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ. In any of the present methods for treating or preventing, it is contemplated that a compound of the invention can be administered as part of a combinatorial therapy, additionally comprising administration of another therapeutic agent, for example, EPO, iron, and vitamins, e.g., B vitamins, etc. A kit, comprising a compound that stabilizes HIFα and at least one other supplement is provided herein. In one aspect, the supplement is selected from the group consisting of erythropoietin, iron, and B vitamins, is provided herein, as is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound that stablizes HIFα and at least one supplement selected from the group consisting of erythropoietin, iron, and B vitamins. The present invention provides compounds and methods for treating or preventing anemia of chronic disease, wherein the anemia of chronic disease is associated with increased cytokine levels. In particular, the invention provides methods and compounds for use in overcoming or ameliorating the consequences of cytokine-induced effects in a subject having increased cytokine levels, e.g., cytokine suppression of EPO production, cytokine-induced expression of various cell adhesion factors, etc. In one embodiment, the invention provides methods and compounds for overcoming cytokine suppression of EPO production. These methods and compounds are useful in overcoming TNFα and/or IL-1β suppression of EPO production, as measured, e.g., by the ability to overcome TNFα and/or IL-1β suppression of EPO production in cultured Hep3B cells. In one embodiment, the invention provides methods and compounds for reducing cytokine-induced increase in expression of various cell adhesion factors. The methods and compounds can be used to overcome TNFα, IL-1β, and IFN-γ-induced increases in expression of endothelial cell adhesion factors, e.g., VCAM-1 and E-selectin, as measured by, e.g., a decrease in expression level of VCAM-1 or E-selectin in endothelial cells (HUVEC, etc.). The invention provides methods and compounds for treating or preventing iron deficiency in a subject. In particular, the present methods and compounds can be used to enhance iron metabolism, or to treat or prevent diseases and disorders associated with impaired iron metabolism, e.g., impaired iron uptake, storage, processing, transport, mobilization, and utilization, etc. In one aspect, the methods and compounds modulate expression of factors involved in iron metabolism, e.g., transport, utilization, storage, etc. For example, the methods and compounds increase expression of transferrin receptor, as measured by, e.g., increased expression of transferrin receptor in liver cells (e.g., Hep3B, HepG2), kidney cells (e.g., HK-2), or lymphocytes (e.g., THP-1), or by increased soluble transferrin receptor levels in human subjects. The present methods and compounds increase ceruloplasmin gene expression, as measured, e.g., by increased gene expression in mouse kidney and in Hep3B cells. In one aspect, the invention provides methods and compounds that decrease hepcidin gene expression, for example, as measured by reduced gene expression of hepcidin in mouse liver. In a further aspect, methods and compounds of the present invention are used to increase expression of factors including NRAMP2, duodenal cytochrome b reductase 1, etc., as measured, e.g., by increased gene expression in mouse intestine. The present methods and compounds increase expression of 5-aminolevulinate synthase, the first enzyme in the heme synthetic pathway and rate-limiting enzyme for heme synthesis, as measured, e.g., by increased gene expression in mouse intestine. The present methods and compounds can be used to enhance iron metabolism. In particular, the present methods and compounds enhance iron metabolism, as measured by, e.g., increased serum iron levels, increased percent transferrin saturation, and reduced microcytosis in a rat model of impaired iron metabolism. The present invention provides methods and compounds for inducing enhanced erythropoiesis. In particular, the present methods and compounds enhance erythropoiesis, e.g., as measured by increases in reticulocyte count, hematocrit, and red blood cell count, in a rat model of impaired erythropoiesis and in human subjects, or as measured by, e.g., increased hemoglobin levels in a rat model of impaired erythropoiesis. The present methods and compounds reduce microcytosis as measured, e.g., by increased mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels and increased mean corpuscular volume in a rat model of impaired erythropoiesis. The present methods comprise administering to a subject an effective amount of a compound that stabilizes HIFα. Such stabilization can be through, e.g., inhibition of HIF hydroxylase activity. A preferred compound of the invention is a compound that inhibits HIF prolyl hydroxylase activity. The inhibition can be direct or indirect, can be competitive or non-competitive, etc. In various embodiments, a compound of the invention is selected from the group consisting of 2-oxoglutarate mimetics, iron chelators, and proline analogs. In one aspect, a 2-oxoglutarate mimetic is a heterocyclic carbonyl glycine of Formula I, Ia, or Ib. In another aspect, an iron chelator is a hydroxamic acid of Formula III. In particular embodiments, as exemplified herein, the compound is Compound D. Exemplary compounds of the invention include [(1-Chloro-4-hydroxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid (compound A), [(4-Hydroxy-7-phenoxy-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid (compound B), [(4-Hydroxy-7-phenylsulfanyl-isoquinoline-3-carbonyl)-amino]-acetic acid (compound C), and 3-{[4-(3,3-Dibenzyl-ureido)-benzenesulfonyl]-[2-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-ethyl]-amino}-N-hydroxy-propionamide (compound D). Additional compounds according to the present invention and methods for identifying additional compounds of the present invention are provided, infra. | 20040603 | 20131224 | 20050127 | 66768.0 | 1 | SCHMITT, MICHAEL J | Enhanced erythropoiesis and iron metabolism | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,861,773 | ACCEPTED | System and method for communication between machine controllers | A communication system and a method for data exchange between machine controllers, in particular machine controllers of knitting machines, are described. The communication system and method use for communication a standard e-mail application protocol, so that any form of e-mail can be automatically transmitted by a mail client from one machine to another machine. This is particularly advantageous when one machine fails and the order processed by that machine must be forwarded by e-mail to another machine for further processing. | 1. A communication system for communication between machine controllers, in particular machine controllers for knitting machines, comprising: a network device connecting the machine controllers with each other, and a message transmission unit operating according to an e-mail standard, for transmitting e-mail messages between two or more of the machine controllers via the network device. 2. The communication system of claim 1, further comprising a computer device configured as a mail client and connected via the network device with the machine controllers. 3. The communication system of claim 1, further comprising a mail server that is integrated with the network device. 4. The communication system of claim 2, further comprising a mail server that is integrated with the network device, wherein an e-mail message is transmitted from a first machine controller to a second machine controller via the mail server and the computer device. 5. The communication system of claim 2, wherein the computer device automatically determines a recipient of an e-mail message. 6. The communication system of claim 1, wherein the e-mail message includes state information, command information or a knitting pattern. 7. The communication system of claim 1, wherein the e-mail standard includes a standard selected from 821/SMTP, 822/text messages, and 1939/POP3. 8. A method for communication between machine controllers, in particular machine controllers for knitting machines, comprising transmitting messages conforming to an e-mail standard via a network device that connects the machine controllers with each other. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein an e-mail message is transmitted from a first machine controller to a second machine controller via a mail server and a mail client. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the mail client automatically determines a recipient of an e-mail message. 11. The method of claim 9, wherein the e-mail message transmits state information, command information or a knitting pattern. 12. The method of claim 8, wherein the e-mail standard includes a standard selected from 821/SMTP, 822/text messages, and 1939/POP3. | CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the priority of German Patent Application, Serial No. 103 25 466.8, filed Jun. 5, 2003, pursuant to 35 U.S.C. 119(a)-(d), the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a communication system for communication between machine controllers, in particular machine controllers for knitting machines, that are connected by a network. The present invention also relates to a method for communicating between such machine controllers. It is known to connect several machines, such as knitting machines, and/or the controllers of such machines via a communication network. The data exchange and the interaction between the machine controllers themselves and between a machine controller and one or more host computers is typically based on proprietary controllers and protocols. Examples of such proprietary controllers are BARCO-Vision, Oricontrol (Orizio), and Selan (Stoll/Flachstricken). These controllers use exclusively LAN or fieldbus technology, which disadvantageously requires complex programming and lacks an intuitive interface. It would therefore be desirable to provide an improved communication and configuration between machine controllers, in particular controllers for knitting machines, to obviate prior art shortcomings and to provide a more user-friendly interface. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to one aspect of the invention, a communication system for communication between machine controllers, in particular machine controllers for knitting machines, includes a network device connecting the machine controllers with each other, and a message transmission unit operating according to an e-mail standard, for transmitting e-mail messages between two or more of the machine controllers via the network device. According to another aspect of the invention, a method for communicating between machine controllers, in particular machine controllers for knitting machines, includes the act of transmitting messages conforming to an e-mail standard via a network device that connects the machine controllers with each other. By using a standard e-mail application protocol conforming to the RFC standard (821/SMTP, 822/text messages, 1939/POP3) between the individual controllers and the host computer(s), a large number of widely used and standardized mail-client programs is available. Accordingly, the data paths and the interactions between the machine controllers can be configured flexibly and cost-effectively using standard software. The controllers and/or a supervisory/master control system typically do not have to know or provide details of the configuration. According to one advantageous embodiment of the invention, the communication system can further include a computer device configured as a mail client and connected via the network device with the machine controllers. By setting corresponding rules in the mail client and by defining corresponding fields, for example fields relating to topics and subject headings in the e-mail, the data exchange and interaction from and to the controllers can be easily configured. Advantageously, a mail server can be integrated with the network device. The communication system can then be configured so that e-mail is transmitted from a first machine controller to a second machine controller via the mail server and the computer device that is configured as a mail client. This in turn makes it possible for the computer device to automatically determine the recipient of the e-mail based on the rules defined in the computer device. According to another advantageous embodiment of the invention, the e-mail message can includes state information of the machines, command information and/or a knitting pattern. For example, in the event that a knitting machine fails, an order that is processed on that particular knitting machine can then be automatically transmitted to another knitting machine. The knitting machine receiving the e-mail message can either accept and process the order, or can indicate in a return e-mail that it is not configured to process the order. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING Other features and advantages of the present invention will be more readily apparent upon reading the following description of currently preferred exemplified embodiments of the invention with reference to the accompanying drawing, in which the sole FIGURE shows schematically a communication system with machine controllers communicating via a mail server. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The depicted embodiment is to be understood as illustrative of the invention and not as limiting in any way. It should also be understood that the drawings are not necessarily to scale and that the embodiments are sometimes illustrated by graphic symbols, phantom lines, diagrammatic representations and fragmentary views. In certain instances, details which are not necessary for an understanding of the present invention or which render other details difficult to perceive may have been omitted. Turning now to the sole FIGURE, there is shown a communication system with several machines or machine controllers 1, 2, 3 . . . n that are connected with each other by a communication network 4. Also connected to the communication network 4 is a control system 5 for, for example, placing orders with the various machines 1, 2, 3 . . . n. The machines 1, 2, 3 . . . n communicate over the network 4 by using a standardized e-mail application protocol, for example a protocol according to the RFC standards 821/SMTP, 822/text messages, and 1939/POP3. A mail server 6 that is integrated in the network 4 supports the communication. To facilitate communication, one or more host computers serving as mail clients are also connected to the communication network 4. The communication system makes it possible to automatically compensate for a failure of one of the knitting machines 1, 2, 3 . . . n. This will now be described in detail with reference to the following example: Assuming that an order for machine 1 must be processed with a high priority. If this machine 1 fails, for example due to a mechanical or electrical defect, then another suitable machine, in this example machine 2, must interrupt processing of its present order and take over the order processed on machine 1, with the knitting pattern from machine 1. It will be understood that this may be possible only if machine 2 has the same configuration as the machine 1, or has at least access to the same supplies. After the machine 1 has failed, it sends, for example, an e-mail with the subject heading “PATTERN DROP OUT”, which indicates a pattern failure. The actual pattern can be sent together with the e-mail or appended to the e-mail. The transmission of the e-mail from machine 1 is indicated in the FIGURE as process step 10. As indicated by the arrow 13 in the FIGURE, the e-mail is sent via the mail server 6 to a mail client 7 which can be a host PC. The following rule is stored in the mail client 7: if e-mail is received from machine 1 (or from any other machine) with a subject heading “PATTERN DROP OUT”, then this e-mail, including the appended pattern, is automatically forwarded to the machine 2 (or to a machine other than the machine that sent the e-mail) . The forwarding step is indicated in the FIGURE as step 11, and the e-mail is transmitted via the mail server 6 to the machine 2, as indicated by arrow 14. The machine 2 receives the e-mail in step 12 and interprets the received e-mail with the subject heading “PATTERN DROP OUT” as a new order. The machine 2 then uses the pattern included in or appended to the e-mail as a new working pattern. Other parameters, such as a specified quantity etc., can also be transmitted in the same e-mail or in another e-mail. In this way, data paths between the machines and interaction between the machines can be configured flexibly and cost-effectively using standard e-mail software. Advantageously, the machines need not be aware of each other's presence. While the invention has been illustrated and described in connection with currently preferred embodiments shown and described in detail, it is not intended to be limited to the details shown since various modifications and structural changes may be made without departing in any way from the spirit of the present invention. The embodiments were chosen and described in order to best explain the principles of the invention and practical application to thereby enable a person skilled in the art to best utilize the invention and various embodiments with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. What is claimed as new and desired to be protected by Letters Patent is set forth in the appended claims and includes equivalents of the elements recited therein: | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a communication system for communication between machine controllers, in particular machine controllers for knitting machines, that are connected by a network. The present invention also relates to a method for communicating between such machine controllers. It is known to connect several machines, such as knitting machines, and/or the controllers of such machines via a communication network. The data exchange and the interaction between the machine controllers themselves and between a machine controller and one or more host computers is typically based on proprietary controllers and protocols. Examples of such proprietary controllers are BARCO-Vision, Oricontrol (Orizio), and Selan (Stoll/Flachstricken). These controllers use exclusively LAN or fieldbus technology, which disadvantageously requires complex programming and lacks an intuitive interface. It would therefore be desirable to provide an improved communication and configuration between machine controllers, in particular controllers for knitting machines, to obviate prior art shortcomings and to provide a more user-friendly interface. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to one aspect of the invention, a communication system for communication between machine controllers, in particular machine controllers for knitting machines, includes a network device connecting the machine controllers with each other, and a message transmission unit operating according to an e-mail standard, for transmitting e-mail messages between two or more of the machine controllers via the network device. According to another aspect of the invention, a method for communicating between machine controllers, in particular machine controllers for knitting machines, includes the act of transmitting messages conforming to an e-mail standard via a network device that connects the machine controllers with each other. By using a standard e-mail application protocol conforming to the RFC standard (821/SMTP, 822/text messages, 1939/POP3) between the individual controllers and the host computer(s), a large number of widely used and standardized mail-client programs is available. Accordingly, the data paths and the interactions between the machine controllers can be configured flexibly and cost-effectively using standard software. The controllers and/or a supervisory/master control system typically do not have to know or provide details of the configuration. According to one advantageous embodiment of the invention, the communication system can further include a computer device configured as a mail client and connected via the network device with the machine controllers. By setting corresponding rules in the mail client and by defining corresponding fields, for example fields relating to topics and subject headings in the e-mail, the data exchange and interaction from and to the controllers can be easily configured. Advantageously, a mail server can be integrated with the network device. The communication system can then be configured so that e-mail is transmitted from a first machine controller to a second machine controller via the mail server and the computer device that is configured as a mail client. This in turn makes it possible for the computer device to automatically determine the recipient of the e-mail based on the rules defined in the computer device. According to another advantageous embodiment of the invention, the e-mail message can includes state information of the machines, command information and/or a knitting pattern. For example, in the event that a knitting machine fails, an order that is processed on that particular knitting machine can then be automatically transmitted to another knitting machine. The knitting machine receiving the e-mail message can either accept and process the order, or can indicate in a return e-mail that it is not configured to process the order. | 20040604 | 20050913 | 20050127 | 96880.0 | 0 | KAUFFMAN, BRIAN K | SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MACHINE CONTROLLERS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,861,899 | ACCEPTED | Chambers, systems, and methods for electrochemically processing microfeature workpieces | Chambers, systems, and methods for electrochemically processing microfeature workpieces are disclosed herein. In one embodiment, an electrochemical deposition chamber includes a processing unit having a first flow system configured to convey a flow of a first processing fluid to a microfeature workpiece. The chamber further includes an electrode unit having an electrode and a second flow system configured to convey a flow of a second processing fluid at least proximate to the electrode. The chamber further includes a nonporous barrier between the processing unit and the electrode unit to separate the first and second processing fluids. The nonporous barrier is configured to allow cations or anions to flow through the barrier between the first and second processing fluids. | 1-48. (canceled) 49. An electrochemical deposition chamber for depositing material onto microfeature workpieces, the chamber comprising: a processing unit including a first flow system configured to convey a flow of a first processing fluid to a microfeature workpiece at a processing site; an electrode unit including an electrode compartment and a second flow system separate from the first flow system, the second flow system being configured to convey a flow of a second processing fluid through the electrode compartment; a plurality of independent electrodes in the electrode compartment; and a barrier between the processing unit and the electrode unit to inhibit selected matter from passing between the first and second processing fluids. 50. The chamber of claim 49 wherein: the electrodes comprise a first electrode and a second electrode; and the electrode unit further comprises a dielectric divider between the first electrode and the second electrode. 51. The chamber of claim 49 wherein: the electrodes comprise a first electrode and a second electrode arranged concentrically with the first electrode; and the processing unit further comprises a field shaping module, the field shaping module being composed of a dielectric material and having a first opening facing a first section of the processing site through which ions influenced by the first electrode can pass and a second opening facing a second section of the processing site through which ions influenced by the second electrode can pass. 52. The chamber of claim 49 wherein the barrier is a nonporous barrier that prevents nonionic species from passing between the first and second processing fluids. 53. The chamber of claim 49 wherein the barrier is a semipermeable barrier that allows either cations or anions to pass through the barrier between the first and second processing fluids. 54. The chamber of claim 49 wherein the barrier is a semipermeable barrier that separates the flow of the first processing fluid from the flow of the second processing fluid. 55. The chamber of claim 49 wherein the barrier is a permeable barrier that permits fluid flow between the first and second processing fluids. 56. The chamber of claim 49 wherein the barrier allows electrical current to pass therethrough in the presence of an electrolyte. 57. The chamber of claim 49 wherein: the electrodes selectively induce corresponding electrical fields; and the processing unit further comprises a field shaping module that shapes the electrical fields induced by the electrodes. 58. The chamber of claim 49 wherein: the electrodes comprise a first electrode and a second electrode; and the electrode unit further comprises a first electrical connector coupled to the first electrode and a second electrical connector coupled to the second electrode, the first and second electrodes being operable independently of each other. 59. The chamber of claim 49, further comprising: the first processing fluid, wherein the first processing fluid has a concentration of between approximately 10 g/l and approximately 200 g/l of acid; and the second processing fluid, wherein the second processing fluid has a concentration of between approximately 0.1 g/l and approximately 200 g/l of acid. 60. The chamber of claim 58 wherein the second processing fluid has a concentration of between approximately 0.1 g/l and approximately 1.0 g/l of acid. 61. The chamber of claim 49, further comprising: the first processing fluid, wherein the first processing fluid has a first concentration of acid; and the second processing fluid, wherein the second processing fluid has a second concentration of acid, the ratio of the first concentration to the second concentration being between approximately 1:1 and approximately 20,000:1. 62. The chamber of claim 49 wherein the barrier is canted relative to the processing unit to vent gas from the second processing fluid. 63. The chamber of claim 49, further comprising a barrier unit coupled to the processing and electrode units, the barrier unit including the barrier. 64. The chamber of claim 49 wherein: the barrier includes a first side and a second side opposite the first side; the first flow system is configured to flow the first processing fluid at least proximate to the first side of the barrier; and the second flow system is configured to flow the second processing fluid at least proximate to the second side of the barrier. 65. The chamber of claim 49 wherein the electrodes comprise a pure copper electrode. 66. The chamber of claim 49 wherein the electrodes comprise a copper-phosphorous electrode. 67. An electrochemical deposition chamber for depositing material onto microfeature workpieces, the chamber comprising: a head assembly including a workpiece holder configured to position a microfeature workpiece at a processing site and a plurality of electrical contacts arranged to provide electrical current to a layer on the workpiece; and a vessel including (a) a processing unit for carrying one of a catholyte and an anolyte proximate to the workpiece, (b) an electrode unit having a plurality of electrodes and being configured to carry the other of the catholyte and the anolyte at least proximate to the electrodes, and (c) a barrier between the processing unit and the electrode unit to separate the catholyte and the anolyte. 68. The chamber of claim 67 wherein the barrier is a semipermeable barrier that allows either cations or anions to pass through the barrier between the first and second processing fluids. 69. The chamber of claim 67 wherein the barrier is a permeable barrier that permits fluid flow between the catholyte and the anolyte. 70. The chamber of claim 67 wherein the barrier is a nonporous barrier that separates a flow of the catholyte and a flow of the anolyte. 71. The chamber of claim 67 wherein: the electrodes comprise a first electrode and a second electrode; and the electrode unit further comprises a dielectric divider between the first electrode and the second electrode. 72-100. (canceled) | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation in part of U.S. application Ser. Nos.: (a) Ser. No. 10/729,349 filed on Dec. 5, 2003; (b) Ser. No. 10/729,357 filed on Dec. 5, 2003; and (c) Ser. No. 09/872,151, filed on May 31, 2001, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/804,697, filed on Mar. 12, 2001 and has issued has U.S. Pat. No. 6,660,127, which is a continuation in part of International Publication No. WO00/61498 filed on Apr. 13, 2000 and published in the English language, which claims the benefit of U.S. Application No. 60/129,055, filed on Apr. 13, 1999. All of the foregoing are incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD This application relates to chambers, systems, and methods for electrochemically processing microfeature workpieces having a plurality of microdevices integrated in and/or on the workpiece. The microdevices can include submicron features. Particular aspects of the present invention are directed toward electrochemical deposition chambers having nonporous barriers to separate a first processing fluid and a second processing fluid. Additional aspects of this application are directed toward electrochemical deposition chambers having (a) a barrier between a first processing fluid and a second processing fluid, and (b) a plurality of independently operable electrodes in the second processing fluid. BACKGROUND Microelectronic devices, such as semiconductor devices, imagers, and displays, are generally fabricated on and/or in microelectronic workpieces using several different types of machines (“tools”). Many such processing machines have a single processing station that performs one or more procedures on the workpieces. Other processing machines have a plurality of processing stations that perform a series of different procedures on individual workpieces or batches of workpieces. In a typical fabrication process, one or more layers of conductive materials are formed on the workpieces during deposition stages. The workpieces are then typically subject to etching and/or polishing procedures (i.e., planarization) to remove a portion of the deposited conductive layers for forming electrically isolated contacts and/or conductive lines. Tools that plate metals or other materials on the workpieces are becoming an increasingly useful type of processing machine. Electroplating and electroless plating techniques can be used to deposit copper, solder, permalloy, gold, silver, platinum, electrophoretic resist and other materials onto workpieces for forming blanket layers or patterned layers. A typical copper plating process involves depositing a copper seed layer onto the surface of the workpiece using chemical vapor deposition (CVD), physical vapor deposition (PVD), electroless plating processes, or other suitable methods. After forming the seed layer, a blanket layer or patterned layer of copper is plated onto the workpiece by applying an appropriate electrical potential between the seed layer and an anode in the presence of an electroprocessing solution. The workpiece is then cleaned, etched and/or annealed in subsequent procedures before transferring the workpiece to another processing machine. FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of a single-wafer processing station 1 that includes a container 2 for receiving a flow of electroplating solution from a fluid inlet 3 at a lower portion of the container 2. The processing station 1 can include an anode 4, a plate-type diffuser 6 having a plurality of apertures 7, and a workpiece holder 9 for carrying a workpiece 5. The workpiece holder 9 can include a plurality of electrical contacts for providing electrical current to a seed layer on the surface of the workpiece 5. When the seed layer is biased with a negative potential relative to the anode 4, it acts as a cathode. In operation, the electroplating fluid flows around the anode 4, through the apertures 7 in the diffuser 6, and against the plating surface of the workpiece 5. The electroplating solution is an electrolyte that conducts electrical current between the anode 4 and the cathodic seed layer on the surface of the workpiece 5. Therefore, ions in the electroplating solution plate the surface of the workpiece 5. The plating machines used in fabricating microelectronic devices must meet many specific performance criteria. For example, many plating processes must be able to form small contacts in vias or trenches that are less than 0.5 μm wide, and often less than 0.1 μm wide. A combination of organic additives such as “accelerators,” “suppressors,” and “levelers” can be added to the electroplating solution to improve the plating process within the trenches so that the plating metal fills the trenches from the bottom up. As such, maintaining the proper concentration of organic additives in the electroplating solution is important to properly fill very small features. One drawback of conventional plating processes is that the organic additives decompose and break down proximate to the surface of the anode. Also, as the organic additives decompose, it is difficult to control the concentration of organic additives and their associated breakdown products in the plating solution, which can result in poor feature filling and nonuniform layers. Moreover, the decomposition of organic additives produces by-products that can cause defects or other nonuniformities. To reduce the rate at which organic additives decompose near the anode, other anodes such as copper-phosphorous anodes can be used. Another drawback of conventional plating processes is that organic additives and/or chloride ions in the electroplating solution can alter pure copper anodes. This can alter the electrical field, which can result in inconsistent processes and nonuniform layers. Thus, there is a need to improve the plating process to reduce the adverse effects of the organic additives. Still another drawback of electroplating is providing a desired electrical field at the surface of the workpiece. The distribution of electrical current in the plating solution is a function of the uniformity of the seed layer across the contact surface, the configuration/condition of the anode, the configuration of the chamber, and other factors. However, the current density profile on the plating surface can change during a plating cycle. For example, the current density profile typically changes during a plating cycle as material plates onto the seed layer. The current density profile can also change over a longer period of time because (a) the shape of consumable anodes changes as they erode, and (b) the concentration of constituents in the plating solution can change. Therefore, it can be difficult to maintain a desired current density at the surface of the workpiece. SUMMARY The present invention is directed, in part, toward electrochemical deposition chambers with nonporous barriers to separate processing fluids. The chambers are divided into two distinct systems that interact with each other to electroplate a material onto the workpiece while controlling migration of selected elements in the processing fluids (e.g., organic additives) from crossing the barrier to avoid the problems caused when organic additives are proximate to the anode and when bubbles or other matter get into the processing fluid. The chambers include a processing unit to provide a first processing fluid to a workpiece (i.e., working electrode), an electrode unit for conveying a flow of a second processing fluid different than the first processing fluid, and an electrode (i.e., counter electrode) in the electrode unit. The chambers also include a nonporous barrier between the first processing fluid and the second processing fluid. The nonporous barrier allows ions to pass through the barrier but inhibits nonionic species from passing between the first and second processing fluids. As such, the nonporous barrier separates and isolates components of the first and second processing fluids from each other such that the first processing fluid can have different chemical characteristics than the second processing fluid. For example, the first processing fluid can be a catholyte having organic additives and the second processing fluid can be an anolyte without organic additives or a much lower concentration of such additives. The nonporous barrier provides several advantages by substantially preventing the organic additives in the catholyte from migrating to the anolyte. First, because the organic additives are prevented from being in the anolyte, they cannot flow past the anode and decompose into products that interfere with the plating process. Second, because the organic additives do not decompose at the anode, they are consumed at a much slower rate in the catholyte so that it is less expensive and easier to control the concentration of organic additives in the catholyte. Third, less expensive anodes, such as pure copper anodes, can be used in the anolyte because the risk of passivation is reduced or eliminated. The present invention is also directed toward electrochemical deposition chambers with (a) a porous and/or nonporous barrier between processing fluids to mitigate or eliminate the problems caused by organic additives, and (b) multiple independently operable electrodes to provide and maintain a desired current density at the surface of the workpiece. These chambers are also divided into two distinct systems that interact with each other to electroplate a material onto the workpiece while controlling migration of selected elements in the processing fluids (e.g., organic additives) from crossing the barrier to avoid the problems caused by the interaction between the organic additives and the anode and by bubbles or particulates in the processing fluid. Additionally, the independently operable electrodes provide better control of the electrical field at the surface of the workpiece compared to systems that have only a single electrode. The chambers include a processing unit to provide a first processing fluid to a workpiece (i.e., working electrode), an electrode unit for conveying a flow of a second processing fluid different than the first processing fluid, and a plurality of electrodes (i.e., counter electrodes) in the electrode unit. The chambers also include a barrier between the first processing fluid and the second processing fluid. The barrier can be a porous, permeable member that permits fluid and small molecules to flow through the barrier between the first and second processing fluids. Alternatively, the barrier can be a nonporous, semipermeable member that prevents fluid flow between the first and second processing fluids while allowing ions to pass between the fluids. The barrier may also comprise a member having porous areas and nonporous areas. The barrier of these embodiments separates and/or isolates components of the first and second processing fluids from each other such that the first processing fluid can have different chemical characteristics than the second processing fluid. For example, the first processing fluid can be a catholyte having organic additives and the second processing fluid can be an anolyte without organic additives or with a much lower concentration of such additives. The multiple electrodes in this aspect of the invention can be controlled independently of one another to tailor the electrical field to the workpiece. Each electrode can have a current level such that the electrical field generated by all of the electrodes provides the desired plating profile at the surface of the workpiece. Additionally, the current applied to each electrode can be independently varied throughout a plating cycle to compensate for differences that occur at the surface of the workpiece as the thickness of the plated layer increases. The combination of having multiple electrodes to control the electrical field and a barrier in the chamber will provide a system that is significantly more efficient and produces significantly better quality products. The system is more efficient because using one processing fluid for the workpiece and another processing fluid for the electrodes allows the processing fluids to be tailored to the best use in each area without having to compromise to mitigate the adverse effects of using only a single processing solution. As such, the tool does not need to be shut down as often to adjust the fluids and it consumes less constituents. The system produces better quality products because (a) using two different processing fluids allows better control of the concentration of important constituents in each processing fluid, and (b) using multiple electrodes provides better control of the current density at the surface of the workpiece. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an electroplating chamber in accordance with the prior art. FIG. 2A schematically illustrates a system for electrochemical deposition, electropolishing, or other wet chemical processing of microfeature workpieces in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2B schematically illustrates a system for electrochemical deposition, electropolishing, or other wet chemical processing of microfeature workpieces in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 3A-3H graphically illustrate the relationship between the concentration of hydrogen and copper ions in an anolyte and a catholyte during a plating cycle and while the systems of FIGS. 2A and 2B are idle in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 is a schematic isometric view showing cross-sectional portions of a wet chemical vessel in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 is a schematic side view showing a cross-sectional, side portion of the vessel of FIG. 4. FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a wet chemical vessel in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7 is a schematic view of a wet chemical vessel in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8 is a schematic view of a wet chemical vessel in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 9 is a schematic top plan view of a wet chemical processing tool in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 10A is an isometric view illustrating a portion of a wet chemical processing tool in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 10B is a top plan view of a wet chemical processing tool arranged in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 11 is an isometric view of a mounting module for use in a wet chemical processing tool in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 12 is cross-sectional view along line 12-12 of FIG. 11 of a mounting module for use in a wet chemical processing tool in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view showing a portion of a deck of a mounting module in greater detail. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As used herein, the terms “microfeature workpiece” or “workpiece” refer to substrates on and/or in which microdevices are formed. Typical microdevices include microelectronic circuits or components, thin-film recording heads, data storage elements, microfluidic devices, and other products. Micromachines or micromechanical devices are included within this definition because they are manufactured using much of the same technology as used in the fabrication of integrated circuits. The substrates can be semiconductive pieces (e.g., silicon wafers or gallium arsenide wafers), nonconductive pieces (e.g., various ceramic substrates), or conductive pieces (e.g., doped wafers). Also, the term electrochemical processing or deposition includes electroplating, electro-etching, anodization, and/or electroless plating. Several embodiments of electrochemical deposition chambers for processing microfeature workpieces are particularly useful for electrolytically depositing metals or electrophoretic resist in or on structures of a workpiece. The electrochemical deposition chambers in accordance with the invention can accordingly be used in systems with wet chemical processing chambers for etching, rinsing, or other types of wet chemical processes in the fabrication of microfeatures in and/or on semiconductor substrates or other types of workpieces. Several embodiments of electrochemical deposition chambers and integrated tools in accordance with the invention are set forth in FIGS. 2A-13 and the corresponding text to provide a thorough understanding of particular embodiments of the invention. A person skilled in the art will understand, however, that the invention may have additional embodiments or that the invention may be practiced without several of the details of the embodiments shown in FIGS. 2A-13. A. EMBODIMENTS OF WET CHEMICAL PROCESSING SYSTEMS FIG. 2A schematically illustrates a system 100 for electrochemical deposition, electropolishing, or other wet chemical processing of microfeature workpieces. The system 100 includes an electrochemical deposition chamber 102 having a head assembly 104 (shown schematically) and a wet chemical vessel 110 (shown schematically). The head assembly 104 loads, unloads, and positions a workpiece W or a batch of workpieces at a processing site relative to the vessel 110. The head assembly 104 typically includes a workpiece holder having a contact assembly with a plurality of electrical contacts configured to engage a conductive layer on the workpiece W. The workpiece holder can accordingly apply an electrical potential to the conductive layer on the workpiece W. Suitable head assemblies, workpiece holders, and contact assemblies are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,228,232; 6,280,583; 6,303,010; 6,309,520; 6,309,524; 6,471,913; 6,527,925; and 6,569,297; and U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 09/733,608 and 09/823,948, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. The illustrated vessel 110 includes a processing unit 120 (shown schematically), an electrode unit 180 (shown schematically), and a nonporous barrier 170 (shown schematically) between the processing and electrode units 120 and 180. The processing unit 120 is configured to contain a first processing fluid for processing the microfeature workpiece W. The electrode unit 180 is configured to contain an electrode 190 and a second processing fluid at least proximate to the electrode 190. The second processing fluid is generally different than the first processing fluid, but they can be the same in some applications. In general, the first and second processing fluids have some ions in common. The first processing fluid in the processing unit 120 is a catholyte and the second processing fluid in the electrode unit 180 is an anolyte when the workpiece is cathodic. In electropolishing or other deposition processes, however, the first processing fluid can be an anolyte and the second processing fluid can be a catholyte. The system 100 further includes a first flow system 112 that stores and circulates the first processing fluid and a second flow system 192 that stores and circulates the second processing fluid. The first flow system 112 may include a first processing fluid reservoir 113, a plurality of fluid conduits 114 to convey a flow of the first processing fluid between the first processing fluid reservoir 113 and the processing unit 120, and a plurality of components 115 (shown schematically) in the processing unit 120 to convey a flow of the first processing fluid between the processing site and the nonporous barrier 170. The second flow system 192 may include a second processing fluid reservoir 193, a plurality of fluid conduits 185 to convey the flow of the second processing fluid between the second processing fluid reservoir 193 and the electrode unit 180, and a plurality of components 184 (shown schematically) in the electrode unit 180 to convey the flow of the second processing fluid between the electrode 190 and the nonporous barrier 170. The concentrations of individual constituents of the first and second processing fluids can be controlled separately in the first and second processing fluid reservoirs 113 and 193, respectively. For example, metals, such as copper, can be added to the first and/or second processing fluid in the respective reservoir 113 or 193. Additionally, the temperature of the first and second processing fluids and/or removal of undesirable materials or bubbles can be controlled separately in the first and second flow systems 112 and 192. The nonporous barrier 170 is positioned between the first and second processing fluids in the region of the interface between the processing unit 120 and the electrode unit 180 to separate and/or isolate the first processing fluid from the second processing fluid. For example, the nonporous barrier 170 inhibits fluid flow between the first and second flow systems 112 and 192 while selectively allowing ions, such as cations and/or anions, to pass through the barrier 170 between the first and second processing fluids. As such, an electrical field, a charge imbalance between the processing fluids, and/or differences in the concentration of substances in the processing fluids can drive ions across the nonporous barrier 170 as described in detail below. In contrast to porous barriers, such as filter media, expanded Teflon (Goretex), and fritted materials (glass, quartz, ceramic, etc.), the nonporous barrier 170 inhibits nonionic species, including small molecules and fluids, from passing through the barrier 170. For example, the nonporous barrier 170 can be substantially free of open area. Consequently, fluid is inhibited from passing through the nonporous barrier 170 when the first and second flow systems 112 and 192 operate at typical pressures. Water, however, can be transported through the nonporous barrier 170 via osmosis and/or electro-osmosis. Osmosis can occur when the molar concentrations in the first and second processing fluids are substantially different. Electro-osmosis can occur as water is carried through the nonporous barrier 170 with current carrying ions in the form of a hydration sphere. When the first and second processing fluids have similar molar concentrations and no electrical current is passed through the processing fluids, fluid flow between the first and second processing fluids is substantially prevented. Moreover, the nonporous barrier 170 can be hydrophilic so that bubbles in the processing fluids do not cause portions of the barrier 170 to dry, which reduces conductivity through the barrier 170. Suitable nonporous barriers 170 include NAFION membranes manufactured by DuPont®, Ionac® membranes manufactured by Sybron Chemicals Inc., and NeoSepta membranes manufactured by Tokuyuma. When the system 100 is used for electrochemical processing, an electrical potential can be applied to the electrode 190 and the workpiece W such that the electrode 190 is an anode and the workpiece W is a cathode. The first and second processing fluids are accordingly a catholyte and an anolyte, respectively, and each fluid can include a solution of metal ions to be plated onto the workpiece W. The electrical field between the electrode 190 and the workpiece W may drive positive ions through the nonporous barrier 170 from the anolyte to the catholyte, or drive negative ions in the opposite direction. In plating applications, an electrochemical reaction occurs at the microfeature workpiece W in which metal ions are reduced to form a solid layer of metal on the microfeature workpiece W. In electrochemical etching and other electrochemical applications, the electrical field may drive ions the opposite direction. One feature of the system 100 illustrated in FIG. 2A is that the nonporous barrier 170 separates and isolates the first and second processing fluids from each other, but allows ions to pass between the first and second processing fluids. As such, the fluid in the processing unit 120 can have different chemical characteristics than the fluid in the electrode unit 180. For example, the first processing fluid can be a catholyte having organic additives and the second processing fluid can be an anolyte without organic additives or a much lower concentration of such additives. As explained above in the summary section, the lack of organic additives in the anolyte provides the following advantages: (a) reduces by-products of decomposed organics in the catholyte; (b) reduces consumption of the organic additives; (c) reduces passivation of the anode; and (d) enables efficient use of pure copper anodes. The system 100 illustrated in FIG. 2A is also particularly efficacious in maintaining the desired concentration of copper ions or other metal ions in the first processing fluid. During the electroplating process, it is desirable to accurately control the concentration of materials in the first processing fluid to ensure consistent, repeatable depositions on a large number of individual microfeature workpieces. For example, when copper is deposited on the workpiece W, it is desirable to maintain the concentration of copper in the first processing fluid (e.g., the catholyte) within a desired range to deposit a suitable layer of copper on the workpiece W. This aspect of the system 100 is described in more detail below. To control the concentration of metal ions in the first processing solution in some electroplating applications, the system 100 illustrated in FIG. 2A uses characteristics of the nonporous barrier 170, the volume of the first flow system 112, the volume of the second flow system 192, and the different acid concentrations in the first and second processing solutions. In general, the concentration of acid in the first processing fluid is greater than the concentration of acid in the second processing fluid, and the volume of the first processing fluid in the system 100 is greater than the volume of the second processing fluid in the system 100. As explained in more detail below, these features work together to maintain the concentration of the constituents in the first processing fluid within a desired range to ensure consistent and uniform deposition on the workpiece W. For purposes of illustration, the effect of increasing the concentration of acid in the first processing fluid will be described with reference to an embodiment in which copper is electroplated onto a workpiece. One skilled in the art will recognize that different metals can be electroplated and/or the principles can be applied to other wet chemical processes in other applications. FIG. 2B schematically illustrates a system 100a for electrochemical deposition, electropolishing, or other wet chemical processing of microfeature workpieces in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. The system 100a is similar to the system 100 shown in FIG. 2A, and thus like reference numbers refer to like components in FIGS. 2A and 2B. The system 100a includes an electrochemical deposition chamber 102 having a head assembly 104 (shown schematically) and a wet chemical vessel 110a (shown schematically). The head assembly 104 loads, unloads, and positions a workpiece W or a batch of workpieces at a processing site relative to the vessel 110a as described above with reference to FIG. 2A. The illustrated vessel 110a includes a processing unit 120a (shown schematically), an electrode unit 180a (shown schematically), and a barrier 170a (shown schematically) between the processing and electrode units 120a and 180a. The processing unit 120a of the illustrated embodiment includes a dielectric divider 142 projecting from the barrier 170a toward the processing site and a plurality of chambers 130 (identified individually as 130a-b) defined by the dielectric divider 142. The chambers 130a-b can be arranged concentrically and have corresponding openings 144a-b proximate to the processing site. The chambers 130a-b are configured to convey a first processing fluid to/from the microfeature workpiece W. The processing unit 120a, however, may not include the dielectric divider 142 and the chambers 130, or the dielectric divider 142 and the chambers 130 may have other configurations. The electrode unit 180a includes a dielectric divider 186, a plurality of compartments 184a-b defined by the dielectric divider 186, and a plurality of electrodes 190a and 190b disposed within corresponding compartments 184a-b. The compartments 184a-b can be arranged concentrically and configured to convey a second processing fluid at least proximate to the electrodes 190a-b. As noted above, the second processing fluid is generally different than the first processing fluid, but they can be the same in some applications. In general, the first and second processing fluids have some ions in common. The first processing fluid in the processing unit 120a is a catholyte and the second processing fluid in the electrode unit 180a is an anolyte when the workpiece is cathodic. In electropolishing or other deposition processes, however, the first processing fluid can be an anolyte and the second processing fluid can be a catholyte. Although the system 100a shown in FIG. 2B includes two concentric electrodes 190a-b, in other embodiments, systems can include a different number of electrodes and/or the electrodes can be arranged in a different configuration. The system 100a further includes a first flow system 112a that stores and circulates the first processing fluid and a second flow system 192a that stores and circulates the second processing fluid. The first flow system 112a may include (a) the first processing fluid reservoir 113, (b) the plurality of fluid conduits 114 to convey the flow of the first processing fluid between the first processing fluid reservoir 113 and the processing unit 120a, and (c) the chambers 130a-b to convey the flow of the first processing fluid between the processing site and the barrier 170a. The second flow system 192a may include (a) the second processing fluid reservoir 193, (b) the plurality of fluid conduits 185 to convey the flow of the second processing fluid between the second processing fluid reservoir 193 and the electrode unit 180a, and (c) the compartments 184a-b to convey the flow of the second processing fluid between the electrodes 190a-b and the barrier 170a. The concentrations of individual constituents of the first and second processing fluids can be controlled separately in the first and second processing fluid reservoirs 113 and 193, respectively. For example, metals, such as copper, can be added to the first and/or second processing fluid in the respective reservoir 113 or 193. Additionally, the temperature of the first and second processing fluids and/or removal of undesirable materials or bubbles can be controlled separately in the first and second flow systems 11 2a and 192a. The barrier 170a is positioned between the first and second processing fluids in the region of the interface between the processing unit 120a and the electrode unit 180a to separate and/or isolate the first processing fluid from the second processing fluid. For example, the barrier 170a can be a porous, permeable membrane that permits fluid and small molecules to flow through the barrier 170a between the first and second processing fluids. Alternatively, the barrier 170a can be a nonporous, semipermeable membrane that prevents fluid flow between the first and second flow systems 112 and 192 while selectively allowing ions, such as cations and/or anions, to pass through the barrier 170a between the first and second processing fluids, as described above with respect to the nonporous barrier 170 shown in FIG. 2A. In either case, the barrier 170a restricts bubbles, particles, and large molecules such as organic additives from passing between the first and second processing fluids. When the system 100a is used for electrochemical processing, an electrical potential can be applied to the electrodes 190a-b and the workpiece W such that the electrodes 190a-b are anodes and the workpiece W is a cathode. The first and second processing fluids are accordingly a catholyte and an anolyte, respectively, and each fluid can include a solution of metal ions to be plated onto the workpiece W. The electrical field between the electrodes 190a-b and the workpiece W may drive positive ions through the barrier 170a from the anolyte to the catholyte, or drive negative ions in the opposite direction. In plating applications, an electrochemical reaction occurs at the microfeature workpiece W in which metal ions are reduced to form a solid layer of metal on the microfeature workpiece W. In electrochemical etching and other electrochemical applications, the electrical field may drive ions the opposite direction. The first electrode 190a provides an electrical field to the workpiece W at the processing site through the portion of the second processing fluid in the first compartment 184a of the electrode unit 180a and the portion of the first processing fluid in the first chamber 130a of the processing unit 120a. Accordingly, the first electrode 190a provides an electrical field that is effectively exposed to the processing site via the first opening 144a. The first opening 144a shapes the electrical field of the first electrode 190a to create a “virtual electrode” at the top of the first opening 144a. This is a “virtual electrode” because the dielectric divider 142 shapes the electrical field of the first electrode 190a so that the effect is as if the first electrode 190a were placed in the first opening 144a. Virtual electrodes are described in detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/872,151, incorporated by reference above. Similarly, the second electrode 190b provides an electrical field to the workpiece W through the portion of the second processing fluid in the second compartment 184b of the electrode unit 180a and the portion of the first processing fluid in the second chamber 130b of the processing unit 120a. Accordingly, the second electrode 190b provides an electrical field that is effectively exposed to the processing site via the second opening 144b to create another “virtual electrode.” In operation, a first current is applied to the first electrode 190a and a second current is applied to the second electrode 190b. The first and second electrical currents are controlled independently of each other such that they can be the same or different than each other at any given time. Additionally, the first and second electrical currents can be dynamically varied throughout a plating cycle. The first and second electrodes accordingly provide a highly controlled electrical field to compensate for inconsistent or non-uniform seed layers as well as changes in the plated layer during a plating cycle. In addition to the benefits of having multiple independently operable electrodes, the system 100a is expected to have similar benefits as the system 100 described above with respect to separating the first processing fluid from the second processing fluid. As explained above, for example, the lack of organic additives in the anolyte provides the following advantages: (a) reduces by-products of decomposed organics in the catholyte; (b) reduces consumption of the organic additives; (c) reduces passivation of the anode; and (d) enables efficient use of pure copper anodes. The system 100a illustrated in FIG. 2B is also expected to be particularly efficacious in maintaining the desired concentration of copper ions or other metal ions in the first processing fluid for the reasons described in more detail below. B. OPERATION OF ELECTROCHEMICAL DEPOSITION SYSTEMS FIGS. 3A-3H graphically illustrate the relationship between the concentrations of hydrogen and copper ions in the anolyte and catholyte for the systems 100 and 100a during a plating cycle and during an idle period. The following description regarding FIGS. 3A-3H, more specifically, describes several embodiments of operating the system 100 shown in FIG. 2A for purposes of brevity. The operation of the anolyte and catholyte in the system 100a can be substantially similar or even identical to the operation of these features in the system 100. As such, the following description also applies to the system 100a shown in FIG. 2B. FIGS. 3A and 3B show the concentration of hydrogen ions in the second processing fluid (anolyte) and the first processing fluid (catholyte), respectively, during a plating cycle. The electrical field readily drives hydrogen ions across the nonporous barrier 170 (FIG. 2A) from the anolyte to the catholyte during the plating cycle. Consequently, the concentration of hydrogen ions decreases in the anolyte and increases in the catholyte. As measured by percent concentration change or molarity, the decrease in the concentration of hydrogen ions in the anolyte is generally significantly greater than the corresponding increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions in the catholyte because: (a) the volume of catholyte in the illustrated system 100 is greater than the volume of anolyte; and (b) the concentration of hydrogen ions in the catholyte is much higher than in the anolyte. FIGS. 3C and 3D graphically illustrate the concentration of copper ions in the anolyte and catholyte during the plating cycle. During the plating cycle, the anode replenishes copper ions in the anolyte and the electrical field drives the copper ions across the nonporous barrier 170 from the anolyte to the catholyte. The anode replenishes copper ions to the anolyte during the plating cycle. Thus, as shown in FIG. 3C, the concentration of copper ions in the anolyte increases during the plating cycle. Conversely, in the catholyte cell, FIG. 3D shows that the concentration of copper ions in the catholyte initially decreases during the plating cycle as the copper ions are consumed to form a layer on the microfeature workpiece W. FIGS. 3E-3H graphically illustrate the concentration of hydrogen and copper ions in the anolyte and the catholyte while the system 100 of FIG. 2A is idle. For example, FIGS. 3E and 3F illustrate that the concentration of hydrogen ions increases in the anolyte and decreases in the catholyte while the system 100 is idle because the greater concentration of acid in the catholyte drives hydrogen ions across the nonporous barrier 170 to the anolyte. FIGS. 3G and 3H graphically illustrate that the concentration of copper ions decreases in the anolyte and increases in the catholyte while the system 100 is idle. The movement of hydrogen ions into the anolyte creates a charge imbalance that drives copper ions from the anolyte to the catholyte. Accordingly, one feature of the illustrated embodiment is that when the system 100 is idle, the catholyte is replenished with copper because of the difference in the concentration of acid in the anolyte and catholyte. An advantage of this feature is that the desired concentration of copper in the catholyte can be maintained while the system 100 is idle. Another advantage of this feature is that the increased movement of copper ions across the nonporous barrier 170 prevents saturation of the anolyte with copper, which can cause passivation of the anode and/or the formation of salt crystals. The foregoing operation of the system 100 shown in FIG. 2A occurs, in part, by selecting suitable concentrations of hydrogen ions (i.e., acid protons) and copper. In several useful processes for depositing copper, the acid concentration in the first processing fluid can be approximately 10 g/l to approximately 200 g/l, and the acid concentration in the second processing fluid can be approximately 0.1 g/l to approximately 1.0 g/l. Alternatively, the acid concentration of the first and/or second processing fluids can be outside of these ranges. For example, the first processing fluid can have a first concentration of acid and the second processing fluid can have a second concentration of acid less than the first concentration. The ratio of the first concentration of acid to the second concentration of acid, for example, can be approximately 10:1 to approximately 20,000:1. The concentration of copper is also a parameter. For example, in many copper plating applications, the first and second processing fluids can have a copper concentration of between approximately 10 g/l and approximately 50 g/l. Although the foregoing ranges are useful for many applications, it will be appreciated that the first and second processing fluids can have other concentrations of copper and/or acid. In other embodiments, the nonporous barrier can be anionic and the electrode can be an inert anode (i.e. platinum or iridium oxide) to prevent the accumulation of sulfate ions in the first processing fluid. In this embodiment, the acid concentration or pH in the first and second processing fluids can be similar. Alternatively, the second processing fluid may have a higher concentration of acid to increase the conductivity of the fluid. Copper salt (copper sulfate) can be added to the first processing fluid to replenish the copper in the fluid. Electrical current can be carried through the barrier by the passage of sulfate anions from the first processing fluid to the second processing fluid. Therefore, sulfate ions are less likely to accumulate in the first processing fluid where they can adversely affect the deposited film. In other embodiments, the system can electrochemically etch copper from the workpiece. In these embodiments, the first processing solution (the anolyte) contains an electrolyte that may include copper ions. During electrochemical etching, a potential can be applied to the electrode and/or the workpiece. An anionic nonporous barrier can be used to prevent positive ions (such as copper) from passing into the second processing fluid (catholyte). Consequently, the current is carried by anions, and copper ions are inhibited from flowing proximate to and being deposited on the electrode. The foregoing operation of the illustrated system 100 also occurs by selecting suitable volumes of anolyte and catholyte. Referring back to FIG. 2A, another feature of the illustrated system 100 is that it has a first volume of the first processing fluid and a second volume of the second processing fluid in the corresponding processing fluid reservoirs 113 and 193 and flow systems 112 and 192. The ratio between the first volume and the second volume can be approximately 1.5:1 to 20:1, and in many applications is approximately 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 6:1, 7:1, 8:1, 9:1 or 10:1. The difference in volume in the first and second processing fluids moderates the change in the concentration of materials in the first processing fluid. For example, as described above with reference to FIGS. 3A and 3B, when hydrogen ions move from the anolyte to the catholyte, the percentage change in the concentration of hydrogen ions in the catholyte is less than the change in the concentration of hydrogen ions in the anolyte because the volume of catholyte is greater than the volume of anolyte. In other embodiments, the first and second volumes can be approximately the same. C. EMBODIMENTS OF ELECTROCHEMICAL DEPOSITION VESSELS FIG. 4 is an isometric view showing cross-sectional portions of a wet chemical vessel 210 in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. The vessel 210 is configured to be used in a system similar to the systems 100 and 100a (FIGS. 2A and 2B) for electrochemical deposition, electropolishing, anodization, or other wet chemical processing of microfeature workpieces. The vessel 210 shown in FIG. 4 is accordingly one example of the type of vessel 110 or 110a. As such, the vessel 210 can be coupled to a first processing fluid reservoir (not shown) so that a first flow system (partially shown as 212a-b) can provide a first processing fluid to a workpiece for processing. The vessel 210 can also be coupled to a second processing fluid reservoir (not shown) so that a second flow system (partially shown as 292a-b) can convey a second processing fluid proximate to an electrode(s). The illustrated vessel 210 includes a processing unit 220, a barrier unit 260 coupled to the processing unit 220, and an electrode unit 280 coupled to the barrier unit 260. The processing unit 220, the barrier unit 260, and the electrode unit 280 need not be separate units, but rather they can be sections or components of a single unit. The processing unit 220 includes a chassis 228 having a first portion of the first flow system 212a to direct the flow of the first processing fluid through the chassis 228. The first portion of the first flow system 212a can include a separate component attached to the chassis 228 and/or a plurality of fluid passageways in the chassis 228. In this embodiment, the first portion of the first flow system 212a includes a conduit 215, a first flow guide 216 having a plurality of slots 217, and an antechamber 218. The slots 217 in the first flow guide 216 distribute the flow radially to the antechamber 218. The first portion of the first flow system 212a further includes a second flow guide 219 that receives the flow from the antechamber 218. The second flow guide 219 can include a sidewall 221 having a plurality of openings 222 and a flow projector 224 having a plurality of apertures 225. The openings 222 can be vertical slots arranged radially around the sidewall 221 to provide a plurality of flow components projecting radially inwardly toward the flow projector 224. The apertures 225 in the flow projector 224 can be a plurality of elongated slots or other openings that are inclined upwardly and radially inwardly. The flow projector 224 receives the radial flow components from the openings 222 and redirects the flow through the apertures 225. It will be appreciated that the openings 222 and the apertures 225 can have several different configurations. For example, the apertures 225 can project the flow radially inwardly without being canted upwardly, or the apertures 225 can be canted upwardly at a greater angle than the angle shown in FIG. 4. The apertures 225 can accordingly be inclined at an angle ranging from approximately 0°-45°, and in several specific embodiments the apertures 225 can be canted upwardly at an angle of approximately 5°-25°. The processing unit 220 can also include a field shaping module 240 for shaping the electrical field(s) and directing the flow of the first processing fluid at the processing site. In this embodiment, the field shaping module 240 has a first partition 242a with a first rim 243a, a second partition 242b with a second rim 243b, and a third partition 242c with a third rim 243c. The first rim 243a defines a first opening 244a, the first rim 243a and the second rim 243b define a second opening 244b, and the second rim 243b and the third rim 243c define a third opening 244c. The processing unit 220 can further include a weir 245 having a rim 246 over which the first processing fluid can flow into a recovery channel 247. The third rim 243c and the weir 245 define a fourth opening 244d. The field shaping module 240 and the weir 245 are attached to the processing unit 220 by a plurality of bolts or screws, and a number of seals 249 are positioned between the chassis 228 and the field shaping module 240. The vessel 210 is not limited to having the field shaping unit 240 shown in FIG. 4. In other embodiments, field shaping units can have other configurations. For example, a field shaping unit can have a first dielectric member defining a first opening and a second dielectric member defining a second opening above the first opening. The first opening can have a first area and the second opening can have a second area different than the first area. The first and second openings may also have different shapes. In the illustrated embodiment, the first portion of the first flow system 212a in the processing unit 220 further includes a first channel 230a in fluid communication with the antechamber 218, a second channel 230b in fluid communication with the second opening 244b, a third channel 230c in fluid communication with the third opening 244c, and a fourth channel 230d in fluid communication with the fourth opening 244d. The first portion of the first flow system 212a can accordingly convey the first processing fluid to the processing site to provide a desired fluid flow profile at the processing site. In this particular processing unit 220, the first processing fluid enters through an inlet 214 and passes through the conduit 215 and the first flow guide 216. The first processing fluid flow then bifurcates with a portion of the fluid flowing up through the second flow guide 219 via the antechamber 218 and another portion of the fluid flowing down through the first channel 230a of the processing unit 220 and into the barrier unit 260. The upward flow through the second flow guide 219 passes through the flow projector 224 and the first opening 244a. A portion of the first processing fluid flow passes upwardly over the rim 243a, through the processing site proximate to the workpiece, and then flows over the rim 246 of the weir 245. Other portions of the first processing fluid flow downwardly through each of the channels 230b-d of the processing unit 220 and into the barrier unit 260. The electrode unit 280 of the illustrated vessel 210 includes a container 282 that houses an electrode assembly and a first portion of the second flow system 292a. The illustrated container 282 includes a plurality of dividers or walls 286 that define a plurality of compartments 284 (identified individually as 284a-d). The walls 286 of this container 282 are concentric annular dividers that define annular compartments 284. However, in other embodiments, the walls can have different configurations to create nonannular compartments and/or each compartment can be further divided into cells. The specific embodiment shown in FIG. 4 has four compartments 284, but in other embodiments, the container 282 can include any number of compartments to house the electrode(s). The compartments 284 can also define part of the first portion of the second flow system 292a through which the second processing fluid flows. The vessel 210 can further include at least one electrode disposed in the electrode unit 280. The vessel 210 shown in FIG. 4 includes a first electrode 290a in a first compartment 284a, a second electrode 290b in a second compartment 284b, a third electrode 290c in a third compartment 284c, and a fourth electrode 290d in a fourth compartment 284d. The electrodes 290a-d can be annular or circular conductive elements arranged concentrically with one another. In other embodiments, the electrodes can be arcuate segments or have other shapes and arrangements. Although four electrodes 290 are shown in the illustrated embodiment, other embodiments can include a different number of electrodes, including a single electrode, two electrodes, etc. In this embodiment, the electrodes 290 are coupled to an electrical connector system 291 that extends through the container 282 of the electrode unit 280 to couple the electrodes 290 to a power supply. The electrodes 290 can provide a constant current throughout a plating cycle, or the current through one or more of the electrodes 290 can be changed during a plating cycle according to the particular parameters of the workpiece. Moreover, each electrode 290 can have a unique current that is different than the current of the other electrodes 290. The electrodes 290 can be operated in DC, pulsed, and pulse reverse waveforms. Suitable processes for operating the electrodes are set forth in U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 09/849,505; 09/866,391; and 09/866,463, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. The first portion of the second flow system 292a conveys the second processing fluid through the electrode unit 280. More specifically, the second processing fluid enters the electrode unit 280 through an inlet 285 and then the flow is divided as portions of the second processing fluid flow into each of the compartments 284. The portions of the second processing fluid flow across corresponding electrodes 290 as the fluid flows through the compartments 284 and into the barrier unit 260. The illustrated barrier unit 260 is between the processing unit 220 and the electrode unit 280 to separate the first processing fluid from the second processing fluid while allowing individual electrical fields from the electrodes 290 to act through the openings 244a-d. The barrier unit 260 includes a second portion of the first flow system 212b, a second portion of the second flow system 292b, and a nonporous barrier 270 separating the first processing fluid in the first flow system 212 from the second processing fluid in the second flow system 292. The second portion of the first flow system 212b is in fluid communication with the first portion of the first flow system 212a in the processing unit 220. The second portion of the first flow system 212b includes a plurality of annular openings 265 (identified individually as 265a-d): adjacent to the nonporous barrier 270, a plurality of channels 264 (identified individually as 264a-d) extending between corresponding annular openings 265 and corresponding channels 230 in the processing unit 220, and a plurality of passageways 272 extending between corresponding annular openings 265 and a first outlet 273. As such, the first processing fluid flows from the channels 230a-d of the processing unit 220 to corresponding channels 264a-d of the barrier unit 260. After flowing through the channels 264a-d in the barrier unit 260, the first processing fluid flows in a direction generally parallel to the nonporous barrier 270 through the corresponding annular openings 265 to corresponding passageways 272. The first processing fluid flows through the passageways 272 and exits the vessel 210 via the first outlet 273. The second portion of the second flow system 292b is in fluid communication with the first portion of the second flow system 292a in the electrode unit 280. The second portion of the second flow system 292b includes a plurality of channels 266 (identified individually as 266a-d) extending between the barrier 270 and corresponding compartments 284 in the electrode unit 280 and a plurality of passageways 274 extending between the nonporous barrier 270 and a second outlet 275. As such, the second processing fluid flows from the compartments 284a-d to corresponding channels 266a-d and against the nonporous barrier 270. The second processing fluid flow flexes the nonporous barrier 270 toward the processing unit 220 so that the fluid can flow in a direction generally parallel to the barrier 270 between the barrier 270 and a surface 263 of the barrier unit 260 to the corresponding passageways 274. The second processing fluid flows through the passageways 274 and exits the vessel 210 via the second outlet 275. The nonporous barrier 270 is disposed between the second portion of the first flow system 212b and the second portion of the second flow system 292b to separate the first and second processing fluids. The nonporous barrier 270 can be a semipermeable membrane to inhibit fluid flow between the first and second flow systems 212 and 292 while allowing ions to pass through the barrier 270 between the first and second processing fluids. As explained above, the nonporous barrier 270 can also be cation or anion selective and accordingly permit only the selected ions to pass through the barrier 270. Because fluids are inhibited from flowing through the nonporous barrier 270, the barrier 270 is not subject to clogging. Electrical current can flow through the nonporous barrier 270 in either direction in the presence of an electrolyte. For example, electrical current can flow from the second processing fluid in the channels 266 to the first processing fluid in the annular openings 265. Furthermore, the nonporous barrier 270 can be hydrophilic so that bubbles in the processing fluids do not cause portions of the barrier 270 to become dry and block electrical current. The nonporous barrier 270 shown in FIG. 4 is also flexible to permit the second processing fluid to flow from the channels 266 laterally (e.g., annularly) between the barrier 270 and the surface 263 of the barrier unit 260 to the corresponding passageway 274. The nonporous barrier 270 can flex upwardly when the second processing fluid exerts a greater pressure against the barrier 270 than the first processing fluid. The vessel 210 also controls bubbles that are formed at the electrodes 290 or elsewhere in the system. For example, the nonporous barrier 270, a lower portion of the barrier unit 260, and the electrode unit 280 are canted relative to the processing unit 220 to prevent bubbles in the second processing fluid from becoming trapped against the barrier 270. As bubbles in the second processing fluid move upward through the compartments 284 and the channels 266, the angled orientation of the nonporous barrier 270 and the bow of the barrier 270 above each channel 266 causes the bubbles to move laterally under the barrier 270 toward the upper side of the surface 263 corresponding to each channel 266. The passageways 274 carry the bubbles out to the second outlet 275 for removal. The illustrated nonporous barrier 270 is oriented at an angle a of approximately 5°. In additional embodiments, the barrier 270 can be oriented at an angle greater than or less than 5° that is sufficient to remove bubbles. The angle a, accordingly, is not limited to 5°. In general, the angle a should be large enough to cause bubbles to migrate to the high side, but not so large that it adversely affects the electrical field. An advantage of the illustrated barrier unit 260 is that the angle a of the nonporous barrier 270 prevents bubbles from being trapped against portions of the barrier 270 and creating dielectric areas on the barrier 270, which would adversely affect the electrical field. In other embodiments, other devices can be used to degas the processing fluids in lieu of or in addition to canting the barrier 270. As such, the nonporous barrier 270 need not be canted relative to the processing unit 220 in all applications. The spacing between the electrodes 290 and the nonporous barrier 270 is another design criteria for the vessel 210. In the illustrated vessel 210, the distance between the nonporous barrier 270 and each electrode 290 is approximately the same. For example, the distance between the nonporous barrier 270 and the first electrode 290a is approximately the same as the distance between the nonporous barrier 270 and the second electrode 290b. Alternatively, the distance between the nonporous barrier 270 and each electrode 290 can be different. In either case, the distance between the nonporous barrier 270 and each arcuate section of a single electrode 290 is approximately the same. The uniform spacing between each section of a single electrode 290 and the nonporous barrier 270 is expected to provide more accurate control over the electrical field compared to having different spacings between sections of an electrode 290 and the barrier 270. Because the second processing fluid has less acid, and is thus less conductive, a difference in the distance between the nonporous barrier 270 and separate sections of an individual electrode 290 has a greater affect on the electrical field at the workpiece than a difference in the distance between the workpiece and the barrier 270. In operation, the processing unit 220, the barrier unit 260, and the electrode unit 280 operate together to provide a desired electrical field profile (e.g., current density) at the workpiece. The first electrode 290a provides an electrical field to the workpiece through the portions of the first and second processing fluids that flow in the first channels 230a, 264a, and 266a, and the first compartment 284a. Accordingly, the first electrode 290a provides an electrical field that is effectively exposed to the processing site via the first opening 244a. The first opening 244a shapes the electrical field of the first electrode 290a according to the configuration of the rim 243a of the first partition 242a to create a “virtual electrode” at the top of the first opening 244a. This is a “virtual electrode” because the field shaping module 240 shapes the electrical field of the first electrode 290a so that the effect is as if the first electrode 290a were placed in the first opening 244a. Virtual electrodes are described in detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/872,151, which is hereby incorporated by reference. Similarly, the second, third, and fourth electrodes 290b-d provide electrical fields to the processing site through the portions of the first and second processing fluids that flow in the second channels 230b, 264b, and 266b, the third channels 230c, 264c, and 266c, and the fourth channels 230d, 264d, and 266d, respectively. Accordingly, the second, third, and fourth electrodes 290b-d provide electrical fields that are effectively exposed to the processing site via the second, third, and fourth openings 244b-d, respectively, to create corresponding virtual electrodes. FIG. 5 is a schematic side view showing a cross-sectional side portion of the wet chemical vessel 210 of FIG. 4. The illustrated vessel 210 further includes a first interface element 250 between the processing unit 220 and the barrier unit 260 and a second interface element 252 between the barrier unit 260 and the electrode unit 280. In this embodiment, the first interface element 250 is a seal having a plurality of openings 251 to allow fluid communication between the channels 230 of the processing unit 220 and the corresponding channels 264 of the barrier unit 260. The seal is a dielectric material that electrically insulates the electrical fields within the corresponding channels 230 and 264. Similarly, the second interface element 252 is a seal having a plurality of openings 253 to allow fluid communication between the channels 266 of the barrier unit 260 and the corresponding compartments 284 of the electrode unit 280. The illustrated vessel 210 further includes a first attachment assembly 254a for attaching the barrier unit 260 to the processing unit 220 and a second attachment assembly 254b for attaching the electrode unit 280 to the barrier unit 260. The first and second attachment assemblies 254a-b can be quick-release devices to securely hold the corresponding units together. For example, the first and second attachment assemblies 254a-b can include clamp rings 255a-b and latches 256a-b that move the clamp rings 255a-b between a first position and a second position. As the latches 256a-b move the clamp rings 255a-b from the first position to the second position, the diameter of the clamp rings 255a-b decreases to clamp the corresponding units together. Optionally, as the first and second attachment assemblies 254a-b move from the first position to the second position, the attachment assemblies 254a-b drive the corresponding units together to compress the interface elements 250 and 252 and properly position the units relative to each other. Suitable attachment assemblies of this type are disclosed in detail in U.S. Patent Application No. 60/476,881, filed Jun. 6, 2003, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. In other embodiments, the attachment assemblies 254a-b may not be quick-release devices and can include a plurality of clamp rings, a plurality of latches, a plurality of bolts, or other types of fasteners. One advantage of the vessel 210 illustrated in FIGS. 4 and 5 is that worn components in the barrier unit 260 and/or the electrode unit 280 can be replaced without shutting down the processing unit 220 for a significant period of time. The barrier unit 260 and/or the electrode unit 280 can be quickly removed from the processing unit 220 and then a replacement barrier and/or electrode unit can be attached in only a matter of minutes. This significantly reduces the downtime for repairing electrodes or other processing components compared to conventional systems that require the components to be repaired in situ on the vessel or require the entire chamber to be removed from the vessel. An alternate embodiment of the barrier unit 260 can include a porous barrier instead of the nonporous barrier 270 shown and described above with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5. Such a porous barrier can generally separate the first and second flow systems, but the porous barrier generally allows some fluid to flow between the first and second flow systems. D. ADDITIONAL EMBODIMENTS OF ELECTROCHEMICAL DEPOSITION VESSELS FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a wet chemical vessel 310 in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. The vessel 310 includes a processing unit 320 (shown schematically), an electrode unit 380 (shown schematically), and a barrier 370 (shown schematically) separating the processing and electrode units 320 and 380. The processing unit 320 and the electrode unit 380 can be generally similar to the processing and electrode units 220 and 280 described above with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5. For example, the processing unit 320 can include a portion of a first flow system to convey a flow of a first processing fluid toward the workpiece at a processing site, and the electrode unit 380 can include at least one electrode 390 and a portion of a second flow system to convey a flow of a second processing fluid at least proximate to the electrode 390. The barrier 370 can be a nonporous barrier or a porous barrier. Unlike the vessel 210, the vessel 310 does not include a separate barrier unit but rather the barrier 370 is attached directly between the processing unit 320 and the electrode unit 380. The barrier 370 otherwise separates the first processing fluid in the processing unit 320 and the second processing fluid in the electrode unit 380 in much the same manner as the nonporous barrier 270. Another difference with the vessel 210 is that the barrier 370 and the electrode unit 380 are not canted relative to the processing unit 320. The first and second processing fluids can flow in the vessel 310 in a direction that is opposite to the flow direction described above with reference to the vessel 210 of FIGS. 4 and 5. More specifically, the first processing fluid can flow along a path F1 from the barrier 370 toward the workpiece and exit the vessel 310 proximate to the processing site. The second processing fluid can flow along a path F2 from the barrier 370 toward the electrode 390 and then exit the vessel 310. In other embodiments, the vessel 310 can include a device to degas the first and/or second processing fluids. FIG. 7 schematically illustrates a vessel 410 having a processing unit 420, an electrode unit 480, and a barrier 470 canted relative to the processing and electrode units 420.and 480. This embodiment is similar to the vessel 310 in that it does not have a separate barrier unit and the barrier 470 can be nonporous or porous, but the vessel 410 differs from the vessel 310 in that the barrier 470 is canted at an angle. Alternatively, FIG. 8 schematically illustrates a vessel 510 including a processing unit 520, an electrode unit 580, and a barrier 570 between the processing and electrode units 520 and 580. The vessel 510 is similar to the vessel 410, but the barrier 570 and the electrode unit 580 are both canted relative to the processing unit 520 in the vessel 510. E. EMBODIMENTS OF INTEGRATED TOOLS WITH MOUNTING MODULES FIG. 9 schematically illustrates an integrated tool 600 that can perform one or more wet chemical processes. The tool 600 includes a housing or cabinet 602 that encloses a deck 664, a plurality of wet chemical processing stations 601, and a transport system 605. Each processing station 601 includes a vessel, chamber, or reactor 610 and a workpiece support (for example, a lift-rotate unit) 613 for transferring microfeature workpieces W into and out of the reactor 610. The vessel, chamber, or reactor 610 can be generally similar to any one of the vessels described above with reference to FIGS. 2A-8. The stations 601 can include spin-rinse-dry chambers, seed layer repair chambers, cleaning capsules, etching capsules, electrochemical deposition chambers, and/or other types of wet chemical processing vessels. The transport system 605 includes a linear track 604 and a robot 603 that moves along the track 604 to transport individual workpieces W within the tool 600. The integrated tool 600 further includes a workpiece load/unload unit 608 having a plurality of containers 607 for holding the workpieces W. In operation, the robot 603 transports workpieces W to/from the containers 607 and the processing stations 601 according to a predetermined workflow schedule within the tool 600. For example, individual workpieces W can pass through a seed layer repair process, a plating process, a spin-rinse-dry process, and an annealing process. Alternatively, individual workpieces W may not pass through a seed layer repair process or may otherwise be processed differently. FIG. 10A is an isometric view showing a portion of an integrated tool 600 in accordance with an embodiment, of the invention. The integrated tool 600 includes a frame 662, a dimensionally stable mounting module 660 mounted to the frame 662, a plurality of wet chemical processing chambers 610, and a plurality of workpiece supports 613. The tool 600 can also include a transport system 605. The mounting module 660 carries the processing chambers 610, the workpiece supports 613, and the transport system 605. The frame 662 has a plurality of posts 663 and cross-bars 661 that are welded together in a manner known in the art. A plurality of outer panels and doors (not shown in FIG. 10A) are generally attached to the frame 662 to form an enclosed cabinet 602 (FIG. 9). The mounting module 660 is at least partially housed within the frame 662. In one embodiment, the mounting module 660 is carried by the cross-bars 661 of the frame 662, but the mounting module 660 can alternatively stand directly on the floor of the facility or other structures. The mounting module 660 is a rigid, stable structure that maintains the relative positions between the wet chemical processing chambers 610, the workpiece supports 613, and the transport system 605. One aspect of the mounting module 660 is that it is much more rigid and has a significantly greater structural integrity compared to the frame 662 so that the relative positions between the wet chemical processing chambers 610, the workpiece supports 613, and the transport system 605 do not change over time. Another aspect of the mounting module 660 is that it includes a dimensionally stable deck 664 with positioning elements at precise locations for positioning the processing chambers 610 and the workpiece supports 613 at known locations on the deck 664. In one embodiment (not shown), the transport system 605 is mounted directly to the deck 664. In an arrangement shown in FIG. 10A, the mounting module 660 also has a dimensionally stable platform 665 and the transport system 605 is mounted to the platform 665. The deck 664 and the platform 665 are fixedly positioned relative to each other so that positioning elements on the deck 664 and positioning elements on the platform 665 do not move relative to each other. The mounting module 660 accordingly provides a system in which wet chemical processing chambers 610 and workpiece supports 613 can be removed and replaced with interchangeable components in a manner that accurately positions the replacement components at precise locations on the deck 664. The tool 600 is particularly suitable for applications that have demanding specifications which require frequent maintenance of the wet chemical processing chambers 610, the workpiece support 613, or the transport system 605. A wet chemical processing chamber 610 can be repaired or maintained by simply detaching the chamber from the processing deck 664 and replacing the chamber 610 with an interchangeable chamber having mounting hardware configured to interface with the positioning elements on the deck 664. Because the mounting module 660 is dimensionally stable and the mounting hardware of the replacement processing chamber 610 interfaces with the deck 664, the chambers 610 can be interchanged on the deck 664 without having to recalibrate the transport system 605. This is expected to significantly reduce the downtime associated with repairing or maintaining the processing chambers 610 so that the tool 600 can maintain a high throughput in applications that have stringent performance specifications. FIG. 10B is a top plan view of the tool 600 illustrating the transport system 605 and the load/unload unit 608 attached to the mounting module 660. Referring to FIGS. 10A and 10B together, the track 604 is mounted to the platform 665 and in particular, interfaces with positioning elements on the platform 665 so that it is accurately positioned relative to the chambers 610 and the workpiece supports 613 attached to the deck 664. The robot 603 (which includes end-effectors 606 for grasping the workpiece W) can accordingly move the workpiece W in a fixed, dimensionally stable reference frame established by the mounting module 660. Referring to FIG. 10B, the tool 600 can further include a plurality of panels 666 attached to the frame 662 to enclose the mounting module 660, the wet chemical processing chambers 610, the workpiece supports 613, and the transport system 605 in the cabinet 602. Alternatively, the panels 666 on one or both sides of the tool 600 can be removed in the region above the processing deck 664 to provide an open tool. F. EMBODIMENTS OF DIMENSIONALLY STABLE MOUNTING MODULES FIG. 11 is an isometric view of a mounting module 660 configured in accordance with an embodiment of the invention for use in the tool 600 (FIGS. 9-10B). The deck 664 includes a rigid first panel 666a and a rigid second panel 666b superimposed underneath the first panel 666a. The first panel 666a is an outer member and the second panel 666b is an interior member juxtaposed to the outer member. Alternatively, the first and second panels 666a and 666b can have different configurations than the one shown in FIG. 11. A plurality of chamber receptacles 667 are disposed in the first and second panels 666a and 666b to receive the wet chemical processing chambers 610 (FIG. 10A). The deck 664 further includes a plurality of positioning elements 668 and attachment elements 669 arranged in a precise pattern across the first panel 666a. The positioning elements 668 include holes machined in the first panel 666a at precise locations, and/or dowels or pins received in the holes. The dowels are also configured to interface with the wet chemical processing chambers 610 (FIG. 10A). For example, the dowels can be received in corresponding holes or other interface members of the processing chambers 610. In other embodiments, the positioning elements 668 include pins, such as cylindrical pins or conical pins, that project upwardly from the first panel 666a without being positioned in holes in the first panel 666a. The deck 664 has a set of first chamber positioning elements 668a located at each chamber receptacle 667 to accurately position the individual wet chemical processing chambers at precise locations on the mounting module 660. The deck 664 can also include a set of first support positioning elements 668b near each receptacle 667 to accurately position individual workpiece supports 613 (FIG. 10A) at precise locations on the mounting module 660. The first support positioning elements 668b are positioned and configured to mate with corresponding positioning elements of the workpiece supports 613. The attachment elements 669 can be threaded holes in the first panel 666a that receive bolts to secure the chambers 610 and the workpiece supports 613 to the deck 664. The mounting module 660 also includes exterior side plates 670a along longitudinal outer edges of the deck 664, interior side plates 670b along longitudinal inner edges of the deck 664, and endplates 670c attached to the ends of the deck 664. The transport platform 665 is attached to the interior side plates 670b and the end plates 670c. The transport platform 665 includes track positioning elements 668c for accurately positioning the track 604 (FIGS. 10A and 10B) of the transport system 605 (FIGS. 10A and 10B) on the mounting module 660. For example, the track positioning elements 668c can include pins or holes that mate with corresponding holes, pins or other interface members of the track 604. The transport platform 665 can further include attachment elements 669, such as tapped holes, that receive bolts to secure the track 604 to the platform 665. FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view illustrating one suitable embodiment of the internal structure of the deck 664, and FIG. 13 is a detailed view of a portion of the deck 664 shown in FIG. 12. The deck 664 includes bracing 671, such as joists, extending laterally between the exterior side plates 670a and the interior side plates 670b. The first panel 666a is attached to the upper side of the bracing 671, and the second panel 666b is attached to the lower side of the bracing 671. The deck 664 can further include a plurality of throughbolts 672 and nuts 673 that secure the first and second panels 666a and 666b to the bracing 671. As best shown in FIG. 13, the bracing 671 has a plurality of holes 674 through which the throughbolts 672 extend. The nuts 673 can be welded to the bolts 672 to enhance the connection between these components. The panels and bracing of the deck 664 can be made from stainless steel, other metal alloys, solid cast materials, or fiber-reinforced composites. For example, the panels and plates can be made from Nitronic 50 stainless steel, Hastelloy 625 steel alloys, or a solid cast epoxy filled with mica. The fiber-reinforced composites can include a carbon-fiber or Kevlar® mesh in a hardened resin. The material for the panels 666a and 666b should be highly rigid and compatible with the chemicals used in the wet chemical processes. Stainless steel is well-suited for many applications because it is strong but not affected by many of the electrolytic solutions or cleaning solutions used in wet chemical processes. In one embodiment, the panels and plates 666a-b and 670a-c are 0.125 to 0.375 inch thick stainless-steel, and more specifically they can be 0.250 inch thick stainless steel. The panels and plates, however, can have different thicknesses in other embodiments. The bracing 671 can also be stainless steel, fiber-reinforced composite materials, other metal alloys, and/or solid cast materials. In one embodiment, the bracing can be 0.5 to 2.0 inch wide stainless steel joists, and more specifically 1.0 inch wide by 2.0 inches tall stainless steel joists. In other embodiments the bracing 671 can be a honey-comb core or other structures made from metal (e.g., stainless steel, aluminum, titanium, etc.), polymers, fiber glass or other materials. The mounting module 660 is constructed by assembling the sections of the deck 664, and then welding or otherwise adhering the end plates 670c to the sections of the deck 664. The components of the deck 664 are generally secured together by the throughbolts 672 without welds. The outer side plates 670a and the interior side plates 670b are attached to the deck 664 and the end plates 670c using welds and/or fasteners. The platform 665 is then securely attached to the end plates 670c, and the interior side plates 670b. The order in which the mounting module 660 is assembled can be varied and is not limited to the procedure explained above. The mounting module 660 provides a heavy-duty, dimensionally stable structure that maintains the relative positions between the positioning elements 668a-b on the deck 664 and the positioning elements 668c on the platform 665 within a range that does not require the transport system 605 to be recalibrated each time a replacement processing chamber 610 or workpiece support 613 is mounted to the deck 664. The mounting module 660 is generally a rigid structure that is sufficiently strong to maintain the relative positions between the positioning elements 668a-b and 668c when the wet chemical processing chambers 610, the workpiece supports 613, and the transport system 605 are mounted to the mounting module 660. In several embodiments, the mounting module 660 is configured to maintain the relative positions between the positioning elements 668a-b and 668c to within 0.025 inch. In other embodiments, the mounting module is configured to maintain the relative positions between the positioning elements 668a-b and 668c to within approximately 0.005 to 0.015 inch. As such, the deck 664 often maintains a uniformly flat surface to within approximately 0.025 inch, and in more specific embodiments to approximately 0.005-0.015 inch. From the foregoing, it will be appreciated that specific embodiments of the invention have been described herein for purposes of illustration, but that various modifications may be made without deviating from the spirit and scope of the invention. For example, various aspects of any of the foregoing embodiments can be combined in different combinations, or features such as the sizes, material types, and/or fluid flows can be different. Accordingly, the invention is not limited except as by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Microelectronic devices, such as semiconductor devices, imagers, and displays, are generally fabricated on and/or in microelectronic workpieces using several different types of machines (“tools”). Many such processing machines have a single processing station that performs one or more procedures on the workpieces. Other processing machines have a plurality of processing stations that perform a series of different procedures on individual workpieces or batches of workpieces. In a typical fabrication process, one or more layers of conductive materials are formed on the workpieces during deposition stages. The workpieces are then typically subject to etching and/or polishing procedures (i.e., planarization) to remove a portion of the deposited conductive layers for forming electrically isolated contacts and/or conductive lines. Tools that plate metals or other materials on the workpieces are becoming an increasingly useful type of processing machine. Electroplating and electroless plating techniques can be used to deposit copper, solder, permalloy, gold, silver, platinum, electrophoretic resist and other materials onto workpieces for forming blanket layers or patterned layers. A typical copper plating process involves depositing a copper seed layer onto the surface of the workpiece using chemical vapor deposition (CVD), physical vapor deposition (PVD), electroless plating processes, or other suitable methods. After forming the seed layer, a blanket layer or patterned layer of copper is plated onto the workpiece by applying an appropriate electrical potential between the seed layer and an anode in the presence of an electroprocessing solution. The workpiece is then cleaned, etched and/or annealed in subsequent procedures before transferring the workpiece to another processing machine. FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of a single-wafer processing station 1 that includes a container 2 for receiving a flow of electroplating solution from a fluid inlet 3 at a lower portion of the container 2 . The processing station 1 can include an anode 4 , a plate-type diffuser 6 having a plurality of apertures 7 , and a workpiece holder 9 for carrying a workpiece 5 . The workpiece holder 9 can include a plurality of electrical contacts for providing electrical current to a seed layer on the surface of the workpiece 5 . When the seed layer is biased with a negative potential relative to the anode 4 , it acts as a cathode. In operation, the electroplating fluid flows around the anode 4 , through the apertures 7 in the diffuser 6 , and against the plating surface of the workpiece 5 . The electroplating solution is an electrolyte that conducts electrical current between the anode 4 and the cathodic seed layer on the surface of the workpiece 5 . Therefore, ions in the electroplating solution plate the surface of the workpiece 5 . The plating machines used in fabricating microelectronic devices must meet many specific performance criteria. For example, many plating processes must be able to form small contacts in vias or trenches that are less than 0.5 μm wide, and often less than 0.1 μm wide. A combination of organic additives such as “accelerators,” “suppressors,” and “levelers” can be added to the electroplating solution to improve the plating process within the trenches so that the plating metal fills the trenches from the bottom up. As such, maintaining the proper concentration of organic additives in the electroplating solution is important to properly fill very small features. One drawback of conventional plating processes is that the organic additives decompose and break down proximate to the surface of the anode. Also, as the organic additives decompose, it is difficult to control the concentration of organic additives and their associated breakdown products in the plating solution, which can result in poor feature filling and nonuniform layers. Moreover, the decomposition of organic additives produces by-products that can cause defects or other nonuniformities. To reduce the rate at which organic additives decompose near the anode, other anodes such as copper-phosphorous anodes can be used. Another drawback of conventional plating processes is that organic additives and/or chloride ions in the electroplating solution can alter pure copper anodes. This can alter the electrical field, which can result in inconsistent processes and nonuniform layers. Thus, there is a need to improve the plating process to reduce the adverse effects of the organic additives. Still another drawback of electroplating is providing a desired electrical field at the surface of the workpiece. The distribution of electrical current in the plating solution is a function of the uniformity of the seed layer across the contact surface, the configuration/condition of the anode, the configuration of the chamber, and other factors. However, the current density profile on the plating surface can change during a plating cycle. For example, the current density profile typically changes during a plating cycle as material plates onto the seed layer. The current density profile can also change over a longer period of time because (a) the shape of consumable anodes changes as they erode, and (b) the concentration of constituents in the plating solution can change. Therefore, it can be difficult to maintain a desired current density at the surface of the workpiece. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention is directed, in part, toward electrochemical deposition chambers with nonporous barriers to separate processing fluids. The chambers are divided into two distinct systems that interact with each other to electroplate a material onto the workpiece while controlling migration of selected elements in the processing fluids (e.g., organic additives) from crossing the barrier to avoid the problems caused when organic additives are proximate to the anode and when bubbles or other matter get into the processing fluid. The chambers include a processing unit to provide a first processing fluid to a workpiece (i.e., working electrode), an electrode unit for conveying a flow of a second processing fluid different than the first processing fluid, and an electrode (i.e., counter electrode) in the electrode unit. The chambers also include a nonporous barrier between the first processing fluid and the second processing fluid. The nonporous barrier allows ions to pass through the barrier but inhibits nonionic species from passing between the first and second processing fluids. As such, the nonporous barrier separates and isolates components of the first and second processing fluids from each other such that the first processing fluid can have different chemical characteristics than the second processing fluid. For example, the first processing fluid can be a catholyte having organic additives and the second processing fluid can be an anolyte without organic additives or a much lower concentration of such additives. The nonporous barrier provides several advantages by substantially preventing the organic additives in the catholyte from migrating to the anolyte. First, because the organic additives are prevented from being in the anolyte, they cannot flow past the anode and decompose into products that interfere with the plating process. Second, because the organic additives do not decompose at the anode, they are consumed at a much slower rate in the catholyte so that it is less expensive and easier to control the concentration of organic additives in the catholyte. Third, less expensive anodes, such as pure copper anodes, can be used in the anolyte because the risk of passivation is reduced or eliminated. The present invention is also directed toward electrochemical deposition chambers with (a) a porous and/or nonporous barrier between processing fluids to mitigate or eliminate the problems caused by organic additives, and (b) multiple independently operable electrodes to provide and maintain a desired current density at the surface of the workpiece. These chambers are also divided into two distinct systems that interact with each other to electroplate a material onto the workpiece while controlling migration of selected elements in the processing fluids (e.g., organic additives) from crossing the barrier to avoid the problems caused by the interaction between the organic additives and the anode and by bubbles or particulates in the processing fluid. Additionally, the independently operable electrodes provide better control of the electrical field at the surface of the workpiece compared to systems that have only a single electrode. The chambers include a processing unit to provide a first processing fluid to a workpiece (i.e., working electrode), an electrode unit for conveying a flow of a second processing fluid different than the first processing fluid, and a plurality of electrodes (i.e., counter electrodes) in the electrode unit. The chambers also include a barrier between the first processing fluid and the second processing fluid. The barrier can be a porous, permeable member that permits fluid and small molecules to flow through the barrier between the first and second processing fluids. Alternatively, the barrier can be a nonporous, semipermeable member that prevents fluid flow between the first and second processing fluids while allowing ions to pass between the fluids. The barrier may also comprise a member having porous areas and nonporous areas. The barrier of these embodiments separates and/or isolates components of the first and second processing fluids from each other such that the first processing fluid can have different chemical characteristics than the second processing fluid. For example, the first processing fluid can be a catholyte having organic additives and the second processing fluid can be an anolyte without organic additives or with a much lower concentration of such additives. The multiple electrodes in this aspect of the invention can be controlled independently of one another to tailor the electrical field to the workpiece. Each electrode can have a current level such that the electrical field generated by all of the electrodes provides the desired plating profile at the surface of the workpiece. Additionally, the current applied to each electrode can be independently varied throughout a plating cycle to compensate for differences that occur at the surface of the workpiece as the thickness of the plated layer increases. The combination of having multiple electrodes to control the electrical field and a barrier in the chamber will provide a system that is significantly more efficient and produces significantly better quality products. The system is more efficient because using one processing fluid for the workpiece and another processing fluid for the electrodes allows the processing fluids to be tailored to the best use in each area without having to compromise to mitigate the adverse effects of using only a single processing solution. As such, the tool does not need to be shut down as often to adjust the fluids and it consumes less constituents. The system produces better quality products because (a) using two different processing fluids allows better control of the concentration of important constituents in each processing fluid, and (b) using multiple electrodes provides better control of the current density at the surface of the workpiece. | 20040603 | 20090908 | 20050428 | 62335.0 | 0 | WILKINS III, HARRY D | CHAMBERS, SYSTEMS, AND METHODS FOR ELECTROCHEMICALLY PROCESSING MICROFEATURE WORKPIECES | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,861,978 | ACCEPTED | Boom with mast assembly | A torsion- and bending resistant boom formed of beams running the length of the structure, a set of pierced, transverse flanges arrayed along, and substantially perpendicular to, the length of the structure, a continuous longitudinal member running the length of the structure, piercing the flanges, and several further longitudinal members, outward of the first member. The longitudinal members are welded to the flanges. An elevatable mast assembly raises and lowers the boom, and has a mast and guides formed of hollow tubes, and rollers between the guides and the mast, the rollers transferring torque loading to the guides. | 1-22. (canceled) 23. A mobile transport for scanning targets with penetrating radiation, for movement relative to the targets along a direction of travel, comprising: a chassis; a source of penetrating radiation mounted to said chassis; one or more receptors for said penetrating radiation; an instrument boom, said instrument boom comprising a mast assembly and a first boom section having longitudinal and transverse dimensions, said first boom section comprising: a longitudinal member comprising an external surface; a plurality of longitudinal sections, each section comprising two ends; one or more substantially transverse flanges having opposing faces, said flanges defining at least one hole from one face to the other; and a plurality of longitudinal beams; wherein said longitudinal member is internal to said longitudinal sections, at least one end of each section is joined to the face of one or more flanges, the longitudinal member extends through the hole in the one or more flanges, the external surface is joined to said one or more flanges, and said longitudinal beams are joined to the flanges; and wherein said first boom section is supported by said mast assembly, and said one or more receptors are mounted to said instrument boom. 24. The mobile transport of claim 23, wherein said instrument boom is positionable substantially transversely to the direction of travel. 25. The mobile transport of claim 23, the first boom section further comprising a proximal end, and a distal end, wherein said mast assembly supports the proximal end of the first boom section, and said first boom section supports a structure substantially at the distal end. 26. The mobile transport of claim 23, wherein said first boom section extends a distance substantially transverse to the direction of travel from said chassis, wherein said distance is greater than 144 inches. 27. The mobile transport of claim 23, the instrument boom further comprising a second boom section; and first boom section further comprising a distal end; wherein said second boom section is downwardly extending and is supported by the distal end of the first boom section, and said first boom section's longitudinal dimension is in a substantially horizontal plane. 28. The mobile transport of claim 27, the second boom section comprising proximal and distal ends; wherein said proximal end of said second boom section is supported by the first boom section, and the distal end of the second boom section translates less than about one inch in any direction relative to the source of penetrating radiation during movement relative to the targets. 29. The mobile transport of claim 27, wherein said first and second boom sections are comprised of type 6061 T6 aluminum. 30. The mobile transport of claim 23, said longitudinal member comprising a tube, wherein said tube is circular in cross-section and continuous along substantially the longitudinal extent of the first boom section. 31. The mobile transport of claim 23, each of said longitudinal sections comprising a tube segment located substantially concentrically externally of said longitudinal member. 32. The mobile transport of claim 23, said longitudinal member comprising a tube, wherein said tube is circular in cross-section and continuous along substantially the longitudinal extent of the first boom section. 33. The mobile transport of claim 23, each of said longitudinal beams comprising a substantially planar inward surface, and one or more legs along the beam's longitudinal extent, and said flanges comprising edges, wherein said one or more legs extends from the inward surface substantially normal to the plane of the beam, and said inward surface is joined to said flange edges. 34. The mobile transport of claim 33, said flange edges defining a plurality of depressions corresponding congruently to said one or more legs, wherein said depressions facilitate engagement of said beams and said flange edges. 35-49. (canceled) 50. An elevatable mast assembly for lifting a load above a supporting structure, comprising: a mast having an elevation axis; a guide assembly having a plurality of guiding elements, wherein said guiding elements are fixed to the supporting structure; and a plurality of roller assembly sets, wherein said sets inhibit translation of said mast relative to said guiding elements but permit such translation along the elevation axis. 51. The elevatable mast assembly of claim 50, the mast assembly comprising a plurality of joined parallel mast sections, and said mast sections and said guiding elements comprising metal tubing. 52. The elevatable mast assembly of claim 50, wherein said guiding elements are spaced radially outward of the mast, and said guiding elements and said mast are aligned to said translation axis. 53. The elevatable mast assembly of claim 50, each of said roller assembly sets comprising a plurality of roller assemblies, each said assembly having at least one roller and a mount; wherein the mounts of a first set of roller assemblies are fixed to said guiding elements and the mounts of a second set of roller assemblies are fixed to said mast. 54. The elevatable mast assembly of claim 53, further compromising a direction of elevation, wherein said first set is in the direction of elevation from said second set. 55. The elevatable mast assembly of claim 53, wherein said first set is further along said elevation axis than said second set. 56. The elevatable mast assembly of claim 50, each of said roller assembly sets comprising a plurality of rollers, wherein the rollers of at least one set are in rolling contact with said mast and the rollers of at least one other set are in rolling contact with said guiding elements. 57. The elevatable mast assembly of claim 56, wherein said rollers in rolling contact with said mast are above said rollers in rolling contact with said guiding elements. 58. The elevatable mast assembly of claim 50, said mast comprising at least four parallel mast sections, each of said mast sections comprising a hollow metal tube; said guide assembly comprising at least four guiding elements, each of said guiding elements comprising a hollow metal tube; and a screw jack elevation system; wherein at least one guiding element is located radially outwardly of each of said mast sections from said elevation axis. 59. In a mobile transport for emitting penetrating radiation, for scanning targets with said radiation and for sensing said radiation using sensors, the transport for movement along a direction of travel, a mast system, comprising: a mast having an translation axis; a guide assembly having a plurality of guiding elements, wherein said guiding elements are fixed to the supporting structure; and a plurality of roller assembly sets, wherein said sets guide translation of said mast along the translation axis. 60. The mast system of claim 59, said mast comprising a plurality of parallel mast sections, each of said mast sections comprising a hollow metal tube, said guide assembly comprising a plurality of guiding elements, each of said guiding elements comprising a hollow metal tube, wherein at least one guiding element is located radially outwardly of each of said mast sections from said translation axis. 61. The mast system of claim 59, each of said roller assembly sets comprising a plurality of roller assemblies, each said assemblies having at least one roller and a mount; and the mast assembly further compromising a direction of elevation; wherein the mounts of a first set of roller assemblies are fixed to said guiding elements the mounts of a second set of roller assemblies are fixed to said mast, and said first set is in the direction of elevation from said second set. 62. The mast system assembly of claim 59, comprising at least a first and second roller assembly set, each of said roller assembly sets comprising a plurality of rollers; wherein the rollers of the first set are in rolling contact with said mast, the rollers of the second set are in rolling contact with said guiding elements, and said rollers in rolling contact with said mast are above said rollers in rolling contact with said guiding elements. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to booms and mast structures for supporting a load, and to those supporting torque-inducing loads. In particular, if relates to a boom structure that may be rotated, and a mast structure that may be elevated. More particularly, it relates to a boom and mast structure mounted on a mobile platform for deployment of a system for inspection of vehicles or containers. A boom used to support a load at a distance from a vertical support must resist deformation resulting from the downward forces applied thereto by that load, and the torque created thereby. In addition, where that boom and load may be subject to acceleration resulting from translation or rotation, or other application of forces, in other than the vertical direction, the boom must also resist torsion along its long axis. The necessity of resisting torsion will be increased by a further load in the form of a vertical portion extending downwardly from its far end, which acts to intensify torsional effects created by movement out of the vertical. A mobile transport may have a mast mounted thereon, and a boom mounted atop the mast, which is rotatable with respect to the mast, and which has a vertical portion supported by its far end. For use in inspection of vehicles or containers, the mobile transport may mount a transmitter and sensors, on the boom and the vertical portion, for inspecting vehicles or containers which pass below and inward of the boom as the mobile transport is propelled past those items. In this situation, in order to increase the accuracy of the inspection, it is particularly important to resist torsion and bending to minimize changes in the position of the boom relative to the transport. Further, where the mast is to be raised of lowered along a vertical axis, the system used to do so must also guide that movement, and resist torque created by the load of the boom and its load. BACKGROUND ART A structure supporting a load at a distance is subject to both bending and torsional effects, particularly when a further perpendicular structure is supported at a distance from the point of support. The use of metal tubes or beams for constructing such structures is known, as is use of C-channel beams to resist torsion or bending. However, such structures, if relatively long, are subject to buckling if not reinforced, and may not be sufficient to resist higher bending and torsion loads. Construction, and reinforcement of, such a structure installed upon a mobile platform must also address weight concerns related to vehicle weight and stability. Further, such structures must also resist movement of the structure relative to the point of support. Previous devices disclosed in patents include the following: U.S. Pat. No. 5,152,659 to Waka discloses a boom assembly having an inflection point therein that utilizes two opposing upper and lower welded C-channels to form a box structure. The booms are used to form the arms supporting the bucket of a bulldozer. Waka does not address the use of tubes, or other reinforcements. U.S. Pat. No. 5,568,829 to Crawford et al. discloses a boom for a sliding boom delimber, for use in the logging industry, the boom utilizing a pre-stressed I-beam to enclose and support power and control cables to the delimbing apparatus attached at its end. Crawford et al. do not address the use of tubes, or other reinforcements. U.S. Pat. No. 5,692,028 to Geus et al. discloses a x-ray examining apparatus mounted on a mobile vehicle, including a support structure and detectors mounted on the supporting structure. Geus et al. do not address construction of any boom, mast or other structure supporting the detectors, or how to minimize movement of the support structure relative to the vehicle. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,764,683 and 5,903,623 to Swift et al. disclose a mobile device for inspection of containers, including detectors that may be supported from a horizontal boom extending from the mobile device. Swift et al. do not address construction of a boom or mast supporting the detectors, or how to minimize movement of the boom relative to the mobile device. In addition, a mast assembly is known for raising and lowering a load from a mobile platform; such structures often utilize a mast formed of a hydraulic piston. A lateral load, such as that resulting from torque applied by a boom in the present invention, may be applied. In the absence of a separate guiding system, lateral loading would be transmitted through the hydraulic seals (often O-rings) to the cylinder walls, which may unduly compress those seals, and cause failure of these seals. Because a hydraulic lift system can fail, permitting the mast to drop, such systems may include a latching mechanism, to support the mast and load in an elevated position. However, this adds weight and cost. Such structures do not address the torque and load concerns of the described inspection system. It can be seen that the foregoing do not meet all of the needs for a boom and mast structure that is rigid and torsion-resistant, and resistant to buckling and undesirable movement. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a highly rigid, torsion-resistant, and buckle-resistant boom design, which may include a vertical portion, providing stable support for the supported load. This invention provides a horizontal boom section, and in a preferred embodiment includes a vertical boom section depending downwardly from the distal end of the horizontal boom section. In another preferred embodiment, the proximal end of the horizontal boom section is preferably mounted to a vertical support, such as an elevatable mast, permitting vertical movement of the boom/mast structure, and rotation of the boom structure. In preferred mode of operation, a series of vehicles, typically tractor-trailer rigs, or cargo containers, are placed in a line parallel to the intended direction of travel of the mobile inspection unit which incorporates a preferred embodiment of the invention. The unit is propelled forward so that a scanning zone of an inspection system passes through each of the rigs or containers in succession. The data gained from these scans is viewed and interpreted by an operator in the mobile transport. Accurate alignment and minimized relative movement between the radiation source and the sensors is critical. Because the sensors are mounted upon the boom sections, it is important to increase the torsional and bending resistance, and the resistance to buckling, of those sections, particularly the horizontal boom section. Torsion forces may act upon the boom in a number of ways. For instance, forward acceleration of the mobile inspection unit, and the resistance to motion of the boom structure, will result in inertia opposing that acceleration. This effect will be increased where that resistance is placed at a distance from the source of support, such as the vertical boom structure, supported at the end of the horizontal boom structure. Other sources of torsional effects include wind resistance and accidental obstruction of the boom structure. Similarly, bending forces are present resulting from the weight of the sensors and the boom's own weight. In a preferred embodiment, a horizontal boom section includes a continuous inner tube, or rod, which runs the length of the horizontal boom section. This inner tube penetrates several flanges arrayed along the length of the boom section. The flanges are preferably perpendicular to the inner tube, and are joined to it at the penetration. Individual, discontinuous, outer tube segments are placed outwardly of the inner tube, preferably concentrically, between and abutting, but not penetrating, the flanges. The outer tube segments are joined at their ends to the flanges' faces, preferably in grooves sized to those segments. Inward-facing C-channel beams, running the length of the horizontal boom section, are joined on their inward faces to the flanges' side edges, preferably congruently. Tensioning cables provide upward support for the ends of the structure, and permit a torque to be applied to straighten the structure. Preferably, the boom further includes a vertical boom section, including a set of continuous tubes, or rods, which run the height of the vertical boom section, and penetrate several flanges arrayed along its height. The several flanges are substantially perpendicular to the vertical, and preferably congruent to inward-facing C-channel sections. The C-channel sections run the height of the vertical boom section, and are joined to the flanges. In a particularly preferred embodiment, a joint is provided roughly in the middle of the vertical boom section, permitting the lower segment to be folded upwardly against the upper segment, reducing the overall length of the vertical boom section for ease of stowage. In a preferred embodiment, in order to facilitate elevation and rotation of the boom relative to a mobile transport, a mast-head and mast assembly are provided. The horizontal boom section, to which the vertical boom section is preferably mounted, is mounted to a mast-head, which is itself mounted to a mast assembly. The mast assembly is mounted to the chassis of the mobile transport. A mast assembly includes a mast guide and an elevation system to elevate the mast and the boom structure supported thereby. The mast-head is mounted to the top of the mast assembly, facilitating joinder of the horizontal boom section to the mast. The mast-head includes a rotation drive for rotating the boom structure. A counterweight structure may also be mounted to the mast-head, opposing the torque created by the weight of the boom structure. The mast is preferably rigid, resistant to torque, and transmits out-of-vertical forces to the chassis without adversely affecting operation of the elevation system. In a preferred embodiment, a composite mast, formed of a two-by-two square grouping of hollow square-section tubes provides such rigidity and strength. The mast assembly further preferably includes a guide for the mast, which includes four similar hollow square-section tubes fixed to the chassis outwardly of the corners of the mast, and rollers between the mast corners and the inner corners of the guide. Preferably, several sets of rollers are positioned at varying heights along the mast. The rollers permit translation of the mast relative to the guide, which is fixed to the chassis, but transmit to that chassis the forces out of the vertical, created by torque of the weight of a boom or load. The elevation system also preferably includes a screw and a screw jack, which require little power for operation and are very reliable. This system has advantages over alternatives, such as a hydraulic lift for a similar mast, or a mast formed of a hydraulic piston. The weight and cost of an additional latching system are avoided by using the screw jack system, which does not depend upon a hydraulic power source for lift, and can maintain position without power input. The present invention also avoids compression and failure of hydraulic seals by omitting them and transmitting any lateral loads via rollers, which are designed to transmit this load to the guide. In a further preferred embodiment, loads supported by the boom sections include their own weight and sensors for detecting transmitted radiation for inspecting vehicles and containers inward of and below the boom. Various types of sensors may be used, such as transmission, backscatter, sidescatter and forward scatter detectors. In this preferred embodiment, the boom structure is mounted on a mast, itself mounted to the chassis of a mobile transport. The boom sections may be rotated relative to the mast, to a position in which they extend roughly perpendicular to the transport's direction of forward travel. The bottom end of the vertical boom section preferably extends proximate the ground surface. In this position, the horizontal and vertical boom sections form, with the adjacent side of the transport, an essentially planar rectangular scanning zone. A radiation source, typically an X-ray emitter, is mounted on the mobile transport, along with the necessary support equipment, power source and operator. The X-ray device emits penetrating radiation into the scanning zone and toward sensors mounted upon the inward face of the vertical boom section, and upon the lower face of the horizontal boom section. The X-ray device may provide coverage of the scanning zone by repeatedly sweeping a narrowly focussed beam aligned to the plane, or by other techniques permitting radiation transmission covering a planar area. If the radiation would tend to penetrate the sensor, or the boom's structural material, additional absorptive material, such as lead, may be employed to do so. The further scope of the invention will become apparent upon the review of the detailed description of the preferred embodiments. It should however be understood that these descriptions do not limit the scope of the invention and are given as examples only, and that various changes and modifications which are fully within the scope of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention is more easily understood with reference to the drawings, in which: FIG. 1A is a partial cutaway top view of the mobile inspection unit depicting the boom assembly in the deployed position. FIG. 1B is a partial cutaway elevation of the mobile inspection unit depicting the boom assembly in the deployed position. FIG. 1C depicts partial section A-A of the mobile inspection unit. FIG. 1D is an end view of the mobile inspection unit depicting detail of the boom assembly in the deployed position. FIG. 2A is a top view of the mobile inspection unit depicting the boom assembly in the stowed position. FIG. 2B is a partial cutaway elevation of the mobile inspection unit depicting the boom assembly in the stowed position. FIG. 3 depicts section B-B of the vertical boom section. FIG. 4 depicts section C-C of the horizontal boom section. FIG. 5A is an elevation of a horizontal boom section flange. FIG. 5B is an edge view of a horizontal boom section flange. FIG. 6A depicts section D-D of the instrument boom. FIG. 6B depicts partial section E-E of the horizontal boom section. FIG. 6C is a partial cutaway elevation of the mast-head. FIG. 6D depicts section F-F of the mast-head. FIG. 7A is a top view of a vertical boom section flange. FIG. 7B is an edge view of a vertical boom section flange. FIG. 8A is an elevation of the joint between horizontal and vertical boom sections. FIG. 8B is an end view of the joint between horizontal and vertical boom sections. FIG. 9 depicts section G-G of the vertical boom section. FIG. 10 is a partial cutaway of detail of the mast assembly and rotation system. FIG. 11 is a partial cutaway top view of the rotation system. FIG. 12 depicts section H-H of the mast assembly. FIG. 13 is an elevation of the terminal flange. FIG. 14A is a plan view of the mast-head extension, with the cover panel removed, showing-joinder to the mast-head. FIG. 14B is an elevation of the mast-head extension with the sheeting removed, showing joinder to the mast-head. FIG. 15 depicts detail of the wire cage transmission. FIG. 16 depicts detail of section I-I. FIG. 17A is an elevation of an alternative horizontal boom section flange. FIG. 17B is an edge view of an alternative horizontal boom section flange. FIG. 17C is a partial cutaway bottom view of alternative horizontal boom section. FIG. 18 is an exploded view of the joint between horizontal and vertical boom sections. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring now to the accompanying figures, and in particular to FIGS. 1A-1D, a specific preferred embodiment of the present invention is depicted as mobile inspection unit 1 including instrument boom 10. Instrument boom 10 includes horizontal boom section 20, vertical boom section 22; sensor packages 24, and associated mast assembly 12. Mast assembly 12, mounted on chassis 6 of mobile transport 2, includes mast 13, mast-head 14, mast guide 15, counter-weight 16 and turntable bearing 17. Referring also to FIG. 2B, mobile inspection unit 1 may be self-propelled and operated from cab 4, or may incorporate an independent tractor (not depicted). Inspection unit 1 moves along movement axis 5 (FIG. 1A), normally also the longitudinal axis of the unit. Mobile inspection unit 1 includes mobile transport 2, which will ordinarily have a conventional main drive system 3, suitable for propelling mobile inspection unit 1 on ordinary roads or highway systems. Drive system 3 may include such conventional components as a diesel engine, transmission, drive shaft, suspension components, axles, brakes and a steering system for steering the front set of wheels 7. Mobile transport 2 further includes chassis 6, and transport body 8. Transport body 8 is mounted on chassis 6 in a conventional fashion, while chassis 6 is supported by wheels 7. The number and arrangement of wheels may vary with the load to be borne, the desired chassis size and the use of an independent tractor. Referring to FIG. 1A, transport body 8 comprises forward compartment 106, and operator compartment 107, preferably separated by wall 109. Forward compartment 106 includes cathode unit 104 and anode unit 105, which are operably connected to radiation emitter 112 in a manner known to persons skilled in the art. Emitter 112 is capable of emitting penetrating radiation suitable for inspection of vehicles and containers for contraband such as illegal drugs, weapons and the like. Emitter 112, in the preferred embodiment is an X-ray emitter; any of several types of emitters may be employed depending upon target composition and other design criteria. Oil cooler 108 is preferably included, and provides cooling for cathode and anode units 104, 105; its capacity may be determined by a person of ordinary skill based upon the cooling needs of the specific equipment utilized. Referring to FIGS. 1A, 1B, power is supplied by generator 102, preferably capable of providing 100 kW three-phase power, mounted upon the rear portion of chassis 6. A model DCA-100 by M.Q. Power is acceptable. Cooling for transport body 8 is provided by air conditioning units 9, preferably three-ton models, mounted upon transport body 8. Referring to FIGS. 1B and 1C, equipment compartment 103 is adjacent forward compartment 106, and the exterior of transport body 8, and houses emitter 112, beam collimator 113 and backscatter detectors 116. Preferably, in order to mount emitter 112 close to ground 125 to permit inspection of low portions of target 131, subfloor 111 is used, supporting emitter 112 and collimator 113. Subfloor 111 is preferably mounted as low as 12 inches above ground 125. Emitter 112 should be mounted in such a manner as to reduce movement relative to instrument boom 10, and preferably in a rigid fashion, directly or indirectly, to chassis 6. In operation, protective doors 117 are opened to expose this equipment to inspection target 131. Protective doors 117 may also be closed, as in FIG. 2B, during transport or otherwise to protect the equipment. In FIGS. 1A-1C, emitter 112, operating with cathode and anode units 104, 105, emits penetrating radiation aligned with the deployed position of instrument boom 10. This penetrating radiation preferably passes through collimator 113, which narrows this beam in a fore and aft direction and restricts it to a roughly planar scanning zone 114, which is directed toward sensors 24. Sensors 24 are suitable for detecting penetrating radiation emitted by emitter 112. Scanning zone extends from an angle a1, preferably below horizontal, to angle a2, above horizontal. Preferably, scanning zone 114 extends from about 4 degrees below the horizontal to about 74 degrees above. These values may differ depending upon the size of target 131 and its placement relative to emitter 112, and may be determined by a person of skill in the art. Turning to FIGS. 1B, 1C, 10 and 12, mast guide 15, a portion of mast assembly 12, is also located within forward compartment 106. Mast guide 15 encloses and supports mast 13, and the mast elevation system. Mast guide 15 is mounted, preferably by welding, to mast assembly base 21. Base 21 is mounted to mobile transport 2, preferably to chassis 6, providing support for instrument boom 10. Mast 13, supported by guide 15, acts as a vertical support of the end of horizontal boom section 20. In different embodiments, an end support, which may provide one or both of vertical support or torque for horizontal and vertical boom sections 20, 22, may also be provided directly by a mast-head structure, the mast itself, or another supporting structure, known to a person of ordinary skill in the art. Referring to FIGS. 1C, 10 and 12, the mast elevation system preferably includes screw jack 91, hub nut assembly 92 and screw 93. Screw jack 91 includes an electric motor and a jack, and is mounted to assembly base 21. A ½ to 1 H.P. motor, and a ten-ton load capacity jack, for transferring the input of the motor to screw 93 were found acceptable. In a preferred embodiment, an ACTIONJAC brand model no. 10BSJ jack is used in screw jack 91. Screw jack 91 rotates screw 93, which acts upon hub nut assembly 92 to elevate mast 13 within mast guide 15. Hub nut assembly 92, within-which screw 93 rotates, translates screw 93's rotation to motion along a vertical axis aligned with screw 93 and hub nut assembly 92; preferably this vertical axis is aligned with mast 13's vertical axis. Hub nut assembly 92 incorporates multiple sets of ball bearings transferring the load of mast 13 to screw 93, and is advantageous over other options, such as a simple hub threaded to screw 93, by offering lower resistance to operation, needing less lubrication, and having a lower power requirement for the motor for screw jack 91. Hub nut assembly 92, fixed to mast 13 via mast baseplate 174, transmits the vertical motion to mast 13, while screw 93 is fixed to mast elevation drive 91. Screw cutaway 95, formed by removing interior portions of mast tubes 176, permits rotational and translational movement of screw 93 relative to mast 13. Screw guard 87, preferably fixed within screw cutaway 95, prevents other components, e.g. cabling, from contacting screw 93, and either damaging that component or fouling screw 93. In another embodiment, the mast elevation system comprises a hydraulic piston assembly fixed to mast 13, including a hydraulic pump, a piston acting upon mast 13, preferably upon baseplate 174, controls and, preferably, a latching mechanism. The latching mechanism is used to maintain elevation of mast 13 should the hydraulic system lose pressure or otherwise fail. Failure, and uncontrolled dropping of mast elevation, during operations, could result in horizontal boom section 20 contacting target 131 and significant damage to both. In this way the above screw jack system is advantageous, in that such a latching mechanism is unnecessary. Remaining with FIGS. 1C, 10 and 12, operation of the mast elevation system raises instrument boom 10, about 22 inches in a particularly preferred embodiment, to create top clearance 129 between target 131 and sensor package 24 on horizontal boom section 20, when instrument boom 10 is in the deployed position. In the preferred embodiment, top clearance 129 is between about six and about eight inches, and this results in sensor package 24 being about 168-169 inches above ground 125 when instrument boom 10 is in fully raised position, as depicted in FIG. 1C. Ground clearance 126 between lower boom segment distal end 29a is preferably about five inches in the deployed position. In the raised position of this preferred embodiment, the top of instrument boom 10 is about 184 inches above ground 125, and the bottom of sensor package 24 on horizontal boom section 20 is about 168 inches above ground 125. Turning to FIG. 2B, in this preferred embodiment's lowered position, the underside of mast-head 14 clears the top of transport body 8 by about 6 inches, while sensor package 24 is about 146 inches above ground 125, and when in the stowed position, stowed clearance 132 is about four inches above the top of transport body 8, and the top of boom 10 is no more than 162 inches above ground 125. Returning to FIG. 1C, horizontally, there is preferably at least about 144 inches between protective doors 116, on the working side of transport body 8, and sensor package 24 on vertical boom section 22, which permits side clearance 128 of about 21 inches on either side of a target 131 having a road-legal width of 102 inches. Remaining with FIGS. 1C, 10 and 12, mast 13 comprises a plurality of mast sections and guide rails 179. In a preferred embodiment, the mast sections are four mast tubes 176, and in a particularly preferred embodiment, mast tubes 176 are hollow, squared tubes, about six inches square in section, having a wall thickness of about ⅜ inch, and are about 96 inches in height. Mast tubes 176 are preferably constructed of stainless steel or another steel suitable for the predicted loading. Preferably, four mast tubes 176 are arranged in a parallel fashion in a square two-by-two array, and are mounted together by welding intermittently along the exposed seams/edges between the tubes. Mast baseplate 174 is also fixed, preferably by welding, to the lower ends of mast tubes 176, which assists the tubes to retain their configuration. Mast top plate 164 is similarly fixed to the upper ends of tubes 176. Mast 13 is aligned on a translation axis, preferably vertical, as is mast guide 15, to permit vertical translation. Mast tubes 176 are mounted at their upper end, via mast top plate 164, to lower plate 158 of turntable 17, in FIG. 16, preferably by welding. Preferably, four guide rails 179 are mounted to the outer corners of the square array of mast tubes 176, by fixing the inner face of the rail to the exposed outer corner of each of mast tubes 176. In one embodiment, guide rails 179 comprise ⅜ thickness, four inch width angle pieces, about 88 inches in height, preferably made of stainless steel or other suitable steel materials. Other designs for an elevatable mast are known to persons of skill in the art. Remaining with FIGS. 10 and 12, mast guide 15 comprises guide tubes 178, one or more sets of roller assemblies 177 and additional guide fails 179. Guide tubes 178 are joined at their bases to mast assembly base 21, preferentially by welding. Guide tubes 178 are preferentially arranged outwardly from the exposed outer corners of mast 13, radially and symmetrically from the center of mast 13, preferably such that four guide tubes 178 are outward of the corners in both the forward/aft and side-to-side directions, and are positioned parallel to each of mast tubes 176. In one embodiment, guide tubes 178 are about four inches square in section, have a wall thickness of about ⅜ inch, are about 88 inches in height, and are preferably constructed of stainless steel or another suitable steel. Similarly to mast tubes 176, guide rails 179 are mounted at their inner face to the corners of guide tubes 178 opposite to the outer corners of mast 13. Rails 179 need not be the full length of tubes 178 or 176, but may rather be fixed only to that portion of the tube in contact with a roller. Remaining with FIGS. 10 and 12, roller assemblies 177 preferably comprise rollers 192 fixed to mounts 193. Preferably, roller 192 is a steel, yoke-style roller, having a V-groove; such rollers with bearings rated for 12,000 pound thrust limit were found to be acceptable. Mounts 193 are preferably an angled bracket having an adjustable yoke fitting to accept a yoke-style roller and to adjust the position of the roller with respect to the rail. Other roller assembly components known to a person skilled in the art may be acceptable. In a preferred embodiment, mast guide 15 comprises three sets of four roller assemblies 177 each, all of the assemblies in a given set being labeled with the same suffix, 177a-177c respectively. However, sets need not have four roller assemblies; while four opposing assemblies are advantageous, two symmetrically opposed assemblies per set could also be used, for instance with a further set having such opposed assemblies oriented to a different axis than the first, thus guiding the mast in more than one axis normal to the translation axis. Each such assembly preferably comprises one roller 192 and mount 193, and each assembly 177 mounted to either mast 13 or to guide tubes 178, and placed opposing guide rails 179 on either tubes 178 or mast 13. Rollers 192 are in rolling contact with tubes 178 or mast tubes 176, or preferably, with guide rails 179 on those tubes. This provides a low-friction manner of transmitting forces out of the translation axis, here vertical, from mast 13 to guide tubes 178. In this manner, roller assemblies 177 inhibit translation of mast 13 out of that translation axis. In a preferred embodiment, a set of lower roller assemblies 177a are mounted to mast 13, near its bottom using mounts 193, while intermediate roller assemblies 177b, and upper roller assemblies 177c are mounted to guide tubes 178 in a fixed relationship to one another, with upper roller assemblies 177c placed near the upper portion of guide tubes 178, also using mounts 193. This permits rollers lower assemblies 177a to continue to guide mast 13 as it moves upwardly, and avoids the upper assemblies 177c interfering with upward movement of mast 13. Positioning of sets of roller assemblies 177 along the translation axis may vary as design criteria such as needed height of the mast, or elevation vary, but positioning the set of lower roller assemblies 177a at or near base plate 174, and positioning the sets of intermediate and upper assemblies 177b, 177c about 65 and 86 inches, respectively, above assembly base 21 was found to be acceptable. Remaining with FIGS. 10 and 12, mast guide 15 preferably further comprises reinforcement straps 175. Strap sets 175 should be distributed along guide 15, and placed at points to oppose lateral forces that might cause a guide tube to buckle. In one embodiment, three strap sets 175a-175c are located in positions corresponding to the vertical positions of sets of roller assemblies 177. In another embodiment, two strap sets 175a′, 175b′ are roughly evenly spaced along the height of guide tubes 178, and are about 30 and 70 inches above assembly base 21, respectively. Strap sets 175 in these embodiments are preferably metal bars, about three inches wide, and about ⅜ inch thick, reaching from one guide tube 178 to the adjacent guide tube, and welded thereto. Strap sets 175 are made of a metal suitable for welding to guide tubes 178. Turning to FIGS. 6A, 6C and 6D, mast-head 14 preferably comprises mast-head plate 97, reinforcement plate 157, mast-head frame 98, boom joints 99, boom joint supports 100, mast-head cover plate 101, and sheeting 185. In one embodiment, mast-head 14 is constructed of stainless steel, while in another, it is constructed of galvanized steel. An acceptable stainless steel for the components of mast-head 14 is 316L stainless steel. Another acceptable steel for the components of mast-head 14 is a galvanized hot-rolled structural channel steel, such as ASTM A36 mild steel. Plate 97, in one embodiment, is roughly coffin-shaped viewed from above (in FIG. 1A), is flat and about ⅜ inch thick, and has forward, middle and rear sections, the first and last being tapered to substantially square ends. Plate 97's length, aligned with the longitudinal axis of the horizontal boom section, is about 156 inches, and is about 48 inches wide at its widest, in the middle section, which is about 36 inches long. The forward section of plate 97, adjoining horizontal boom section 20, is about 48 inches long, and tapers to about 36 inches wide. The rear section of plate 97, supporting first counterweight 16, is about 72 inches long, and tapers to about 36 inches wide. Referring to FIGS. 11 and 16, the middle section of plate 97 has several holes defined through it, including access hole 156, centered above turntable 17, and 90-degree drive hole 161, set slightly off to the side of hole 156. Preferably, access hole 156 is partially circular about 12 inches diameter, having one side, preferably to the side and rear, flattened off chord-wise about two inches. Also preferably, drive hole 161 is oval and is aligned along the radial of hole 156 normal to the flattened chord, about four inches from that flattened portion. Drive hole 161 has a minor and major diameters of about six and ten inches. Referring to FIGS. 6A and 10, reinforcement plate 157 is preferably mounted below mast-head plate 97, in the area in which mast-head 14 is supported by mast 13, and is preferably roughly square, about ½ inch thick, and about 48 inches in length and width, and has the corners rounded off. In another embodiment mast-head extension 18, supporting secondary counterweight 19, may be joined to the rear section of plate 97, beyond rear frame 184. Turning to FIGS. 6A, 6C and 6D, mast-head frame 98 lies above the surface of mast-head plate 97, and preferably conforms substantially to the periphery of plate 97. Frame 98 comprises a forward transition 181, a middle section 182, a rear transition 183 and rear frame 184. The preceding four each comprise upper, middle and lower frames, designated with the suffixes a, b and c, respectively. Upper frames 181a-184a, and lower frames 181c-184c, are preferably five inch C-channel beams, about ¼ inch thick, placed such that the legs of the beams point inwardly into mast-head 14, and run parallel to the periphery of plate 97. More preferably, upper frames 181a-183a, and lower frames 181c-183c, are formed of single pieces of C-channel, having the legs notched, to permit bending the web at the forward transition 181—middle section 182 and middle section 182—rear transition 183 junctions. Using single pieces lends strength to these junctions. The lower set of legs of lower frames 181c-184c abut plate 97, while the upper set of legs of upper frames 181a-184a abut mast-head cover panel 101. Separating the “a” and “c” frame sets are middle frames 181b-184b, which are also preferably 5-inch C-channel beams, but cut to three inch lengths, and set endwise between the upper and lower frames. Middle frames 181b-184b are welded at their “C”-shaped ends to the lower legs of upper frames 181a-184a, and the upper legs of lower frames 181c-184c, respectively, with the legs of middle frame 181b-184b pointed toward the interior of mast-head 14. Middle frames are located at several locations along the upper and lower frames, preferably at or near the points of transition between forward, middle and rear transitions 181-183 and rear frame 184, as well as one or more locations intermediate thereto. In one embodiment, each of forward transition frames 181 are about 13 inches high, and run about 49 inches along the side edges of the forward section of plate 97. Similarly, each of middle section frames 182 are about 13 inches high, and run about 36 inches along the edge of the middle section of plate 97, and each of rear transition frames 183 are about 13 inches high, and run slightly more than about 72 inches along the side edges of the rear section of plate 97. Preferably, a single piece of channel about 157 inches long is used for upper and lower frames 181a-183a, 181c-183c. Rear frame 184 is also about 13 inches high and runs about 36 inches along the rear edge of plate 97. Lower frames 181c-184c are preferably both welded and bolted to mast-head plate 97. Mast-head frame 98 also comprises front frame 180, which is at the front of mast-head plate 97, and is only a portion of the height of frames 181-184, preferably about 3 inches, to accept horizontal boom section 20. In one embodiment, front frame 180 is 3-inch angle bracket, ¼ inch thick; in another, it is a tube having a roughly three-inch square hollow section. Preferably, sheeting 185 is mounted to mast-head frame 98 on its outward side, and may comprise ⅛ inch 5052 aluminum sheet. Mast-head 14 also preferably comprises upper and lower boom joints 99a, 99b, rear boom joint 207, and boom joint supports 100. Boom joints 99a, 99b and 207 are beams structurally connecting horizontal boom section 20 to mast-head 14, and are preferably five inch C-channel, having legs 188 extending from inner surface 186. There are preferably two each of upper and lower boom joints 99a, 99b, one upper and one lower on each side of horizontal boom section 20, placed alongside and parallel to proximal ends 62 of beams 56, and so that outer surfaces 187 of boom joints 99a, 99b abut the outer surface of beams 56, and inner surface 186 and legs 188 face away from horizontal boom section 20. In a particularly preferred embodiment, upper boom joints 99 are about 156 inches long, and may be constructed of 304L stainless steel or another acceptable steel suitable for welding to mast-head 14. Upper boom joints 99a extend forwardly from rear frame 184a to the forward end of mast-head 14, at the forward end of forward transition 181a. Lower boom joints 99b, shorter than the upper ones, extend forwardly from rear boom joint lower joint section 207c to the forward end of mast-head 14, at the forward end of forward transition 181c. Boom joints 99a, 99b are joined to horizontal boom section 20, preferably by structural bolts 206 distributed along its length, and with rear boom joint 207, support boom section 20, and thereby boom section 22. In addition, angle bracket 149, welded to the exterior of forward transitions 181, is placed with one leg flush to the opening for boom section 20, and is bolted to boom section 20. Upper boom joints 99a are supported above lower boom joints 99b, and above plate 97, by several boom joint supports 100, and are preferably braced in that position by several transverse braces 163. Supports 100 are preferably sections of five-inch channel, in which the legs run vertically, and support upper beam joints 99a at their lower legs 188 at numerous places along their length. Two transverse braces 163 are positioned in a transverse relationship with each of upper boom joints 99a, between inner surfaces 186 and mast-head frame 98. Preferably, braces 163 are short sections of 3-inch by ¼ inch angle bracket, and are located near proximal ends 62 of beams 56, near the joint between forward transition 181 and middle section 182, and near the joint between middle section 182 and rear transition 183. Also preferably, rear gussets 191 are joined between boom joint inward surface 187 and upper rear frame 184a. In a particularly preferred embodiment, braces 163 are about six inches in the dimension long, are joined such that the legs run from inner surfaces 186 to frame 98. Referring to FIG. 6D, rear boom joint 207 is placed transversely between upper and lower boom joints 99a, 99b, and immediately rearwardly of horizontal boom section 20. Rear boom joint 207 preferably comprises upper and lower joint sections 207a, 207c, and middle section 207b. Boom joint sections 207a, 207c are preferably five inch C-channel, and comprise distal and proximal faces 209, 210, legs 212 rising from the proximal face, and ends 211. Upper section 207a further comprises tension cable chases 208, and lower section 207c, longer than upper section 207a, defines cutaway sections 213. Middle sections 207b are similarly five inch C-channel sections, cut to three-inch lengths and joined to the upper and lower sections in a manner similar to that used in frames 181-184. Middle sections 207b are placed to either side of proximal end 44 of tube 40, which is exposed at flange 66a. Distal faces 209 of rear boom joint 207 abut proximal face 68a of flange 66a, as well as proximal ends 62 of beams 56. Rear boom joint 207 is joined to horizontal boom section 20, at these abutting surfaces, preferably by several structural bolts 206 distributed across rear boom joint 207. Turning to FIGS. 14A and 14B, in another embodiment, mast-head extension 18, for supporting secondary counterweight 19, is attached to mast-head 14. Extension 18 comprises extension plate 217, extension frame 218 and extension cover panel 222. Extension 18 may be either a stainless steel alloy, or galvanized steel, but the material should match that used for mast-head 14. Plate 217 is preferably one-inch plate, and about 48 inches long, measuring longitudinally from its point of attachment to mast-head 14. The joined end preferably matches the rear end of mast-head 14 and is about 36 inches wide, while the opposite; rear, end is tapered to about 20 inches wide. Frame 218 comprises extension rear frame 219 and two side frames 220, which preferably extend from mast-head rear frame 184 rearwardly to extension rear frame 219. Rear and side frames 219 and 220 are constructed similar to frames 181-184, using lengths of 5 inch C-channel forming upper frames 219a, 220a and lower frames 219c, 220c, and short lengths, preferably three inches, of cut channel welded therebetween, forming middle frames 219b, 220b. Frame 218 further includes angle bracket 221, preferably 2 by 2 inch by ⅜ inch thick, attached to the front edge of plate 217, with a vertical face aligned upwardly at that edge. Secondary counterweight 19 is mounted, or otherwise fixed, within extension 18, preferably to plate 217, and preferably as near to extension rear frame 219 as practicable, to maximize the counterweighting effect. Should secondary counterweight 19 be sufficient to balance instrument boom 10, first counterweight 16 may be omitted entirely. In one embodiment, secondary counterweight 19, comprising about 2,400 pounds of lead sheet, was sufficient to balance instrument boom 10. Frame 218 is mounted to plate 217 by welding the lower leg of lower side frames 220c and rear frame 219c to plate 217, and by using bolts 206 to connect the two components. Mast-head extension 18 is mounted to mast-head 14, preferably by welding the joined, wider, end of extension 18 to the rear edge of mast-head plate 97 and rear frame 184a-184c. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the wider end of extension plate 217 is welded to the rear edge of plate 97, the vertical face of angle bracket 221 is welded to lower rear frame 184c, and the forward ends of upper and lower side frames 220a, 220c are welded to corresponding upper and lower mast-head rear frames 184a, 184c. Cover panel 222 may be fixed to extension 18 using panel bolts 155. As a further alternative, plates 97 and 217 may be formed as a single plate. Referring to FIGS. 6C, 6D and 10, mast-head cover 101 is mounted to and above mast-head frame 98. Cover 101 is preferably light plate conforming substantially in shape to mast-head plate 97, and to the periphery of mast-head frame 98. In a particularly preferred embodiment, cover 101 comprises several ⅛ inch thick aluminum plates, which together are roughly shaped as mast-head plate 97. The various plates of cover 101 may be mounted to frame 98 using bolts 155. Mast-head 14 is preferably constructed as follows. Joinder is preferably by welding, more preferably by a MIG (gas metal arc) welding process. A welding process using a 200 ampere MIG welder, manufactured by Miller Electric Mfg. Co., 1635 West Spencer Street, P.O. Box 1079, Appleton, Wis. 54912, has been found to be satisfactory, although a higher amperage rating may be desirable to reduce any need for preheating the aluminum material. A pure argon shielding gas was acceptable. A SPOOLMATIC 30A automatic wire feed system, also by Miller Electric, was used to feed a 0.035 inch ER 4043 aluminum alloy wire to the MIG welder. If necessary, preheating may be accomplished using an oxy-acetylene or propane torch. Other methods of accomplishing joinder between metal objects known to a person of skill in the art may be satisfactory, such as TIG-type welding, and will depend upon the specific compositions and heat treatment of the materials used. In addition, the above techniques are suitable for horizontal and vertical boom sections 20, 22, mast assembly 12, and box joint 59. Referring to FIGS. 6C and 6D, mast-head 14 is constructed in the following preferable sequence: plate 97 is pre-drilled with holes to accept bolts 206, and is supported for the construction process slightly higher at the forward and rear ends to induce a slight “sag” in the area to be joined to middle section 182. This sag is induced to counteract the hogging effect created by applying the loads to mast-head 14, counterweights 16, 19 and horizontal and vertical boom sections 20, 22 at its two ends. A slight, visible, sag at that middle section was found to be acceptable. The lower legs of lower frames 181c-184c of frame 98 may also be pre-drilled with holes for bolts 206. Further, referring now to FIG. 6A, the legs of the single pieces comprising upper frames 181a-183a and lower frames 181c-183c are preferably previously notched to permit the bends in the web to form the angled transitions between forward transition 181 and middle section 182 and between middle section 182 and rear transition 183. In addition, one end of the single pieces, and both ends of rear frames 184a, 184c, are preferably previously bevel cut in order to facilitate miter joints at the angled transitions between rear transition 183 and rear frame 184. Tack-welding, and clamping may be utilized in this construction process in order to counteract heat expansion difficulties. Returning to FIGS. 6C and 6D, the lower leg of the single piece of channel comprising lower frames 181c-183c is placed so that its forward end is aligned with the forward end of plate 97, and permits proper placement of lower boom joints 99b. Further, its legs face inward, and its five-inch face is substantially flush with the edge of plate 97 in the forward transition, and preferably, its bolt holes are aligned to those in plate 97. Lower frame 181c-183c is then welded along both the inner and outer edges of the lower leg to the upper surface of plate 97 in forward transition 181c. Referring now to FIG. 6A, the single piece is then bent to form the angled transition between forward transition 181 and middle section 182, and lower frame 181c-183c is welded along both the inner and outer edges of the lower leg to the upper surface of plate 97 in middle section 182c. Next, the single piece is bent to form the angled transition between middle section 182 and rear transition 183, and lower frame 181c-183c is welded along both the inner and outer edges of the lower leg to the upper surface of plate 97 in rear transition 183c. Next, this process is repeated with lower frame 181c-183c located on the opposing side of plate 97. Finally, returning to FIGS. 6A, 6C, the lower leg of lower frame 184c of rear frame 184 is welded along both the inner and outer edges to the upper surface of plate 97, and the beveled edges at the ends of lower frame 184c are welded to the beveled ends of the single pieces forming lower frames 181c-183c. Once all lower frames 181c-184c are welded in place, they are bolted to plate 97 using bolts 206 (see FIG. 6D). Next, referring to FIGS. 6C and 6D, proceeding sequentially around lower frames 181c-184c, one C-shaped end of each of middle frames 181b-184b is welded in place to the upper legs of lower frames 181c-184c. Again, the legs of the middle frames 181b-184b face inwardly, and the opposing face is aligned with the edge of plate 97. The order in which this is accomplished may vary. In one embodiment, there are middle frames located at: the forward end and midpoint of forward transition 181, at the junction of forward transition 181 and middle section 182, at middle section 182's midpoint and its junction with rear transition 183, three distributed along the length of rear transition 183, at the rear of rear transition 183, and at each end of rear frame 184. Placement of middle frames is also visible in FIGS. 14A and 14B. Next, remaining with FIGS. 6C and 6D, the lower leg of the single piece of channel comprising lower frames 181c-183c is placed above lower frame 181c so that its forward end is aligned with the forward end of plate 97, and permits proper placement of upper boom joints 99a. Further, its legs face inward, and its five-inch face is substantially flush with the edge of plate 97 in the forward transition. Upper frame 181a-183a is then welded to the second C-shaped ends of middle frames 181b in the forward transition. Then, turning to FIG. 6A, the single piece is bent to form the angled transition between forward transition 181 and middle section 182, and the lower leg of upper frame 181a-183a is welded to the second C-shaped ends of middle frames 182b in the middle section. Next, the single piece is bent to form the angled transition between middle section 182 and rear transition 183, and upper 181a-183a is welded is to the second C-shaped ends of middle frames 183b in the rear transition. Next, this process is repeated with upper frame 181a-183a located on the opposing side of plate 97. Finally, the lower leg of upper frame 184a of rear frame 184 is welded to the second C-shaped ends of middle frames 184b in the rear transition, and the beveled edges at the ends of upper frame 184a are welded to the beveled ends of the single pieces forming upper frames 181a-183a. Next, turning to FIGS. 6C and 6D, rear boom joint lower frame 207c, which like the lower frames, has preferably been pre-drilled, is aligned forward of access hole 156 (in FIG. 6A) to corresponding bolt holes in plate 97. Lower frame 207c is placed with its legs 212c at ends 211c abutting the legs at the forward ends of lower frames 182c. The lower leg 212c of lower frame 207c is then welded in place to plate 97, and bolts 206 are installed. Welds on upper, lower or rear boom joints 99a, 99b, 207 on outer surfaces 187, or on distal faces 207a-207c, should be avoided, at least those at or above three inches above mast-head plate 97. These surfaces are preferably left smooth for a close fit to horizontal boom section 20. However, if necessary these surfaces may be welded upon, if appropriate finishing measures, such as beveling and grinding, are used to ensure a smooth surface. Next, remaining with FIGS. 6C and 6D, one of lower boom joints 99b, like 207c preferably pre-drilled, is aligned with the bolt holes in plate 97, which places boom joint 99b's forward end flush with the forward end of plate 97, and in contact with lower frame 181c, and its rear end abutting distal face 209 of lower rear boom joint 207c. Outer surface 187 faces inward, away from frame 98. Legs 188 at the forward end of lower boom joint 99b may be trimmed away to form a good joint with lower frame 181c, and to obtain the proper positioning; it is important that the distance between boom joint outer surfaces 187, for both upper and lower boom joints 99a, 99b, is matched closely to the overall width of horizontal boom section 20, in order to obtain a snug fit and deter “wobbling” of instrument boom 10. This width may vary depending upon material chosen for construction, but in one embodiment using a stainless steel for construction of mast-head 14, 25.125 inches was found acceptable for the distance between surfaces 187. To account for the galvanized layer's thickness, a slightly greater distance may be needed if galvanized steel is used. Lower leg 188 of boom joint 99b is welded to plate 97, its rear end to lower rear boom joint 207c, and its forward end to lower frame 181c. Lower leg 188 is then bolted to plate 97. This process is then repeated with the other lower boom joint 99b. Next, the several supports 100 are fixed in place. Referring to FIGS. 6A, 6C and 6D, supports 100, preferably twelve, are located as follows. A first six are cut to three-inch length: two each between upper and lower boom joints 99a, 99b, near forward end 189 of upper beam joints 99a about at the midpoint of lower boom joint 99b, and at the junction of lower boom joint 99b and lower rear boom joint 207c. A second six are cut to eight-inch length: two each about even with sheave support 154, about at the transition between middle section 182 and rear transition 183, and about at the midpoint of rear transition 183. FIGS. 14A and 14B also depict placement of some of supports 100. All supports 100 are placed with their legs pointed outwardly, and the 5-inch face inwardly. The first six, three-inch supports, are welded at one C-shaped end to the upper of lower boom joint legs 188, the last extending onto the upper of rear boom joint legs 212c. The second six, eight-inch supports are welded at one C-shaped end to plate 97, in two lines extending rearwardly from lower boom joints 99b. Next, remaining with FIGS. 6A, 6C and 6D, one of upper boom joints 99a is added. With outer surface 187 facing inwardly, away from frame 98, forward end 189 of boom joint 99a is placed above lower boom joint 99b 's forward end, supported on the lower of legs 188 by supports 100. Forward end 189 should be flush with the forward end of plate 97, and in contact with upper frame 181c. Rear end 190 will abut the legs of upper rear frame 184a. Legs 188 at forward end 189 of upper boom joint 99a may be trimmed away to form a good joint with upper frame 181 a, for reasons noted above. Then, the lower of legs 188 are welded to the C-shaped ends of supports 100, and forward and rear ends 189, 190 are joined to upper frame 181 a and upper frame 184a, respectively. The weld to upper frame 184a may be made on boom joint outer surface 187. This process is then repeated with the other upper boom joint 99a. Turning to FIGS. 6A and 11, four transverse braces 163 are added; they are placed between upper boom joints 99a and upper middle section frames 182a, two at the forward ends and two at the rear ends, of frames 182a. The ends of braces 163 join boom joint inner surface 186 and the inner face of frames 182, between the legs, and are welded thereto. Turning to FIGS. 6D, rear boom joint middle frames 207b are placed to either side of center of lower frame 207a, leaving a gap between them of at least about five inches. One C-shaped end of each of middle frames 207b is joined to the upper of legs 212 by welding, with legs 212 of middle section 207b facing rearwardly. Next, upper frame of rear boom joint 207a is added, the lower of its legs 212 joined to the top of the second C-shaped ends of middle frames 207b, and its C-shaped ends 211c abutting and joined to boom joint outer surface 187. Next, in FIG. 6C, angle brackets 149 are welded to the forward ends of frames 181a, 181c and boom joints 99a, 99b. Finally, sheeting 185 is joined to the outer surfaces of frames 181-184, preferably by riveting, and mast-head cover plate is added using bolts 155 fixed preferably to upper legs of frames 98 or upper boom joints 99a. Turning to FIGS. 10 and 11, mast-head 14 is preferably supported by turntable 17. Mast-head plate 97 is mounted to reinforcement plate 157 below, and thence to upper plate 159. Reinforcement plate 157 distributes the load applied by upper plate 159. Turning to FIG. 16, turntable 17 is itself supported on mast 13 by lower plate 158 and rotary bearing assembly 160. Bearing assembly 160 has diameter d7, which is preferably about 30 inches and is suitable for supporting a load of about 40,000 pounds. Turntable 17 permits rotation of mast-head 14 relative to mast 13, and thus to transport body 8, and movement axis 5. Remaining with FIGS. 10 and 11, mast rotation motor 88, reducer 89 and 90-degree drive 90 are mounted within mast-head 14, to mast-head plate 97, either directly or indirectly. Motor 88 is joined to reducer 89 using a shaft, and preferably operates at about 1140-1180 R.P.M. Reducer 89 provides a reduced output shaft R.P.M., preferably a ratio of about 1:6000. Output speed of reducer 89 is preferably such that deploying of instrument boom 10 occurs at about 15 degrees per minute. Reducer 89's output shaft is joined to a wire cage coupling 193 (in FIG. 15), which comprises a cover, a first toothed transmission disk 194a, coupled to reducer 89, and offset a short distance along the shaft's axis, a second toothed transmission disk 194b, joined by a shaft to the input of 90-degree drive 90. Wire cage 195 is formed by tightly looping wire around the teeth of one transmission disk and around the teeth of the second, and repeating the process with other teeth, until each tooth is bound to one or more teeth with one or more loops of wire. Such a wire cage coupling 193 is advantageous because it provides a lower torque loss than a conventional rubber bushing, and little backlash. A model RK6-25N12 turntable bearing by Kaydon Corp., having an outer diameter of 29.5 inches, was found to be acceptable. A ½ H.P. SM-Cyclo 4000 electric motor was found to be acceptable for mast rotation motor 88. A Sumitomo model no. CHHJ4145DB4-7569 was found to be acceptable for reducer 89, and HUB CITY brand 90-degree drive, providing a 1:1 ratio, was found to be acceptable for drive 90. Turning to FIGS. 11 and 16, drive 90 translates the output shaft rotation from coupling 193 to rotation in a second shaft in the vertical plane via a gearset (not shown). An output shaft from drive 90, passing through drive hole 161, is fixed to spur gear 196, which drives ring gear 197 fixed to lower plate 158 of turntable 17. As drive 90 is fixed to mast-head 14, and ring gear 197 to lower plate 158, and thence to chassis 6 via mast 13, operation of mast rotation motor 88 results in rotation of instrument boom 16. Rotation is permitted at least between the deployed position in FIG. 1C and the stowed position in FIGS. 2A and 2B. The deployed position in the preferred embodiment is about ten degrees rearward of a position normal to movement axis 5, while the stowed position is rearward and about thirteen degrees off movement axis 5. Returning to FIGS. 1A and 1B, operator compartment 107, preferably located in the rearward portion of transport body 8, includes operator station 110, which permits an operator to control items such as instrument boom 10, emitter 112 and low-speed drive system 120. Drive system 120 may also be controlled by a driver in cab 4. Further equipment found in the preferred embodiment include video cameras 118 and worklights 119, which may also be operated from operator station 110. Steady and slow forward movement of mobile inspection unit 1 along movement axis 5 (in FIG. 1A) is desirable for several reasons. First, in operation, a driver in cab 4 will control the direction of movement along movement axis 5 using a conventional, installed, steering system, just as along a roadway during normal movement. The driver or the operator at station 110 would operate low-speed drive system 120 to control the speed of inspection unit 1. In operation, side clearance 128 (in FIG. 1C) may be as little as 21 inches, depending upon the size of target 131 and the size of instrument boom 10. Thus, slow forward motion permits the driver to maintain this clearance more easily. Further, slow passage will increase the amount of time in which any particular portion of target 131 remains within scanning zone 114, increasing likelihood of detection of the sought after contraband or other items. In addition, accuracy is increased, as a smooth forward motion will minimize jerking associated with use of a conventional transmission of main drive system 3. Jerking would likely result in motion and flexure of instrument boom 10 relative to emitter 112, with resultant inaccuracies of detection based upon received signals. In a preferred embodiment, movement of instrument boom 10 relative to emitter 112, as measured at distal end 29a of lower boom segment 26 (visible in FIG. 1D), should be less than about one inch in any direction. Turning to FIG. 2B, to permit such steady and slow forward movement, low-speed drive system 120 is preferred to power a rear set of wheels 7. Low-speed drive system 120 utilizes electric power from generator 102 to power electric motor 121. Motor 121 may run at up to 2000 RPM, and thus reducer 122 is used to reduce the rotational speed transmitted from the shaft of motor 121. From reducer 122, power is transferred, via transfer case 124, to reversed differential 123. Differential 123 converts rotation transverse to the axle of the shaft of reducer 122 to drive the rear set of wheels 7 of mobile transport 2, and is directed from the rear of wheels 7 in order not to interfere with main drive system 3. During operation, an operator at operator station 110, or the driver in cab 4 (both visible in FIG. 1A), can control the speed of motor 121 to propel mobile transport 2 at various speeds past a target 131; further, speed may be closely controlled because electric motor 121's speed may be adjusted up and down in small increments. These speeds may range from about 15 inch/second to about 60 inch/second. Transfer case 124 permits motor 121 and reducer 122 to be completely disengaged from reversed differential 123, permitting the rear set of wheels 7 to rotate freely during periods when mobile transport 2 is being propelled by main drive system 3. In the preferred embodiment, low-speed drive system 120 incorporates a conventional interlock preventing it from being engaged if main drive system 3 is engaged. Main drive system 3 similarly incorporates a conventional interlock to prevent it from being engaged if low-speed drive system 120 is engaged. In order for mobile inspection unit 1 to most accurately inspect target vehicles or cargo, instrument boom 10 should provide a high degree of rigidity and torsional resistance. As discussed, rigidity and torsional resistance is important to maintain proper alignment between sensor packages 24 and emitter 112. Mast-assembly 12, particularly mast-head 14, and horizontal boom section 20, support much of the load applied by the sensors and the weight of instrument boom 10, both vertical and torque, and provide much of that rigidity. Turning to FIGS. 6A and 6B, horizontal boom section 20 comprises longitudinal and transverse axes 21a, 21b, and a first support member, preferably inner tube 40, having outer surface 42, and longitudinal axis 41, proximal end 44 and distal end 46. Preferably, longitudinal axis 41 is coincident with axis 21a. Although the first support member is described and depicted as a hollow tube or cylinder, it could also be a solid rod; however a hollow tube has the advantage of providing additional torsional resistance compared to a solid rod of identical unit weight. Similarly, while inner tube 40 is depicted as being circular in cross section, it could also be oval or some other annular cross section. Further, the configuration will depend upon the specific materials utilized and the loads to be applied. In a preferred embodiment, inner tube 40 is formed as a hollow aluminum cylinder, having an annular cross-section, and an outer diameter d1, thickness t1 and length n1. In a particularly preferred embodiment, d1 is about 4 inches, t1 is about ½ inch, n1 is about 200 inches, and inner tube 40 is constructed of T6 6061 aluminum. While ANSI type T6 6061 aluminum has been found to be acceptable for tube 40, and for other components, other types of heat-treated or high-strength aluminum, or other metals may be acceptable depending upon the design criteria. Continuing with FIGS. 6A, 6B and 8A, horizontal boom section 20 also comprises a plurality of second support members, preferably eleven outer tube segments, 48a-48j; however the number and length of such segments may vary upwardly from one, and will depend upon the specific materials utilized and the loads to be applied. Outer tube segment 48a has surface 50a, proximate end 52a and distal end 54a. Similar features on outer tube segments 48b-48j are labeled utilizing those respective suffixes. Outer tube segments 48a-48j may be of a non-circular cross section, and may be of a different cross-sections or length from one another, however their inner dimensions must be larger than outer diameter d1 of inner tube 40. In a preferred embodiment, outer tube segments 48a-48j are formed as hollow aluminum cylinders, each having an annular cross-section, and an outer diameter d2 and thickness t2. Segments 48a-48j have lengths n2a through n2j, respectively. In a preferred embodiment, d2 is about 8 inches, t2 is about ½ inch, n2a through n2c are about 15½ inches, n2d is about 9½ inches, n2e through n2i are about 23½ inches, and n2j is about 21½ inches. The number of segments, and their exact dimensions may vary, depending upon design criteria. In another embodiment, only nine segments are used, and lengths n2a through n2c are adjusted to compensate, preferably by increasing them to about 18½ inches. Preferably, outer tube segments 48a-48j are constructed of 6061 T6 aluminum, although other materials may be acceptable. Turning now to FIGS. 6A, 6B and 8, horizontal boom section 20 also comprises third support members, preferably beams 56, having one or more legs 58a and 58b, and inward surface 60. In a preferred embodiment, beams 56 are C-channel beams constructed of aluminum, and are also shown in FIG. 4. Also in this embodiment, inward surface 60 lies between legs 58a, 58b, which rise from the planar surface of beam 56, and run down its longitudinal axis. Beams 56 also have proximal end 62 and distal end 64. In this preferred embodiment, beams 56 have height h3, thickness t3 and legs 58a, 58b have depth x3. In this preferred embodiment, distal end 64 extends about 10 inches beyond flange 66K to facilitate box joint 59. In a particularly preferred embodiment, h3 is about 10 inches, t3 is about 0.5 inch, x3 is about five inches, n3 is about 210 inches, and beams 56 are constructed of 6061 T6 aluminum. Horizontal boom section 20 also comprises a number of HBS flanges 66, arrayed in a spaced relationship to one another. Referring to FIGS. 6A and 6B, in a preferred embodiment there are eleven HBS flanges 66a-66k. HBS flanges 66a and 66k may be referred to as end caps due to their terminal positions on horizontal boom section 20 and inner tube 40. Turning to FIGS. 4, 5A and 5B, HBS flange 66b includes proximal face 68b, and distal face 70b, as well as upper edge 72b, lower edge 73b and side edges 74b. HBS flange 66b also incorporates flange hole 76b which has flange hole edge 77b, and proximal and distal grooves 78b, 79b, located respectively upon proximal and distal faces, 68b, 70b. Grooves 78b, 79b are circular, and concentric to flange hole 76b, and correspond to the dimensions of outer tube segments 48. Grooves 78, 79 are preferably included, as they aid alignment of outer tube segments 48 during assembly and construction of horizontal boom section 20, however, they could be omitted, with the lengths of the outer tube segments reduced commensurately, and proximal and distal ends 52, 54 abutting directly upon faces 70, 68 of HBS flanges 66. Grooves 78b, 79b have an outer diameter corresponding to diameter d2, and the groove has a thickness corresponding to thickness t2. Further, grooves 78b, 79b have depth g4, from the face inward, sufficient to permit a corresponding distal end 54a of tube segment 48a or proximal end 52b of segment 48b to be inserted therein, and for the segments to be supported therein. In a preferred embodiment, d2 is eight inches, t2 is ½ inch and g4 is about ¼ inch. HBS flange 66b also preferably includes channel cuts 75b, which, in one embodiment, are relatively shallow depressions formed in upper and lower edges 72b, 73b, about ¾ inch deep into the edges, and about four inches along the edges, and preferably closely conform to the shape of inward surface 60 and legs 58a, 58b of beams 56 to permit congruent engagement therewith. HBS flange 66b also incorporates two cable chases 80b permitting passage of tensioning cable 150. In a preferred embodiment, there are two cable chases, one each to the sides of flange hole 76b. In a preferred embodiment, HBS flange 66b is constructed of aluminum plate. Flange hole 76b and cable chases 80b can be removed by various machining processes for cutting thick metal pieces known to persons of skill in the art, such as a plasma cutter, or a water jet cutter. In this embodiment, HBS flange 66b has height h4, thickness t4 and width w4. Flange hole 76b has diameter d4, and cable chases 80b have diameter c4. In a particularly preferred embodiment, flange 66b is constructed of 6061 T6 aluminum, h4 is about 10 inches, t4 is about one inch, w4 is about 23 inches, c4 is about 1½ inches, and d4 is slightly greater than d1, about 4{fraction (1/16)} inches. HBS flanges 66a, 66c-66k have similar features labeled using those respective suffixes. HBS flange 66b will ordinarily be typical, save for the varying position of cable chases 80a-80k, but need not be. In addition, end caps 66a, 66k, which only adjoin one outer tube segment apiece, will ordinarily omit proximal groove 78a and distal groove 79k, respectively. Flange holes 76a-76k should be aligned to an axis coincident to axis 41. Returning to FIGS. 6A and 6B, in a particularly preferred embodiment, the spacing between the opposing distal and proximal faces of adjacent HBS flanges (e.g. a-b is between distal face 70a and proximal face 68b, preferably corresponding to a distance about ½ inch less than lengths n2a-n2j of outer tube segments 48a-48j) is as follows: a-b through c-d, about 15 inches; d-e, about 9 inches; e-f through j-k, about 23 inches. The number of flanges, and the spacing between them may vary, depending upon design criteria, such as the lengths of the outer tube segments. In another embodiment, only nine segments are used, and thus there are only ten flanges, in which case the spacing is adjusted to compensate. To accommodate passage of tensioning cable 150 through each of flanges 66a-66k, as cable 150 moves downwardly and outwardly from proximal end cable attachment 151 to sheave 153 toward distal end cable attachment 152, each successive cable chase 80 is at a lesser height above the flange's lower edge 73 (visible in FIG. 8A). Tensioning cables 150 provide an upward force upon proximal and distal end attachment points 151, 152. Cables 150 are preferably ⅝ inch braided stainless steel cables, and are terminated by threaded studs, which in one embodiment, are about 1¼ inches in diameter, and may be secured by use of hardware known to a person of ordinary skill. The upward force is transmitted from those attachment points to rear frame 184 of mast-head 14 and to terminal flange 198 and ears 146 of vertical boom section 22. Turning to FIGS. 10 and 11, sheaves 153, preferably used to redirect cables 150, cause the tension in cables 150 to act upwardly upon the structure at its ends. Sheaves 153 are located near the center of mast-head 14, preferably adjacent to access hole 156, and are supported by supports 154. Sheaves 153 are preferably about five inches in diameter, and supported upon a 1¼ inch bolt. Sheave supports 154 raise sheaves 153 above plate 97, and are preferably square tubing, having a four-inch hollow square section and ⅜ inch wall thickness, cut to about eleven inches long, onto which sheave 153 is mounted. The upward forces serve to reduce the “hogging” effect caused by supporting mast-head 14, counterweights 16, 19 and horizontal and vertical boom sections 20, 22 at an intermediate position, rather than at their ends. In addition, application of differing tension to cables 150 permits inducement of a “twist” of horizontal boom section 20 along its longitudinal axis. Such an induced twist may be used to counteract small misalignments of boom sections 20 and 22 during construction or otherwise. Tensioning cables 150 are internal to mast-head 14 and horizontal boom section 20, and are substantially horizontal, as sheaves 153 provide an upward deflection of about eleven inches above plate 97. Returning to FIG. 4, horizontal boom section 20 preferably also includes upper HBS panels 81, which have edges 82. Preferably, HBS panels 81 are sufficiently wide to run from upper leg 58b of one beam 56 to upper leg 58b of the opposing beam 56, and together run the length of horizontal boom section 20. Panels 81 are mounted to legs 58b, preferably using bolts 155. Panels 81 provide access to the interior of horizontal boom section 20, protect the cabling and other components of the instrument boom 10, and are preferably made of about ⅛ inch aluminum sheet. Further, in a preferred embodiment, sensor packages 24 are mounted to brackets 162, preferably by welding, which are in turn mounted to the underside of legs 58a, preferably using bolts 155. Interior face 86 of sensor packages 24, and the interior of brackets 162 span the gap between legs 58a. In a preferred embodiment, sensor packages 24 and brackets 162 substantially cover the lower surface of legs 58a, and extend for substantially all of the portion of the underside of horizontal boom section 20 not covered by mast-head plate 97. Horizontal boom section 20 is preferably assembled and joined by the following method. Joinder is preferably by MIG welding, as above. Referring to FIGS. 4 and 6B, prior to any welding, one of beams 56 is laid on the flat outer surface, with inward surface 60 and legs 58a, 58b facing upwardly. HBS flange 66a is aligned to proximal end 62, with side edges 74a of flange 66a abutting inward surface 60 and with upper and lower legs 58a, 58b congruently engaging channel cuts 75a. Next, flanges 66b-66k are placed with side edges 74b-74k abutting inward surfaces 60, and with upper and lower legs 58a, 58b congruently engaging channel cuts 75b-75k. Flanges 66b-66k, however, are not aligned to their final locations as indicated in FIGS. 6A, 6B, but rather are displaced about eight inches towards distal end 64 of beams 56, with flange 66k being located near distal end 64. Clamps may be used to retain flanges 66 in position. Next, the second of beams 56 is aligned parallel to the first, with inward surfaces 60 facing one another, and placed on top of the exposed side edges 74a-74k. This beam 56 is fitted to the flanges, side edges 74a-74k abutting inward surface 60, and upper and lower legs 58a, 58b congruently engaging channel cuts 75a-75k. The entire assembly is then compressed, beams 56 pressed firmly onto channel cuts 75a-75k; again, clamps may be used to retain flanges 66 in position. This assembly is then turned so that is rests upon lower legs 58a and lower edges 73a-73k. Remaining with FIGS. 4 and 6B, inner tube 40 is then inserted into flanges 66 at flange holes 76a-76k, starting at hole 76k. Surface 42, at proximal end 44 of tube 40, is aligned with hole 76k, and then pushed into it from distal face 70a. Once proximal end 44 has emerged from distal face 70a, outer tube segment 48j is interposed between flanges 66k and 66j, and inner tube 40 pushed therethrough. Tube 40 then reaches distal face 70b of the next flange 66j. Outer tube segment 48j is permitted to rest, or hang, loosely upon surface 42 of tube 40. This process is then repeated until proximal end 44 of tube 40 is substantially aligned to proximal face 68a, of end cap 66a. Once in position, flange 66a is joined to surface 42 of inner tube 40. A weld bead is laid along the interface of flange hole edge 77a and surface 42 at either or both of proximal face 68a or distal face 70a. Flange 66a may now be welded to beams 56, first inward surface 60 of one of beams 56, welded to side edge 74a, and then the other, by applying a bead along the interface therebetween, on first proximal face 68a, then distal face 70a. Next, outer tube segment 48a is placed in a concentric position outside inner tube 40 (also visible in FIG. 8A), with proximal end 52a fitting into distal groove 79a on flange 66a. Next, the adjacent flange 66b is moved towards flange 66a from its displaced position, so that distal end 54a of segment 48a fits into proximal groove 78b on flange 66b. In this way, outer tube segment 48a is supported by the two adjacent flanges 66a, 66b by grooves 79a, 78b, and preferably fits therein the full ¼ inch depth. Next, edges 74b of flange 66b are partially welded to inward surface 60 at distal face 70, using one- or two-inch bead lengths. Next, ends 52a, 54a are preferably also partially welded, using one- or two-inch bead lengths, to distal face 70a and proximal face 68b to retain outer tube segment 48a in position. Partial welding of the HBS flanges and the outer tube segments permits some flex, or “give” so that should there be any need to adjust their alignment, or to adjust the alignment of the structure, that may more easily be done. Further, should the structure begin to bow due to the welding process, it also permits using a reverse welding sequence when finishing the weld to cancel out the bowing effect. Continuing with FIG. 6B, flange 66b is joined to inner tube 40's surface 42. A weld bead is laid along the interface of flange hole edge 77b and surface 42 at distal face 70b, because proximal face 68b is covered by tube segment 48a. Then, repeating the above sequence, outer tube segment 48b is placed in a concentric position outside inner tube 40, with proximal end 52b fitting into distal groove 79b on flange 66b. Next, the adjacent flange 66c is moved towards flange 66b from its displaced position, enabling distal end 54b of segment 48b to fit into proximal groove 78c, and flange 66c and tube segment 48b are partially welded into position. This process is repeated for flanges 66d-66k, and for tube segments 66c-66j, sequentially welding the inner tube to a first flange, fitting a tube segment to the groove of the first flange, sliding the second flange into position and fitting its groove to the segment, and welding the flange and tube segment into place. Finally, end cap 66k is placed adjacent to tube segment 48j, and groove 78k fitted to end 54j. Distal face 70k of flange 66k will be aligned substantially to distal end 46 of tube 40, and will be about ten inches short of distal ends 64 of beams 56. Finally, the partial welds between HBS flanges 66 and beams 56, and between tube segments 48 and flanges 66 are filled in, completing the welds. A reversed welding sequence may be used to counteract bending due to welding, if needed. Naturally, this process could be accomplished in reverse order, beginning with placement of inner tube 40 into HBS flange 66a, or with the flanges initially displaced toward proximal end 62 of beams 56. Next, proximal ends 52a-52j of outer tube segments 48a-48j are welded to distal faces 70a-70j, and distal ends 54a-54j are welded to proximal faces 70b-70k. Finally, flange 66b may now be welded to beams 56, inward surface 60 of one of beams 56, and then the other, welded to side edge 74b, by applying a bead along the interface therebetween, preferably on both of proximal face 68b and distal face 70b. This process may be repeated until both of beams 56 are welded to each of side edges 74a-74j. However, the sequence in which the edges are welded to the beams may be varied, such as by alternating edges, or by welding opposing edges first. Similarly, flanges 66 may be joined to beams 56 prior to welding outer tube segments 48 to flanges 66. The particular order may be affected by the need to counteract the effects of heat expansion, which may vary with ambient temperature. Next, referring to FIG. 4, panel 81 and brackets 162 are mounted using bolts 155. Vertical boom section 22 preferably comprises lower boom segment 26 and upper boom segment 28. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 9, segments 26, 28 preferably comprise longitudinal and transverse axes 25a, 25b and 27a, 27b, respectively. Upper boom segment 28 has distal and proximal ends 29b, 30b, and includes beam segments 139b, which have beam segment ears 146, longitudinal axes 140, inward surface 141a, proximal end 142a and distal end 143a. Lower boom segment 26 has distal and proximal ends 29a, 30a, and includes beam segments 139a, which have longitudinal axes 140, inward surface 141b, proximal end 142b and distal end 143b. Beam segments 139a, 139b may also have one or more legs, preferably inner leg 144 and outer leg 145. In a preferred embodiment, beam segments 139a, 139b are C-channel beams having inward surface 141 between legs 144, 145, which rise from the planar surface of beam segments 139a and 139b, and run down their longitudinal axes. In this preferred embodiment, beam segments 139a, 139b have width w6, thickness t6, inner and outer legs 144, 145 have depth x6, and beam segment 139b has length n6b. In this preferred embodiment, outer legs 145 of beam segments 139b are extended past VBS flange 134a to form ears 146. In a particularly preferred embodiment, w6 is about ten inches, t6 is about ½ inch, x6 is about five inches, and n6b is about 85 inches. Also in this embodiment, beam segment 139a, n6a, is about 84 inches, not including ear 146. However, beams 56 and beam segments 139a and 139b may also omit ears 146 used to construct box joint 59, by utilizing other methods of joining perpendicular beams known to persons of skill in the art. Beam segments 139a, 139b are preferably constructed of 6061 T6 aluminum. Referring to FIG. 9, upper and lower boom segments 28, 26 further comprise several VBS flanges 134, in a spaced relationship relative to one another (depicted in FIGS. 1D and 9). In a preferred embodiment, there are VBS flanges 134a-134i, the first five on upper boom segment 28, and the latter four on lower boom segment 26. Referring also to FIGS. 7A and 7B, VBS flange 134a includes outer edge 136a, inner edge 135a, side edges 137a, proximal face 172a and distal face 173a. VBS flange 134a further incorporates one or more flange holes 170a, flange hole edge 171a, and channel cuts 138a. In a preferred embodiment, channel cuts 138a are relatively shallow depressions formed in inner and outer edges 135a, 136a, about ¾ inch deep into the edges, and about four inches along the edges, and preferably closely conform to the shape of inward surface 141a, 141b and legs 144, 145 of beam segments 139a, 139b to facilitate congruent engagement therebetween (see FIG. 3). In a preferred embodiment, VBS flange 134a has two flange holes 170a, spaced apart, and is constructed of aluminum plate, as with HBS flanges 66. VBS flanges 134b-134i comprise similar elements labeled using those respective suffixes. Flange holes 170a-170i should be aligned parallel to axes 25a, 27a. Referring to FIGS. 8A, 8B and 9, in a preferred embodiment, in upper boom segment 28, flange 134a is located near proximal end 142b of beam segments 139b, but below ears 146, flange 134e is located at distal ends 143b, and flanges 134b-134d are spaced therebetween. Remaining with FIG. 9, similarly, on lower boom segment 26, flange 134f is located at proximal end 142a of beam segments 139a, and flange 134i is located at distal ends 143a, while flanges 134g, 134h are spaced therebetween. Turning to FIGS. 7A and 7B, in this embodiment, VBS flange 134a has height h5, thickness t5, width w5, and flange hole 170a has diameter d5. In a particularly preferred embodiment, VBS flange 134a is constructed of 6061 T6 aluminum, h5 is about nine inches, t5 is about one inch, d5 is about 4{fraction (1/16)} inches, and w5 is about 24 inches. Flange 134a will ordinarily be typical of VBS flanges 134a-134i, but need not be, which may differ depending upon design criteria for the segments. Returning to FIGS. 1D and 9, in a particularly preferred embodiment, the spacing between the opposing distal and proximal faces of adjacent VBS flanges (e.g. a-b is between distal face 173a and proximal face 172b) is as follows: a-b through d-e, about 23.5 inches; and f-g through h-i, about 22 inches. VBS flanges are spaced enough to accommodate hinge 31. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 9, upper and lower boom segments 28, 26 each further comprise one or more upper and lower vertical tube segments 165a, 165b, respectively, and in a preferred embodiment, two each. Vertical tube segments 165a, 165b, as with inner tube 40, are described and depicted as hollow tubes, however, other shapes or cross-sections may be suitable, such as a solid rod, depending upon the design. Upper vertical tube segments 165a have proximal end 166a, distal end 167a, surface 168a and longitudinal axis 169a. In a preferred embodiment, vertical tube segments 165a are formed as hollow aluminum cylinders, having an annular cross-section, and outer diameter d8a, thickness t8a and length n8a. In a particularly preferred embodiment, d8a is about 4 inches, t8a is about ½ inch, and n8a is about 98 inches, and inner tube 40 is constructed of 6061 T6 aluminum. Tube segments 165b have similar features labeled with the suffix b, and while upper tube segments 165a are ordinarily typical, they may differ based upon design criteria; in addition, in a preferred embodiment, n8b is shorter than n8b, and is about 70 inches. Also in a preferred embodiment, axes 169a, 169b are parallel to upper and lower boom segment axes 27a, 25a. Remaining with FIG. 3, vertical boom section 22 preferably also includes outer VBS panels 83, which have edges 84. Preferably, VBS panels 83 are sufficiently wide to reach between opposing legs 145 of each of beam segments 139a and 139b, and together run the length of vertical boom section 22. Panels 83 are mounted to legs 145, preferably using bolts 155. Panels 83 provide access to the interior of vertical boom section 22 and protect the cabling and other components of the instrument boom 10, and are preferably made of about ⅛ inch aluminum sheet. Further, similarly in a preferred embodiment, sensor packages 24 are mounted to brackets 162, preferably by welding, which are in turn mounted to the underside of inner legs 144 of each of beam segments 139a and 139b, preferably using bolts 155. In a preferred embodiment, interior face 86 of sensor packages 24 and brackets 162 substantially cover the exterior surface of legs 144, and have a small gap located at the junction between flanges 134e and 134f. Vertical boom segments 26, 28 are preferably constructed in the following fashion, using tools described above for horizontal boom section 20. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 9, for upper boom segment 28, prior to any welding, an assembly process similar to horizontal boom section 20 occurs. One of beam segments 139b is laid on the flat outer surface, with inward surface 141b and legs 144, 145 facing upwardly. Proximal face 172a of VBS flange 134a is substantially aligned to proximal end 142b of beam segment 139b, with ears 146 extending beyond flange 134a. Side edges 137a of flange 134a abut inward surface 141b and inner and outer legs 144, 145 congruently engage channel cuts 138a. Next, flanges 134b-134e are similarly placed between inner and outer legs 144, 145, with side edges 137b-137e abutting inward surface 141b and with inner and outer legs 144, 145 congruently engaging channel cuts 138b-138e. Distal face 173e of flange 134e is substantially aligned to distal ends 143b of beam segments 139b. Clamps may be used to retain flanges 134 in position. Next, the second of beam segments 139b is aligned parallel to the first, with inward surfaces 141b facing one another, and placed on top of the exposed side edges 137b-137e. This beam 139b is fitted to the flanges, side edges 137b-137e abutting inward surface 141b, and inner and outer legs 144, 145 congruently engaging channel cuts 138a-183e. The entire assembly is then compressed, beam segments 139b pressed firmly onto channel cuts 138a-138e; again, clamps may be used to retain flanges 134 in position. This assembly is then turned so that is rests upon inner legs 144 and inner edges 135a-135e. Next, remaining with FIGS. 3 and 9, one of upper tube segments 165a is aligned with one of the set of flange holes 170a-170e, and inserted therein. Once fully inserted, proximal end 166a substantially aligns with proximal face 172a of VBS flange 134a, and distal end 167a substantially aligns with distal face 173e of VBS flange 134e. This process is repeated for the second of tube segments 165a and flange holes 170a-170e. Next, inward surfaces 141b of beam segments 139b are preferably tack welded, or clamped, at several points to side edges 137a, and then similarly for side edges 137b-137e, until inward surface 141b is abutting and aligned to each of the opposing side edges 137a-137e. Clamping or tack welding permits some flex, or “give” so that should there be any need to adjust the alignment of the structure, this may more easily be done. Next, both of upper tube segments 165a are preferably removed from the structure in order to permit more room for access by a welder, and once all items are in alignment, inward surface 141b of one of beam segments 139b is welded to side edge 137a, by applying a bead along the interface therebetween on first proximal face 172a, then distal face 173a. This process is repeated for the second of beam segments 139b, joining it to the second side edges 137a. This process is then repeated for side edges 137b-1 37e, for both of beam segments 139b. The order in which the side edges are joined to beam segments 139b may be altered, for instance by joining all side edges to one beam segment first, or by starting from VBS flange 134e, or in some other order. If upper tube segments 165a were removed from the structure, they may be replaced now. Then flange 134a is joined to one of upper tube segments 165a by laying a weld bead along the interface of flange hole edge 171a and surface 168a at one or both of proximal and distal faces 172a, 173a of flange 134a. This process is repeated for each of flanges 134b-134e, and then for the second of upper tube segments 165a. The sequence in which the flanges are welded to tube segments may be varied, such as by alternating tubes, and completing each flange before continuing to the next. Remaining with FIGS. 3 and 9, for lower boom segment 26 this process is repeated with beam segments 139a. One of beam segments 139a is laid on the flat outer surface, with inward surface 141b and legs 144, 145 facing upwardly, and flange 134f is set therein. VBS flange 134f, an end cap, is substantially aligned to proximal end 142a, with inward surface 141a abutting side edge 137f and with inner and outer legs 144, 145 congruently engaging channel cuts 138f. VBS flanges 134f-134i are placed similarly, as in upper boom segment 28. VBS flange 134i, an end cap, is substantially aligned to distal end 143a. Similarly, one of lower tube segments 165b is aligned with one of the set of flange holes 170f-170i, and inserted therein. Once fully inserted, proximal end 166b substantially aligns with proximal face 172f of VBS flange 134f, and distal end 167b aligns with distal face 173i of VBS flange 134i. This process is repeated for the second of tube segments 165a and flange holes 170f-170i. A similar welding process is then carried out as in upper boom segment 28, preferably with tube segments 165b having been removed during welding of flanges 134. Turning to FIG. 9, upper boom segment 28 and lower boom segment 26 are joined at their respective distal and proximal ends, 30a, 29b, preferably by hinge 31, which is preferably located between VBS flanges 134e, 134f, adjacent to outer edges 136e, 136f. Hinge 31 permits a range of motion of lower boom segment 26 relative to upper boom segment 28, preferably at least about 180 degrees about hinges 31's axis of rotation 31a. This range of motion is shown in FIG. 1D. Axis of rotation 31a preferably runs parallel to outer edges 136e, 136f. Turning to FIGS. 1D and 6A, the lower boom section stowage system comprises hinge 31, cable 34, winch 35, sheaves 36a, 36b and latches 37. Latches 37 have open and closed positions, and are also located adjacent distal and proximal ends, 30a, 29b, preferably on distal end 143b of beam segment 139b and proximal end 142a of beam segment 139a, on the sides of beam segments 139a, 139b. Latches 37 are heavy duty, preferably 8,000-pound, stainless steel locking clamps, suitable for bolting to the sides of beam segments 139a, 139b. Latches 37 also preferably have locking pins, to prevent accidental opening of the latch. A KNU-VISE brand PC-8000-SS clamp by Lapeer Manufacturing, Lapeer Mich., 48446 was found to be acceptable. In a closed position, latches 37, in coordination with hinges 31, hold flange 134f of lower boom segment 26 in a close relationship with flange 134e of upper boom segment 28, and maintains a rigid connection therebetween. This provides the down position of vertical boom section 22. In an open position, latches 37 permit inner edge 135f of flange 134f to move arcuately and away downwardly from edge 135e of flange 134e, permitting lower boom segment 26 to rotate about axis 31a of hinges 31. Referring to FIGS. 1D and 9, in one embodiment, hinges 31 are sets of knife hinges, one set each mounted to each side of vertical boom section 22, at the point at which flange 134e and flange 134f abut, and proximate to outer legs 145 of beam segments 139a, 139b. The pin in knife hinges 31 is aligned to create axis 31a, which in this embodiment, is about three inches outward of outer legs 145. Knife hinges offer the advantage that they are self-aligning, in axis 31a, and offer a more precise and repeatable positioning of lower boom segment 26 relative to emitter 112. In another embodiment, hinge 31 is at least one piano hinge, having axis 31a, which is mounted to the outer faces of upper and lower boom segments 28, 26, at the point at which flange 134e and flange 134f abut. Referring to FIG. 1C, stow cable 34, used in the stowage system, is used to raise and fold back the lower boom section, and is preferably rigged in a double line pull configuration, in order to reduce winch power requirements. Stow cable 34 is directed by, and accomplishes stowage by acting at sheaves 36. Sheaves 36 are stainless steel, V-shaped, wire cable sheaves, of about three inch diameter. Lower sheave 36a is located near distal end 29a of lower boom segment 26, and near outer edge 136i of VBS flange 134i, on the outer surface of the boom segment, and is preferably set a small distance off that surface to facilitate passage of cable 34 about sheave 36a. First and second upper sheaves 36b are located on distal face 200 of terminal flange 198, and are also set a small distance off that surface to facilitate passage of cable 34. The second upper sheave 36b is set below the first, approximately 24 inches. Cable 34 should be a braided steel cable suitable for use on a winch, and be sufficiently long to reach from proximal end 30b sheave 36a, back to proximal end 30b, and then to winch 35 (in FIGS. 1D and 6A). In a preferred embodiment, its length is about fifty feet long and its diameter about {fraction (3/16)} inch. One end of stow cable 34 is fixed to the outer surface of upper vertical boom segment 28, at a point slightly below the position of lower sheave 36a, when lower boom segment is in the stowed position. In the stowed position, cable 34 passes downwardly, outward of boom segments 26 and 28, and adjacent to outer panels 83, and approaches sheave 36a from its interior side, and wraps around sheave 36a, and is redirected upwardly from the exterior side of sheave 36b. Cable 34 then passes upwardly, outward of the above length, and approaches second upper sheave 36b from its interior side, and passes to the outward side of first upper sheave 36b. After being redirected toward horizontal boom section 20, and turning to FIGS. 8A and 8B, cable 34 enters instrument boom 10 through cable chase 204 in distal face 200 of terminal flange 198. Referring to FIG. 6B, cable 34 then enters horizontal boom section 20 at distal end 46 of inner tube 40, which is open at HBS flange 66k, and, in FIG. 6D, leaves it at proximal end 44, at flange 66a. Cable 34 then passes between upper and lower frames 207a, 207c of rear frame 207. Cable 34 then reaches winch 35, which is mounted to the interior of mast-head 14, and in one embodiment above, and indirectly to, mast-head plate 97. Referring to FIGS. 1C and 1D, with latch 37 in an open position, winch 35 draws in cable 34, which applies an upward force upon distal end 29a at sheave 36a, causing end 29a to swing upwardly and outwardly on hinges 31. As end 29a swings out, cable 34 exerts an upward and inward force. Continuing, as end 29a continues upward, outer panels 83 will reach a position approximately level with ground 125. As cable 34 continues to be drawn in, end 29a will approach outer panels 83 on upper boom segment 28, and hinges 31 will approach their 180 degree extension. Finally, in the stowed position, hinges 31 are at about 180 degree extension, outer edge 136i of flange 134i is near upper boom segment 28, and the outer panels of 83 of boom segment 26 are about three inches outward of those on boom segment 28, due to the location of axis 31a. FIG. 2B depicts the fully stowed position. In the stowed position, lower boom segment 26 and its longitudinal axis 25a is substantially collinear with upper boom segment 28 and its longitudinal axis 27a. Turning now to FIGS. 8A, 8B and 18, horizontal boom section 20 and vertical boom section 22 are preferably joined by box joint 59 and gusset assembly 61. Box joint assembly 59 is preferably constructed as follows. Ears 146 on upper beam segment 139b extend across the C-shaped distal ends 64 of horizontal beams 56. The inner surfaces of ears 146 closely abut distal ends 64, which extend beyond end cap flange 66k. Ears 146 and beams 56 are joined by welding; in one embodiment, C-shaped distal ends 64 are welded about at the joint with ears 146 on upper leg 58b and the side of beams 56, and at the inner periphery of lower leg 58a. In a further embodiment, inner edge 135a of end cap flange 134a is welded to lower edge 72k of end cap flange 66k, but solely on the inside of instrument boom 10. In addition, proximal ends 142b of beam segments 139b, save for ears 146, closely abut the lower surface of lower legs 58a and are welded thereto, preferably along the outer periphery of inner leg 144 of beam segment 139b, and along the side of beam segment 139b. The structure is preferably held tightly together during the welding process, such as by using clamps and other supports, to prevent deformation of the joints due to heat expansion. The welds may be accomplished in various orders, however, joining ears 146 to beams 56, one at a time, and then joining proximal end 142b to beams 56 was acceptable. It is important to maintain a 90-degree angle between horizontal and vertical boom sections 20, 22, in order to obtain accurate scanning results. Altering the order of welding to counteract results of heat expansion may be necessary and may further depend upon ambient environmental conditions. Exposed welds are preferably substantially flush with the outer surfaces of beams 56 and beam segment 139b to facilitate joining gusset assembly 61 to horizontal and vertical boom sections 20, 22. Remaining with FIGS. 8A, 8B and 18, gusset assembly 61 preferably includes gusset plates 147, gusset channel beam 148 and bolts 206. Plates 147 are metal plates, preferably triangular pieces of T6 6061 aluminum, ¼ inch thick, having one right angle and two sides of at least about 20 inches, and preferably about 22-26 inches, adjacent to the right angle. Gusset channel beams 148 are sections of 3″ C-channel beam about ¼ inch thick, also preferably T6 6061 aluminum, cut to run adjacent to the edges of plates 147, opposite to the right angle. The long, outward face of beams 148 abuts the outer surfaces of beams 56 and 139b. Beams 148 are preferably about 30 to about 40 inches in length, preferably extending fully diagonally across beams 56 and beam segments 139b. Plates 147 are located with the right angle placed at the intersection of upper legs 58b and ears 146, and the adjacent legs running downwardly and inwardly along the edges of outer legs 145 and upper legs 58b. Plates 147 are preferably joined to beams 56 and beam segment 139b using structural bolts 206. An acceptable bolt pattern includes about nine along each adjacent side, about ten along the opposite side, and five further extending from side to side at intermediate points along each side. Beams 148 are also preferably joined using bolts 206, six bolts each joining the beams to beam 56 and beam segment 139b being acceptable. Turning to FIGS. 8B and 9, preferably, a terminal flange 198 is located between ears 146 of upper beam segment 139b. Terminal flange 198 is a further flange, in line with HBS flanges 66a-66k, but not joined to inner tube 40 or outer tube segments 48a-48j. Flange 198 serves primarily as a point of attachment for tension cable distal end points 152, and to block off the open space between the distal ends of beams 56. Turning to FIGS. 13A and 13B, in one embodiment, flange 198 is a single plate; in another it is a composite plate, comprised of two to about four thinner plates, welded together face-to-face (seen in FIG. 6B). Flange 198 includes proximal and distal faces 199 and 200, side, top and bottom edges 201, 202 and 203, tension cable chases 205 and stow cable chase 204. Turning to FIGS. 6B and 8A, tension cable chases 205 are aligned with cable chases 80a-80k in the HBS flanges 66, and, in FIG. 13A, have a diameter c9, while stow cable chase 204 is slot-shaped, and aligned with distal end 46 of inner tube 40. Flange 198 is cut to fit within the gap (see FIG. 9) created between VBS flange 134a and ears 146, and has width w9 along top and bottom edges 202, 203, height h9 along side edges 201, and thickness t9 between faces 199, 200. In an embodiment using composite plate flange 198 (see FIG. 6B), inner plates, near proximal face 199, have a width w9 greater than those of outer plates, near distal face 200, in order that the longer plates overlap ears 146, and the shorter plates fit between ears 146. Turning to FIGS. 8A, 8B and 18, two braces 214 are preferably used to make box joint 59 more rigid, and to reinforce terminal flange 198 where cable 150 applies tension at attachment points 152. Each of braces 214 include forward ends 217 and rear plates 216, and is generally “L”-shaped viewed from above, with the long side being forward end 217. The vertical portion of forward ends 217 abut distal face 70k of end cap flange 66k, and the bottom side abutting end cap flange 134a, and is situated slightly inwardly of legs 58a and 144. Rear plate 216 extends outwardly from forward end 217, with its vertical portion abutting inward surface 60, and its bottom side notched to accommodate rear plate 216 abutting the inner surface of lower leg 58 of beam 56, and end cap flange 134a. Rear plate 216 has 1½ inch holes therethrough to permit passage of the studs of cable 150, and is joined by welding to proximal face 199 of terminal flange assembly 198, to inward surface 60 of beams 56, and to legs 58a. Forward end 216 is welded to end caps 134a, 66k. Returning to FIGS. 13A and 13B, in one preferred embodiment h9 is about 10 inches, w9 is about 15-16 inches, t9 is about one inch, stow cable chase 204 is about 1¼ inches by about 2½ inches, and c9 is about 1¼ inches. In another preferred embodiment, a composite flange 198 includes four plates, each having thickness t9 of about ¼ inch, and having widths of 15-16 inches and about 20-22 inches. Flange 178 is preferably T6 6061 aluminum. Referring to FIG. 8A, in one embodiment, it is joined by welding side edges 201 to the inner edges of ears 146, and bottom edge 203 to outer edge 136 of flange 134a. Turning to FIG. 6B, in a composite terminal flange 198, side edges 201 of narrower plates are welded to the inner edges of ears 146, while wider plates overlap, and are welded to the inner face of ears 146, and bottom edge 203 is welded to outer edge 136 of flange 134a Referring to FIG. 1C, sensor packages 24 comprise a significant portion of the load borne by horizontal and vertical boom sections 20, 22, and total about 1800 pounds. This weight is roughly evenly split between the two sections, with about a {fraction (9/11)} split between horizontal boom section 20 and vertical boom section 22. In an alternative embodiment, in horizontal boom section 20′, inner tube 40 and outer tube segments 48a-48j and HBS flanges 66a-66k are replaced by structures depicted in FIGS. 17A, 17B and 17C. This alternative structure can offer both advantages in weight reduction by utilizing thinner-walled tubes in the horizontal boom section and in construction time by utilizing a simpler construction method. This alternative horizontal boom section 20′ utilizes several components similar to those in section 20, and these components having the same or nearly the same components and functions will be identified by use of a prime, thusly -′-. Referring to FIG. 17C, horizontal boom section 20′ comprises a first support assembly, preferably treble tube assembly 230, longitudinal and transverse axes 21a′, 21b′, second support members, preferably beams 56′, and a number of trilobe flanges 225, arrayed in a spaced relationship to one another, similar to the relationship depicted in FIG. 6A for HBS flanges 66, and as in FIG. 17C. Boom section 20′ also comprises upper HBS panel 81′. In a preferred embodiment, there are eleven trilobe flanges 225a-225k. Referring to FIGS. 17A and 17B, flange 225a comprises trilobe flange hole 226a, flange hole edge 227a, proximal face 68a′, distal face 70a′, upper, lower and side edges 72a′, 73a′ and 74a′, channel cuts 75a′ and cable chases 80a′. Trilobe flange hole 226a is shaped roughly in the form of three circles of equal radius, arranged such that their centers form an equilateral triangle having a point facing downwardly and the opposite edge parallel to upper edge 72a′. In another embodiment, the point of the equilateral triangle could face upwardly or otherwise. The center of the equilateral triangle is approximately centered in flange 225a, preferably, slightly lower than center. The circles are joined at their points of tangency. All material is removed interior to the circles, as is that exterior material radially inward from the three tangency points toward the center of the equilateral triangle. Trilobe flange hole edge 227a is defined by the convex portions of the three circles running from one tangency point to another, the three portions joined at the tangency points. Preferably, a small amount of material is removed radially at the tangency points, away from the center of the triangle, to avoid creation of very small, narrow width flange pieces. Preferably, this material is removed about ¼ inch from the point of tangency. Trilobe flange holes 226a is sized to accept, preferably closely, treble tube assembly 230. Trilobe flange 225a is constructed of aluminum plate. Flange hole 226a and cable chases 80a′ can be removed by various machining processes for cutting thick metal pieces known to persons of skill in the art, such as a plasma cutter, or a water jet cutter. In this embodiment, trilobe flange 225a has height h4′, thickness t4′ and width w4′, and cable chases 80a have diameter c4′. In a particularly preferred embodiment, flange 225a is constructed of 6061 T6 aluminum, h4′ is about 10 inches, t4′ is about one inch, w4′ is about 23 inches, c4′ is about two inches, and d4 is slightly greater than d1, about 4{fraction (1/16)} inches. Trilobe flanges 225b-225k have similar features labeled using those respective suffixes. Flange holes 226a-226k should be aligned to an axis coincident to tube assembly axis 231. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the spacing between the opposing distal and proximal faces of adjacent flanges (e.g. a-b is between distal face 70a′ and proximal face 68b′) is as follows: a-b through c-d, about 15 inches; d-e, about 9 inches; e-f through j-k, about 23 inches. Trilobe flange 225a will ordinarily be typical, save for the varying position of cable chases 80a′-80k′, but need not be. Turning to FIG. 17C, treble tube assembly 230 includes longitudinal axis 231 and three tubes 232a-232c. In one embodiment, tubes 232a, 232b are lower tubes, having longitudinal axes 234a, 234b parallel to and substantially level with one another. Upper tube 232c has longitudinal axis 234c parallel to axes 234a, 234c, but located between and above them. Other orientations are possible, such as one lower tube and two upper tubes. Tubes 232a, 232b and 232c each have surfaces 233a-233c, proximal ends 236a-236c and distal ends 237a-237c. In a preferred embodiment, tubes 232a-232c are hollow, aluminum cylinders, having circular cross section and having length n11, outer diameter d11 and tube wall thickness t11. In a particular preferred embodiment, d11 is about four inches, t11 is from about ⅜ to about ¼ inch, n11 is about 200 inches and tubes 232a-232c are constructed of 6061 T6 aluminum. As with inner tube 40, a solid rod could be used, but a hollow tube is advantageous. Lower tubes 232a, 232b are side by side, and have surfaces 233a, 233b abutting one another at the tangency point. Directly above lies tube 232c, having surface 233c abutting surfaces 233a, 233c at tangency points on their upper sides. All three tubes 232 have their respective ends 236 and 237 substantially aligned to one another. The alternative horizontal boom section 20′ is constructed similarly to upper boom segment 28, using the techniques described above. The following modifications and substitutions are preferably made to that process. Trilobe flanges 225a-225k, tubes 232a-232c, beams 56′ and their constituents are substituted for VBS flanges 134a-134e, tube segments 165a, beam segments 139b and their constituents, respectively. In addition, tubes 232a-232c need not be removed from trilobe flanges 225a-225k during the welding process, as they permit better access to the flanges. Further, after flanges 225 are joined to treble tube assembly 230, each of tubes 225a, 225b and 225c are preferably joined to one another by welding longitudinally along the tangency point between surfaces 233a, 233b and 233c. Such welds are preferably not continuous, but rather are short welds, spaced approximately one foot apart. It may be necessary to invert the structure to accomplish this step for the a-b interface. The sequence in which the flanges are welded to tubes may be varied, such as by beginning at flange 225k, or by welding the tubes together first. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a highly rigid, torsion-resistant, and buckle-resistant boom design, which may include a vertical portion, providing stable support for the supported load. This invention provides a horizontal boom section, and in a preferred embodiment includes a vertical boom section depending downwardly from the distal end of the horizontal boom section. In another preferred embodiment, the proximal end of the horizontal boom section is preferably mounted to a vertical support, such as an elevatable mast, permitting vertical movement of the boom/mast structure, and rotation of the boom structure. In preferred mode of operation, a series of vehicles, typically tractor-trailer rigs, or cargo containers, are placed in a line parallel to the intended direction of travel of the mobile inspection unit which incorporates a preferred embodiment of the invention. The unit is propelled forward so that a scanning zone of an inspection system passes through each of the rigs or containers in succession. The data gained from these scans is viewed and interpreted by an operator in the mobile transport. Accurate alignment and minimized relative movement between the radiation source and the sensors is critical. Because the sensors are mounted upon the boom sections, it is important to increase the torsional and bending resistance, and the resistance to buckling, of those sections, particularly the horizontal boom section. Torsion forces may act upon the boom in a number of ways. For instance, forward acceleration of the mobile inspection unit, and the resistance to motion of the boom structure, will result in inertia opposing that acceleration. This effect will be increased where that resistance is placed at a distance from the source of support, such as the vertical boom structure, supported at the end of the horizontal boom structure. Other sources of torsional effects include wind resistance and accidental obstruction of the boom structure. Similarly, bending forces are present resulting from the weight of the sensors and the boom's own weight. In a preferred embodiment, a horizontal boom section includes a continuous inner tube, or rod, which runs the length of the horizontal boom section. This inner tube penetrates several flanges arrayed along the length of the boom section. The flanges are preferably perpendicular to the inner tube, and are joined to it at the penetration. Individual, discontinuous, outer tube segments are placed outwardly of the inner tube, preferably concentrically, between and abutting, but not penetrating, the flanges. The outer tube segments are joined at their ends to the flanges' faces, preferably in grooves sized to those segments. Inward-facing C-channel beams, running the length of the horizontal boom section, are joined on their inward faces to the flanges' side edges, preferably congruently. Tensioning cables provide upward support for the ends of the structure, and permit a torque to be applied to straighten the structure. Preferably, the boom further includes a vertical boom section, including a set of continuous tubes, or rods, which run the height of the vertical boom section, and penetrate several flanges arrayed along its height. The several flanges are substantially perpendicular to the vertical, and preferably congruent to inward-facing C-channel sections. The C-channel sections run the height of the vertical boom section, and are joined to the flanges. In a particularly preferred embodiment, a joint is provided roughly in the middle of the vertical boom section, permitting the lower segment to be folded upwardly against the upper segment, reducing the overall length of the vertical boom section for ease of stowage. In a preferred embodiment, in order to facilitate elevation and rotation of the boom relative to a mobile transport, a mast-head and mast assembly are provided. The horizontal boom section, to which the vertical boom section is preferably mounted, is mounted to a mast-head, which is itself mounted to a mast assembly. The mast assembly is mounted to the chassis of the mobile transport. A mast assembly includes a mast guide and an elevation system to elevate the mast and the boom structure supported thereby. The mast-head is mounted to the top of the mast assembly, facilitating joinder of the horizontal boom section to the mast. The mast-head includes a rotation drive for rotating the boom structure. A counterweight structure may also be mounted to the mast-head, opposing the torque created by the weight of the boom structure. The mast is preferably rigid, resistant to torque, and transmits out-of-vertical forces to the chassis without adversely affecting operation of the elevation system. In a preferred embodiment, a composite mast, formed of a two-by-two square grouping of hollow square-section tubes provides such rigidity and strength. The mast assembly further preferably includes a guide for the mast, which includes four similar hollow square-section tubes fixed to the chassis outwardly of the corners of the mast, and rollers between the mast corners and the inner corners of the guide. Preferably, several sets of rollers are positioned at varying heights along the mast. The rollers permit translation of the mast relative to the guide, which is fixed to the chassis, but transmit to that chassis the forces out of the vertical, created by torque of the weight of a boom or load. The elevation system also preferably includes a screw and a screw jack, which require little power for operation and are very reliable. This system has advantages over alternatives, such as a hydraulic lift for a similar mast, or a mast formed of a hydraulic piston. The weight and cost of an additional latching system are avoided by using the screw jack system, which does not depend upon a hydraulic power source for lift, and can maintain position without power input. The present invention also avoids compression and failure of hydraulic seals by omitting them and transmitting any lateral loads via rollers, which are designed to transmit this load to the guide. In a further preferred embodiment, loads supported by the boom sections include their own weight and sensors for detecting transmitted radiation for inspecting vehicles and containers inward of and below the boom. Various types of sensors may be used, such as transmission, backscatter, sidescatter and forward scatter detectors. In this preferred embodiment, the boom structure is mounted on a mast, itself mounted to the chassis of a mobile transport. The boom sections may be rotated relative to the mast, to a position in which they extend roughly perpendicular to the transport's direction of forward travel. The bottom end of the vertical boom section preferably extends proximate the ground surface. In this position, the horizontal and vertical boom sections form, with the adjacent side of the transport, an essentially planar rectangular scanning zone. A radiation source, typically an X-ray emitter, is mounted on the mobile transport, along with the necessary support equipment, power source and operator. The X-ray device emits penetrating radiation into the scanning zone and toward sensors mounted upon the inward face of the vertical boom section, and upon the lower face of the horizontal boom section. The X-ray device may provide coverage of the scanning zone by repeatedly sweeping a narrowly focussed beam aligned to the plane, or by other techniques permitting radiation transmission covering a planar area. If the radiation would tend to penetrate the sensor, or the boom's structural material, additional absorptive material, such as lead, may be employed to do so. The further scope of the invention will become apparent upon the review of the detailed description of the preferred embodiments. It should however be understood that these descriptions do not limit the scope of the invention and are given as examples only, and that various changes and modifications which are fully within the scope of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art. | 20040604 | 20070424 | 20050512 | 97030.0 | 0 | YUN, JURIE | BOOM WITH MAST ASSEMBLY | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,862,063 | ACCEPTED | Plant fatty acid amide hydrolases | The invention provides plant fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) coding sequences. Also provided are constructs comprising these sequences, plants transformed therewith and methods of use thereof. The invention allows the modification of plants for FAAH activity and N-Acylethanolamine levels. Such modification may be used to produce plants that are improved with respect to growth, seed germination, pathogen response and stress tolerance. | 1. An isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding plant fatty acid amide hydrolase, wherein the nucleic acid sequence is operably linked to a heterologous promoter. 2. The nucleic acid sequence of claim 1, wherein the isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding plant fatty acid amide hydrolase is from a species selected from the group consisting of: Arabidopsis thaliana, barley, cotton, grape, maize, potato, rice, sugarcane, sorghum, soybean, tomato, wheat and Medicago truncatula. 3. The nucleic acid sequence of claim 1, further defined as selected from the group consisting of: (a) a nucleic acid sequence encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:12 or SEQ ID NO:14; (b) a nucleic acid sequence comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:11 or SEQ ID NO:13; and (c) a nucleic acid sequence hybridizing to SEQ ID NO 1, SEQ ID NO:12 or SEQ ID NO: 14 under conditions of 5×SSC, 50% formamide and 42° C. 4. A recombinant vector comprising the isolated nucleic acid sequence of claim 1 or an antisense oligonucleotide thereof. 5. The recombinant vector of claim 4, further comprising at least one additional sequence chosen from the group consisting of: a regulatory sequence, a selectable marker, a leader sequence and a terminator. 6. The recombinant vector of claim 5, wherein the additional sequence is a heterologous sequence. 7. The recombinant vector of claim 4, wherein the promoter is a developmentally-regulated, organelle-specific, inducible, tissue-specific, constitutive, cell-specific, seed specific, or germination-specific promoter. 8. The recombinant vector of claim 4, defined as an isolated expression cassette. 9. An isolated polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:14, or a fragment thereof having fatty acid amide hydrolase activity. 10. A transgenic plant transformed with a selected DNA comprising the nucleic acid sequence of claim 1. 11. The transgenic plant of claim 10, further defined as a monocotyledonous plant. 12. The transgenic plant of claim 10, further defined as a dicotyledonous plant. 13. The transgenic plant of claim 10, further defined as an R0 transgenic plant. 14. The transgenic plant of claim 10, further defined as a progeny plant of any generation of an R0 transgenic plant, wherein said transgenic plant has inherited said selected DNA from said R0 transgenic plant. 15. A seed of the transgenic plant of claim 10, wherein said seed comprises said selected DNA. 16. A host cell transformed with a selected DNA comprising the nucleic acid sequence of claim 1. 17. The host cell of claim 16, wherein said host cell expresses a protein encoded by said selected DNA. 18. The host cell of claim 16, wherein the cell has inherited said selected DNA from a progenitor of the cell. 19. The host cell of claim 16, wherein the cell has been transformed with said selected DNA. 20. The host cell of claim 16, wherein said host cell is a plant cell. 21. A method of altering the N-Acylethanolamine metabolism of a plant comprising introducing into the plant an isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding a plant fatty acid amide hydrolase or an antisense oligonucleotide thereof, wherein the nucleic acid sequence is operably linked to a heterologous promoter functional in the plant and wherein the nucleic acid is expressed in the plant. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding a plant fatty acid amide hydrolase is from a species selected from the group consisting of: Arabidopsis thaliana, barley, cotton, grape, maize, potato, rice, sugarcane, sorghum, soybean, tomato, wheat and Medicago truncatula. 23. The method of claim 21, wherein the isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding a plant fatty acid amide hydrolase is further defined as selected from the group consisting of: (a) a nucleic acid sequence encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:12 or SEQ ID NO:14; (b) a nucleic acid sequence comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 11 or SEQ ID NO: 13; and (c) a nucleic acid sequence hybridizing to SEQ ID NO 1, SEQ ID NO:12 or SEQ ID NO:14 under conditions of 5×SSC, 50% formamide and 42° C. 24. The method of claim 21, wherein the nucleic acid sequence encoding a plant fatty acid amide hydrolase is in sense orientation. 25. The method of claim 21, wherein the recombinant vector comprises the isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding a plant fatty acid amide hydrolase is in antisense orientation. 26. The method of claim 21, wherein the recombinant vector comprises the isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding a plant fatty acid amide hydrolase in sense and antisense orientation. 27. The method of claim 21, wherein fatty acid amide hydrolase is down-regulated in said plant said plant and wherein the N-Acylethanolamine content of the plant is increased. 28. The method of claim 21, wherein fatty acid amide hydrolase is up-regulated in said plant and wherein the N-Acylethanolamine content of the plant is decreased. 29. The method of claim 21, wherein the growth of the plant is increased or decreased as a result of the expression of the isolated nucleic acid sequence, wherein up-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in said plant increases growth of the plant and wherein down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase decreases plant growth. 30. The method of claim 21, wherein fatty acid amide hydrolase is down-regulated and the stress tolerance of the plant is increased as a result of the expression of the isolated nucleic acid sequence. 31. The method of claim 28, wherein up-regulating comprises introducing the recombinant vector of claim 4 into said plant. 32. The method of claim 27, wherein down-regulating comprises introducing the recombinant vector of claim 4 into said plant, wherein the nucleic acid of claim 1 or antisense oligonucleotide thereof is in antisense orientation relative to the heterologous promoter operably linked thereto. 33. The method of claim 21, wherein introducing the isolated nucleic acid comprises plant breeding. 34. The method of claim 21, wherein introducing the isolated nucleic acid comprises genetic transformation. 35. The method of claim 21, comprising up-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in said plant, wherein the stress tolerance of the plant is decreased as a result of the up-regulating. 36. The method of claim 27, wherein the pathogen perception of the plant is increased as a result of the down-regulating. 37. The method of claim 28, wherein the pathogen perception of the plant is decreased as a result of the up-regulating. 38. A method of making food for human or animal consumption comprising: (a) obtaining the plant of claim 10; (b) growing said plant under plant growth conditions to produce plant tissue from the plant; and (c) preparing food for human or animal consumption from said plant tissue. 39. The method of claim 38, wherein preparing food comprises harvesting said plant tissue. 40. The method of claim 39, wherein said food is starch, protein, meal, flour or grain. | This application claims the priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/475,628, filed Jun. 4, 2003, the entire disclosure of which is specifically incorporated herein by reference. The government may own rights in this invention pursuant to grant number 2002-35318-12571 from USDA-NRICGP. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to the field of molecular biology. More specifically, the invention relates to plant fatty acid amide hydrolase genes and methods of use thereof. 2. Description of the Related Art N-Acylethanolamines (NAEs) are endogenous constituents of plant and animal tissues, and in vertebrates their hydrolysis terminates their participation as lipid mediators in the endocannabinoid signaling system. The membrane-bound enzyme responsible for NAE hydrolysis in mammals has been identified at the molecular level (designated fatty acid amide hydrolase, FAAH), and although an analogous enzyme activity was identified in microsomes of cotton seedlings, no molecular information has been available for this enzyme in plants. NAEs are produced from the hydrolysis of N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs), a minor membrane lipid constituent of cellular membranes, by phospholipase D in animal systems (Schmid et al., 1996). One example of an NAE, anandamide (NAE 20:4), has varied physiological roles as an endogenous ligand for cannabinoid receptors and functions in modulation of neurotransmission in the central nervous system (Wilson and Nicoll, 2002). Anandamide also activates vanilloid receptors and functions as an endogenous analgesic (Pertwee, 2001) and appears to be involved in neuroprotection (Hansen et al., 2000; Van der Stelt et al., 2001). While a principal role for NAE20:4 as an endogenous ligand for cannabinoid receptors has emerged as a paradigm for endocannabinoid signaling (Desarnaud et al., 1995; Wilson and Nicoll, 2002), other types of NAEs as well as other fatty acid derivatives likely interact with this pathway and perhaps others directly or indirectly to modulate a variety of physiological functions in vertebrates (Lambert and Di Marzo, 1999; Lambert et al., 2002; Schmid and Berdyshev, 2002; Schmid et al., 2002). NAEs have been implicated in immunomodulation (Buckley et al., 2000), synchronization of embryo development (Paria and Dey, 2000), and induction of apoptosis (Sarker et al., 2000). These endogenous bioactive molecules lose their signaling activity upon hydrolysis by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). Advances in the understanding of FAAH function in mammals at the structural level (Bracey et al., 2002), mechanistic level, and the physiological level (knockouts), have been made possible only through the cloning, expression and manipulation of the cDNA/gene encoding FAAH (Giang and Cravatt, 1997). Such studies have been lacking in plants due to the failure to isolate identify FAAH genes. Research in the last decade has, however, indicated that NAE metabolism occurs in plants by pathways analogous to those in vertebrates and invertebrates (Chapman, 2000, Shrestha et al., 2002), pointing to the possibility that these lipids may be an evolutionarily conserved mechanism for the regulation of physiology in multicellular organisms. In plants, NAEs are present in substantial amounts in desiccated seeds (˜1 μg g−1 fresh wt) and their levels decline after a few hours of imbibition (Chapman et al., 1999). Individual plant NAEs have been identified in plants as predominantly 16C and 18C species with N-palmitoylethanolamine (NAE 16:0) and N-linoleoylethanolamine (NAE 18:2) generally being the most abundant. Like in animal cells, plant NAEs are derived from N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs) (Schmid et al., 1990; Chapman, 2000) by the action of a phospholipase D (PLD). The occurrence of NAEs in seeds and their rapid depletion during seed imbibition (Chapman, 2000) suggests that these lipids may have a role in the regulation of seed germination. Recently, depletion of NAEs during seed imbibiton/germination was determined to occur via two metabolic pathways—one lipoxygenase—mediated, for the formation of NAE oxylipins from NAE 18:2, and one amidase—mediated for hydrolysis of saturated and unsaturated NAEs (Shrestha et al., 2002). Hydrolysis of NAEs was reconstituted and characterized in microsomes of cottonseeds, and appeared to be catalyzed by an enzyme similar to the FAAH of mammalian species (Shrestha et al., 2002). While the foregoing studies have provided a further understanding of the metabolism of plant secondary metabolism, the prior art has failed to provide genes encoding plant fatty acid amide hydrolase. The identification of such genes would allow the creation of novel plants with improved phenotypes and methods for use thereof. There is, therefore, a great need in the art for the identification of plant fatty acid amide hydrolase genes. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, the invention provides an isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding a plant fatty acid amide hydrolase and operably linked to a heterologous promoter. In certain aspects of the invention, the plant fatty acid amide hydrolase may be from a species selected from the group consisting of: Arabidopsis thaliana, barley, cotton, grape, maize, potato, rice, sugarcane, sorghum, soybean, tomato, wheat and Medicago truncatula. In one embodiment, the nucleic acid is further defined as selected from the group consisting of: (a) a nucleic acid sequence encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2; (b) a nucleic acid sequence comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1; and (c) a nucleic acid sequence hybridizing to SEQ ID NO 1 under conditions of 5× SSC, 50% formamide and 42° C. In another embodiment, the nucleic acid sequence encodes the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2, comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or hybridizes to SEQ ID NO: 1 under conditions of 5× SSC, 50% formamide and 42° C. In another aspect, the invention provides a recombinant vector comprising an isolated polynucleotide of the invention. In certain embodiments, the recombinant vector may further comprise at least one additional sequence chosen from the group consisting of: a regulatory sequence, a selectable marker, a leader sequence and a terminator. In further embodiments, the additional sequence is a heterologous sequence and the promoter may be developmentally-regulated, organelle-specific, inducible, tissue-specific, constitutive, cell-specific, seed specific, or germination-specific promoter. The recombinant vector may or may not be an isolated expression cassette. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides an isolated polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, or a fragment thereof having fatty acid amide hydrolase activity. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a transgenic plant transformed with a selected DNA comprising a nucleic acid sequence of the invention encoding FAAH. The transgenic plant may be a monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous plant. The plant may also be an R0 transgenic plant and/or a progeny plant of any generation of an R0 transgenic plant, wherein the transgenic plant has inherited the selected DNA from the R0 transgenic plant. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a seed of a transgenic plant of the invention, wherein the seed comprises the selected DNA. The invention also provides a host cell transformed with such a selected DNA. The host cell may express a protein encoded by the selected DNA. The cell may have inherited the selected DNA from a progenitor of the cell and may have been transformed with the selected DNA. The cell may be a plant cell. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of altering the N-Acylethanolamine content of a plant comprising up- or down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant. In one embodiment, the method comprises down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the N-Acylethanolamine content of the plant is increased as a result of the down-regulating. In another embodiment of the invention, the method comprises up-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the N-Acylethanolamine content of the plant is decreased as a result of the up-regulating. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of modulating the growth of a plant or part thereof, comprising up- or down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant or part thereof. In one embodiment, the method comprises down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the growth of the plant is decreased as a result of the down-regulating. In another embodiment of the invention, the method comprises up-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the growth of the plant is increased as a result of the up-regulating. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of modulating stress tolerance in a plant or part thereof, comprising up- or down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant or part thereof. In one embodiment, the method comprises down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the stress tolerance of the plant is increased as a result of the down-regulating. In another embodiment of the invention, the method comprises up-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the stress tolerance of the plant is decreased as a result of the up-regulating. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of modulating pathogen perception in a plant or part thereof, comprising up- or down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant or part thereof. In one embodiment, the method comprises down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the pathogen perception of the plant is increased as a result of the down-regulating. In another embodiment of the invention, the method comprises up-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the pathogen perception of the plant is decreased as a result of the up-regulating. In a method of the invention, up-regulating may comprise introducing a recombinant vector of the invention into a plant. Down-regulating may comprise introducing a recombinant vector into a plant, wherein the nucleic acid or antisense oligonucleotide thereof is in antisense orientation relative to the heterologous promoter operably linked thereto. The vector may be introduced by plant breeding and/or direct genetic transformation. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of making food for human or animal consumption comprising: (a) obtaining the plant of the invention; (b) growing the plant under plant growth conditions to produce plant tissue from the plant; and (c) preparing food for human or animal consumption from the plant tissue. In the method, preparing food may comprise harvesting plant tissue. In certain embodiments, the food is starch, protein, meal, flour or grain. The use of the word “a” or “an” when used in conjunction with the term “comprising” in the claims and/or the specification may mean “one,” but it is also consistent with the meaning of “one or more,” “at least one,” and “one or more than one.” Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating specific embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The following drawings form part of the present specification and are included to further demonstrate certain aspects of the invention. The invention may be better understood by reference to one or more of these drawings in combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments presented herein: FIG. 1A-LC. (FIG. 1A) The structure and organization of the Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase genomic sequence (TIGR/TAIR ID At5g64440). This gene is 4689 bp in length and the predicted protein is 607 amino acids in length with predicted molecular weight of 66.1 kDa and pI 6.44. There are 21 exons including 5′ utr (untranslated region) and 3′ utr (www.tigr.org). The boxes represent exons and bars between exons represents introns. The light shaded boxes are utrs. (FIG. 1B) Schematic Structure of cDNA corresponding to At5g64440. Sequence-specific reverse transcriptase (RT) PCR primers were designed based on the genomic sequence of Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis Genome Initiative, 2000) annotated at the Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR). The arrows denote the position of primers in the 5′ and 3′ utr. RT-PCR was performed with a total RNA extracted from the Arabidopsis leaves and the nucleotide sequence of the isolated cDNA is given in SEQ ID NO: 1. The sequence was 99.9% identical to coding region of TC139316 (Arabidopsis.org). (FIG. 1C) Schematic of domain organization of predicted Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase protein. Various domains identified in other proteins (ProDom, Altschul et al., 1997) are depicted above the diagram of the polypeptide (domains organized to scale and summarized in Table 1). These domains are also found in rat FAAH except the one denoted by an asterisk. PS00571 (PROSITE dictionary) denotes the amidase consensus sequence pattern of G-[GA]-S-[GS]-[GS]-G-x-[GSA]-[GSAVY]-x-[LIVM]-[GSA]-x(6)-[GSAT]-x-[GA]-x-[DE]-x-[GA]-x-S-[LIVM]-R-x-P-[GSAC] present in all proteins of the amidase class (Mayaux et al., 1990; Hashimoto et al., 1991; Chang and Abelson, 1990, Tsuchiya et al., 1989; Curnow et al., 1997; Cravatt et al., 1996). A single predicted transmembrane spanning region (shaded near N-terminus (ProDom, Altschul et al., 1997) and amidase signature sequence (Patricelli and Cravatt, 2000) are also shown. FIG. 2A-2C. Comparative Alignment of Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase amino acid sequence FAAH. (FIG. 2A) Full length alignment of Arabidopsis amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:2) with rat FAAH (GenBank U72497; SEQ ID NO:7) (Cravatt et al., 1996). These proteins are members of the amidase signature (AS) sequence-containing superfamily which includes amidase or amidohydrolase (EC 3.5) enzymes involved in the reduction of organic nitrogen compounds and ammonia production (Chebrou et al., 1996; Patricelli and Cravatt, 2000). This AS region is underlined and consists of about 125 amino acids. There is 18.5% identity between the Arabidopsis protein and rat FAAH when compared over the entire length of the proteins, whereas there is 37% identity within the AS. Residues (Lys142, Ser217, Ser218, Ser241 and Arg243) are indicated with arrowheads. (FIG. 2B) Alignment of more conserved AS sequence (Ueda et al., 2000) for the enzymes that hydrolyze NAEs; mouse (GB # U82536) (Giang and Cravatt, 1997), porcine (GB # AB027132) (Goparaju et al., 1999), rat (GB # U72497) (Cravatt et al., 1996), and human (GB # U82535) (Giang and Cravatt, 1997). Out of fourteen conserved residues (in bold) in other amidase signature sequences (Patricelli et al., 1999) only two are different in Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase. (FIG. 2C) Secondary structure prediction (PSIPRED, McGuffin et al., 2000; Jones, 1999) of the AS (C, coil; H, helix; E, strand) are depicted above the rat and Arabidopsis AS sequences. Secondary structure organization is similar in the active site (or AS sequence in NAE amidohydrolase, Ueda et al., 2000). This structural organization has been confirmed for rat FAAH by X-ray crystallography (Bracey et al., 2002) and suggests a functional link between these rat and Arabidopsis motif sequences despite limited primary amino acid sequence identity. FIG. 3. Representative radiochromatograms of NAE amidohydrolase activity assays surveyed in E. coli harboring expression plasmids. Lysates from cells expressing recombinant rat FAAH (Patricelli et al., 1999) were compared with lysates of cells designed to express the Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase cDNA in forward (middle panel) or reverse orientation (lower panel) with respect to the lacZ promoter. In all cases cDNAs were in pTrcHis2 expression plasmids and recombinant protein expression was induced by 4 h incubation with 1 mM IPTG. For assays, 100 μM [1-14C]NAE 18:2 (˜20,000 dpm) in 50 mM Bis-Tris buffer (pH 9.0) was used. The reactions included 50 μg protein of respective cell lysate and were incubated for 30 min at 30° C. with shaking. Lipids were extracted and separated by TLC. The positions of [1-14C]NAE 18:2 substrate and [1-14C]FFA product are indicated. FIG. 4A-4C. SDS-PAGE, western blot, and activity assays of recombinant Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase expressed in E. coli. The c-myc-6×His-tagged recombinant protein expressed in E. coli was solubilized in DDM and affinity-purified in a Ni2+ precharged resin column (ProBond, Invitrogen) under “native” conditions. (FIG. 4A) Scan of Coomassie blue (R)-stained SDS gel (10 μg of total proteins in each lane except for rec. protein which was 2 μg) of select fractions. (FIG. 4B) Western blot analysis of same proteins as in A, probed with anti-myc monoclonal antibodies and visualized by indirect chemiluminescence (goat-antimouse IgG conjugated to horseradish peroxide). The position of the recombinant Arabidopsis fusion protein product (predicted to be ˜70 kDa) is marked with open arrows. Positions of pre-stained standards (not shown) are indicated. FT=flow through and represents proteins not specifically bound to the Ni2+ resin (pooled 4 washes) from Supt=supernatant and represents total proteins in E. coli lysates solubilized in DDM. Rec. protein=recombinant protein fraction affinity purified under “native” conditions. A small but detectable amount of 70 kDa immunoreactive protein was evident in total protein extracts, and as expected this protein was substantially enriched in the affinity-purification. (FIG. 4C) Enzymatic assays for NAE 18:2 hydrolysis, showed that amidohydrolase activity was enriched coincident with recombinant protein product. FIG. 5. NAE-concentration dependent hydrolysis to FFA by affinity-purified recombinant Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase for NAE 20:4 and NEA 18:2 (FIG. 5A) or NAE 16:0, NAE 14:0 and NAE 12:0 (FIG. 5B). Initial velocity measurements were made at increasing concentrations of respective [1-−14C]NAE, combined with appropriate amount of non-radiolabeled NAE to give the final substrate concentration indicated. Reactions were initiated by the addition of 1 μg recombinant protein and were carried out in 50 mM Bis-Tris buffer, pH 9.0 in a final volume of 800 μL. Reactions were incubated for 30 minutes with shaking (100 rpm) at 30° C., and stopped by the addition of 2 mL boiling isopropanol. Lipids were extracted into chloroform, washed, and separated by TLC (Shrestha et al., 2002). Activity was calculated based on the amount of radioactive product formed. Data points represent means and standard deviations of triplicate assays, all performed on the same “batch” of purified protein. Plots were generated with Prism software v3.0 (GraphPad Software, San Diego) by fitting the data to the Michaelis-Menten equation. Curve fits yielded correlation coefficients of r2≧0.95, and kinetic parameters summarized in Table 2 were derived from these plots. FIG. 6. Alignment of amino acid sequences of the Arabidopsis (At5g64440) FAAH (At) (SEQ ID NO:2) with those of candidate FAAH orthologs from Medicago truncatula (Mt; SEQ ID NO: 14) and Oryza sativa (OS, SEQ ID NO: 12). Identical amino acid residues are blocked in black, whereas similar amino acid residues are shaded in gray. Alignment was generated with ClustalW algorithms. Over their full length, Arabidopsis and Medicago sequences were 64% identical, whereas Arabidopsis and rice sequences were 56% identical. Medicago and rice sequences were 57% identical. Residues determined to be important for amidase catalysis by the rat FAAH (K205, S281, S282, S305, R307 in the At sequence) are conserved in all plant sequences. FIG. 7A-7F. Representative radiochromatograms of lipids extracted from reaction mixtures following assays of NAE amidohydrolase (NAE AHase) activity (measured as formation of radiolabeled FFA 18:2 from radiolabeled NAE18:2 in this case) and separated by Silica gel-thin layer chromatography (TLC). In all cases, E. coli lysate (20 μg protein) was used as the enzyme source, from cells harboring the following different cDNAs in pTrcHIS2 expression plasmids: (FIG. 7A) rat FAAH cDNA, (FIG. 7B) Mt cDNA forward orientation, (FIG. 7C) Mt cDNA cloned in reverse orientation so as not to direct expression of a recombinant protein, (FIG. 7D) Os cDNA forward orientation, (FIG. 7E) Os cDNA cloned in reverse orientation so as not to direct expression of a recombinant protein, (FIG. 7F), At FAAH cDNA. The enzyme reactions were conducted as described for Arabidopsis recombinant FAAH (Shrestha et al., 2003; J. Biol. Chem. 278: 34990-34997). NAE amidohydrolase activities were detectable for both Mt and Os cDNAs cloned in the forward orientation (not in reverse), similar to that for At and rat FAAH enzymes, indicating that the candidate Mt and Os cDNAs indeed encode functional FAAH enzymes. FIG. 8A-8C. Diagram of the location of the T-DNA disruption (intron 13) in the Arabidopsis FAAH gene in the SALK line 118043 (FIG. 8A) and the sequence of the gene region adjacent to the T-DNA insert amplified by PCR with T-DNA and gene specific primers (FIG. 8B). Arabidopsis plants homozygous for the T-DNA disruption were identified by PCR of genomic DNA (FIG. 8C). FIG. 9A-9C. Diagram of the location of the T-DNA disruption (exon 17) in the Arabidopsis FAAH gene in the SALK line 095198 (FIG. 9A) and the sequence of the gene region adjacent to the T-DNA insert amplified by PCR with T-DNA and gene specific primers (FIG. 9B). Arabidopsis plants homozygous for the T-DNA disruption were identified by PCR of genomic DNA (FIG. 9C). FIG. 10. NAE amidohydrolase specific activity in microsomes isolated from wildtype (WT), knockout (KO-I and KO-E), and transgenic (OE, overexpressors; AS, antisense expressors) Arabidopsis (Columbia background) plants. Enzyme activity was measured with equal amounts of microsomal protein extracts according to Shrestha et al., (2002) with [14C]-NAE 18:2 as the substrate. Activity profiles were similar with assays of total homogenates, indicating that NAE amidohydrolase enzyme activity associated with microsomal membrane fractions represents the profile of the majority of active endogenous FAAH. Activity profiles were consistent with FAAH expression, such that antisense and knockouts have less or no activity compared with wildtype, whereas, overexpressors have more activity. FIG. 11A-11C. Lengths of Arabidopsis seedling radicles/roots were measured daily after planting on MS medium that contained increasing concentrations of NAE 12:0. Data points are averages and standard deviation of 20 or more seedlings germinated and grown under identical conditions. There was a pronounced dose-dependent reduction in radicle/root length and elongation rate, similar to that shown previously (Blancaflor et al., 2003) for wildtype seedlings (FIG. 11A), and this seedling growth inhibition was more pronounced at higher NAE concentrations for both knockout lines (FIG. 11B and FIG. 11C). FIG. 12. The rate of root elongation was calculated by a linear regression of the data presented in FIG. 11, and plotted as a function of NAE concentration. Consistent with (Blancaflor et al., 2003) the concentration of NAE12:0 that reduced growth by 50% (EC50) was about 29 microM for wildtype seedlings, whereas the growth rate of both knockouts was more sensitive to exogenous NAE showing EC50's of 18 and 23 microM. FIG. 13. Root lengths of 6-d-old Arabidopsis seedling germinated and grown in MS medium that contained increasing concentrations of NAE 12:0. Data points are averages and standard deviation of 20 or more seedlings germinated and grown under identical conditions. SKI 18, SALK homozygous knockout line 118043; WT, wildtype; OE 1A, over-expressing line with C-terminal GUS fusion (35S:FAAH-GFP, #1a-1). Seedlings of At5g64440 knockouts were more sensitive to exogenous NAE compared with wildtype, whereas FAAH overexpressors were less sensitive to NAE 12:0 compared to wildtype. FIG. 14. Lengths of Arabidopsis seedling radicles/roots were measured daily after planting on MS medium. The FAAH knockout (KO1, SALK 118043) showed a significant reduction (p<0.0001) in primary root length and rate of primary root elongation compared to wildtype at all time points. Data points are averages of 20 or more seedlings germinated and grown under identical conditions (and from plants harvested at the same time). Data were compared with a student's t-test. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The invention overcomes the limitations of the prior art by providing plant fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) coding sequences. As plant FAAH genes have not previously been isolated and identified, the invention represents a major advance and allows, for the first time, the creation of transgenic plants modified for plant FAAH expression. By introduction of one or more heterologous FAAH coding sequence into a plant, FAAH may be up-regulated in accordance with the invention. Similarly, the invention now allows the down-regulation of FAAH in a plant or any parts thereof, including a given cell, for example, using antisense, RNAi or any other desired technique known in the art using the nucleic acid sequences provided herein. In plants, FAAH catalyzes the hydrolysis of N-acylethanolamines (NAEs), which are endogenous constituents of plant and animal tissues. The hydrolysis terminates a number of biological activities of NAEs, yielding important physiological responses. Therefore, by up-regulating FAAH, decreased levels of NAEs may be achieved and, conversely, down-regulation of FAAH may be used to increase NAE levels. Consistent with this, FAAH has been shown to be a key regulator of the degradation of bioactive NAEs, and hence, NAE levels and function in vivo (Cravatt and Lichtman, 2002; Ueda et al., 2000; Ueda 2002). In initial studies by the inventors, a bioinformatics approach was taken to identify potential homologs of the mammalian FAAH in the Arabidopsis thaliana genome (Arabidopsis Genome Initiative, 2000) as a means to begin to understand at the molecular level, the physiological significance of this lipid metabolism pathway in higher plants. Initially, candidate Arabidopsis DNA sequences containing a characteristic amidase signature sequence (PS00571) were identified in plant genome databases and a cDNA was isolated from leaf RNA by RT-PCR using Arabidopsis genome sequences to develop appropriate oligonucleotide primers. The cDNA was sequenced and predicted to encode a protein of 607 amino acids with 37% identity to rat FAAH within the amidase signature domain (18% over the entire length). An analysis revealed conserved residues between the Arabidopsis and rat protein sequences determined to be important for FAAH catalysis. In addition, a single transmembrane domain near the N-terminus was predicted in the Arabidopsis protein sequence, resulting in a postulated topology similar to that of the rat FAAH protein. Heterologous expression (in E. coli) and biochemical characterization of the Arabidopsis thaliana FAAH was carried out. The putative plant FAAH cDNA was expressed as an epitope/His-tagged fusion protein in E. coli, and solubilized from cell lysates in the nonionic detergent dodecylmaltoside. Affinity-purified recombinant protein was confirmed active in hydrolyzing a variety of naturally-occurring N-acylethanolamine types. Kinetic parameters and inhibition data for the recombinant Arabidopsis protein were consistent with these properties of the enzyme activity characterized previously in plant and animal systems. The identity of the functional Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase was thus confirmed. The results provide, for the first time, molecular evidence for a conserved pathway in both plants and animals for the hydrolysis of NAEs. Moreover, the studies now provide a means to manipulate the levels of endogenous NAEs in plants. This, more importantly, now allows the manipulation of NAE levels in plants as a means to achieve improved plant phenotypes. For example, NAEs have been implicated in cellular response to physiological stresses. Therefore, an example of an application of the invention is in the modulation of NAE levels to achieve improved stress tolerance. Important physiological roles have been indicated for NAEs in plants. One such role is in the perception of fungal elicitors by plant cells. In particular, the levels of endogenous NAE 14:0 are elevated 10-50 fold in leaves of tobacco plants following fungal elicitation (Tripathy et al., 1999). These NAE levels measured endogenously were shown sufficient to activate downstream defense gene expression in plants (Tripathy et al., 1999), and mammalian cannabinoid receptor antagonists abrogated the downstream response (Tripathy et al., 2003). A high-affinity NAE14:0-binding protein was identified in plant membranes and was indicated to mediate the NAE activation of defense gene expression (Tripathy et al., 2003). Therefore, one application of the current invention is in the alteration of plant perception to one or more pathogens through modulation of FAAH. By down-regulating FAAH, and thereby increasing NAEs, increased perception of pathogen elicitors may thereby be obtained. Similarly, it may be desired to decrease host cell defense mechanisms through the heterologous expression of FAAH. The foregoing may be achieved, for example, using inducible promoters activated by one or more pathogen elicitor, or using constitutive or other desired regulatory elements. NAEs (primarily C12, C16 and C18 types) have also been shown to be present in high levels in desiccated seeds of higher plants, but metabolized rapidly during the first few hours of seed imbibition/germination (Chapman et al., 1999), in part by an amidohyrolase-mediated pathway (Shrestha et al., 2002), indicating that the transient changes in NAE content play a role in seed germination. In fact, Arabidopsis seedlings germinated and grown in the presence of exogenous NAE exhibited dramatically altered developmental organization of root tissues. An important role in seed germination and cell division in general has therefore been indicated. This is supported by evidence in mammalian cells that NAEs can stimulate apoptosis. Therefore, it may also be desired in accordance with the invention to modulate NAE levels in order to modulate cell division. By decreasing FAAH activity to increase NAE levels, a corresponding decrease in cell division may be obtained. This may be desirable, for example, for the creation of plants having shortened stature, or, through use of temporally- and/or developmentally-regulated heterologous promoter, for modulating growth at a given time period or stage of development. Seed germination may also thereby be modified. Alternatively, growth of plants may be increased by decreasing FAAH. This could be achieved, for example, using expression of FAAH or antisense or RNAi constructs thereof using seed and germination specific promoters, or constitutive or other promoters as desired. I. Plant Transformation Constructs Certain embodiments of the current invention concern plant transformation constructs. For example, one aspect of the current invention is a plant transformation vector comprising one or more FAAH coding sequence. Exemplary coding sequences for use with the invention include the Arabidopsis thaliana, rice and M truncatula FAAH coding sequences (SEQ ID NOs:1, 11 and 13, respectively). Such coding sequences may encode a polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, 12 or 14. The FAAH may in certain embodiments of the invention be characterized as from a species selected from the group consisting of: barley, cotton, grape, maize, potato, rice, sugarcane, sorghum, soybean, tomato, wheat and Medicago truncatula, as described herein. As such, the invention in certain embodiments provides nucleic acids comprising the sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs:15-26. Also provided are nucleic acids encoding the polypeptides encoded by these sequences. Sequences that hybridize to these coding sequences under stringent conditions are also provided by the invention. An example of such conditions is 5× SSC, 50% formamide and 42° C. It will be understood by those of skill in the art that stringency conditions may be increased by increasing temperature, such as to about 60° C. or decreasing salt, such as to about 1× SSC, or may be decreased by increasing salt, for example to about 10× SSC, or decreasing temperature, such as to about 25° C. Nucleic acids provided by the invention include those encoding active FAAH fragments. Those of skill in the art will immediately understand in view of the disclosure that such fragments may readily be prepared by placing fragments of FAAH coding sequences in frame in an appropriate expression vector, for example, comprising a plant promoter. Using the assays described in the working examples, FAAH activity can be efficiently confirmed for any given fragment. Fragments of nucleic acids may be prepared according to any of the well known techniques including partial or complete restriction digests and manual shearing. Sequences provided by the invention may be defined as encoding an active FAAH. In certain further aspects of the invention, a plant FAAH may be characterized as from a monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous plant. Coding sequences may be provided operably linked to a heterologous promoter, in either sense or antisense orientation. Expression constructs are also provided comprising these sequences, including antisense oligonucleotides thereof, as are plants and plant cells transformed with the sequences. The construction of vectors which may be employed in conjunction with plant transformation techniques using these or other sequences according to the invention will be known to those of skill of the art in light of the present disclosure (see, for example, Sambrook et al., 1989; Gelvin et al., 1990). The techniques of the current invention are thus not limited to any particular nucleic acid sequences. One important use of the sequences provided by the invention will be in the alteration of plant phenotypes by genetic transformation with FAAH coding sequences. The FAAH coding sequence may be provided with other sequences and may be in sense or antisense orientation with respect to a promoter sequence. Where an expressible coding region that is not necessarily a marker coding region is employed in combination with a marker coding region, one may employ the separate coding regions on either the same or different DNA segments for transformation. In the latter case, the different vectors are delivered concurrently to recipient cells to maximize cotransformation. The choice of any additional elements used in conjunction with an FAAH coding sequences will often depend on the purpose of the transformation. One of the major purposes of transformation of crop plants is to add commercially desirable, agronomically important traits to the plant, as described above. Vectors used for plant transformation may include, for example, plasmids, cosmids, YACs (yeast artificial chromosomes), BACs (bacterial artificial chromosomes) or any other suitable cloning system, as well as fragments of DNA therefrom. Thus when the term “vector” or “expression vector” is used, all of the foregoing types of vectors, as well as nucleic acid sequences isolated therefrom, are included. It is contemplated that utilization of cloning systems with large insert capacities will allow introduction of large DNA sequences comprising more than one selected gene. In accordance with the invention, this could be used to introduce genes corresponding to an entire biosynthetic pathway into a plant. Introduction of such sequences may be facilitated by use of bacterial or yeast artificial chromosomes (BACs or YACs, respectively), or even plant artificial chromosomes. For example, the use of BACs for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation was disclosed by Hamilton et al. (1996). Particularly useful for transformation are expression cassettes which have been isolated from such vectors. DNA segments used for transforming plant cells will, of course, generally comprise the cDNA, gene or genes which one desires to introduce into and have expressed in the host cells. These DNA segments can further include structures such as promoters, enhancers, polylinkers, or even regulatory genes as desired. The DNA segment or gene chosen for cellular introduction will often encode a protein which will be expressed in the resultant recombinant cells resulting in a screenable or selectable trait and/or which will impart an improved phenotype to the resulting transgenic plant. However, this may not always be the case, and the present invention also encompasses transgenic plants incorporating non-expressed transgenes. Preferred components likely to be included with vectors used in the current invention are as follows. A. Regulatory Elements Exemplary promoters for expression of a nucleic acid sequence include plant promoter such as the CaMV 35S promoter (Odell et al., 1985), or others such as CaMV 19S (Lawton et al., 1987), nos (Ebert et al., 1987), Adh (Walker et al., 1987), sucrose synthase (Yang and Russell, 1990), a-tubulin, actin (Wang et al., 1992), cab (Sullivan et al., 1989), PEPCase (Hudspeth and Grula, 1989) or those associated with the R gene complex (Chandler et al., 1989). Tissue specific promoters such as root cell promoters (Conkling et al., 1990) and tissue specific enhancers (Fromm et al., 1986) are also contemplated to be useful, as are inducible promoters such as ABA- and turgor-inducible promoters. In one embodiment of the invention, the native promoter of a FAAH coding sequence is used. The DNA sequence between the transcription initiation site and the start of the coding sequence, i.e., the untranslated leader sequence, can also influence gene expression. One may thus wish to employ a particular leader sequence with a transformation construct of the invention. Preferred leader sequences are contemplated to include those which comprise sequences predicted to direct optimum expression of the attached gene, i.e., to include a preferred consensus leader sequence which may increase or maintain mRNA stability and prevent inappropriate initiation of translation. The choice of such sequences will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure. Sequences that are derived from genes that are highly expressed in plants will typically be preferred. It is contemplated that vectors for use in accordance with the present invention may be constructed to include an ocs enhancer element. This element was first identified as a 16 bp palindromic enhancer from the octopine synthase (ocs) gene of Agrobacterium (Ellis et al., 1987), and is present in at least 10 other promoters (Bouchez et al., 1989). The use of an enhancer element, such as the ocs element and particularly multiple copies of the element, may act to increase the level of transcription from adjacent promoters when applied in the context of plant transformation. It is envisioned that FAAH coding sequences may be introduced under the control of novel promoters or enhancers, etc., or homologous or tissue specific promoters or control elements. Vectors for use in tissue-specific targeting of genes in transgenic plants will typically include tissue-specific promoters and may also include other tissue-specific control elements such as enhancer sequences. Promoters which direct specific or enhanced expression in certain plant tissues will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure. These include, for example, the rbcS promoter, specific for green tissue; the ocs, nos and mas promoters which have higher activity in roots or wounded leaf tissue. B. Terminators Transformation constructs prepared in accordance with the invention will typically include a 3′ end DNA sequence that acts as a signal to terminate transcription and allow for the poly-adenylation of the mRNA produced by coding sequences operably linked to a promoter. In one embodiment of the invention, the native terminator of a FAAH coding sequence is used. Alternatively, a heterologous 3′ end may enhance the expression of sense or antisense FAAH coding sequences. Examples of terminators that are deemed to be useful in this context include those from the nopaline synthase gene of Agrobacterium tumefaciens (nos 3′ end) (Bevan et al., 1983), the terminator for the T7 transcript from the octopine synthase gene of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, and the 3′ end of the protease inhibitor I or II genes from potato or tomato. Regulatory elements such as an Adh intron (Callis et al., 1987), sucrose synthase intron (Vasil et al., 1989) or TMV omega element (Gallie et al., 1989), may further be included where desired. C. Transit or Signal Peptides Sequences that are joined to the coding sequence of an expressed gene, which are removed post-translationally from the initial translation product and which facilitate the transport of the protein into or through intracellular or extracellular membranes, are termed transit (usually into vacuoles, vesicles, plastids and other intracellular organelles) and signal sequences (usually to the endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus and outside of the cellular membrane). By facilitating the transport of the protein into compartments inside and outside the cell, these sequences may increase the accumulation of gene product protecting them from proteolytic degradation. These sequences also allow for additional mRNA sequences from highly expressed genes to be attached to the coding sequence of the genes. Since mRNA being translated by ribosomes is more stable than naked mRNA, the presence of translatable mRNA in front of the gene may increase the overall stability of the mRNA transcript from the gene and thereby increase synthesis of the gene product. Since transit and signal sequences are usually post-translationally removed from the initial translation product, the use of these sequences allows for the addition of extra translated sequences that may not appear on the final polypeptide. It further is contemplated that targeting of certain proteins may be desirable in order to enhance the stability of the protein (U.S. Pat. No. 5,545,818, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Additionally, vectors may be constructed and employed in the intracellular targeting of a specific gene product within the cells of a transgenic plant or in directing a protein to the extracellular environment. This generally will be achieved by joining a DNA sequence encoding a transit or signal peptide sequence to the coding sequence of a particular gene. The resultant transit, or signal, peptide will transport the protein to a particular intracellular, or extracellular destination, respectively, and will then be post-translationally removed. D. Marker Genes By employing a selectable or screenable marker protein, one can provide or enhance the ability to identify transformants. “Marker genes” are genes that impart a distinct phenotype to cells expressing the marker protein and thus allow such transformed cells to be distinguished from cells that do not have the marker. Such genes may encode either a selectable or screenable marker, depending on whether the marker confers a trait which one can “select” for by chemical means, i.e., through the use of a selective agent (e.g., a herbicide, antibiotic, or the like), or whether it is simply a trait that one can identify through observation or testing, i.e., by “screening” (e.g., the green fluorescent protein). Of course, many examples of suitable marker proteins are known to the art and can be employed in the practice of the invention. Included within the terms selectable or screenable markers also are genes which encode a “secretable marker” whose secretion can be detected as a means of identifying or selecting for transformed cells. Examples include markers which are secretable antigens that can be identified by antibody interaction, or even secretable enzymes which can be detected by their catalytic activity. Secretable proteins fall into a number of classes, including small, diffusible proteins detectable, e.g., by ELISA; small active enzymes detectable in extracellular solution (e.g., α-amylase, β-lactamase, phosphinothricin acetyltransferase); and proteins that are inserted or trapped in the cell wall (e.g., proteins that include a leader sequence such as that found in the expression unit of extensin or tobacco PR-S). With regard to selectable secretable markers, the use of a gene that encodes a protein that becomes sequestered in the cell wall, and which protein includes a unique epitope is considered to be particularly advantageous. Such a secreted antigen marker would ideally employ an epitope sequence that would provide low background in plant tissue, a promoter-leader sequence that would impart efficient expression and targeting across the plasma membrane, and would produce protein that is bound in the cell wall and yet accessible to antibodies. A normally secreted wall protein modified to include a unique epitope would satisfy all such requirements. Many selectable marker coding regions are known and could be used with the present invention including, but not limited to, neo (Potrykus et al., 1985), which provides kanamycin resistance and can be selected for using kanamycin, G418, paromomycin, etc.; bar, which confers bialaphos or phosphinothricin resistance; a mutant EPSP synthase protein (Hinchee et al., 1988) conferring glyphosate resistance; a nitrilase such as bxn from Klebsiella ozaenae which confers resistance to bromoxynil (Stalker et al., 1988); a mutant acetolactate synthase (ALS) which confers resistance to imidazolinone, sulfonylurea or other ALS inhibiting chemicals (European Patent Application 154, 204, 1985); a methotrexate resistant DHFR (Thillet et al., 1988), a dalapon dehalogenase that confers resistance to the herbicide dalapon; or a mutated anthranilate synthase that confers resistance to 5-methyl tryptophan. An illustrative embodiment of selectable marker capable of being used in systems to select transformants are those that encode the enzyme phosphinothricin acetyltransferase, such as the bar gene from Streptomyces hygroscopicus or the pat gene from Streptomyces viridochromogenes. The enzyme phosphinothricin acetyl transferase (PAT) inactivates the active ingredient in the herbicide bialaphos, phosphinothricin (PPT). PPT inhibits glutamine synthetase, (Murakami et al., 1986; Twell et al., 1989) causing rapid accumulation of ammonia and cell death. Screenable markers that may be employed include a α-glucuronidase (GUS) or uidA gene which encodes an enzyme for which various chromogenic substrates are known; an R-locus gene, which encodes a product that regulates the production of anthocyanin pigments (red color) in plant tissues (Dellaporta et al., 1988); a β-lactamase gene (Sutcliffe, 1978), which encodes an enzyme for which various chromogenic substrates are known (e.g., PADAC, a chromogenic cephalosporin); a xylE gene (Zukowsky et al., 1983) which encodes a catechol dioxygenase that can convert chromogenic catechols; an α-amylase gene (Ikuta et al., 1990); a tyrosinase gene (Katz et al., 1983) which encodes an enzyme capable of oxidizing tyrosine to DOPA and dopaquinone which in turn condenses to form the easily-detectable compound melanin; a β-galactosidase gene, which encodes an enzyme for which there are chromogenic substrates; a luciferase (lux) gene (Ow et al., 1986), which allows for bioluminescence detection; an aequorin gene (Prasher et al., 1985) which may be employed in calcium-sensitive bioluminescence detection; or a gene encoding for green fluorescent protein (Sheen et al., 1995; Haseloff et al., 1997; Reichel et al., 1996; Tian et al., 1997; WO 97/41228). Another screenable marker contemplated for use in the present invention is firefly luciferase, encoded by the lux gene. The presence of the lux gene in transformed cells may be detected using, for example, X-ray film, scintillation counting, fluorescent spectrophotometry, low-light video cameras, photon counting cameras or multiwell luminometry. It also is envisioned that this system may be developed for populational screening for bioluminescence, such as on tissue culture plates, or even for whole plant screening. The gene which encodes green fluorescent protein (GFP) is also contemplated as a particularly useful reporter gene (Sheen et al., 1995; Haseloff et al., 1997; Reichel et al., 1996; Tian et al., 1997; WO 97/41228). Expression of green fluorescent protein may be visualized in a cell or plant as fluorescence following illumination by particular wavelengths of light. II. Antisense Constructs Antisense treatments represent one way of altering FAAH activity in accordance with the invention. In particular, constructs comprising a FAAH coding sequence, including fragments thereof, in antisense orientation, may be used to decrease or effectively eliminate the expression of FAAH in a plant. Accordingly, this may be used to increase NAE levels and activity in a plant or given plant tissue. As such, antisense technology may be used to “knock-out” the function of a FAAH coding sequence or homologous sequences thereof. Antisense methodology takes advantage of the fact that nucleic acids tend to pair with “complementary” sequences. By complementary, it is meant that polynucleotides are those which are capable of base-pairing according to the standard Watson-Crick complementarity rules. That is, the larger purines will base pair with the smaller pyrimidines to form combinations of guanine paired with cytosine (G:C) and adenine paired with either thymine (A:T) in the case of DNA, or adenine paired with uracil (A:U) in the case of RNA. Inclusion of less common bases such as inosine, 5-methylcytosine, 6-methyladenine, hypoxanthine and others in hybridizing sequences does not interfere with pairing. Targeting double-stranded (ds) DNA with polynucleotides leads to triple-helix formation; targeting RNA will lead to double-helix formation. Antisense oligonucleotides, when introduced into a target cell, specifically bind to their target polynucleotide and interfere with transcription, RNA processing, transport, translation and/or stability. Antisense RNA constructs, or DNA encoding such antisense RNA's, may be employed to inhibit gene transcription or translation or both within a host cell, either in vitro or in vivo, such as within a host animal, including a human subject. In certain embodiments of the invention, such an antisense oligonucleotide may comprise any unique portion of a nucleic acid sequence provided herein. In certain embodiments of the invention, such a sequence comprises at least 18, 30, 50, 75 or 100 or more contiguous nucleic acids of the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, which may be in sense/and or antisense orientation. By including sequences in both sense and antisense orientation, increased suppression of the corresponding coding sequence may be achieved. Antisense constructs may be designed to bind to the promoter and other control regions, exons, introns or even exon-intron boundaries of a gene. It is contemplated that the most effective antisense constructs will include regions complementary to intron/exon splice junctions. Thus, it is proposed that a preferred embodiment includes an antisense construct with complementarity to regions within 50-200 bases of an intron-exon splice junction. It has been observed that some exon sequences can be included in the construct without seriously affecting the target selectivity thereof. The amount of exonic material included will vary depending on the particular exon and intron sequences used. One can readily test whether too much exon DNA is included simply by testing the constructs in vitro to determine whether normal cellular function is affected or whether the expression of related genes having complementary sequences is affected. As stated above, “complementary” or “antisense” means polynucleotide sequences that are substantially complementary over their entire length and have very few base mismatches. For example, sequences of fifteen bases in length may be termed complementary when they have complementary nucleotides at thirteen or fourteen positions. Naturally, sequences which are completely complementary will be sequences which are entirely complementary throughout their entire length and have no base mismatches. Other sequences with lower degrees of homology also are contemplated. For example, an antisense construct which has limited regions of high homology, but also contains a non-homologous region (e.g., ribozyme; see above) could be designed. These molecules, though having less than 50% homology, would bind to target sequences under appropriate conditions. It may be advantageous to combine portions of genomic DNA with cDNA or synthetic sequences to generate specific constructs. For example, where an intron is desired in the ultimate construct, a genomic clone will need to be used. The cDNA or a synthesized polynucleotide may provide more convenient restriction sites for the remaining portion of the construct and, therefore, would be used for the rest of the sequence. III. Methods for Genetic Transformation Suitable methods for transformation of plant or other cells for use with the current invention are believed to include virtually any method by which DNA can be introduced into a cell, such as by direct delivery of DNA such as by PEG-mediated transformation of protoplasts (Omirulleh et al., 1993), by desiccation/inhibition-mediated DNA uptake (Potrykus et al., 1985), by electroporation (U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,253, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), by agitation with silicon carbide fibers (Kaeppler et al., 1990; U.S. Pat. No. 5,302,523, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,464,765, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation (U.S. Pat. No. 5,591,616 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055; both specifically incorporated herein by reference) and by acceleration of DNA coated particles (U.S. Pat. No. 5,550,318; U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,877; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,880; each specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), etc. Through the application of techniques such as these, the cells of virtually any plant species may be stably transformed, and these cells developed into transgenic plants. A. Agrobacterium-Mediated Transformation Agrobacterium-mediated transfer is a widely applicable system for introducing genes into plant cells because the DNA can be introduced into whole plant tissues, thereby bypassing the need for regeneration of an intact plant from a protoplast. The use of Agrobacterium-mediated plant integrating vectors to introduce DNA into plant cells is well known in the art. See, for example, the methods described by Fraley et al., (1985), Rogers et al., (1987) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is most efficient in dicotyledonous plants and is the preferable method for transformation of dicots, including Arabidopsis, tobacco, tomato, alfalfa and potato. Indeed, while Agrobacterium-mediated transformation has been routinely used with dicotyledonous plants for a number of years, it has only recently become applicable to monocotyledonous plants. Advances in Agrobacterium-mediated transformation techniques have now made the technique applicable to nearly all monocotyledonous plants. For example, Agrobacterium-mediated transformation techniques have now been applied to rice (Hiei et al., 1997; U.S. Pat. No. 5,591,616, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), wheat (McCormac et al., 1998), barley (Tingay et al., 1997; McCormac et al., 1998), alfalfa (Thomas et al., 1990) and maize (Ishidia et al., 1996). Modern Agrobacterium transformation vectors are capable of replication in E. coli as well as Agrobacterium, allowing for convenient manipulations as described (Klee et al., 1985). Moreover, recent technological advances in vectors for Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer have improved the arrangement of genes and restriction sites in the vectors to facilitate the construction of vectors capable of expressing various polypeptide coding genes. The vectors described (Rogers et al., 1987) have convenient multi-linker regions flanked by a promoter and a polyadenylation site for direct expression of inserted polypeptide coding genes and are suitable for present purposes. In addition, Agrobacterium containing both armed and disarmed Ti genes can be used for the transformations. In those plant strains where Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is efficient, it is the method of choice because of the facile and defined nature of the gene transfer. B. Electroporation To effect transformation by electroporation, one may employ either friable tissues, such as a suspension culture of cells or embryogenic callus or alternatively one may transform immature embryos or other organized tissue directly. In this technique, one would partially degrade the cell walls of the chosen cells by exposing them to pectin-degrading enzymes (pectolyases) or mechanically wounding in a controlled manner. Examples of some species which have been transformed by electroporation of intact cells include maize (U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,253; Rhodes et al., 1995; D'Halluin et al., 1992), wheat (Zhou et al., 1993), tomato (Hou and Lin, 1996), soybean (Christou et al., 1987) and tobacco (Lee et al., 1989). One also may employ protoplasts for electroporation transformation of plants (Bates, 1994; Lazzeri, 1995). For example, the generation of transgenic soybean plants by electroporation of cotyledon-derived protoplasts is described by Dhir and Widholm in Intl. Patent Appl. Publ. No. WO 9217598 (specifically incorporated herein by reference). Other examples of species for which protoplast transformation has been described include barley (Lazerri, 1995), sorghum (Battraw et al., 1991), maize (Bhattacharjee et al., 1997), wheat (He et al., 1994) and tomato (Tsukada, 1989). C. Microprojectile Bombardment Another method for delivering transforming DNA segments to plant cells in accordance with the invention is microprojectile bombardment (U.S. Pat. No. 5,550,318; U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,880; U.S. Pat. No. 5,610,042; and PCT Application WO 94/09699; each of which is specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). In this method, particles may be coated with nucleic acids and delivered into cells by a propelling force. Exemplary particles include those comprised of tungsten, platinum, and preferably, gold. It is contemplated that in some instances DNA precipitation onto metal particles would not be necessary for DNA delivery to a recipient cell using microprojectile bombardment. However, it is contemplated that particles may contain DNA rather than be coated with DNA. Hence, it is proposed that DNA-coated particles may increase the level of DNA delivery via particle bombardment but are not, in and of themselves, necessary. For the bombardment, cells in suspension are concentrated on filters or solid culture medium. Alternatively, immature embryos or other target cells may be arranged on solid culture medium. The cells to be bombarded are positioned at an appropriate distance below the macroprojectile stopping plate. An illustrative embodiment of a method for delivering DNA into plant cells by acceleration is the Biolistics Particle Delivery System, which can be used to propel particles coated with DNA or cells through a screen, such as a stainless steel or Nytex screen, onto a filter surface covered with monocot plant cells cultured in suspension. The screen disperses the particles so that they are not delivered to the recipient cells in large aggregates. Microprojectile bombardment techniques are widely applicable, and may be used to transform virtually any plant species. Examples of species for which have been transformed by microprojectile bombardment include monocot species such as maize (PCT Application WO 95/06128), barley (Ritala et al., 1994; Hensgens et al., 1993), wheat (U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), rice (Hensgens et al., 1993), oat (Torbet et al., 1995; Torbet et al., 1998), rye (Hensgens et al., 1993), sugarcane (Bower et al., 1992), and sorghum (Casa et al., 1993; Hagio et al., 1991); as well as a number of dicots including tobacco (Tomes et al., 1990; Buising and Benbow, 1994), soybean (U.S. Pat. No. 5,322,783, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), sunflower (Knittel et al. 1994), peanut (Singsit et al., 1997), cotton (McCabe and Martinell, 1993), tomato (VanEck et al. 1995), and legumes in general (U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). D. Other Transformation Methods Transformation of protoplasts can be achieved using methods based on calcium phosphate precipitation, polyethylene glycol treatment, electroporation, and combinations of these treatments (see, e.g., Potrykus et al., 1985; Lorz et al., 1985; Omirulleh et al., 1993; Fromm et al., 1986; Uchimiya et al., 1986; Callis et al., 1987; Marcotte et al., 1988). Application of these systems to different plant strains depends upon the ability to regenerate that particular plant strain from protoplasts. Illustrative methods for the regeneration of cereals from protoplasts have been described (Toriyama et al., 1986; Yamada et al., 1986; Abdullah et al., 1986; Omirulleh et al., 1993 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,184; each specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Examples of the use of direct uptake transformation of cereal protoplasts include transformation of rice (Ghosh-Biswas et al., 1994), sorghum (Battraw and Hall, 1991), barley (Lazerri, 1995), oat (Zheng and Edwards, 1990) and maize (Omirulleh et al., 1993). To transform plant strains that cannot be successfully regenerated from protoplasts, other ways to introduce DNA into intact cells or tissues can be utilized. For example, regeneration of cereals from immature embryos or explants can be effected as described (Vasil, 1989). Also, silicon carbide fiber-mediated transformation may be used with or without protoplasting (Kaeppler, 1990; Kaeppler et al., 1992; U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Transformation with this technique is accomplished by agitating silicon carbide fibers together with cells in a DNA solution. DNA passively enters as the cells are punctured. This technique has been used successfully with, for example, the monocot cereals maize (PCT Application WO 95/06128, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety; (Thompson, 1995) and rice (Nagatani, 1997). E. Tissue Cultures Tissue cultures may be used in certain transformation techniques for the preparation of cells for transformation and for the regeneration of plants therefrom. Maintenance of tissue cultures requires use of media and controlled environments. “Media” refers to the numerous nutrient mixtures that are used to grow cells in vitro, that is, outside of the intact living organism. The medium usually is a suspension of various categories of ingredients (salts, amino acids, growth regulators, sugars, buffers) that are required for growth of most cell types. However, each specific cell type requires a specific range of ingredient proportions for growth, and an even more specific range of formulas for optimum growth. Rate of cell growth also will vary among cultures initiated with the array of media that permit growth of that cell type. Nutrient media is prepared as a liquid, but this may be solidified by adding the liquid to materials capable of providing a solid support. Agar is most commonly used for this purpose. Bactoagar, Hazelton agar, Gelrite, and Gelgro are specific types of solid support that are suitable for growth of plant cells in tissue culture. Some cell types will grow and divide either in liquid suspension or on solid media. As disclosed herein, plant cells will grow in suspension or on solid medium, but regeneration of plants from suspension cultures typically requires transfer from liquid to solid media at some point in development. The type and extent of differentiation of cells in culture will be affected not only by the type of media used and by the environment, for example, pH, but also by whether media is solid or liquid. Tissue that can be grown in a culture includes meristem cells, Type I, Type II, and Type III callus, immature embryos and gametic cells such as microspores, pollen, sperm and egg cells. Type I, Type II, and Type III callus may be initiated from tissue sources including, but not limited to, immature embryos, seedling apical meristems, root, leaf, microspores and the like. Those cells which are capable of proliferating as callus also are recipient cells for genetic transformation. Somatic cells are of various types. Embryogenic cells are one example of somatic cells which may be induced to regenerate a plant through embryo formation. Non-embryogenic cells are those which typically will not respond in such a fashion. Certain techniques may be used that enrich recipient cells within a cell population. For example, Type II callus development, followed by manual selection and culture of friable, embryogenic tissue, generally results in an enrichment of cells. Manual selection techniques which can be employed to select target cells may include, e.g., assessing cell morphology and differentiation, or may use various physical or biological means. Cryopreservation also is a possible method of selecting for recipient cells. Manual selection of recipient cells, e.g., by selecting embryogenic cells from the surface of a Type II callus, is one means that may be used in an attempt to enrich for particular cells prior to culturing (whether cultured on solid media or in suspension). Where employed, cultured cells may be grown either on solid supports or in the form of liquid suspensions. In either instance, nutrients may be provided to the cells in the form of media, and environmental conditions controlled. There are many types of tissue culture media comprised of various amino acids, salts, sugars, growth regulators and vitamins. Most of the media employed in the practice of the invention will have some similar components, but may differ in the composition and proportions of their ingredients depending on the particular application envisioned. For example, various cell types usually grow in more than one type of media, but will exhibit different growth rates and different morphologies, depending on the growth media. In some media, cells survive but do not divide. Various types of media suitable for culture of plant cells previously have been described. Examples of these media include, but are not limited to, the N6 medium described by Chu et al. (1975) and MS media (Murashige and Skoog, 1962). IV. Production and Characterization of Stably Transformed Plants After effecting delivery of exogenous DNA to recipient cells, the next steps generally concern identifying the transformed cells for further culturing and plant regeneration. In order to improve the ability to identify transformants, one may desire to employ a selectable or screenable marker gene with a transformation vector prepared in accordance with the invention. In this case, one would then generally assay the potentially transformed cell population by exposing the cells to a selective agent or agents, or one would screen the cells for the desired marker gene trait. A. Selection It is believed that DNA is introduced into only a small percentage of target cells in any one study. In order to provide an efficient system for identification of those cells receiving DNA and integrating it into their genomes one may employ a means for selecting those cells that are stably transformed. One exemplary embodiment of such a method is to introduce into the host cell, a marker gene which confers resistance to some normally inhibitory agent, such as an antibiotic or herbicide. Examples of antibiotics which may be used include the aminoglycoside antibiotics neomycin, kanamycin and paromomycin, or the antibiotic hygromycin. Resistance to the aminoglycoside antibiotics is conferred by aminoglycoside phosphostransferase enzymes such as neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPT II) or NPT I, whereas resistance to hygromycin is conferred by hygromycin phosphotransferase. Potentially transformed cells then are exposed to the selective agent. In the population of surviving cells will be those cells where, generally, the resistance-conferring gene has been integrated and expressed at sufficient levels to permit cell survival. Cells may be tested further to confirm stable integration of the exogenous DNA. One herbicide which constitutes a desirable selection agent is the broad spectrum herbicide bialaphos. Bialaphos is a tripeptide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces hygroscopicus and is composed of phosphinothricin (PPT), an analogue of L-glutamic acid, and two L-alanine residues. Upon removal of the L-alanine residues by intracellular peptidases, the PPT is released and is a potent inhibitor of glutamine synthetase (GS), a pivotal enzyme involved in ammonia assimilation and nitrogen metabolism (Ogawa et al., 1973). Synthetic PPT, the active ingredient in the herbicide Liberty™ also is effective as a selection agent. Inhibition of GS in plants by PPT causes the rapid accumulation of ammonia and death of the plant cells. The organism producing bialaphos and other species of the genus Streptomyces also synthesizes an enzyme phosphinothricin acetyl transferase (PAT) which is encoded by the bar gene in Streptomyces hygroscopicus and the pat gene in Streptomyces viridochromogenes. The use of the herbicide resistance gene encoding phosphinothricin acetyl transferase (PAT) is referred to in DE 3642 829 A, wherein the gene is isolated from Streptomyces viridochromogenes. In the bacterial source organism, this enzyme acetylates the free amino group of PPT preventing auto-toxicity (Thompson et al., 1987). The bar gene has been cloned (Murakami et al., 1986; Thompson et al., 1987) and expressed in transgenic tobacco, tomato, potato (De Block et al., 1987) Brassica (De Block et al., 1989) and maize (U.S. Pat. No. 5,550,318). In previous reports, some transgenic plants which expressed the resistance gene were completely resistant to commercial formulations of PPT and bialaphos in greenhouses. Another example of a herbicide which is useful for selection of transformed cell lines in the practice of the invention is the broad spectrum herbicide glyphosate. Glyphosate inhibits the action of the enzyme EPSPS which is active in the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway. Inhibition of this enzyme leads to starvation for the amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan and secondary metabolites derived thereof. U.S. Pat. No. 4,535,060 describes the isolation of EPSPS mutations which confer glyphosate resistance on the Salmonella typhimurium gene for EPSPS, aroA. The EPSPS gene was cloned from Zea mays and mutations similar to those found in a glyphosate resistant aroA gene were introduced in vitro. Mutant genes encoding glyphosate resistant EPSPS enzymes are described in, for example, International Patent WO 97/4103. The best characterized mutant EPSPS gene conferring glyphosate resistance comprises amino acid changes at residues 102 and 106, although it is anticipated that other mutations will also be useful (PCT/WO97/4103). To use the bar-bialaphos or the EPSPS-glyphosate selective system, transformed tissue is cultured for 0-28 days on nonselective medium and subsequently transferred to medium containing from 1-3 mg/l bialaphos or 1-3 mM glyphosate as appropriate. While ranges of 1-3 mg/l bialaphos or 1-3 mM glyphosate will typically be preferred, it is proposed that ranges of 0.1-50 mg/l bialaphos or 0.1-50 mM glyphosate will find utility. It further is contemplated that the herbicide DALAPON, 2,2-dichloropropionic acid, may be useful for identification of transformed cells. The enzyme 2,2-dichloropropionic acid dehalogenase (deh) inactivates the herbicidal activity of 2,2-dichloropropionic acid and therefore confers herbicidal resistance on cells or plants expressing a gene encoding the dehalogenase enzyme (Buchanan-Wollaston et al., 1992; U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,468; each of the disclosures of which is specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Alternatively, a gene encoding anthranilate synthase, which confers resistance to certain amino acid analogs, e.g., 5-methyltryptophan or 6-methyl anthranilate, may be useful as a selectable marker gene. The use of an anthranilate synthase gene as a selectable marker was described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,468. An example of a screenable marker trait is the enzyme luciferase. In the presence of the substrate luciferin, cells expressing luciferase emit light which can be detected on photographic or x-ray film, in a luminometer (or liquid scintillation counter), by devices that enhance night vision, or by a highly light sensitive video camera, such as a photon counting camera. These assays are nondestructive and transformed cells may be cultured further following identification. The photon counting camera is especially valuable as it allows one to identify specific cells or groups of cells which are expressing luciferase and manipulate those in real time. Another screenable marker which may be used in a similar fashion is the gene coding for green fluorescent protein. It further is contemplated that combinations of screenable and selectable markers will be useful for identification of transformed cells. In some cell or tissue types a selection agent, such as bialaphos or glyphosate, may either not provide enough killing activity to clearly recognize transformed cells or may cause substantial nonselective inhibition of transformants and nontransformants alike, thus causing the selection technique to not be effective. It is proposed that selection with a growth inhibiting compound, such as bialaphos or glyphosate at concentrations below those that cause 100% inhibition followed by screening of growing tissue for expression of a screenable marker gene such as luciferase would allow one to recover transformants from cell or tissue types that are not amenable to selection alone. It is proposed that combinations of selection and screening may enable one to identify transformants in a wider variety of cell and tissue types. This may be efficiently achieved using a gene fusion between a selectable marker gene and a screenable marker gene, for example, between an NPTII gene and a GFP gene. B. Regeneration and Seed Production Cells that survive the exposure to the selective agent, or cells that have been scored positive in a screening assay, may be cultured in media that supports regeneration of plants. In an exemplary embodiment, MS and N6 media may be modified by including further substances such as growth regulators. One such growth regulator is dicamba or 2,4-D. However, other growth regulators may be employed, including NAA, NAA+2,4-D or picloram. Media improvement in these and like ways has been found to facilitate the growth of cells at specific developmental stages. Tissue may be maintained on a basic media with growth regulators until sufficient tissue is available to begin plant regeneration efforts, or following repeated rounds of manual selection, until the morphology of the tissue is suitable for regeneration, at least 2 wk, then transferred to media conducive to maturation of embryoids. Cultures are transferred every 2 wk on this medium. Shoot development will signal the time to transfer to medium lacking growth regulators. The transformed cells, identified by selection or screening and cultured in an appropriate medium that supports regeneration, will then be allowed to mature into plants. Developing plantlets are transferred to soiless plant growth mix, and hardened, e.g., in an environmentally controlled chamber, for example, at about 85% relative humidity, 600 ppm CO2, and 25-250 microeinsteins m−2 s−1 of light. Plants may be matured in a growth chamber or greenhouse. Plants can be regenerated from about 6 wk to 10 months after a transformant is identified, depending on the initial tissue. During regeneration, cells are grown on solid media in tissue culture vessels. Illustrative embodiments of such vessels are petri dishes and Plant Cons. Regenerating plants can be grown at about 19 to 28° C. After the regenerating plants have reached the stage of shoot and root development, they may be transferred to a greenhouse for further growth and testing. Seeds on transformed plants may occasionally require embryo rescue due to cessation of seed development and premature senescence of plants. To rescue developing embryos, they are excised from surface-disinfected seeds 10-20 days post-pollination and cultured. An embodiment of media used for culture at this stage comprises MS salts, 2% sucrose, and 5.5 g/l agarose. In embryo rescue, large embryos (defined as greater than 3 mm in length) are germinated directly on an appropriate media. Embryos smaller than that may be cultured for 1 wk on media containing the above ingredients along with 10−5M abscisic acid and then transferred to growth regulator-free medium for germination. C. Characterization To confirm the presence of the exogenous DNA or “transgene(s)” in the regenerating plants, a variety of assays may be performed. Such assays include, for example, “molecular biological” assays, such as Southern and Northern blotting and PCR™; “biochemical” assays, such as detecting the presence of a protein product, e.g., by immunological means (ELISAs and Western blots) or by enzymatic function; plant part assays, such as leaf or root assays; and also, by analyzing the phenotype of the whole regenerated plant. D. DNA Integration, RNA Expression and Inheritance Genomic DNA may be isolated from cell lines or any plant parts to determine the presence of the exogenous gene through the use of techniques well known to those skilled in the art. Note, that intact sequences will not always be present, presumably due to rearrangement or deletion of sequences in the cell. The presence of DNA elements introduced through the methods of this invention may be determined, for example, by polymerase chain reaction (PCR™). Using this technique, discreet fragments of DNA are amplified and detected by gel electrophoresis. This type of analysis permits one to determine whether a gene is present in a stable transformant, but does not prove integration of the introduced gene into the host cell genome. It is typically the case, however, that DNA has been integrated into the genome of all transformants that demonstrate the presence of the gene through PCR™ analysis. In addition, it is not typically possible using PCR™ techniques to determine whether transformants have exogenous genes introduced into different sites in the genome, i.e., whether transformants are of independent origin. It is contemplated that using PCR™ techniques it would be possible to clone fragments of the host genomic DNA adjacent to an introduced gene. Positive proof of DNA integration into the host genome and the independent identities of transformants may be determined using the technique of Southern hybridization. Using this technique specific DNA sequences that were introduced into the host genome and flanking host DNA sequences can be identified. Hence the Southern hybridization pattern of a given transformant serves as an identifying characteristic of that transformant. In addition it is possible through Southern hybridization to demonstrate the presence of introduced genes in high molecular weight DNA, i.e., confirm that the introduced gene has been integrated into the host cell genome. The technique of Southern hybridization provides information that is obtained using PCR™, e.g., the presence of a gene, but also demonstrates integration into the genome and characterizes each individual transformant. It is contemplated that using the techniques of dot or slot blot hybridization which are modifications of Southern hybridization techniques one could obtain the same information that is derived from PCR™, e.g., the presence of a gene. Both PCR™ and Southern hybridization techniques can be used to demonstrate transmission of a transgene to progeny. In most instances the characteristic Southern hybridization pattern for a given transformant will segregate in progeny as one or more Mendelian genes (Spencer et al., 1992) indicating stable inheritance of the transgene. Whereas DNA analysis techniques may be conducted using DNA isolated from any part of a plant, RNA will only be expressed in particular cells or tissue types and hence it will be necessary to prepare RNA for analysis from these tissues. PCR™ techniques also may be used for detection and quantitation of RNA produced from introduced genes. In this application of PCR™ it is first necessary to reverse transcribe RNA into DNA, using enzymes such as reverse transcriptase, and then through the use of conventional PCR™ techniques amplify the DNA. In most instances PCR™ techniques, while useful, will not demonstrate integrity of the RNA product. Further information about the nature of the RNA product may be obtained by Northern blotting. This technique will demonstrate the presence of an RNA species and give information about the integrity of that RNA. The presence or absence of an RNA species also can be determined using dot or slot blot Northern hybridizations. These techniques are modifications of Northern blotting and will only demonstrate the presence or absence of an RNA species. E. Gene Expression While Southern blotting and PCR™ may be used to detect the gene(s) in question, they do not provide information as to whether the corresponding protein is being expressed. Expression may be evaluated by specifically identifying the protein products of the introduced genes or evaluating the phenotypic changes brought about by their expression. Assays for the production and identification of specific proteins may make use of physical-chemical, structural, functional, or other properties of the proteins. Unique physical-chemical or structural properties allow the proteins to be separated and identified by electrophoretic procedures, such as native or denaturing gel electrophoresis or isoelectric focusing, or by chromatographic techniques such as ion exchange or gel exclusion chromatography. The unique structures of individual proteins offer opportunities for use of specific antibodies to detect their presence in formats such as an ELISA assay. Combinations of approaches may be employed with even greater specificity such as western blotting in which antibodies are used to locate individual gene products that have been separated by electrophoretic techniques. Additional techniques may be employed to absolutely confirm the identity of the product of interest such as evaluation by amino acid sequencing following purification. Although these are among the most commonly employed, other procedures may be additionally used. Assay procedures also may be used to identify the expression of proteins by their functionality, especially the ability of enzymes to catalyze specific chemical reactions involving specific substrates and products. These reactions may be followed by providing and quantifying the loss of substrates or the generation of products of the reactions by physical or chemical procedures. Examples are as varied as the enzyme to be analyzed and may include assays for PAT enzymatic activity by following production of radiolabeled acetylated phosphinothricin from phosphinothricin and 14C-acetyl CoA or for anthranilate synthase activity by following loss of fluorescence of anthranilate, to name two. Very frequently the expression of a gene product is determined by evaluating the phenotypic results of its expression. These assays also may take many forms including but not limited to analyzing changes in the chemical composition, morphology, or physiological properties of the plant. Chemical composition may be altered by expression of genes encoding enzymes or storage proteins which change amino acid composition and may be detected by amino acid analysis, or by enzymes which change starch quantity which may be analyzed by near infrared reflectance spectrometry. Morphological changes may include greater stature or thicker stalks. Most often changes in response of plants or plant parts to imposed treatments are evaluated under carefully controlled conditions termed bioassays. V. Breeding Plants of the Invention In addition to direct transformation of a particular plant genotype with a construct prepared according to the current invention, transgenic plants may be made by crossing a plant having a selected DNA of the invention to a second plant lacking the construct. For example, a selected FAAH coding sequence can be introduced into a particular plant variety by crossing, without the need for ever directly transforming a plant of that given variety. Therefore, the current invention not only encompasses a plant directly transformed or regenerated from cells which have been transformed in accordance with the current invention, but also the progeny of such plants. As used herein the term “progeny” denotes the offspring of any generation of a parent plant prepared in accordance with the instant invention, wherein the progeny comprises a selected DNA construct prepared in accordance with the invention. “Crossing” a plant to provide a plant line having one or more added transgenes relative to a starting plant line, as disclosed herein, is defined as the techniques that result in a transgene of the invention being introduced into a plant line by crossing a starting line with a donor plant line that comprises a transgene of the invention. To achieve this one could, for example, perform the following steps: (a) plant seeds of the first (starting line) and second (donor plant line that comprises a transgene of the invention) parent plants; (b) grow the seeds of the first and second parent plants into plants that bear flowers; (c) pollinate a flower from the first parent plant with pollen from the second parent plant; and (d) harvest seeds produced on the parent plant bearing the fertilized flower. Backcrossing is herein defined as the process including the steps of: (a) crossing a plant of a first genotype containing a desired gene, DNA sequence or element to a plant of a second genotype lacking the desired gene, DNA sequence or element; (b) selecting one or more progeny plant containing the desired gene, DNA sequence or element; (c) crossing the progeny plant to a plant of the second genotype; and (d) repeating steps (b) and (c) for the purpose of transferring a desired DNA sequence from a plant of a first genotype to a plant of a second genotype. Introgression of a DNA element into a plant genotype is defined as the result of the process of backcross conversion. A plant genotype into which a DNA sequence has been introgressed may be referred to as a backcross converted genotype, line, inbred, or hybrid. Similarly a plant genotype lacking the desired DNA sequence may be referred to as an unconverted genotype, line, inbred, or hybrid. VI. Definitions Expression: The combination of intracellular processes, including transcription and translation undergone by a coding DNA molecule such as a structural gene to produce a polypeptide. Genetic Transformation: A process of introducing a DNA sequence or construct (e.g., a vector or expression cassette) into a cell or protoplast in which that exogenous DNA is incorporated into a chromosome or is capable of autonomous replication. Heterologous: A sequence which is not normally present in a given host genome in the genetic context in which the sequence is currently found In this respect, the sequence may be native to the host genome, but be rearranged with respect to other genetic sequences within the host sequence. For example, a regulatory sequence may be heterologous in that it is linked to a different coding sequence relative to the native regulatory sequence. Obtaining: When used in conjunction with a transgenic plant cell or transgenic plant, obtaining means either transforming a non-transgenic plant cell or plant to create the transgenic plant cell or plant, or planting transgenic plant seed to produce the transgenic plant cell or plant. Such a transgenic plant seed may be from an R0 transgenic plant or may be from a progeny of any generation thereof that inherits a given transgenic sequence from a starting transgenic parent plant. Promoter: A recognition site on a DNA sequence or group of DNA sequences that provides an expression control element for a structural gene and to which RNA polymerase specifically binds and initiates RNA synthesis (transcription) of that gene. R0 transgenic plant: A plant that has been genetically transformed or has been regenerated from a plant cell or cells that have been genetically transformed. Regeneration: The process of growing a plant from a plant cell (e.g., plant protoplast, callus or explant). Selected DNA: A DNA segment which one desires to introduce or has introduced into a plant genome by genetic transformation. Transformation construct: A chimeric DNA molecule which is designed for introduction into a host genome by genetic transformation. Preferred transformation constructs will comprise all of the genetic elements necessary to direct the expression of one or more exogenous genes. In particular embodiments of the instant invention, it may be desirable to introduce a transformation construct into a host cell in the form of an expression cassette. Transformed cell: A cell the DNA complement of which has been altered by the introduction of an exogenous DNA molecule into that cell. Transgene: A segment of DNA which has been incorporated into a host genome or is capable of autonomous replication in a host cell and is capable of causing the expression of one or more coding sequences. Exemplary transgenes will provide the host cell, or plants regenerated therefrom, with a novel phenotype relative to the corresponding non-transformed cell or plant. Transgenes may be directly introduced into a plant by genetic transformation, or may be inherited from a plant of any previous generation which was transformed with the DNA segment. Transgenic plant: A plant or progeny plant of any subsequent generation derived therefrom, wherein the DNA of the plant or progeny thereof contains an introduced exogenous DNA segment not naturally present in a non-transgenic plant of the same strain. The transgenic plant may additionally contain sequences which are native to the plant being transformed, but wherein the “exogenous” gene has been altered in order to alter the level or pattern of expression of the gene, for example, by use of one or more heterologous regulatory or other elements. Vector: A DNA molecule designed for transformation into a host cell. Some vectors may be capable of replication in a host cell. A plasmid is an exemplary vector, as are expression cassettes isolated therefrom. VII. EXAMPLES The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments of the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventors to function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. More specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related may be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by the appended claims. Example 1 Identification of Arabidopsis NAE Amidohydrolase (FAAH) In animal systems, fatty acid amide hydrolase (E.C. 3.5.1.4), a member of the amidase signature (AS) family (Cravatt et al., 1996; Ueda, 2002), hydrolyzes NAEs to produce free fatty acid (FFA) and ethanolamine (Ueda et al., 2000). A similar enzymatic activity was characterized previously in cottonseed microsomes (Shrestha et al., 2002). Mammalian FAAH enzymes have a conserved stretch of approximately 130 amino acids containing a Ser/Ser/Lys catalytic triad (Patricelli and Cravatt, 2003). The predicted amidase structure has a central conserved motif of G-G-S-S-(G/A/S)-G (Chebrou et al., 1996) and a somewhat longer stretch of amino acids G-[GA]-S-[GS]-[GS]-G-x-[GSA]-[GSAVY]-x-[LIVM]-[GSA]-x(6)-[GSAT]-x-[GA]-x-DE-x-[GA]-x-S-[LIVM-R-x-P-[GSAC] is present in all enzymes of the amidase class (PS00457). Two serine residues at 217 and 241, highly conserved in the amidase signature (AS) sequence, were found essential for enzymatic activity of the recombinant rat FAAH (Deutsch et al., 1999). Mutation of either one of the residues into alanine caused complete loss of activity of the enzyme (Omeir et al., 2000; Patricelli et al., 1999). The mutation of another serine at 218 in the motif into alanine also caused marked loss of activity (Patricelli et al., 1999). Taking conserved residues in the AS consensus sequence into consideration, a strategy was developed and implemented to computationally identify several putative plant orthologs. BLAST searches (//blast.wustl.edu) in various databases using the created AS consensus block embedded in rat FAAH (//blocks.fhcrc.org), identified an Arabidopsis thaliana gene (At5g64440) that was selected for further characterization. The structure and organization of the gene was comparatively complex, with 21 exons including 5′ utr (untranslated region) and 3′ utr (FIG. 1A). The predicted gene was 4689 nucleotides in length and encoded a protein of 607 amino acids with a predicted molecular weight of 66.1 kDa. Based on the conserved residues within AS sequence compared with rat FAAH, the gene was deemed likely to encode an Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase. To assess whether the gene was expressed and to isolate a full length cDNA for functional characterization, oligonucleotide primers were designed within the 5′ and 3′ utr, and a cDNA fragment was amplified by RT-PCR from Arabidopsis leaf RNA (FIG. 1B). The RT-PCR product was sequenced and found to be 99.9% identical with the corresponding TC139316 annotated at TIGR. Protein domain prediction program (ProDom, Altschul et al., 1997) identified six domains, five of which were also found in rat FAAH (FIG. 1C). A single putative transmembrane segment was identified near the N-terminus (TMHMM, Krogh et al., 2001; Sonnhammer et al., 1998) similar to the organization of rat FAAH. Several domains identified in Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase are summarized in Table 1. TABLE 1 Summary of protein domains identified in Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase (ProDom, Altschul et al., 1997). Amino Acid No of proteins Position ID Name in family 271-407 PD038838 Biosynthesis of ligase 167 glutamyl-trnagln 6.3.5.- 138-276 PD001110 Glutamyl-trnagln 121 6.3.5.-hydrolase 477-575 PD002554 Biosynthesis 173 ligase glutamyl-trnagln 197-253 PD330412 Amidotansferase 64 glutamyl-trnagln 298-358 PD584534 FAAH_Rat 36 60-88 PD001217 Oligopeptide 234 oligopeptide-binding transporter plasmid Alignment of deduced amino acids from the Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase cDNA with rat FAAH (GenBank U72497) (Cravatt et al., 1996) showed only 18.5% identity over the entire length. Alignment within the AS sequence of 125 amino acids showed 37% identity with five residues determined to be important for catalysis Lys-142, Ser-217, Ser-218, Ser-241 and Arg-243 (Patricelli and Cravatt, 2000) absolutely conserved (denoted by arrows; FIG. 2A). Comparison of a 47 amino acid motif within the AS showed the Arabidopsis protein had close to 60% identity with FAAHs from several mammalian species (FIG. 2B). Organization of predicted secondary structure within this Arabidopsis and rat FAAH AS motif were similar (FIG. 2C) and the structure of the rat enzyme has been confirmed by X-ray crystallography (Bracey et al., 2002). In addition, this putative Arabidopsis thaliana NAE amidohydrolase and rat FAAH have similar predicted molecular weights (˜66 kDa), similar predicted topologies (single transmembrane segment near the N-terminus with C-terminus facing the cytosol, (TMHMM, Krogh et al., 2001; Sonnhammer et al., 1998) and similar predicted subcellular locations (secretory pathway, pSORT, Nakai and Kanehisa, 1992). Although, there was limited primary amino acid sequence identity over the length of the Arabidopsis protein compared with the rat protein (18%), there was substantially higher similarity within the amidase catalytic domain both at the primary (37-60% depending on the lengths compared) and secondary structural levels (FIG. 2). Indeed expression of this Arabidopsis cDNA in E. coli confirmed that the Arabidopsis protein product was capable of hydrolyzing a wide range of NAE substrates to free fatty acids (FIGS. 3-5, Table 2), a feature also of the mammalian enzyme (Ueda et al., 2000; Borger et al., 2000). Kinetic parameters summarized in Table 2 indicate that the plant enzyme has similar affinities for NAE substrates as the FAAH from several mammalian species (Boger et al., 2000; Fowler et al., 2001; Cravatt et al., 1996; Pertwee et al., 1995; Bisogno et al., 1997; Tiger et al., 2000). Moreover, the inhibition of the Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase by MAFP (Table 3), the active-site directed irreversible inhibitor of rat FAAH (Deutsch et al., 1997; Bracey et al., 2002), strongly suggests a conserved enzyme mechanism between the plant and animal NAE amidases supporting the predictions from sequence/domain comparisons. It is thus indicated that the previous annotation accompanying At5g64440 was incorrect. Example 2 Functional Confirmation of Arabidopsis NAE Amidohydrolase (FAAH) The Arabidopsis putative NAE amidohydrolase was subcloned into pTrcHis and pTrcHis2 for expression in E. coli of N-terminal and C-terminal, epitope and polyhistidine-tagged fusion proteins. E. coli lysates were surveyed for expression of enzyme activity using [14C]NAE 18:2 (N-linoleoylethanolamine; radiolabeled on the carbonyl carbon) as substrate. Representative chromatograms shown in FIG. 3 indicate that like the recombinant rat FAAH (expressed in the same vector), the recombinant Arabidopsis protein effectively hydrolyzed [1-14C]NAE 18:2 to [1-14C]FFA 18:2. As a control, E. coli expressing Arabidopsis cDNA in reverse orientation showed no hydrolytic activity (FIG. 3). In these preliminary studies with crude E. coli lysates, the Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase activity was determined to be time-, temperature- and protein concentration-dependent. The Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase did not hydrolyze ceramide, nor did ceramide influence NAE hydrolysis. The Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase did not catalyze the reverse reaction of NAE hydrolysis (formation of NAE) under any conditions tested. Higher activity was reproducibly recovered in cells expressing C-terminal fusions, compared with cells expressing N-terminal fusions. Similar to reports for the rat protein (Patricelli et al., 1998), the recombinant Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase was mostly associated with E. coli membranes. Example 3 Affinity-Purification of Recombinant Enzyme The Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase, expressed as a C-terminal fusion protein, was solubilized in n-dodecyl-β-D-maltoside (DDM), and subjected to native Ni2+-affinity purification, SDS-PAGE, western blot analyses, and enzyme activity assays (FIG. 4). A protein of approximately 70 kDa was enriched under native conditions by Ni2+-affinity purification and was detected by the c-myc antibody (FIG. 4A, B arrows, recombinant protein lanes). Likewise, NAE amidohydrolase activity was enriched in this native affinity-purified protein fraction (FIG. 4C) by approximately 375 fold, relative to the DDM-solubilized supernatant (supt) fraction. More stringent denaturing conditions led to purification of the recombinant protein to homogeneity (single 70 kDa band on gel), but also inactivated the enzyme. Example 4 Biochemical Characterization Recombinant NAE amidohydrolase (AHase) activity was evaluated by incubating affinity-purified NAE amidohydrolase with [1-14C]NAE 20:4, [1-14C]NAE 18:2, [1-14C]NAE 16:0 (N-palmitoylethanolamine), [1-14C]NAE 14:0 (N-myristoylethanolamine) or [1-14C]NAE 12:0 (N-lauroylethanolamine) and measuring the rate of conversion to their respective [1-14C]FFA products. NAE amidohydrolase exhibited saturation kinetics with respect to all NAE substrates tested, including those identified in plant tissues and those not found in plant tissues. The enzyme exhibited typical Michaelis-Menten kinetics when initial velocity measurements were made at increasing substrate concentrations (FIG. 5) and parameters calculated from these plots are summarized in Table 2. The relative apparent Km of the Arabidopsis enzyme varied by a factor of about four depending upon NAE type. Surprisingly, the Arabidopsis enzyme had a higher affinity toward the non-plant NAE 20:4, than toward the more abundant endogenous plant NAE 16:0 and 18:2. The highest maximum rate of NAE hydrolysis also was estimated for NAE 20:4 compared to the endogenous plant NAEs, although the range of the difference was not as great. Although this is not a purified protein preparation, these parameters together suggest that the Arabidopsis recombinant enzyme recognizes a wide range of NAE types, similar to the situation with mammalian FAAH, and highlights the caution of over interpreting in vitro kinetic data. TABLE 2 Summary of apparent kinetic parameters of the affinity-purified recombinant Arabidopsis thaliana NAE amidohydrolase. Parameters were estimated by fitting the data in FIG. 5 to the Michaelis-Menten equation (Prism software, version 3.0, GraphPad software). Substrate Km (μM) Vmax (μmol h−1 mg−1 protein) NAE 20:4 13.6 ± 2.1 17.9 ± 0.6 NAE 18:2 26.2 ± 5.3 14.1 ± 0.8 NAE 16:0 50.8 ± 14.1 12.1 ± 1.1 NAE 14:0 37.0 ± 5.6 9.1 ± 0.4 NAE 12:0 17.6 ± 2.8 13.9 ± 0.5 Two different mechanism-based inhibitors of mammalian FAAH were tested for potency on the hydrolysis of [1-14C]NAE 18:2 by this novel plant NAE amidohydrolase (Table 3). Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), a non-specific irreversible serine hydrolase inhibitor that inhibits NAE hydrolysis by mammalian FAAH at low mM concentrations (Desarnaud et al., 1995) was only modestly affective on the Arabidopsis enzyme (inhibited by 44% at 10 mM). However, methyl arachidonyl fluorophosphonate (MAFP), the irreversible, active-site targeted inhibitor of rat FAAH (Bracey et al., 2002) completely eliminated NAE hydrolysis by the Arabidopsis enzyme at 10 nM. Overall, biochemical results strongly supported the identification of At5g64440 as a functional homologue of the mammalian FAAH. TABLE 3 The effects of two mechanism-based inhibitors of mammalian FAAH on the hydrolysis of [1-14C]NAE 18:2 by the affinity purified Arabidopsis recombinant enzyme. Assays were conducted for 30 min at 30° C. in the absence or presence of increasing concentrations of phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) or methyl arachidonyl fluorophosphonate (MAFP). The amount of [1-14C]FFA 18:2 formed was quantified by radiometric scanning following TLC or reactions products. The data are means and SD of three replicates and are representative of two studies. Specific Activity Relative Inhibition Concentrations μmol h−1 mg−1 Protein (%) Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) 0 mM 10.56 ± 0.29 0 0.01 mM 11.34 ± 0.55 −7 0.1 mM 9.06 ± 1.86 14 1 mM 7.89 ± 0.37 25 2.5 mM 6.72 ± 0.70 36 10 mM 5.96 ± 0.43 44 Methyl arachidonyl fluorophosphonate (MAFP) 0 nM 10.46 ± 0.32 0 0.1 nM 9.69 ± 0.89 7 1 nM 5.62 ± 0.56 46 10 nM 0.00 ± 0.00 100 Example 5 Materials [1-14C]Arachidonic acid was purchased from PerkinElmer Life Sciences, and [1-14C]Lauric acid was from Amersham Biosciences, and [1-14C]myristic, arachidonic, lauric, linoleic, and myritstic acids, anandamide, and arachidonyl trifluoromethyl ketone (ATMK), phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), and isopropyl β-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) were from Sigma. [1-14C]Linoleic, and [1-14C]palmitic acids, and [1,2-14C]ethanolamine were purchased from NEN, ceramide was from Avanti Polar Lipids, and 2-arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG) was from Cayman Chemical (Ann Arbor, Mich.). Methyl arachidonyl fluorophosphonate (MAFP) was from TOCRIS (Ellisville, Mo.), n-dodecyl-β-D-maltoside (DDM) was from Calbiochem, and Silica Gel 60 Å glass plates for thin-layer chromatography (20 cm×20 cm, 0.25 mm thickness) were from Whatman (Clifton, N.J.). Specific types of N-[1-14C] acylethanolamines were synthesized from ethanolamine and respective [1-14C]fatty acids by first producing the fatty acid chloride (Hillard, et al., 1995). Example 6 Bioinformatics and cDNA Isolation BLAST searches (//blast.wustl.edu) in various databases were done using the amidase signature (AS) consensus block embedded in rat FAAH (//blocks.fhcrc.org). DNA sequences containing a characteristic AS sequence (PS00571) were identified in the Arabidopsis thaliana genome database annotated at www.tigr.org, and one candidate Arabidopsis FAAH ortholog, At5g64440, was selected for further analyses. Sequence-specific primers were designed within the 5′ and 3′ utr regions based on predicted exon sequences and used for reverse transcriptase PCR (forward, 5′-CATTCAAGTTCCCAACAACTTCACCGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:3) and reverse, 5′-GTCGACGTAAGAAATTCCAACACGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:4). The template for RT-PCR was total RNA extracted from the leaves of mature Arabidopsis plants using Trizol reagent (Invitrogen). Fresh leaf tissue (100 mg) was harvested and ground to a fine powder in liquid nitrogen. The powdered tissue was combined with 2 mL of Trizol reagent and RNA was isolated per manufacturer's instructions. For RT-PCR, the first-strand cDNA synthesis was carried out at 50° C. for 30 min and incubated for 4 min at 94° C. before the targeted amplification of the At5g64440 mRNA by RT/Platinum Taq mixture (Invitrogen) was achieved through 25 cycles of 94° C. for 1 min, 45° C. for 1 min, 72° C. for 2 min followed by a final polymerization step at 72° C. for 7 min. The RT-PCR product was gel-purified and ligated into pTrcHis for nucleotide sequencing. Commercial DNA sequencing of both strands (complete 2× each strand) verified the identity of the cDNA as the AT5g64440 gene product, and the complete cDNA sequence was deposited in GenBank. Example 7 Protein Expression For protein expression, oligonucleotide primers (forward, 5′-ATGGGTAAGTATCAGGTCATGAAACG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:5) and reverse, 5′-GTTTGTATTGAGAATATCATAAAAGATTGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:6) were designed to amplify only the open reading frame (ORF) of the above At5g64440 cDNA. The PCR product was gel purified as above and subcloned into expression vectors, pTrcHis and pTrcHis2, and the constructs were transformed into E. coli TOP10 as host. Transformed colonies were selected with correct in-frame fusions and cDNA sequence by sequencing of plasmid DNA over the vector insert junctions and by sequencing the inserts completely on both strands. Selected transformed cell lines were grown in LB medium without glucose to an OD600 of 0.6 to 0.7 and induced with 1 mM IPTG for 4 h. Pelleted cells were resuspended in lysis buffer (50 mM Tri-HCl, pH 8.0, 100 mM NaCl and 0.2 mM DDM) at a ratio of 2.3:1017 (E. coli cells:DDM molecules) (0.1 OD600=108 cells/mL, Elbing and Brent, 2002). After incubation on ice for 30 min resuspended cells were sonicated on ice with six 10-s bursts at high intensity with a 10-s cooling period between each burst. The selection of DDM as the detergent, and determination of optimal DDM concentration and content ratio was based on empirical comparisons for recovery of solubilized active enzyme with the highest specific activity. DDM was for this purpose than either Titron X-100 or CHAPS (3-[(-Cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonia]-1-propanesulfonate). Example 8 Solubilization and Ni2+ Affinity Purification Routinely, cultured cells (50 mL) were pelleted, resuspended in 8 mL of native binding buffer (50 mM NaPO4 and 0.5 M NaCl) with 8 mg of lysozyme, and 0.2 mM DDM (final) incubated on ice for 30 min, and disrupted by sonication as above. The crude lysate was centrifuged at 105,000×g for 1 h in a Sorvell Discovery 90 model ultracentrifuge (Beckman 45 Ti rotor). The supernatant was combined with ProBond resin, precharged with Ni2+ and gently agitated for 60 min to keep the resin suspended in the lysate supernatant. The resin with adsorbed protein was settled and the supernatant was aspirated off. The resin was washed 4 times to remove non-specific proteins, and the adsorbed proteins were eluted with imidazole-containing buffer. Eluted proteins were concentrated and imidazole was removed with 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 100 mM NaCl and 0.2 mM DDM by filtration-centrifugation using Centricon YM-30 (Millipore, Bedford, Mass.). Affinity-purified proteins were stored at −80° C. in 10% glycerol and were stable for more than two months. Example 9 Gel Electrophoresis and Western Blotting Protein samples were diluted in 60 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 2% SDS, 10% glycerol, 0.025% bromophenol blue in 1:1 ratio and separated on 8 cm precast 10% polyacrylamide/SDS gel (Bio-Rad) at 35 mA for 30 min and 60 mA for 60 min. For western blot analysis, separated proteins were electrophoretically transferred to PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride, 0.2 μm, Bio-Rad) membrane in a Semidry Trans-Blot apparatus (Bio-Rad) for 30 min at constant 14 volts. Recombinant proteins expressed as c-myc-epitope fusions were localized with 1:5000 dilution of anti-myc antibodies (mouse monoclonal, Invitrogen) and detected by chemiluminescence (Bio-Rad substrate solution) following incubation with 1:2500 goat-antimouse IgG conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (Bio-Rad). Example 10 NAE Amidohydrolase Assays NAE substrates were synthesized and purified, and enzyme assays were conducted as previously described (Shrestha et al., 2002) with a few modifications. Generally the enzyme source was incubated with 100 μM [14C]NAE with 20,000 dpm in 50 mM Bis-Tris (2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino]-2-(hydroxymethyl)propane-1) buffer (pH 9.0) for 30 min to survey for NAE amidohydrolase activity (Shrestha et al., 2002). Enzyme activity was examined for time, temperature, protein- and substrate-concentration dependence. For enzyme characterization, reactions were initiated with 1 μg of affinity-purified protein and incubated at 30° C. with shaking for 30 min. Assays of lysate of E. coli cells expressing rat FAAH (WT) (Patricelli et al., 1999) served as a comparison of NAE amidohydrolase activity, whereas non-transformed cell lysates or cell lysates with the Arabidopsis cDNA cloned in reverse orientation with respect to the lacZ promoter served as negative controls for activity assays. Enzyme assays were terminated by the addition of boiling isopropanol (70° C.) and lipids were extracted into chloroform. Lipid products were separated by TLC and the distribution of radioactivity was evaluated by radiometric scanning (Shrestha et al., 2002). Activity was calculated based on the radiospecific activity of [14C]-labeled substrate. A general serine hydrolase inhibitor, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), and an irreversible active-site-directed FAAH inhibitor, methyl arachidonyl fluorophosphonate (MAFP), were used to probe the sensitivity of recombinant Arabidopsis NAE amidohydrolase activity. Inhibitors were added from stock solutions dissolved in (PMSF, isopropanol; ATMK and MAFP, DMSO), and activity was adjusted for minimal solvent effects when necessary. Protein content was determined by using serum albumin as the standard (Bradford, 1976). Example 11 Identification of Candidate FAAH Sequences in Rice and Medicago truncatula Using BLAST search programs, a candidate FAAH gene sequence was identified in the rice genome on chromosome 4 with similarity to the Arabidopsis FAAH gene, At5g64440. This gene was predicted in the database to encode a protein of 578 amino acids. The rice FAAH homologue predicted gene sequence is given in SEQ ID NO:8, the predicted mRNA (without untranslated regions) sequence is in SEQ ID NO:9 and the predicted amino acid sequence of the gene product is given in SEQ ID NO: 10. The rice gene nucleotide sequence was retrieved from the Oryza sativa non-redundant database in Genbank using the Arabidopsis At5g64440 FAAH sequence as the query. Using oligonucleotide primers directed to the 5′ and 3′ ends of the full-length rice ORF, a cDNA was isolated from total RNA of 2-d old Oryza sativa (cv japonica cultivar) seedlings by reverse-transcriptase (RT)-PCR. The rice cDNA fragment was cloned into the expression plasmid, pTrcHis2 TOPO (Invitrogen), and completely sequenced on both strands. The nucleic acid sequence of the cloned cDNA is given in SEQ ID NO:11 and the predicted amino acid sequence of the actual rice FAAH cDNA isolated by RT-PCR is given in SEQ ID NO:12. The cDNA coding sequence was longer than what was predicted in DNA databases, such that the protein product was estimated to be 601 amino acids, closer to the 607 amino acids of the Arabidopsis FAAH protein than to the 578 amino acids of the predicted rice FAAH (SEQ ID NO:12). The segment that was missing in the predicted rice sequence was between amino acids 486 and 509 in the sequence isolated from rice seedlings and this segment was conserved in the Arabidopsis FAAH. It was therefore indicated that the annotation of the gene was in error, comprising a failure to identify the corresponding exon correctly, and that the correct sequence is in SEQ ID NO: 12. BLAST search programs also were used to query the Medicago truncatula EST database for to identify FAAH homologues. A candidate EST clone (Accession AW695697) was obtained from the S. R. Noble EST collection (designated as NF097F02ST1F1025), and was sequenced completely on both strands. The nucleotide sequence of the processed cDNA is given in SEQ ID NO:13 and the predicted amino-acid sequence in SEQ ID NO:14. Primers designed to the 5′ and 3′ ends of the protein coding region were used to amplify and subclone a PCR product of this Medicago candidate FAAH into the expression plasmid, pTrcHis2 TOPO (Invitrogen), as above for the rice candidate FAAH. DNA sequencing verified the correct sequence, orientation and in-frame insertion of the PCR product in the recombinant expression vector. An alignment of the amino acid sequences of the Arabidopsis FAAH (At; At5g6440) with the candidate sequences from rice (OS) and Medicago truncatula (Mt), showed that these sequences share a high degree of similarity (FIG. 6). Over their full lengths, Arabidopsis and Medicago sequences were 64% identical, whereas Arabidopsis and rice sequences were 56% identical. Medicago and rice sequences were 57% identical. Amino acid residues determined to be important for amidase catalysis (K205, S281, S282, S305, R307 in the At sequence) by the rat FAAH (genbank accession NM—024132) are conserved in all plant sequences. Based on sequence similarity and conserved amidase domains, it was indicated that the rice and Medicago truncatula cDNA sequences encode functional FAAH orthologs, and this was confirmed below using strategies similar to that described above for the Arabidopsis FAAH. Using these three full-length, functional plant FAAH sequences to query non-redundant DNA databases, other plant orthologs were identified including those in barley, grape cotton, maize, potato, sugarcane, soybean, tomato and wheat (summarized in Table 4). TABLE 4 Consensus (TC) identifiers prepared for the orthologous group of plant sequences that includes Arabidopsis, rice and Medicago truncatula FAAH sequences in this manuscript. Currently assembled as tentative ortholog group 520300 by The Institute for Genomic Resources (www.tigr.org), except for Medicago truncatula which not assembled into a TC (AW695697 is a singleton). TCs built with available DNA sequences in various DNA databases including EST and other partial nucleotide sequences. % identity TC SEQ ID Arab Plant identifier NO FAAH p-value length Arabidopsis TC210025 NO:15 100 0.00 2145 Barley TC111212 NO:16 65 2.6e−91 1217 Cotton TC21641 NO:17 71 1.1e−67 717 Grape TC36243 NO:18 73 1.0e−143 1301 Maize TC230081 NO:19 66 8.8e−26 377 Potato TC76474 NO:20 64 2.0e−62 918 Rice TC188324 NO:11 64 3.2e−132 1820 Sugarcane TC18099 NO:26 65 1.4e−42 624 Sorghum TC87636 NO:21 67 8.7e−30 439 Soybean TC179281 NO:22 71 4.6e−51 552 Soybean TC199488 NO:23 72 9.6e−53 554 Tomato TC117552 NO:24 69 3.5e−75 859 Tomato TC132131 None 68 1.4e−166 1839 Wheat TC150217 NO:25 64 3.6e−116 1589 M. truncatula AW695697 NO:13 71 4.0e−93 963 (single) % identity is at the nucleotide level and the match length is provided over which the p-value was calculated. Example 12 Functional Expression of Rice and Medicago truncatula FAAH cDNAs in E. coli Expression of recombinant candidate FAAH proteins as C-terminal fusions in pTrcHis2 and assays of NAE amidohydrolase (FAAH) activity was carried out as done as for the Arabidopsis FAAH (Shrestha et al., 2003). The rice (Os) and Medicago truncatula (Mt) cDNAs were expressed in E. coli (TOP10 cells) as His-tagged fusion proteins, with the lysates exhibiting NAE amidohydrolase activity similar to that of the Arabidopsis and Rat recombinant FAAH enzymes (FIG. 7A-7F). There was no amidohydrolase activity in lysates of E. coli harboring the rice (Os) or Medicago truncatula (Mt) cDNAs cloned in reverse orientation. Data in the figure are for the hydrolysis of NAE 18:2, but other NAEs such as NAE16:0 were equally suitable substrates for these recombinant enzymes, similar to the situation with Arabidopsis and rat FAAH. The data indicated that both the rice and Medicago cDNAs isolated and sequenced above encode functional FAAH enzymes. Example 13 Arabidopsis FAAH Encodes a Functional NAE Amidohydrolase In vivo As a means to understand FAAH function in planta, transgenic and mutant Arabidopsis plants were generated and/or identified with altered expression of the Arabidopsis FAAH. Transgenic plants were generated with FAAH cloned downstream from the CaMV35S promoter in the sense orientation (as a FAAH:GFP fusion) or in the antisense orientation into appropriate pCAMBIA binary vectors. Arabidopsis plants were transformed by the floral dip method, and transgenic seedlings were selected on kanamycin. T2 and T3 seedlings from these selected plants were examined for their NAE amidohydrolase activity, NAE sensitivity, and phenotypic growth characteristics. Additionally, two T-DNA insertional mutants were identified with putative insertions in the At5g64440 gene. These lines were ordered from the Arabidopsis Biological Resource Center (Ohio State University), and seedlings were selected for growth on kanamycin. Plants from these seedlings were genotyped by PCR to determine zygosity, and homozygous mutant plants (no wildtype At5g64440 allele) were identified for biochemical and physiological experiments. The precise locations of the T-DNA inserts in the At5g64440 gene were confirmed by DNA sequencing of PCR products amplified with T-DNA and gene specific primers (insertion events summarized in FIGS. 8A-8C and 9A-9C. RT-PCR confirmed the lack of endogenous At5g64440 transcripts in the homozygous knockout lines. In the study equivalent amounts of total leaf RNA were used as template for AT5g64440 and EIF4A-2 specific primers. FAAH transcripts were somewhat lower than WT in antisense plants, and were not detectable in homozygous knockout lines, whereas most of the overexpressing lines showed higher relative amounts of FAAH transcript compared to WT without or with GFP C-terminal fusions. NAE amidohydrolase specific activity in microsomes isolated from wildtype (WT), knockout (KO-I, SALK—118043, and KO-E, SALK—095108), and transgenic (OE, overexpressors; AS, antisense expressors) Arabidopsis (Columbia background) plants was compared (FIG. 10). Enzyme activity was measured with equal amounts of microsomal protein extracts according to Shrestha et al., (2002) with [14C]-NAE 18:2 as the substrate. Microsomes were isolated from above-ground tissues of six-week-old plants, all grown under the same environmental conditions. Activity profiles were similar with assays of total homogenates, supporting the conclusion that NAE amidohydrolase enzyme activity associated with microsomal membrane fractions represented the profile of the majority of active endogenous FAAH. Activity profiles were consistent with patterns of FAAH gene expression in these mutant and transgenic plants, such that microsomes from antisense and knockouts had less or no activity compared with wildtype, whereas overexpressors had more enzyme activity. Seedlings were germinated and grown in MS-medium were continuously exposed to solvent-only control (0.5% DMSO), free fatty acid (FFA, as an inactive NAE12:0 analogue) or NAE 12:0, and the seedlings were photographed after 14 d growth. Composite images were taken from seedlings grown on different plates, and were representative of typical replicate experiments. Wildtype seedling growth was shown to be reduced by NAE12:0 treatment. The altered profiles of extractable FAAH enzyme activities in mutant and transgenic plants led to predictable differences in the sensitivity of seedlings to exogenous NAE 12:0 indicating a modified ability of these plants to metabolize NAEs. Seedling growth of Arabidopsis wildtype seedlings was inhibited by exogenous treatment of NAE12:0). This growth inhibition was greatly exacerbated when the FAAH gene expression was reduced, particularly in the knockouts, whereas FAAH overexpressors were essentially insensitive to NAE 12:0 application. Consequently the effects of NAE12:0 on plant growth and development can be altered predictably by altering FAAH expression. Additional quantitative data from Arabidopsis seedling root length measurements supported this link between At5g64440 gene function and seedling sensitivity to exogenous NAEs (FIGS. 11-13). Example 14 FAAH Influences Seedling Growth and Development An analysis was carried out to the influence of NAE metabolism on regulation of seed germination and seedling growth. The profound dose-dependent effects of NAE12:0 on Arabidopsis seedling development described above supported this concept of NAE as a regulator of seedling development. Here, for the first time, a molecular-genetic association between seedling growth and endogenous NAE metabolism can be made. Phenotypic comparisons were made between Arabidopsis seedling roots of wildtype and At5g64440 knockout lines at 4-d after planting (FIG. 14). Although the timing of radicle emergence did not appear to be different between wild type and mutant seedlings, the rate of primary root elongation was reduced by 15-20% in the mutants (over 6 days post-germinative growth). Conversely, constitutive overexpression of the FAAH cDNA in transgenic seeds and seedlings appeared to accelerate seedling growth compared with wildtype seedlings. In this analysis, comparisons were made of Arabidopsis 8-d-old seedlings germinated and grown under identical conditions. Wildtype seedlings were compared to seedlings overexpressing the At5g64440 FAAH cDNA. The FAAH overexpressing seedlings appeared to have accelerated seedling growth compared to wildtype. The data collectively provided genetic evidence to support NAE metabolism and the At5g64440 Arabidopsis FAAH as an important pathway in the proper regulation of plant growth and development. REFERENCES The references listed below are incorporated herein by reference to the extent that they supplement, explain, provide a background for, or teach methodology, techniques, and/or compositions employed herein. U.S. Pat. No. 4,535,060 U.S. Pat. No. 5,302,523 U.S. Pat. No. 5,322,783 U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,253 U.S. Pat. No. 5,464,765 U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,184 U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,468 U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,877 U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,880 U.S. Pat. No. 5,545,818 U.S. Pat. No. 5,550,318 U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055 U.S. Pat. No. 5,591,616 U.S. Pat. No. 5,610,042 Abdullah et al., Biotechnology, 4:1087, 1986. Altschul et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 25:3389-3402, 1997. Bates, Mol. Biotechnol., 2(2):135-145, 1994. Battraw and Hall, Theor. App. Genet., 82(2):161-168, 1991. Bevan et al., Nucleic Acids Research, 11(2):369-385, 1983. Bhattacharjee; An; Gupta, J. Plant Bioch. and Biotech. 6, (2):69-73. 1997. Bisogno et al., J. Biol. Chem., 272:3315-3323, 1997. Blancaflor et al., Planta, 217(2):206-17, 2003. Boger et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett., 10:2613-2616, 2000. Bouchez et al., EMBO Journal, 8(13):4197-4204, 1989. Bower et al., The Plant Journal, 2:409-416. 1992. Bracey et al., Science, 298:1793-1796, 2002. Bradford, Anal. Biochem., 72:248-254, 1976. Buchanan-Wollaston et al., Plant Cell Reports 11:627-631. 1992 Buckley et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol., 396:141-149, 2000. Buising and Benbow, Mol Gen Genet, 243(1):71-81. 1994. Callis, Fromm, Walbot, Genes Dev., 1: 1183-1200, 1987. Casa et al., Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA, 90(23):11212-11216, 1993. Chandler et al., The Plant Cell, 1:1175-1183, 1989. Chang and Abelson, Nucleic Acids Res., 18, 7180-7180, 1990. Chapman et al., Plant Physiol., 120:1157-1164, 1999. Chapman, Chem. Phys. Lipids, 108:221-230, 2000. Chebrou et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1298:185-293, 1996. Christou; et al., Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA, 84(12):3962-3966, 1987. Chu et al., Scientia Sinica, 18:659-668, 1975. Conkling et al., Plant Physiol., 93:1203-1211, 1990. Cravatt and Lichtman, Chem. Phys. Lipids, 121:135-148, 2002. Cravatt et al., Nature, 384:83-87, 1996. Curnow et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94:11819-11826, 1997. Dalzell and Kerven, J. Sci. Food Agric., 78:405-416, 1998. De Block et al., The EMBO Journal, 6(9):2513-2518, 1987. De Block, De Brouwer, Tenning, Plant Physiol., 91:694-701, 1989. Dellaporta et al., In: Chromosome Structure and Function: Impact of New Concepts, 18th Stadler Genetics Symposium, 11:263-282, 1988. Desarnaud et al., J. Biol. Chem., 270:6030-6035, 1995. Deutsch et al., Biochem. Pharmcol., 53:255-260, 1997. D'Halluin et al., Plant Cell, 4(12):1495-1505, 1992. Ebert et al., 84:5745-5749, Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA, 1987. Elbing and Brent, Curr. Prot. Mol. Biol., 1.2.1-1.2.2, 2002. Ellis et al., EMBO Journal, 6(11):3203-3208, 1987. Fowler et al., Biochem. Pharmacol., 62:517-526, 2001. Fraley et al., Bio/Technology, 3:629-635, 1985. Fromm et al., Nature, 319:791-793, 1986. Gallie et al., The Plant Cell, 1:301-311, 1989. Gelvin et al., In: Plant Molecular Biology Manual, 1990. Ghosh-Biswas et al., J. Biotechnol., 32(1):1-10, 1994. Giang and Cravatt, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94:2238-2242, 1997. Goparaju et al., Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 1441:77-84, 1999. Hagio, Blowers, Earle, Plant Cell Rep., 10(5):260-264, 1991. Hamilton et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93(18):9975-9979, 1996. Hansen et al., Chem. Phys. Lipids., 108:135-150, 2000. Haseloff et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94(6):2122-2127, 1997. Hashimoto et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1088:225-233, 1991. He et al., Plant Cell Reports, 14 (2-3):192-196, 1994. Hensgens et al., Plant Mol. Biol., 22(6):1101-1127, 1993. Hiei et al., Plant. Mol. Biol., 35(1-2):205-218, 1997. Hillard et al., J. Neurochem., 64:677-683, 1995. Hinchee et al., Bio/technol., 6:915-922, 1988. Hou and Lin, Plant Physiology, 111:166, 1996. Hudspeth and Grula, Plant Mol. Biol., 12:579-589, 1989. Ikuta et al., Bio/technol., 8:241-242, 1990. Ishidia et al., Nat. Biotechnol., 14(6):745-750, 1996. Jones, J. Mol. Biol., 292:195-202, 1999. Kaeppler et al., Plant Cell Reports 9: 415-418, 1990. Kaeppler, Somers, Rines, Cockburn, Theor. Appl. Genet., 84(5-6):560-566, 1992. Katz et al., J. Gen. Microbiol., 129:2703-2714, 1983. Klee, Yanofsky, Nester, Bio-Technology, 3(7):637-642, 1985. Knittel, Gruber; Hahne; Lenee, Plant Cell Reports, 14(2-3):81-86, 1994. Krogh et al., J. Mol. Biol., 305:567-580, 2001. Lamber, D. M., and Di Marzo, V. (1999) Current Med. Chem. 6, 663-674 Lambert et al., Current Med. Chem., 9:739-755, 2002. Lawton et al., Plant Mol. Biol. 9:315-324, 1987. Lazzeri, Methods Mol. Biol., 49:95-106, 1995. Lee; Suh; Lee, Korean J Genet., 11(2):65-72, 1989. Lorz et al., Mol Gen Genet, 199:178-182, 1985. Marcotte et al., Nature, 335:454, 1988. Mayaux et al., J. Bacteriol., 172:6764-6773, 1990. McCabe, Martinell, Bio-Technology, 11(5):596-598, 1993. McCormac et al., Euphytica, v. 99 (1) p. 17-25, 1998. McGuffin et al., Bioinformatics, 16:404-405, 2000. McKhann and Hirsch, Plant Mol. Biol., 24(5):767-77, 1994 Murakami et al., Mol. Gen. Genet., 205:42-50, 1986. Murashige and Skoog, Physiol. Plant., 15:473-497, 1962. Nagatani et al., Biotech. Tech., 11(7):471-473, 1997. Nakai and Kanehisa, Genomics, 14:897-911, 1992. Odell et al., Nature, 313:810-812, 1985. Ogawa et al., Sci. Rep., 13:42-48, 1973. Omeir et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 264:316-320, 2000. Omirulleh et al., Plant Mol. Biol., 21(3):415-428, 1993. Ow et al., Science, 234:856-859, 1986. Paria and Dey, Chem. Phys. Lipids, 108:211-220, 2000. Patricelli and Cravatt, J. Biol. Chem., 275:19177-19184, 2000. Patricelli et al., Biochemistry, 38:9804-9812, 1999. PCT App. WO 94/09699 PCT App. WO 95/06128 PCT App. WO 97/41228 Pertwee et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol., 272:73-78, 1995. Pertwee, Prog. Neurobiol., 63:569-611, 2001. Potrykus et al., Mol. Gen. Genet., 199:183-188, 1985. Prasher et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 126(3):1259-1268, 1985. Reichel et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93 (12) p. 5888-5893. 1996. Rhodes et al., Methods Mol. Biol., 55:121-131, 1995. Ritala et al., Plant Mol. Biol., 24(2):317-325, 1994. Rogers et al., Methods Enzymol., 153:253-277, 1987. Sagasser et al., Genes Dev., 16:138-149, 2002. Sambrook et al., In: Molecular Cloning-A Laboratory Manual (second edition), Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press, 1989. Sarker et al., FEBS Lett., 472:39-44, 2000. Schmid and Berdyshev, Prostag. Leukotr. Essent. Fatty Acids, 66:363-376, 2002. Schmid et al., Chem. Phys. Lipids, 121:111-134, 2002. Schmid et al., Chem. Phys. Lipids, 80:133-142, 1996. Schmid et al., Prog. Lipid Res., 29:1-43, 1990. Sheen et al., Plant Journal, 8(5):777-784, 1995. Shrestha et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278: 34990-34997, 2003. Shrestha et al., Plant Physiol., 130:391-401, 2002. Singsit et al., Transgenic Res., 6(2):169-176, 1997. Sonnhammer et al., Proc. Int. Conf. Intell. Syst. Mol. Biol., 6:175-182, 1998. Spencer et al., Plant Molecular Biology, 18:201-210, 1992. Stalker et al., Science, 242:419-422, 1988. Sullivan et al., Mol. Gen. Genet., 215(3):431-440, 1989. Sutcliffe, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 75:3737-3741, 1978. Thillet et al., J. Biol. Chem., 263:12500-12508, 1988. Thomas et al., Plant Sci. 69:189-198, 1990. Thompson et al., Euphytica, 85(1-3):75-80, 1995. Thompson et al., The EMBO Journal, 6(9):2519-2523, 1987. Tian, Sequin, Charest, Plant Cell Rep., 16:267-271, 1997. Tiger et al., Biochem. Pharmacol., 59:647-653, 2000. Tingay et al., The Plant Journal v. 11 (6) p. 1369-1376. 1997. Tomes et al., Plant. Mol. Biol. 14(2):261-268, 1990. Torbet, Rines, Somers, Crop Science, 38(1):226-231, 1998. Torbet, Rines, Somers, Plant Cell Reports, 14(10):635-640, 1995. Toriyama et al., Theor Appl. Genet., 73:16, 1986. Tripathy et al., Plant Physiol., 121:1299-1308, 1999. Tripathy et al., Plant Physiol., 131:1781-1791, 2003. Tsuchiya et al., J. Bacteriol., 171:3187-3191, 1989. Tsukada; Kusano; Kitagawa, Plant Cell Physiol., 30(4)599-604, 1989. Twell et al., Plant Physiol 91:1270-1274, 1989. Uchimiya et al., Mol. Gen. Genet., 204:204, 1986. Ueda et al., Chem. Phys. Lipids, 108:107-121, 2000. Ueda, Prostaglandis Other Lipid Mediators, 68-69:521-534, 2002. Van der Stelt et al., J. Neurosci, 21:765-8771, 2001. Van Eck; Blowers; Earle, Plant Cell Reports, 14(5):299-304, 1995. Vasil et al., Plant Physiol., 91:1575-1579, 1989. Walker et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 84:6624-6628, 1987. Wang et al., Molecular and Cellular Biology, 12(8):3399-3406, 1992. Wilson and Nicoll, Science, 296:678-682, 2002. Yamada et al., Plant Cell Rep., 4:85, 1986. Yang and Russell, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87:4144-4148, 1990. Zheng and Edwards, J. Gen. Virol., 71:1865-1868, 1990. Zhou et al., Plant Cell Reports, 12(11).612-616, 1993. Zukowsky et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 80:1101-1105, 1983. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to the field of molecular biology. More specifically, the invention relates to plant fatty acid amide hydrolase genes and methods of use thereof. 2. Description of the Related Art N-Acylethanolamines (NAEs) are endogenous constituents of plant and animal tissues, and in vertebrates their hydrolysis terminates their participation as lipid mediators in the endocannabinoid signaling system. The membrane-bound enzyme responsible for NAE hydrolysis in mammals has been identified at the molecular level (designated fatty acid amide hydrolase, FAAH), and although an analogous enzyme activity was identified in microsomes of cotton seedlings, no molecular information has been available for this enzyme in plants. NAEs are produced from the hydrolysis of N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs), a minor membrane lipid constituent of cellular membranes, by phospholipase D in animal systems (Schmid et al., 1996). One example of an NAE, anandamide (NAE 20:4), has varied physiological roles as an endogenous ligand for cannabinoid receptors and functions in modulation of neurotransmission in the central nervous system (Wilson and Nicoll, 2002). Anandamide also activates vanilloid receptors and functions as an endogenous analgesic (Pertwee, 2001) and appears to be involved in neuroprotection (Hansen et al., 2000; Van der Stelt et al., 2001). While a principal role for NAE20:4 as an endogenous ligand for cannabinoid receptors has emerged as a paradigm for endocannabinoid signaling (Desarnaud et al., 1995; Wilson and Nicoll, 2002), other types of NAEs as well as other fatty acid derivatives likely interact with this pathway and perhaps others directly or indirectly to modulate a variety of physiological functions in vertebrates (Lambert and Di Marzo, 1999; Lambert et al., 2002; Schmid and Berdyshev, 2002; Schmid et al., 2002). NAEs have been implicated in immunomodulation (Buckley et al., 2000), synchronization of embryo development (Paria and Dey, 2000), and induction of apoptosis (Sarker et al., 2000). These endogenous bioactive molecules lose their signaling activity upon hydrolysis by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). Advances in the understanding of FAAH function in mammals at the structural level (Bracey et al., 2002), mechanistic level, and the physiological level (knockouts), have been made possible only through the cloning, expression and manipulation of the cDNA/gene encoding FAAH (Giang and Cravatt, 1997). Such studies have been lacking in plants due to the failure to isolate identify FAAH genes. Research in the last decade has, however, indicated that NAE metabolism occurs in plants by pathways analogous to those in vertebrates and invertebrates (Chapman, 2000, Shrestha et al., 2002), pointing to the possibility that these lipids may be an evolutionarily conserved mechanism for the regulation of physiology in multicellular organisms. In plants, NAEs are present in substantial amounts in desiccated seeds (˜1 μg g −1 fresh wt) and their levels decline after a few hours of imbibition (Chapman et al., 1999). Individual plant NAEs have been identified in plants as predominantly 16C and 18C species with N-palmitoylethanolamine (NAE 16:0) and N-linoleoylethanolamine (NAE 18:2) generally being the most abundant. Like in animal cells, plant NAEs are derived from N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs) (Schmid et al., 1990; Chapman, 2000) by the action of a phospholipase D (PLD). The occurrence of NAEs in seeds and their rapid depletion during seed imbibition (Chapman, 2000) suggests that these lipids may have a role in the regulation of seed germination. Recently, depletion of NAEs during seed imbibiton/germination was determined to occur via two metabolic pathways—one lipoxygenase—mediated, for the formation of NAE oxylipins from NAE 18:2, and one amidase—mediated for hydrolysis of saturated and unsaturated NAEs (Shrestha et al., 2002). Hydrolysis of NAEs was reconstituted and characterized in microsomes of cottonseeds, and appeared to be catalyzed by an enzyme similar to the FAAH of mammalian species (Shrestha et al., 2002). While the foregoing studies have provided a further understanding of the metabolism of plant secondary metabolism, the prior art has failed to provide genes encoding plant fatty acid amide hydrolase. The identification of such genes would allow the creation of novel plants with improved phenotypes and methods for use thereof. There is, therefore, a great need in the art for the identification of plant fatty acid amide hydrolase genes. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect, the invention provides an isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding a plant fatty acid amide hydrolase and operably linked to a heterologous promoter. In certain aspects of the invention, the plant fatty acid amide hydrolase may be from a species selected from the group consisting of: Arabidopsis thaliana , barley, cotton, grape, maize, potato, rice, sugarcane, sorghum, soybean, tomato, wheat and Medicago truncatula . In one embodiment, the nucleic acid is further defined as selected from the group consisting of: (a) a nucleic acid sequence encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2; (b) a nucleic acid sequence comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1; and (c) a nucleic acid sequence hybridizing to SEQ ID NO 1 under conditions of 5× SSC, 50% formamide and 42° C. In another embodiment, the nucleic acid sequence encodes the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2, comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or hybridizes to SEQ ID NO: 1 under conditions of 5× SSC, 50% formamide and 42° C. In another aspect, the invention provides a recombinant vector comprising an isolated polynucleotide of the invention. In certain embodiments, the recombinant vector may further comprise at least one additional sequence chosen from the group consisting of: a regulatory sequence, a selectable marker, a leader sequence and a terminator. In further embodiments, the additional sequence is a heterologous sequence and the promoter may be developmentally-regulated, organelle-specific, inducible, tissue-specific, constitutive, cell-specific, seed specific, or germination-specific promoter. The recombinant vector may or may not be an isolated expression cassette. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides an isolated polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, or a fragment thereof having fatty acid amide hydrolase activity. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a transgenic plant transformed with a selected DNA comprising a nucleic acid sequence of the invention encoding FAAH. The transgenic plant may be a monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous plant. The plant may also be an R0 transgenic plant and/or a progeny plant of any generation of an R0 transgenic plant, wherein the transgenic plant has inherited the selected DNA from the R0 transgenic plant. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a seed of a transgenic plant of the invention, wherein the seed comprises the selected DNA. The invention also provides a host cell transformed with such a selected DNA. The host cell may express a protein encoded by the selected DNA. The cell may have inherited the selected DNA from a progenitor of the cell and may have been transformed with the selected DNA. The cell may be a plant cell. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of altering the N-Acylethanolamine content of a plant comprising up- or down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant. In one embodiment, the method comprises down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the N-Acylethanolamine content of the plant is increased as a result of the down-regulating. In another embodiment of the invention, the method comprises up-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the N-Acylethanolamine content of the plant is decreased as a result of the up-regulating. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of modulating the growth of a plant or part thereof, comprising up- or down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant or part thereof. In one embodiment, the method comprises down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the growth of the plant is decreased as a result of the down-regulating. In another embodiment of the invention, the method comprises up-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the growth of the plant is increased as a result of the up-regulating. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of modulating stress tolerance in a plant or part thereof, comprising up- or down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant or part thereof. In one embodiment, the method comprises down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the stress tolerance of the plant is increased as a result of the down-regulating. In another embodiment of the invention, the method comprises up-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the stress tolerance of the plant is decreased as a result of the up-regulating. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of modulating pathogen perception in a plant or part thereof, comprising up- or down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant or part thereof. In one embodiment, the method comprises down-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the pathogen perception of the plant is increased as a result of the down-regulating. In another embodiment of the invention, the method comprises up-regulating fatty acid amide hydrolase in the plant and wherein the pathogen perception of the plant is decreased as a result of the up-regulating. In a method of the invention, up-regulating may comprise introducing a recombinant vector of the invention into a plant. Down-regulating may comprise introducing a recombinant vector into a plant, wherein the nucleic acid or antisense oligonucleotide thereof is in antisense orientation relative to the heterologous promoter operably linked thereto. The vector may be introduced by plant breeding and/or direct genetic transformation. In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of making food for human or animal consumption comprising: (a) obtaining the plant of the invention; (b) growing the plant under plant growth conditions to produce plant tissue from the plant; and (c) preparing food for human or animal consumption from the plant tissue. In the method, preparing food may comprise harvesting plant tissue. In certain embodiments, the food is starch, protein, meal, flour or grain. The use of the word “a” or “an” when used in conjunction with the term “comprising” in the claims and/or the specification may mean “one,” but it is also consistent with the meaning of “one or more,” “at least one,” and “one or more than one.” Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating specific embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. | 20040604 | 20080108 | 20050203 | 72814.0 | 0 | KUMAR, VINOD | PLANT FATTY ACID AMIDE HYDROLASES | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,862,115 | ACCEPTED | Networked media station | Disclosed herein is a networked media station providing a variety of features including a wireless network interface, a wired network interface, a peripheral interface, and a multimedia interface. The wireless network interface(s) allows the device to communicate to serve as a wireless base station or repeater and/or a bridge between a wireless and a wired network. The peripheral interface allows the device to communicate with a variety of peripherals, and, in conjunction with the network interface(s), allows sharing of a peripheral among multiple networked computers. The multimedia interface allows the device to be used with entertainment devices for streaming of multimedia information from a network connected computer to the entertainment device. Control of various aspects of the device is preferably controlled from a network connected computer. | 1. A networked media station comprising: at least one network interface; and at least one multimedia interface; wherein the networked media station is configurable to receive multimedia data pushed from a multimedia server via the at least one network interface and output the multimedia data to an entertainment device attached to the at least one multimedia interface. 2. The networked media station of claim 1 further comprising: at least one peripheral interface; wherein the networked media station is configurable to allow a peripheral attached to the at least one peripheral interface to be accessed by one or more computers connected to the at least one network interface. 3. The networked media station of claim 2 wherein the peripheral requires bidirectional communication between the peripheral and the one or more computers accessing the peripheral. 4. The networked media station of claim 1 wherein the at least one network interface comprises a plurality of network interfaces, at least one of the plurality of network interfaces being a wired network interface and at least one of the plurality of network interfaces being a wireless network interface. 5. The networked media station of claim 4 wherein the networked media station is configurable to bridge the wired network interface and the wireless network interface. 6. The networked media station of claim 2 wherein the at least one network interface comprises a plurality of network interfaces, at least one of the plurality of network interfaces being a wired network interface and at least one of the plurality of network interfaces being a wireless network interface. 7. The networked media station of claim 6 wherein the networked media station is configurable to bridge the wired network interface and the wireless network interface. 8. A method of outputting multimedia content stored on a computer to an entertainment device over a network, the method comprising: identifying one or more networked media stations connected to the network, wherein at least one of the identified one or more networked media stations has at least one entertainment device connected thereto; permitting a user to select one or more entertainment devices corresponding to the one or more networked media stations as a destination for multimedia content; opening a communications link with the one or more networked media stations corresponding to the one or more selected entertainment devices; and transmitting multimedia content stored on the computer to the one or more networked media stations corresponding to the one or more selected entertainment devices, whereby the one or more networked media stations will output the multimedia content to the one or more selected entertainment devices. 9. The method of claim 8 wherein the step of identifying one or more networked media stations comprises automatically detecting the presence of the one or more networked media stations and determining a multimedia capability of the one or more networked media stations. 10. The method of claim 8 wherein the step of opening a communications link with the one or more networked media stations corresponding to the one or more selected entertainment devices comprises performing an authentication to determine whether the one or more networked media stations corresponding to the one or more selected entertainment devices are authorized to receive multimedia content. 11. The method of claim 8 wherein the step of transmitting multimedia content stored on the computer further comprises: decoding multimedia data stored on the computer; and transmitting the decoded multimedia data. 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the step of transmitting multimedia content stored on the personal computer further comprises re-encoding the decoded multimedia data before transmission. 13. The method of claim 11 wherein the step of transmitting multimedia content stored on the computer further comprises encrypting the decoded multimedia data before transmission. 14. The method of claim 12 wherein the step of transmitting multimedia content stored on the computer further comprises encrypting the re-encoded multimedia data before transmission. 15. The method of claim 10 wherein the step of transmitting multimedia content stored on the computer further comprises: decoding multimedia data stored on the computer; and transmitting the decoded multimedia data. 16. The method of claim 15 wherein the step of transmitting multimedia content stored on the personal computer further comprises re-encoding the decoded multimedia data before transmission. 17. The method of claim 15 wherein the step of transmitting multimedia content stored on the computer further comprises encrypting the decoded multimedia data before transmission. 18. The method of claim 16 wherein the step of transmitting multimedia content stored on the computer further comprises encrypting the re-encoded multimedia data before transmission. 19. An electronically readable medium having encoded thereon instructions executable by a machine for performing a method according to any of claims 8-18. 20. An integrated wireless network access point comprising: a power adapter; a wireless network interface; a wired network interface; a peripheral interface; and a multimedia interface; wherein the power adapter, the wireless network interface, the wired network interface, the peripheral interface, and the multimedia interface are encapsulated within a single integrated casing. 21. A method of operating a media player in conjunction with a remotely located multimedia interface, the method comprising: streaming real time data to the multimedia interface for output on an attached output device; receiving feedback on the progress of the output; and providing a user perceivable indication of the progress based on the received feedback. 22. The method of claim 21 further comprising controlling some characteristic of the output on the output device. 23. A system for distributing multimedia content comprising: a network; a computer connected to the network, the computer having multimedia content stored thereon; a networked media station connected to the network and in communication with the computer, the networked media station further comprising a multimedia interface; and an entertainment device connected to the networked media station by the multimedia interface; wherein the computer presents an interface to a user allowing the user to send the multimedia content to the entertainment device via the networked media station. 24. The system of claim 23 wherein the network is a wireless network established by the networked media station. 25. A system for distributing multimedia content comprising: a network; a computer connected to the network; a networked media station connected to the network and in communication with the computer, the networked media station further comprising a multimedia interface; and a multimedia input device connected to the networked media station by the multimedia interface; wherein the computer presents an interface to a user allowing the user to access multimedia content from the multimedia input device via the networked media station. 26. The system of claim 23 wherein the network is a wireless network established by the networked media station. 27. A method of managing a network connection to a device comprising: establishing a connection with a first data source; receiving data from the first data source; upon completion of receiving data from the first data source, maintaining the connection in an idle state that allows additional data to be received from the first source, while simultaneously being capable of opening a new connection with a second data source. 28. The method of claim 27 wherein the connection comprises at least one control channel and at least one data channel. | BACKGROUND With the increasing capacity and capability of personal computers, as well as improved multimedia interfaces for these computers, it has become popular to use personal computers as a repository for multimedia content, such as songs, movies, etc. Particularly with music, the increased popularity of storing multimedia information on a personal computer has resulted in a variety of products and services to serve this industry. For example, a variety of stand-alone players of encoded multimedia information have been developed, including, for example, the iPod, produced by Apple Computer of Cupertino, Calif. Additionally, services have been developed around these devices, which allow consumers to purchase music and other multimedia information in digital form suitable for storage and playback using personal computers, including, for example, the iTunes music service, also run by Apple Computer. These products and services have resulted in an environment where many consumers use their personal computer as a primary vehicle for obtaining, storing, and accessing multimedia information. One drawback to such a system is that although the quality of multimedia playback systems for computers, e.g., displays, speakers, etc. have improved dramatically in the last several years, these systems still lag behind typical entertainment devices, e.g., stereos, televisions, projection systems, etc. in terms of performance, fidelity, and usability for the typical consumer. Thus, it would be beneficial to provide a mechanism whereby a consumer could easily obtain, store, and access multimedia content using a personal computer, while also being able to listen, view or otherwise access this content using conventional entertainment devices, such as stereo equipment, televisions, home theatre systems, etc. Because of the increasing use of personal computers and related peripherals in the home, it would also be advantageous to integrate such a mechanism with a home networking to provide an integrated electronic environment for the consumer. In addition to these needs, there is also increasing interest in the field of home networking, which involves allowing disparate devices in the home or workplace to recognize each other and exchange data, perhaps under the control of some central hub. To date a number of solutions in this area have involved closed systems that required the purchase of disparate components from the same vendor. For example, audio speaker systems that allow computer-controlled switching of music from one location to another may be purchased as a system from a single vendor, but they may be expensive and/or may limit the consumer's ability to mix and match components of a home network from different vendors according to her own preferences. Thus it would be beneficial to provide a mechanism by which various home networking components from differing vendors can nonetheless interact in a home network environment. SUMMARY The present invention relates to a networked media station. A networked media station as described herein provides a novel combination of a variety of features. This functionality is provided by integrating several interfaces and feature sets into an integrated platform, including a wireless network interface, a wired network interface, a peripheral interface, and a multimedia interface. The wireless network interface, e.g., 802.11b or 802.11g, allows the multimedia station to communicate wirelessly with other devices and to serve as a wireless base station (for setting up a wireless network) or as a repeater (for a preexisting wireless network). The wireless network interface, in conjunction with the wired network interface, e.g., an Ethernet interface, allows the networked media station to serve as a bridge between a wireless and a wired network. To accomplish these tasks, the wireless multimedia device is equipped with switching and or routing logic. The peripheral interface, e.g., a USB interface, may be used to allow the networked media station to communicate with a variety of peripherals. In conjunction with the wireless and/or wired network interface, this allows sharing of a single peripheral, e.g., a printer, among multiple networked computers. The multimedia interface, e.g., an audio and/or video interface, may be used to allow the networked media station to be used in conjunction with entertainment devices, such as a stereo system, television, or home theatre system. This would allow, for example, streaming of multimedia information from a computer connected to the networked media station via wired or wireless network to an entertainment device connected to the multimedia interface. Additionally, control of certain aspects of the multimedia playback may preferably be controlled from and/or indicated at a network connected computer. Additionally, the multimedia interface may include input interfaces that act as the collection point for multimedia data to be communicated to a peer device, for example, for display on the computer. The invention further relates to the ability to use the networked media station as a basic building block for an extensible, highly customizable home network solution. The networked media station can publish to a connected computer or other peer device the capabilities of connected entertainment devices or input devices. In this way, a user of the computer, for example, may be able to select from a number of destinations throughout, for example, a house, for delivering multimedia content or receiving multimedia input. Another aspect of the invention involves a user interface for a computer that permits a computer to automatically detect and display to a user the availability of a multimedia source or destination remotely located at a networked media station. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates an oblique side view and a bottom view of a networked media station embodying various teachings of the present disclosure. FIG. 2 illustrates a basic network connection using the networked media station of FIG. 1 to wirelessly connect a personal computer to the Internet. FIG. 3 illustrates a variation of the network connection of FIG. 2 in which the networked media station is connected to an entertainment device (stereo receiver) to enable multimedia content stored on a personal computer to be sent to the entertainment device over the network. FIG. 4 illustrates a variation of the network of FIG. 3 in which the personal computer is connected to a wired network that is wirelessly bridged to the networked media station and its connected media device. FIG. 5 illustrates yet another variation of the network of FIG. 3 in which multimedia content may be transferred wirelessly from a personal computer to a networked media station and output on an entertainment device connected thereto. FIG. 6 illustrates still another configuration for network connection sharing and multimedia content distribution using a networked media station embodying various teachings of the present disclosure. FIG. 7 illustrates a configuration of networked media station for sharing a peripheral attached to the networked media station with a plurality of computers attached to the networked media station via the network. FIG. 8 illustrates another possible configuration in which a networked media station embodying various teachings of the present disclosure is used to extend the range of a wireless network. FIG. 9 illustrates the configuration of an AC power connector of a networked media station embodying certain teachings of the present disclosure. FIG. 10 illustrates a screen image of an exemplary software interface to a networked media station embodying various teachings according to the present disclosure. FIG. 11 illustrates the flow of multimedia data in one embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A networked media station is described herein. The following embodiments of the invention, described in terms of devices and applications compatible with computer systems manufactured by Apple Computer, Inc. of Cupertino, Calif., are illustrative only and should not be considered limiting in any respect. An exemplary networked media station 100 is illustrated in FIG. 1, which shows an oblique side view and a bottom view of the networked media station. The networked media station 100 includes an AC power adapter 101, more fully illustrated in FIG. 9 below. A status light 102 provides indication of the status of the networked media station to a user. Status light 102 is preferably a light emitting diode (LED), and more preferably a combination of LEDs integrated into a single package to allow illumination in different colors, e.g., green, red, and/or amber/yellow. Various status light indications are described more fully below. With reference to the bottom view of networked media station 100 illustrated in FIG. 1, networked media station 100 includes a wired network interface 103, a peripheral interface 104, and a multimedia interface 105. As illustrated, wired network interface 103 is an Ethernet interface, although other wired network interface types could be provided. Similarly, peripheral interface 104 is illustrated as a USB interface, although other peripheral interfaces, such as IEEE 1394 (“Firewire”), RS-232 (serial interface), IEEE 1284 (parallel interface) could also be used. Likewise multimedia interface 105 is illustrated as an audio interface including both analog line out and optical digital audio functionality. However, other multimedia interfaces, such as a video interface using composite video, S-video, component video, etc. could also be provided. As illustrated and described herein, multimedia interface could be an output interface for outputting multimedia content received by the networked media station. Alternatively, the multimedia interface could be an input interface for sending multimedia content to a destination on one of the other interfaces. Although only one interface of each type is illustrated, multiple interfaces of one or more of the identified types could be provided. Alternatively, only a subset of the identified interfaces might be provided, or additional types of interfaces could be provided. In any case, the interfaces illustrated should be considered exemplary, as one skilled in the art would understand that a variety of interfaces, including interfaces not specifically mentioned herein, could advantageously be provided. Another interface, wireless networking, is not illustrated in FIG. 1, but is also preferably provided in the networked media station 100. The wireless network interface preferably takes the form of a “WiFi” interface according to the IEEE 802.11b or 802.11g standards. Other wireless network standards could also be used, either in alternative to the identified standards or in addition to the identified standards. Such other network standards could include the IEEE 802.11a standard or the Bluetooth standard. The antenna required for wireless networking is not illustrated in FIG. 1, but is preferably included within the housing of networked media station 100. Such an antenna may take a variety of forms, but is preferably an antenna printed on a standard PCB (printed circuit board). Such antennas are well known to those skilled in the art. However, it would also be possible to include some form of external antenna on the exterior housing of networked media station 100 and/or to provide an additional interface for an external antenna. A reset button 106 is also illustrated in FIG. 1, which may be used to reset the device for troubleshooting purposes. Also, it should be noted that the form factor of the networked media station is preferably such that the device is easily portable so that it may be used in a variety of locations. One aspect particularly advantageous to providing the required portability is the AC power adapter 101 illustrated in FIG. 9. As can be seen in FIG. 1, the power adapter may be connected directly to networked media station 100 so as to form an essentially integrated assembly. Additionally, the power prongs may fold into the casing for networked media station 100. Alternatively, the power adapter may be removed from direct physical contact with the body of networked media adapter 100 and may instead be plugged into a wall socket and connected via power cord 901 to the networked media station. This allows the body of networked media adapter 100 to be located somewhat independently of the location of the AC power source, i.e. wall socket. By inspection of FIG. 9, the features for interlocking AC power adapter 101 with the body of networked media adapter 100 may be more readily viewed. In general, the body of networked media adapter 100 includes power connection 902, which is adapted for receiving a power cord having a complementary connector 903. This connector may, for example, be designed so that the power can only be connected with a desired polarity. The body of networked media adapter 100 also includes a mechanical interface (not shown) in addition to the power connector 902 for mechanically attaching the power adapter separate from the electrical connection. In one embodiment, this mechanical interface takes the form of a stud, which has a complementary slot 904 in AC adapter 101, although other forms of complementary mechanical interfaces could also be provided. As noted above, a status light 102 is provided, which is used to indicate the current status of the networked media station to the user. In one embodiment, this light may be off to indicate that the device is not powered. The light may flash in a particular color, e.g., green, to indicate that it is powering up and/or going through a startup/self-diagnostic routine. The light may illuminate in a solid color, e.g., green to indicate that it is on and functioning properly. The light may also illuminate or flash in a different color, e.g., yellow, to indicate that a problem exists, such as no wireless devices in range or no network signal. A networked media station in accordance with the present invention may be configured in different ways to perform specific functions. One example is to use the networked media station as a wireless access point to provide wireless network connectivity to one or more computer devices sharing a common wired network connection, which may be, for example, a broadband Internet connection. Such a configuration of networked media station 100 is illustrated in FIG. 2. The networked media station 100 is plugged into wall socket 201, which provides power to the device. The networked media station is connected via Ethernet cable 204 to DSL or cable modem 202. DSL or cable modem 202 is connected to the Internet via wire 203. A personal computer 205 is in communication with the networked media station 100 by wireless network 206. Although described in terms of a shared broadband Internet connection, the configuration illustrated in FIG. 2 need not be so limited. The connection to the wired network port of the networked media station (via line 204) could come from any wired network device, such as a switch, router or gateway, and could connect to a LAN (local area network), a WAN (wide area network), or the Internet (as illustrated). In this configuration, the networked media station essentially acts as a hub to interconnect computers, e.g., personal computer 205 and its peers (not illustrated) on the wireless network 206. Additionally, the networked media station may act as a DHCP (dynamic host configuration protocol) server to provide addresses to the devices on the wireless network 206, such as personal computer 205. The networked media station may also act as a DHCP client to obtain an IP address from another DHCP server on the wired network to which it is connected. In such a configuration, networked media station 100 will act as a bridge/router to transmit packets received from the wired network to the appropriate recipient on wireless network 206 and vice versa. Networked media station 100 also preferably provides some level of security, such as firewall functionality and/or network address translation. Implementations of such functionality are known to those skilled in the art, thus various implementation details are not repeated here. It will be appreciated that the compact and integrated design described herein is particularly useful, for example, for a business traveler who wants to connect to a network, such as the Internet, from a hotel or conference room but does not want to be physically located near an available power and/or wired network connection. Such a business traveler could plug the networked media station 100 into a wall socket and wired network access point, and then be free to use a wireless enabled laptop computer or other device anywhere within range of the wireless network created thereby. When finished, the user can simply unplug the device and stow it away in a briefcase or pocket. Additionally, the networked media station described herein may also be used to play multimedia content from a personal computer, e.g., audio files, on an entertainment device, e.g., a stereo system. Such a configuration is illustrated in FIG. 3. Networked media station 100 is plugged into a wall outlet for power. The networked media station acts as a wireless base station for wireless network 206 as described above with reference to FIG. 2, thus enabling computer 205 to communicate with the networked media station 100. The networked media station 100 is also connected to stereo receiver 300 to enable playback of audio files stored on computer 205 on a stereo system. The connection between networked media station 100 and stereo receiver 300 may be by way of line level audio connection or digital fiber optic connection. Either connector plugs into the multimedia port 105 (FIG. 1), which is a dual purpose analog/optical digital audio mini-jack. To interface with stereo receiver 300, a mini stereo to RCA cable adapter cable 304 is required, which will connect to RCA-type right and left audio input ports 302 on the stereo receiver. Alternatively a Toslink digital fiber optic cable 303 may be used, which would connect to digital audio input port 301 on stereo receiver 300. Various media sharing configurations using networked media station 100 are illustrated in FIGS. 4-6, where like reference numerals are used to FIGS. 1-3. In FIG. 4 personal computer 205 is equipped with an Ethernet port that is connected via connection 402 to base station 401. Base station 401 may be any variety of access point, and preferably includes wireless access, routing, switching and firewall functionality. Base station 401 is connected via cable 204 to DSL or cable modem 202, which receives an Internet connection through connection 203. This portion of the system is similar to that depicted in FIG. 2 and described above. Using such a system, multimedia files stored on computer 205 may be played using stereo receiver 300, which is connected to networked media station using the audio interface. Communication between computer 205 and the networked media station 100 connected to stereo receiver 300 is via a wired network segment (illustrated schematically by connection 402) and a wireless network segment 206. FIGS. 5 and 6 depict other alternative connection arrangements, which are variations of the above. Yet another feature preferably supported by networked media station 100 is peripheral sharing, as illustrated in FIG. 7. Printer 700 is connected by connection 701 to the peripheral port 104 (FIG. 1), which in one embodiment is a USB port, although other types of peripheral ports may also be used. Personal computers 205a and 205b are interconnected by wireless network 206, which is set up by networked media station 100. This wireless network allows both computers to use printer 700, and also allows for file sharing between the two computers. Although described in terms of printer sharing, it would be possible to share other types of peripherals as well, including, for example, cameras (still or video), storage devices, scanners, handheld devices of various types, etc. In particular, it should also be noted that peripherals requiring bi-directional communication, may also be shared. Implementation details necessary to enable sharing of such peripherals among a plurality of computers connected on a network are generally known to those skilled in the art, and, as such, are not repeated here. Still another desirable feature of networked media station 100 is illustrated in FIG. 8, which is extending the range of an existing wireless network. Schematically depicted in FIG. 8 are three rooms, for example, in a typical house. In family room 800 a network arrangement similar to that described above with reference to FIG. 4 is set up. In living room 802 a user wishes to connect to the Internet or use other network resources; however, this room may be beyond the range of wireless network 206a set up by base station 401. By locating networked media station 100 in an intermediate room 801, the range of the wireless network may be extended (206b) enabling personal computer 205b to access network resources that would otherwise be out of range. This interconnectivity is preferably provided using a Wireless Distribution System (WDS) as specified by the IEEE 802.11 standard. As briefly described above, one novel feature of networked media station 100 is the ability to receive multimedia information from a computer over a network connection and output this media information to an entertainment device. Although it is contemplated that audio, video, audio/video, and/or other forms of multimedia may be used with the networked media station described herein, one exemplary embodiment relates to the sharing of audio data stored on a personal computer with an entertainment device, such as a stereo system. One such configuration was described above with respect to FIG. 3. The following is a description of various implementation details of such a system implemented using hardware and software developed by Apple Computer. Although certain details are somewhat specific to such an implementation, various principles described are also generally applicable to other forms of hardware and/or software. To provide a relatively simple and user friendly interface to the media sharing features of networked media station 100, it is advantageous to provide access to the device from a media application running on the personal computer 205, which is also preferably the application normally used to create, manipulate, or otherwise access the particular type of media file. In one exemplary embodiment, this could be the iTunes software for music file management and playback produced by Apple Computer. In the iTunes interface screen 1000, illustrated in FIG. 10, the networked media station may be selected as a destination for media playback using icon 1001. The system can be programmed such that the audio content of the media file will be sent to the networked media station 100, while system sounds (e.g., beeps, alerts, etc.) will continue to be played back on personal computer 205 using the system speakers. Interface between the personal computer 205 and portable media station 100 over the network (e.g., wireless network 206) is initiated through a discovery process. One example of such a discovery process uses Rendezvous, which is a technology that enables automatic discovery of computers, devices, and services on IP networks. Also known as Zero Configuration Networking, Rendezvous uses standard IP protocols to allow devices to automatically find each other without the need for a user to enter IP addresses or configure DNS servers. Various aspects of Rendezvous are generally known to those skilled in the art, and are disclosed in the white paper entitled “Rendezvous” dated October, 2003, and published by Apple Computer, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Additional implementation details may be found in the following co-pending patent applications, commonly owned with the present application, which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety: “Method and Apparatus for Configuring a Wireless Device Through Reverse Advertising,” Ser. No. 10/102,321, filed Mar. 19, 2002; “Method and Apparatus for Supporting Duplicate Suppression When Issuing Multicast DNS Queries Using DNS_Format Message Packets,” Ser. No. 10/102,174, filed Mar. 19, 2002; and “Method and Apparatus for Implemented a Sleep Proxy for Services on a Network,” Ser. No. 60/496,842, filed Aug. 20, 2003. To provide the media sharing functionality described herein, networked media station 100 will advertise over the network that it supports audio streaming. As required for standard Rendezvous operation, the networked media station will publish the availability of a service, the name of the device providing the service, the network address of the device, and one or more configuration parameters that are related to the service. In case of audio file playback on a remote device, the service provided would be newly defined Rendezvous service 13 raop._tcp (“remote audio output protocol”). The registration of this service advertises particular audio capabilities of the system (e.g., 44.1 kHz sample rate, 16-bit sample size, and 2-channel/stereo samples). The registration of the service might also include security, encryption, compression, and other capabilities and/or parameters that are necessary for communicating with the device. In alternative embodiments, additional services may be designed to specify a variety of parameters relating to one or more multimedia input or output devices attached to the portable media station. Devices that might have particular applicability in a home network environment include speakers, video display terminals, cameras, microphones, etc. For example, a variety of input devices interfaced into one or more networked media stations could provide the basis for a home security system (using cameras, motion detectors, microphones, etc.) The automatic discovery aspects of the present invention permit its use in architecting easily configured home networks according to a user's preferences and designs. For example, a user with a large library of music on a computer in one room of a house can create a wireless multimedia network for his entire home simply by deploying a few of the disclosed networked media stations throughout his home. For example, he can put one near the stereo in the living room, and one by the television in the bedroom. By connecting the appropriate multimedia interface, he can serve audio, video, or other content to these devices with a simple selection at his computer. For example, he may direct the living room stereo to play his favorite album, and he may direct the bedroom television to show a home movie. This extensible architecture allows a user to configure relationships between sources and destinations of media data without regard for buying all components from the same vendor, or other such considerations that might otherwise be required to permit interoperability of disparate devices on a wireless network. The media software running on personal computer 205, e.g., iTunes, will discover the networked media station 100 via the Rendezvous records, will recognize this device as a destination for audio data, and will automatically provide the particular device as a selectable destination within the user interface. (See FIG. 10, reference numeral 1001.) When the user selects a particular networked media station 100 from those available, a variety of authentication and security exchanges will take place. For example, if password protection is provided as a security feature, the user may be prompted for a password required to use networked media station 100 for audio file playback. Additionally, if the user attempts to select a device that is already in use (for example, by another user), the networked media station will send a message indicating that it is busy through the user interface. Another aspect of the present invention relating to a device already in use relates to the connection teardown procedure that may be implemented in accordance with the present invention. Once a connection is established between a media source, e.g., a personal computer, and the networked media station, the connection remains open so long as media data is being transmitted. Once media data is no longer being transmitted, for example, at the end of playback of a song or album, the connection enters an “idle” state. While in this idle state, the media source can begin successfully transmitting data at any time, as the connection has not been torn down. Thus it would not be necessary to renegotiate or otherwise reestablish the connection. However, while the networked media station has a connection in this “idle” state, it will also accept an attempt to establish a connection with another media source. If such an attempt occurs, the connection with the first source will be torn down and a new connection will be established. Preferably the first source will also be notified that its connection has been terminated. Additionally, for digital rights management purposes, it may be desirable to determine that networked media station 100 is authorized to receive an audio data stream and/or that the communications link between the personal computer and the networked media station is secure (encrypted). This requires some form of authentication, and is preferably based on a public key/private key system. In one embodiment, each networked media station 100 may be provided with a plurality of private keys embedded in read only memory (ROM). The media software is then provided with a corresponding plurality of public keys. This allows identification data transmitted from the networked media station 100 to the media software to be digitally signed by the networked media station using its private key, by which it can be authenticated by the media software using the appropriate public key. Similarly, data sent from the media software to the networked media station may be encrypted using a public key so that only a networked media station using the corresponding private key can decrypt the data. The media software and networked media station may determine which of their respective pluralities of keys to use based on the exchange of a key index, telling them which of their respective keys to use without the necessity of transmitting entire keys. It is preferable that authentication of a networked media station 100 occur upon initial establishment of a connection to the media software. Upon successful authentication, the media software running on personal computer 205 will open a network connection to the networked media station's audio channel and begin sending data. It is notable that data is “pushed” from the media software to networked media station rather than being “pulled” by the networked media station from the media software. The networked media station receives this audio data, buffers some portion of the data, and begins playing back the audio data once the buffer has reached a predetermined capacity. For example, the networked media station may have a total of 8 seconds of buffering, but may begin playback when 2 seconds of audio data have been received. Additionally, it is also possible for the buffer to have a varying capacity, determined, for example, by network traffic or reliability conditions. In a preferred embodiment, the audio channel is separate from the control channel, i.e., the channel used to set up the connection. For reasons explained below, it is advantageous to have the data channel separate from the control channel. However, a single channel could be used for data and control information. One advantage to using separate control and data channels is improved response to user commands. As noted above, networked media station 100 includes buffering of data, which compensates for network delays, latency, etc. If control commands are included in the data stream, these commands would not be reached until the networked media station played through the buffer, meaning there would be a delay of up to several seconds before implementing the user command. This is obviously undesirable, and thus a separate channel for control data provides an enhanced user experience. The packets sent over the data channel (in this example the audio data) are preferably TCP packets in the general form specified by the real time streaming protocol (RTSP) standard. RTSP is a standard communication protocol known to those skilled in the art. Therefore implementation details of such a system are not discussed here, although they may be found in Real Time Streaming Protocol Specification dated Feb. 16, 2004, and prior versions, presently available from http://www.rtsp.org and which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. Additionally, although TCP (transmission control protocol) is preferably used because of its robustness, UDP (user datagram protocol) may also be used, particularly in applications where the overhead associated with TCP would be undesirable. In either case, the data packets will use RTP (real time protocol) headers, and will include both sequence numbers and time stamp information. However, when TCP is used, this sequence and time stamp information is not required for detecting missing packets or reordering packets because TCP automatically provides guaranteed packet delivery and correct sequencing. However, the timing and sequence information is useful for feedback from the networked media station to the media control software. For example, the networked media station may periodically provide information about where it is in the playback of the media stream. This may be accomplished by the networked media station's transmitting over the control channel an indication of the packet currently being played back. Alternatively the networked media station may indicate the packet just received as well as the status of the device's buffers. This information is useful to the media software for multiple purposes. For example, if the media software determines that the buffers on the networked media station are low, additional data may be transmitted to the device in faster than real time, to insure that the device's buffers do not become completely empty. This information may also be used by the media software for synchronizing visual effects displayed on the monitor of personal computer 205 with the sound being output from the networked media station. Visual effects to be synchronized with the audio playback may take a variety of forms, including scrubber bar playhead 1002 (FIG. 10), which indicates where in the file audio data is currently being played back from, or various artistic “visualizations,” which provide visual effects that are synchronized with the “beats” of the music. In addition, extension of this control channel could allow for control of the entertainment device to be accomplished from elsewhere on the network, for example, a user could adjust the playback volume of a stereo in one room from a personal computer in another part of the house. Another use for the packet sequence and time stamp information relates to the case in which the networked media station receives an instruction to stop playback and discard all data received up to that point. In such a case, buffering by the networked media station requires that the packets to be discarded be identified, which is most readily accomplished using the sequence and timestamp information. The data payload of the RTP packets contains the audio information to be played back by the networked media station. In a preferred embodiment, media files may be stored on personal computer 205 in one or more formats, including, for example, MP3 (Motion Picture Expert's Group Layer 3), AAC (Advanced Audio Coding a/k/a MPEG-4 audio), WMA (Windows Media Audio), etc. The media software running on the personal computer decodes these various audio formats, eliminating the need for the networked media station 100 to include decoders for multiple formats. This also reduces the hardware performance requirements of networked media station 100. Yet another advantage of performing decoding on the personal computer is that various effects may be applied to the audio stream, for example, cross fading between tracks, volume control, equalization, and/or other audio effects. Many of these effects would be difficult or impossible to apply if the networked media station were to apply them, for example, because of computational resources required. The decoded audio data is preferably compressed by personal computer 205 before transmission to networked media station 100. This compression is most preferably accomplished using a lossless compression algorithm to provide maximum audio fidelity. One suitable compressor is the Apple Lossless Encoder, which is available in conjunction with Apple's iTunes software. Networked media station 100 does require a decoder for the compression codec used. It is also preferable that the data stream sent from personal computer 205 to the networked media station 100 be encrypted. One suitable form of encryption is AES using a pre-defined key determined as described above. The process of transferring audio data from a network connected computer to an entertainment device using networked media station may be more clearly understood with reference to FIG. 11. Personal computer 205 is connected to a wireless network 206 established by access point 401. Access point 401 also provides for a shared connection to network 203, e.g., the Internet. Networked media station 100 is also connected to the wireless network 206, and has its multimedia port connected to stereo receiver 300, having output speakers 1112. A digital media file 1101, for example, a song stored in AAC format, is stored on personal computer 205. Once a connection is established between the computer 205 and networked media station 100 and playback is started, a portion 1102 of the media file is transcoded in step 1103 from the format it is stored in (e.g., AAC) to a format that is understood by networked media station 100 (e.g., the Apple Lossless encoder). This transcoding step is not necessarily required if the file is stored on personal computer 205 in a format that is understood by the networked media station. In any case, a block for transmission 1104 is created and encrypted in step 1105 to result in a transmitted block 1106. Again, this encryption step is not necessarily required, but is advantageous for digital rights management purposes. Each of these steps (transcoding and encryption) is preferably performed on personal computer 205. Once the transmitted block is transmitted across wireless network 206 to networked media station 100 (transmission is step 1107), the decoding process begins. In step 1113, the received block 1106 (identical to transmitted block 1106) is decrypted, resulting in decrypted block 1104 (identical to block for transmission 1104). In step 1109, this data block is processed to decode the encoding performed in step 1103, resulting in raw audio block 1108, which may be, for example, in the form of PCM data. This data block is converted to an analog audio signal by a digital to audio converter (DAC) and output through stereo receiver 300 to loudspeakers 1112. It should be noted that various buffering, error checking, and other data transfer steps implicit in various forms of networking have been omitted from the foregoing description. Nonetheless, these steps are preferably present and may be implemented in accordance with a variety of techniques known to those skilled in the art and/or disclosed herein. It also bears mentioning that certain steps may be omitted, for example, transcoding step 1103 is not required if media file 1101 is encoded in a format that can be decoded directly by networked media station 100. Additionally, in addition to the streaming mode of operation described above, sufficient storage could be provided on the networked media station 100 to allow media content to be stored thereon, either transferred from the original source or obtained from an independent source. While the invention has been disclosed with respect to a limited number of embodiments, numerous modifications and variations will be appreciated by those skilled in the art. For example, for this disclosure, the term “computer” does not necessarily mean any particular kind of device, combination of hardware and/or software, nor should it be considered restricted to either a multi purpose or single purpose device. Additionally, although the invention has been described particularly with respect to the output or distribution of multimedia information, it should be understood that the inventive concepts disclosed herein are also generally applicable to the input or collection of such information. It is intended that all such variations and modifications fall with in the scope of the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>With the increasing capacity and capability of personal computers, as well as improved multimedia interfaces for these computers, it has become popular to use personal computers as a repository for multimedia content, such as songs, movies, etc. Particularly with music, the increased popularity of storing multimedia information on a personal computer has resulted in a variety of products and services to serve this industry. For example, a variety of stand-alone players of encoded multimedia information have been developed, including, for example, the iPod, produced by Apple Computer of Cupertino, Calif. Additionally, services have been developed around these devices, which allow consumers to purchase music and other multimedia information in digital form suitable for storage and playback using personal computers, including, for example, the iTunes music service, also run by Apple Computer. These products and services have resulted in an environment where many consumers use their personal computer as a primary vehicle for obtaining, storing, and accessing multimedia information. One drawback to such a system is that although the quality of multimedia playback systems for computers, e.g., displays, speakers, etc. have improved dramatically in the last several years, these systems still lag behind typical entertainment devices, e.g., stereos, televisions, projection systems, etc. in terms of performance, fidelity, and usability for the typical consumer. Thus, it would be beneficial to provide a mechanism whereby a consumer could easily obtain, store, and access multimedia content using a personal computer, while also being able to listen, view or otherwise access this content using conventional entertainment devices, such as stereo equipment, televisions, home theatre systems, etc. Because of the increasing use of personal computers and related peripherals in the home, it would also be advantageous to integrate such a mechanism with a home networking to provide an integrated electronic environment for the consumer. In addition to these needs, there is also increasing interest in the field of home networking, which involves allowing disparate devices in the home or workplace to recognize each other and exchange data, perhaps under the control of some central hub. To date a number of solutions in this area have involved closed systems that required the purchase of disparate components from the same vendor. For example, audio speaker systems that allow computer-controlled switching of music from one location to another may be purchased as a system from a single vendor, but they may be expensive and/or may limit the consumer's ability to mix and match components of a home network from different vendors according to her own preferences. Thus it would be beneficial to provide a mechanism by which various home networking components from differing vendors can nonetheless interact in a home network environment. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention relates to a networked media station. A networked media station as described herein provides a novel combination of a variety of features. This functionality is provided by integrating several interfaces and feature sets into an integrated platform, including a wireless network interface, a wired network interface, a peripheral interface, and a multimedia interface. The wireless network interface, e.g., 802.11b or 802.11g, allows the multimedia station to communicate wirelessly with other devices and to serve as a wireless base station (for setting up a wireless network) or as a repeater (for a preexisting wireless network). The wireless network interface, in conjunction with the wired network interface, e.g., an Ethernet interface, allows the networked media station to serve as a bridge between a wireless and a wired network. To accomplish these tasks, the wireless multimedia device is equipped with switching and or routing logic. The peripheral interface, e.g., a USB interface, may be used to allow the networked media station to communicate with a variety of peripherals. In conjunction with the wireless and/or wired network interface, this allows sharing of a single peripheral, e.g., a printer, among multiple networked computers. The multimedia interface, e.g., an audio and/or video interface, may be used to allow the networked media station to be used in conjunction with entertainment devices, such as a stereo system, television, or home theatre system. This would allow, for example, streaming of multimedia information from a computer connected to the networked media station via wired or wireless network to an entertainment device connected to the multimedia interface. Additionally, control of certain aspects of the multimedia playback may preferably be controlled from and/or indicated at a network connected computer. Additionally, the multimedia interface may include input interfaces that act as the collection point for multimedia data to be communicated to a peer device, for example, for display on the computer. The invention further relates to the ability to use the networked media station as a basic building block for an extensible, highly customizable home network solution. The networked media station can publish to a connected computer or other peer device the capabilities of connected entertainment devices or input devices. In this way, a user of the computer, for example, may be able to select from a number of destinations throughout, for example, a house, for delivering multimedia content or receiving multimedia input. Another aspect of the invention involves a user interface for a computer that permits a computer to automatically detect and display to a user the availability of a multimedia source or destination remotely located at a networked media station. | 20040604 | 20140805 | 20051208 | 77618.0 | 1 | WONG, BLANCHE | Networked media station | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,862,221 | ACCEPTED | Method and apparatus for accessing web services | Methods, apparatuses and computer programs for making information relating to web services available to applications hosted by a client platform and/or using such information to invoke web services for use by an application hosted by a client platform are disclosed. The information is preferably obtained from a local repository or otherwise from a remote repository via the internet. The information may relate to web services previously used by the applications such as particular invocation instances of those web services. The information may comprise statistical Quality of Service (QoS) information relating to particular invocation instances of web services. | 1. A method for making information relating to web services available to applications hosted by a client platform, said method comprising: obtaining information relating to said web services from a remote repository via the internet; and storing at least a portion of said information in a local repository hosted by said client platform for access by said applications. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said information relates to web services previously used by one or more of said applications. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein said information comprises information relating to particular invocation instances of said web services. 4. The method of claim 3, further comprising ranking said information relating to said web services. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein said information further comprises statistical Quality of Service (QoS) information relating to particular invocation instances of said web services. 6. A method for invoking a web service for use by an application hosted on a client platform, said method comprising: obtaining information relating to said web service from a local repository hosted by said client platform; and invoking said web service using said information. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein said information relates to a web service previously used by an application hosted by said client platform. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein said information relates to one or more previous invocation instances of said web service. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein said information further comprises statistical Quality of Service (QoS) information relating to one or more previous invocation instances of said web service. 10. The method of claim 6, further comprising: obtaining information relating to said web service from a remote repository if said information is unavailable from said local repository; and storing at least a portion of said information in said local repository. 11. The method of claim 6, wherein said web service is invoked by said application. 12. The method of claim 6, wherein said web service is invoked by a proxy server. 13. An apparatus for making information relating to web services available to applications hosted by a client platform, said apparatus comprising: at least one communications interface operable for transmitting and receiving data; a memory unit operable for storing data and instructions to be performed by a processing unit; and a processing unit coupled to said at least one communications interface and said memory unit, said processing unit programmed to: obtain information relating to said web services from a remote repository via the internet; and store at least a portion of said information in a local repository hosted by said client platform for access by said applications. 14. The apparatus of claim 13, wherein said information relates to web services previously used by one or more of said applications. 15. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said information comprises information relating to particular invocation instances of said web services. 16. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein said processing unit is further programmed to rank said information relating to said web services. 17. The apparatus of claim 16, wherein said information further comprises statistical Quality of Service (QoS) information relating to one or more previous invocation instances of said web service. 18. An apparatus for invoking a web service for use by an application hosted on a client platform, said apparatus comprising: at least one communications interface operable for transmitting and receiving data; a memory unit operable for storing data and instructions to be performed by a processing unit; and a processing unit coupled to said at least one communications interface and said memory unit, said processing unit programmed to: obtain information relating to said web service from a local repository hosted by said client platform; and invoke said web service using said information. 19. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein said information relates to a web service previously used by an application hosted by said client platform. 20. The apparatus of claim 19, wherein said information relates to one or more previous invocation instances of said web service. 21. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein said information further comprises statistical Quality of Service (QoS) information relating to one or more previous invocation instances of said web service. 22. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein said processing unit is further programmed to: obtain information relating to said web service from a remote repository if said information is unavailable from said local repository; and store at least a portion of said information in said local repository. 23. A computer program for instructing a computer to perform a method for making information relating to web services available to applications hosted by a client platform, said computer program comprising: computer program code for obtaining information relating to said web services from a remote repository via the internet; and computer program code for storing at least a portion of said information in a local repository hosted by said client platform for access by said applications. 24. The computer program of claim 23, wherein said information relates to web services previously used by one or more of said applications. 25. The computer program of claim 24, wherein said information comprises information relating to particular invocation instances of said web services. 26. The computer program of claim 25, further comprising computer program code for ranking said information relating to said web services. 27. The computer program of claim 26, wherein said information further comprises statistical Quality of Service (QoS) information relating to particular invocation instances of said web services. 28. A computer program for instructing a computer to perform a method for invoking a web service for use by an application hosted on a client platform, said computer program comprising: computer program code for obtaining information relating to said web service from a local repository hosted by said client platform; and computer program code for invoking said web service using said information. 29. The computer program of claim 28, wherein said information relates to a web service previously used by an application hosted by said client platform. 30. The computer program of claim 29, wherein said information relates to one or more previous invocation instances of said web service. 31. The computer program of claim 30, wherein said information further comprises statistical Quality of Service (QoS) information relating to one or more previous invocation instances of said web service. 32. The computer program of claim 28, further comprising: computer program code for obtaining information relating to said web service from a remote repository if said information is unavailable from said local repository; and computer program code for storing at least a portion of said information in said local repository. 33. The computer program of claim 28, wherein said computer program further comprises said application. 34-35. (canceled) | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to access of web services by software applications and more particularly to management of information relating to web services. BACKGROUND Web services are reusable software components that may be accessed by applications over a network for the delegation of sub-functionality. Web services are made available for online access by deployment of those web services on a server that is compatible with the web service specification. The specification of a web service typically comprises a description and interface and invocation (binding) information, which is published in a web services directory. Applications can thus search for web services of interest from a web services directory, select web service interfaces that match specific criteria, and invoke web services using published binding and connectivity information. Web services are typically described using the Web Services Definition Language (WSDL) specification, which is an XML-based language for defining messages that provide an abstract definition of data being transmitted and operations provided by a web service to transmit the messages. Four types of communication are defined that relate to a service's operation (endpoint): the endpoint receives a message (one-way), the endpoint sends a message (notification), the endpoint receives a message and sends a correlated message (request-response), and the endpoint sends a message and receives a correlated message (solicit-response). Operations are grouped into port types, which describe abstract end points of a web service such as a logical address under which an operation can be invoked. A WSDL message element defines the data elements of an operation. XML Schema syntax is used to define platform-independent data types which messages can use. Each message can consist of one or more parts. The parts may be compared to the parameters of a function call in a traditional programming language. Concrete protocol bindings and physical address port specifications complete a web service specification. FIG. 1 shows a method for accessing web services. At step 110, one or more web services relevant to a required functionality are discovered by an application. Discovery is typically performed by searching a web services directory. One or more subsets of the web services that are discovered in step 110 are selected based on certain selection criteria, at step 120. While each subset of web services selected is potentially able to service the required functionality, the exact detail (e.g., workflow) is unknown at this stage. Candidate workflows are composed or generated from the web services selected in step 120, at step 130. The candidate workflows specify the data and control flows between the web services in each subset of web services. At step 140, the web services for the most promising workflow are orchestrated. Orchestration requires selection of web service instances to be used in the most promising workflow. A web service instance comprises a specific instance of a more generic web service. For example, “AmazonBookPurchaseService” and “Bames&NobleBookPurchaseService” are instances of the generic web service “OnlineBookPurchaseService”. Control and data flows may be rearranged and optimized based on the physical details of the workflow. At step 150, a binding mechanism is selected for access by an application. The binding mechanism is typically selected from various programmatic mechanisms such as Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), local Java access, etc. SOAP is a XML-based protocol for the exchange of information in a distributed environment. The web service/s is/are invoked with input parameters, if any, at step 160. Applications may combine some of the stages (e.g., discovery, selection and composition) and/or hardcode certain actions. The Web Services Invocation Framework (WSIF) provides a mechanism for invoking web services without committing to physical details/binding relating to where such web services are located. Rather, binding is resolved at execution time based on user-specifiable criteria. While providing a means for abstracting a single invocation of a web service, the WSIF does not provide a mechanism for reusing information for multiple invocations of a web service from an application or for invocation of a web service by multiple applications running on a client platform. The Universal, Description, Discovery and Integration (UDDI) directory provides a mechanism to search for web services on a remote web service registry. However, the UDDI directory does not provide a mechanism for reusing information for multiple invocations of a web service from a single application or for invocation of a web service by multiple applications running on a client platform. Applications typically manage information relating to web services individually. However, duplication and redundancy of information and software program code for housekeeping and information processing to select and invoke web services results when information common to multiple web services is required by an application and/or when multiple applications running on the same client platform use the same web services. As information relating to web services access may change frequently, the foregoing may result in poor maintainability of applications. A need thus exists for management of information relating to web services used by one or more applications running on a client platform. SUMMARY An aspect of the present invention provides a method for making information relating to web services available to applications hosted by a client platform. The information relating to web services is obtained from a remote repository via the internet and at least a portion of the information is stored in a local repository hosted by the client platform for access by applications. Another aspect of the present invention provides a method for invoking a web service for use by an application hosted on a client platform. Information relating to the web service is obtained from a local repository hosted by the client platform and the web service is invoked using the information. If unavailable from the local repository, the information may optionally be obtained from a remote repository. At least a portion of the information may then be stored in the local repository. The information may relate to web services previously used by the applications such as particular invocation instances of those web services. The information may comprise statistical Quality of Service (QoS) information relating to particular invocation instances of web services. Other aspects of the present invention provide apparatuses and computer programs for performing the methods described above. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments are described hereinafter, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a flow diagram of a conventional method for accessing web services; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a system for accessing a web service from an application hosted by a client platform; FIG. 3 is a flow diagram of a method for accessing a web service from an application hosted by a client platform; FIG. 4 is a flow diagram of another embodiment of the method of FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a block diagram of another system for accessing a web service from an application hosted by a client platform; FIG. 6 is a flow diagram of a another method for accessing a web service from an application hosted by a client platform; FIG. 7 is a flow diagram of another embodiment of the method of FIG. 6; FIG. 8 is a series of screen shots relating to a method for storing information relating to a web service in a local (client-side) registry; FIG. 9 is a series of screen shots relating to a method for accessing information relating to a web service from a local (client-side) registry; FIG. 10 is a block and flow diagram of a system and method for storage and access of information relating to a web service in/from a local (client-side) registry; and FIG. 11 is a block diagram of a computer system wherewith embodiments of the present invention may be practised. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Methods, apparatuses and computer programs are described herein for managing information relating to web services for access of those web services by applications running on a client platform. Examples of client platforms include, but are not limited to, operating systems, computer systems, and computer networks such as local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs) and wireless networks. FIG. 2 shows a system for accessing a web service from an application hosted by a client platform. Software program applications 210 and 220 and a local access registry 230 are hosted by a client platform 200. A web service 250 and a web service registry 260 are located remotely from the client platform 200 and are both accessible by the applications 210 and 220 via the internet (not shown). The local access registry 230 comprises a local repository for storing reusable access information for known web services. The repository may take the form of, a database, a data registry such as those used by Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) or Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI), or a local service/application. Data and/or entries in the local access registry 230 may be updated manually (i.e., by a user) or automatically by way of a managing application 240, which is typically but not necessarily hosted by the client platform 200. Automatic updating may be performed periodically or in response to particular events. Typical information that may be stored in the local access registry 230 includes, but is not limited to: Discovery related information: UDDI directory information, goal criteria, and resulting subsets of web services. Selection related information: Selection criteria and selected subsets of web services. Composition related information: Composed candidate workflows and corresponding rankings. Orchestration related information: Orchestration selections and corresponding rankings, actual workflows, Quality of Service (QoS) or Service Level Agreement (SLA) requirements, and runtime context/statistical information. Binding related information: Web Services Description Language (WSDL) information, binding options and decision criteria, and context/statistical information. Invocation related information: Proxy/network connectivity, parameter level, and statistical/context information. FIG. 3 shows a method for accessing a web service from an application hosted by a client platform. At step 310, a local repository is searched by an application program for information relating to one or more web services for providing a required functionality. A determination is made at step 320 whether information relating to one or more suitable web service/s is available from the local repository. Availability of the information may result from previous identification or invocation of web service/s to provide the same or a similar required functionality by the same application or by another application hosted by the same client platform. If the information is available (Y), the application uses the information to invoke the appropriate web service/s at step 340. If the information is unavailable or stale (N), the requesting application obtains the information from a remote repository via the internet at step 330. Step 330 may comprise the method shown in FIG. 1, whereby the requesting application accesses a web service registry such as a UDDI directory via the internet (not shown) to obtain information relating to web services for a required functionality. Thereafter, the application program may invoke the web service/s at step 340. Various mechanisms may be used to determine whether the information is stale. Examples of such mechanisms include, but are not limited to, policies based on time and/or other events (e.g., 2 weeks have passed since the information was last updated) and sniffer programs that periodically contact the information source to determine whether any discrepancy between the local and remote instances exist. FIG. 4 shows another embodiment of the method of FIG. 3. At step 410, a requesting application references a local proxy server on a fixed port prior to invoking a web service. At step 420, the proxy server searches binding entries in a local registry or issues UDDI search/es. A subset of given inputs (search criteria) may be used to identify a superset of web services. Alternatively, a superset of given inputs may be used to identify specialised web services. The proxy server uses the search results to build a ranked list of web services identified in step 420, at step 430. Binding entries relating to one or more items on the ranked list may be added to the local registry at step 440, if appropriate. The web service is invoked at step 450. In alternative embodiments, the local registry can be queried at runtime of an application or while designing a new application. Bindings may be stored by Java Naming and Directory Interfaces (JNDI), which enable distributed components of an application to locate one another, Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) or in predetermined files (as per step 230 of FIG. 2). Programmatic access thereto is enabled by published Application Programmer Interfaces (API's). A Graphical User Interface (GUI) may be used to manage registry entries and/or rules to manage the lifetime of registry entries. FIG. 5 shows another embodiment of a system for accessing a web service from an application hosted by a client platform. Software program applications 51 0 and 520 and a local access registry 530 are hosted by a client platform 500. A web service 550 and a web service registry 560 are located remotely from the client platform 500. The web service registry 560 is accessible via the internet (not shown) by the applications 510 and 520 whereas the web service 550 is accessible via the internet (not shown) by the local access registry 530. In other respects, the system of FIG. 5 is substantially identical to the system of FIG. 2. FIG. 6 shows another method for accessing a web service from an application hosted by a client platform. At step 610, a local repository is searched by an application for information relating to one or more web services to provide a required functionality. A determination is made at step 620 whether suitable information is available from the local repository. Availability of the information may result from previous identification or invocation of web service/s to provide the same required functionality. If the information is available (Y), the local repository proceeds to invoke the appropriate web service/s at step 640. If the information is unavailable or stale (N), the requesting application obtains the information from a remote repository via the internet at step 630. Step 630 may comprise the method shown in FIG. 1, whereby the requesting application accesses a web service registry such as a UDDI directory via the internet (not shown) to obtain information relating to web services for a required functionality. Thereafter, the web service/s are invoked by the local repository at step 640. As the local repository not only stores common access information, but also invokes the web services, the local repository stores statistical information relating to invocation and web service instances at step 650. Web services are typically deployed at locations for which information (e.g., WSDL content relating to binding such as a URL and protocol) is present in the local registry or remote repository. Once a client application has retrieved this information, the application may use networking libraries (e.g., open sockets) to invoke a web service directly or with the help of a proxy server. In the absence of any security related access restriction, direct invocation is possible. FIG. 7 shows another embodiment of the method of FIG. 6. At step 710, a requesting application references a local proxy server on a fixed port prior to invoking a web service. At step 720, the proxy server determines whether a suitable binding for a web service is available from a local repository in response to the application's request. Determination of a suitable binding may be based on any one or more of calculated statistics, user policies stored as part of management of registry data, and invocation results. If a suitable binding is not available (N), the proxy server searches binding entries in a local registry or issues UDDI search/es at step 730. A subset of given inputs (search criteria) may be used to identify a superset of web services. Alternatively, a superset of given inputs may be used to identify specialised web services. The proxy server uses the search results from step 730 to build a ranked list of web services at step 740. Binding entries relating to one or more items on the ranked list may be added to the local repository at step 750, if appropriate. A web service is invoked at step 760. If a suitable binding is available (Y) at step 720, the web service is invoked at step 760. Bindings may be stored in files, by Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) or Java Naming and Directory Interfaces (JNDI), which enable distributed components of an application to locate one another, (as per step 230 of FIG. 2) and are available for access using published Application Programmer Interfaces (API's). A Graphical User Interface (GUI) may be used to manage binding entries and/or rules to manage the lifetime of binding entries. In alternative embodiments, the local repository may be queried at runtime of an application or while designing a new application. FIG. 8 shows a series of screen shots of a method for storing information relating to a web service in a local (client-side) registry. If the location of a Web Services Description Language (WSDL) document relating to a required web service is known, discovery, selection, composition, and orchestration are unnecessary. The Web Services Description Language (WSDL) document is accessed by an application 810 by means of a Universal Resource Locator (URL) 820 for the WSDL document or by means of a UDDI directory URL 832 and the name of the required web service 834. Using information contained in the WSDL document 850, the port 852 and method 854 for invocation of the web service are selected, which correspond to the soap:address and binding references in Table 1, hereinafter, respectively. The dialog or page 862 from which the web service invocation will be made and the dialog or page 864 to which the web service's results will be delivered may be specified. Finally, a registry or binding name 866 is allocated to the web service access information, which is stored in a local (client-side) registry for later use. The WS binding name 866 typically comprises an identifier or mnemonic label to enable access of the information stored in the local registry by different applications. The proxy settings 840 may comprise the URL of the proxy server and the port number to use. Alternatively, the proxy settings 840 may comprise a list of proxy servers to be used in an order of preference or a sophisticated re-direction software utility such as a socks server. Table 1, hereinafter, contains an example of a WSDL file for a web service representing an online address book. The function of the web service is to return an address for a given person's name. The input and output messages are named “AddressBookRequest” and “AddressBookResponse”, respectively, and are both of type string (xsd:string). The <service> construct describes the web service, including the necessary binding (interface and protocols) and the URL address where the web service can be located. TABLE 1 WDSL file for online address book web service. <?xml version=“1.0”?> <definitions name=“urn:AxisAddrBook” targetNamespace=“urn:AxisAddrBook” xmlns:tns=“urn:AxisAddrBook” xmlns:xsd=“http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema” xmlns:soap=“http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/wsdl/soap/” xmlns:slt=“http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/ws/2003/03/service-link/” xmlns=“http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/wsdl/”> <message name=“AddressBookRequest”> <part name=“input” type=“xsd:string” /> </message> <message name=“AddressBookResponse”> <part name=“output” type=“xsd string” /> </message> <portType name=“AddrBook-PT”> <operation name=“invoke”> <input message=“tns:AddressBookRequest” /> <output message=“tns:AxisAddressBookResponse” /> </operation> </portType> <!-- binding declarations: the opera --> <binding name=“AddrBookSOAPBinding” type=“tns:AddrBook PT”> <soap:binding style=“rpc” transport=“http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/soap/http” /> <operation name=“invoke”> <soap:operation soapAction=“” /> <input> <soap:body use=“encoded” namespace=“urn: AxisAddrBook” encodingStyle=“http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/soap/ encoding/” /> </input> <output> <soap:body use=“encoded” namespace=“urn: AxisAddrBook” encodingStyle=“http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/soap/ encoding/” /> </output> </operation> </binding> <!-- service declaration --> <service name=“AddressBookService”> <port name=“AddrBook” binding=“tns:AddrBookSOAPBinding”> <soap:address location=“http://localhost:9801/axis/services/AxisAddr Book” /> </port> </service> </definitions> FIG. 9 shows a series of screen shots of a method for accessing information relating to a web service from a local (client-side) registry. An application 910 accesses information relating to a specific web service stored in a local (client-side) registry by means of binding name 922 relating to that web service. Such information includes, but is not limited to, the port and method to be used for invocation of the web service. The dialog or page 932 from which the web service invocation will be made and the dialog or page 934 to which the web service's results will be delivered may be specified. The binding name 922 corresponds to a previously stored binding name such as the binding name 866 in FIG. 8. The WS binding names 922 and 936 typically comprise an identifier or mnemonic label to enable access of the information stored in the local registry by different applications. The applications will need to know a related identifier or label to access specific information in the local registry. FIG. 10 shows another embodiment for storage and access of information relating to a web service in/from a local (client-side) registry. An application 1010 submits information 1012 relating to a required functionality such as goals, selection criteria and/or run-time parameters to a local registry 1020. The local registry 1020 invokes 1022 a web service 1030, which returns results 1034 to the application 1010. The local registry 1020 stores web service access information including statistical information 1032 such as runtime Quality of Service (QoS) related information. Consequently, a client application may be able to refer to the local registry for information relating to previous web service invocation by the same application or another application on the same client platform. Advantageously, this may avoid the need for certain configuration steps and/or the reuse of previous results altogether, in the case of static information. Computer Hardware and Software FIG. 11 is a block diagram representation of a computer system 1100 that can be used to practise the methods described herein. Specifically, the computer system 1100 may be used to practise the client platform and proxy server described hereinbefore. The computer system 1100 is provided for executing computer software that is programmed to assist in performing methods for accessing web services and/or managing information relating to web services. The computer software executes under an operating system such as MS Windows XP™ or Linux™ installed on the computer system 1100. The computer software involves a set of programmed logic instructions that may be executed by the computer system 1100 for instructing the computer system 1100 to perform predetermined functions specified by those instructions. The computer software may be expressed or recorded in any language, code or notation that comprises a set of instructions intended to cause a compatible information processing system to perform particular functions, either directly or after conversion to another language, code or notation. The computer software program comprises statements in a computer language. The computer program may be processed using a compiler into a binary format suitable for execution by the operating system. The computer program is programmed in a manner that involves various software components, or code means, that perform particular steps of the methods described hereinbefore. The components of the computer system 1100 comprise: a computer 1120, input devices 1110, 1115 and a video display 1190. The computer 1120 comprises a processing unit 1140, a memory unit 1150, an input/output (I/O) interface 1160, a communications interface 1165, a video interface 1145, and a storage unit 1155. The computer 1120 may comprise more than one of any of the foregoing units, interfaces, and devices. The processing unit 1140 may comprise one or more processors that execute the operating system and the computer software executing under the operating system. The memory unit 1150 may comprise random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), flash memory and/or any other type of memory known in the art for use under direction of the processing unit 1140. The video interface 1145 is connected to the video display 1190 and provides video signals for display on the video display 1190. User input to operate the computer 1120 is provided via the input devices 1110 and 1115, comprising a keyboard and a mouse, respectively. The storage unit 1155 may comprise a disk drive or any other suitable non-volatile storage medium. Each of the components of the computer 1120 is connected to a bus 1130 that comprises data, address, and control buses, to allow the components to communicate with each other via the bus 1130. The computer system 1100 may be connected to one or more other similar computers via the communications interface 1165 using a communication channel 1185 to a network 1180, represented as the Internet. The computer software program may be provided as a computer program product, and recorded on a portable storage medium. In this case, the computer software program is accessible by the computer system 1100 from the storage device 1155. Alternatively, the computer software may be accessible directly from the network 1180 by the computer 1120. In either case, a user can interact with the computer system 1100 using the keyboard 1110 and mouse 1115 to operate the programmed computer software executing on the computer 1120. The computer system 1100 has been described for illustrative purposes. Accordingly, the foregoing description relates to an example of a particular type of computer system suitable for practising the methods and computer program products described hereinbefore. Other configurations or types of computer systems can equally well be used to practise the methods and computer program products described hereinbefore, as would be readily understood by persons skilled in the art. For example, the methods and computer program products described hereinbefore can be practised using a network of computer systems such as a local area network or a handheld computer such as a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) or a mobile telephone. Conclusion Methods, apparatuses and computer program products are described herein that store information relating to web services in a client-side repository. This advantageously enables reuse of web services by the same application or another application hosted by the client platform and thus minimizes searching and/or reference of an external web service directory. The stored information may extend to information relating to alternative web services including alternative workflows, ranking, preferences, policies, etc. Thus, if particular web services become unavailable, alternatives may be identifiable using the client-side repository. Embodiments described herein may provide one or more of the following advantages: enables programmers to identify a number of similar web services without necessarily referring to UDDI. simplifies change of web service access information, including web service discovery and selection. simplifies maintenance of applications. simplifies application design. makes dynamic binding deterministic. supports individual-centric, group-centric and organization-centric policies for accessing web services. supports advance queries on web services, which may be useful for performing statistical queries such as number and type of web services and identifying neglected areas, popular themes, m-commerce competition, etc. applicable to both middleware and end-user applications. The foregoing detailed description provides exemplary embodiments only, and is not intended to limit the scope, applicability or configurations of the invention. Rather, the description of the exemplary embodiments provides those skilled in the art with enabling descriptions for implementing an embodiment of the invention. Various changes may be made in the function and arrangement of elements without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the claims hereinafter. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Web services are reusable software components that may be accessed by applications over a network for the delegation of sub-functionality. Web services are made available for online access by deployment of those web services on a server that is compatible with the web service specification. The specification of a web service typically comprises a description and interface and invocation (binding) information, which is published in a web services directory. Applications can thus search for web services of interest from a web services directory, select web service interfaces that match specific criteria, and invoke web services using published binding and connectivity information. Web services are typically described using the Web Services Definition Language (WSDL) specification, which is an XML-based language for defining messages that provide an abstract definition of data being transmitted and operations provided by a web service to transmit the messages. Four types of communication are defined that relate to a service's operation (endpoint): the endpoint receives a message (one-way), the endpoint sends a message (notification), the endpoint receives a message and sends a correlated message (request-response), and the endpoint sends a message and receives a correlated message (solicit-response). Operations are grouped into port types, which describe abstract end points of a web service such as a logical address under which an operation can be invoked. A WSDL message element defines the data elements of an operation. XML Schema syntax is used to define platform-independent data types which messages can use. Each message can consist of one or more parts. The parts may be compared to the parameters of a function call in a traditional programming language. Concrete protocol bindings and physical address port specifications complete a web service specification. FIG. 1 shows a method for accessing web services. At step 110 , one or more web services relevant to a required functionality are discovered by an application. Discovery is typically performed by searching a web services directory. One or more subsets of the web services that are discovered in step 110 are selected based on certain selection criteria, at step 120 . While each subset of web services selected is potentially able to service the required functionality, the exact detail (e.g., workflow) is unknown at this stage. Candidate workflows are composed or generated from the web services selected in step 120 , at step 130 . The candidate workflows specify the data and control flows between the web services in each subset of web services. At step 140 , the web services for the most promising workflow are orchestrated. Orchestration requires selection of web service instances to be used in the most promising workflow. A web service instance comprises a specific instance of a more generic web service. For example, “AmazonBookPurchaseService” and “Bames&NobleBookPurchaseService” are instances of the generic web service “OnlineBookPurchaseService”. Control and data flows may be rearranged and optimized based on the physical details of the workflow. At step 150 , a binding mechanism is selected for access by an application. The binding mechanism is typically selected from various programmatic mechanisms such as Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), local Java access, etc. SOAP is a XML-based protocol for the exchange of information in a distributed environment. The web service/s is/are invoked with input parameters, if any, at step 160 . Applications may combine some of the stages (e.g., discovery, selection and composition) and/or hardcode certain actions. The Web Services Invocation Framework (WSIF) provides a mechanism for invoking web services without committing to physical details/binding relating to where such web services are located. Rather, binding is resolved at execution time based on user-specifiable criteria. While providing a means for abstracting a single invocation of a web service, the WSIF does not provide a mechanism for reusing information for multiple invocations of a web service from an application or for invocation of a web service by multiple applications running on a client platform. The Universal, Description, Discovery and Integration (UDDI) directory provides a mechanism to search for web services on a remote web service registry. However, the UDDI directory does not provide a mechanism for reusing information for multiple invocations of a web service from a single application or for invocation of a web service by multiple applications running on a client platform. Applications typically manage information relating to web services individually. However, duplication and redundancy of information and software program code for housekeeping and information processing to select and invoke web services results when information common to multiple web services is required by an application and/or when multiple applications running on the same client platform use the same web services. As information relating to web services access may change frequently, the foregoing may result in poor maintainability of applications. A need thus exists for management of information relating to web services used by one or more applications running on a client platform. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>An aspect of the present invention provides a method for making information relating to web services available to applications hosted by a client platform. The information relating to web services is obtained from a remote repository via the internet and at least a portion of the information is stored in a local repository hosted by the client platform for access by applications. Another aspect of the present invention provides a method for invoking a web service for use by an application hosted on a client platform. Information relating to the web service is obtained from a local repository hosted by the client platform and the web service is invoked using the information. If unavailable from the local repository, the information may optionally be obtained from a remote repository. At least a portion of the information may then be stored in the local repository. The information may relate to web services previously used by the applications such as particular invocation instances of those web services. The information may comprise statistical Quality of Service (QoS) information relating to particular invocation instances of web services. Other aspects of the present invention provide apparatuses and computer programs for performing the methods described above. | 20040607 | 20100309 | 20060105 | 61570.0 | G06F1730 | 0 | KHAKHAR, NIRAV K | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR ACCESSING WEB SERVICES | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,004 |
|
10,862,470 | ACCEPTED | Toner supply device and image forming apparatus | A toner supply device is equipped with a coupling that has a toner supply opening on the side wall, a partition wall provided in this coupling integrally with a specific space provided on the inner wall and a hole larger than a toner supply opening on the side wall. A toner bottle containing toner is provided in the coupling with its cap portion inserted airtight into the partition wall detachably and an opening provided on its cap portion opposing to the hole on the partition wall for replenishing toner to a developing device from this opening through the hole and a toner supply opening. | 1. A toner supply device comprising: a coupling that has a toner supply opening on a peripheral wall portion; a partition wall that is provided integrally with a specified space along an inner wall of the coupling and has a hole in an opening larger than the toner supply opening on the peripheral wall portion; and a toner bottle containing toner with a cap portion inserted airtight into the partition wall, having a toner replenishing opening opposite to the hole on the cap peripheral wall and supply the toner to a toner supply portion through the holes and the toner supply opening from the toner replenishing opening. 2. The toner supply device according to claim 1, wherein plural holes are provided in the peripheral direction of the inner wall surface of the coupling. 3. The toner supply device according to claim 1, wherein the toner bottle has a projecting portion projecting in the radial direction of its peripheral wall, and the partition wall has a guide portion to slide the projecting portion to oppose the toner replenishing opening to the toner supply opening. 4. The toner supply device according to claim 1, wherein the opening of the partition wall is positioned at the inside more than the opening of the coupling, the toner bottle is inserted to the near side of the partition wall along the inner surface of the coupling and is then rotated along the peripheral direction of the coupling and positioned. 5. The toner supply device according to claim 1, wherein a supporting member is provided to support the partition wall at the position opposite to the toner supply opening between the inner wall surface of the coupling and the outer wall surface of the partition wall. 6. An image forming apparatus comprising: an image forming unit to form an electrostatic latent image on an image carrier; a developing unit to form a toner image by supplying a toner to the electrostatic latent image formed by the image forming unit; and a toner supply device to replenish the toner to the developing unit, wherein the toner supply device includes: a coupling that has a toner supply opening on a peripheral wall portion; a partition wall that is provided integrally with a specified space along an inner wall of the coupling and has a hole in an opening larger than the toner supply opening on the peripheral wall portion; and a toner bottle containing toner with a cap portion inserted airtight into the partition wall, having a toner replenishing opening opposite to the hole on the cap peripheral wall and supply the toner to a toner supply portion through the holes and the toner supply opening from the toner replenishing opening. 7. Then image forming apparatus according to claim 6, wherein plural holes are provided in the peripheral direction of the inner wall surface of the coupling. 8. Then image forming apparatus according to claim 6, wherein the toner bottle has a projecting portion projecting in the radial direction of its peripheral wall, and the partition wall has a guide portion to slide the projecting portion to oppose the toner replenishing opening to the toner supply opening. 9. Then image forming apparatus according to claim 6, wherein the opening of the partition wall is positioned at the inside more than the opening of the coupling, the toner bottle is inserted to the near side of the partition wall along the inner surface of the coupling and is then rotated along the peripheral direction of the coupling and positioned. 10. Then image forming apparatus according to claim 6, wherein a supporting member is provided to support the partition wall at the position opposite to the toner supply opening between the inner wall surface of the coupling and the outer wall surface of the partition wall. 11. A toner replenishing device comprising: a toner bottle containing a toner; a coupling to insert a cap portion side of the toner bottle at a specific position and connect it in the removable state; and a driving unit to rotate the coupling and replenish the toner to a developing device requiring the replenishing of toner from the cap portion by rotating the toner bottle and rotate the coupling to the specific position when the toner bottle is pulled out at a position other than the specific position. 12. The toner replenishing device according to claim 11, wherein the coupling is provided rotatably in a casing, wherein the driving unit includes: a driven gear connected to the coupling slidably in the toner bottle insert/pull-out direction through the rotary shaft penetrating the casing; a pressing member to press the driven gear in the pull-out direction of the toner bottle; a driving gear that is engaged with the driven gear and turn the coupling; and a protrusion formed on a part of the driven gear to project toward the casing, wherein the casing is provided with a circular shape rib projecting to oppose the protrusion of the driven gear and a concave portion is formed on a part of the rib, when the toner bottle is pulled out, by moving the driven gear with the pressing force of the pressing member, the protrusion is brought on the rib to keep the driven gear meshed with the driving gear, from this state, the protrusion is slid on the rib into the concave portion by rotating the driven gear with the rotation of the driving gear, thus, the meshing of the driven gear with the driving gear is released and the coupling is stopped to rotate. 13. An image forming apparatus comprising: an image forming portion to form an electrostatic latent image on an image carrier; a developing device to form a toner image by supplying a toner to the electrostatic latent image formed by the image forming portion; and a toner supply device to replenish the toner to the developing device, wherein the toner supply device includes: a toner bottle containing the toner; a coupling to connect a cap portion of the toner bottle by inserting it at a specific position; and a driving unit to rotate the toner bottle to replenish the toner to a toner replenishing opening from the cap portion of the toner bottle and to rotate the coupling to the specific position when the toner bottle is pulled out at a position other than the specific position. 14. Then image forming apparatus according to claim 13, wherein the coupling is provided rotatably in a casing, the driving unit includes: a driven gear connected to the coupling slidably in the pull-out/insert direction of the toner bottle through a rotary shaft penetrating the casing; a pressing member to press the driven gear in the direction to pull out the toner bottle; a driving gear to rotate the coupling by engaging the driven gear; and a protrusion formed at a part of the driven gear projecting toward the casing, the casing has a circular ring shape rib opposing to the protrusion of the driven gear with a concave portion formed at a part of the rib, when the toner bottle is pulled out, the driven gear is moved to bring the protrusion on the rib by the pressing force of the pressing member and the driven gear and the driving gear are kept in the engaged state and from this state, the protrusion is slid on the rib and entered into the concave portion by rotating the driven gear by the rotation of the driving gear, thus, the meshing of the driven gear and the driving gear is released and the coupling is stopped to rotate. 15. A toner bottle detachably mounted to a toner supply device comprising a coupling that has a toner supply opening on a peripheral wall portion and a partition wall that is provided integrally with a specified space along an inner wall of the coupling and has a hole in an opening larger than the toner supply opening on the peripheral wall portion, the toner bottle comprising; a bottle shaped main body having a cap portion inserted airtight into the partition wall; and a toner replenishing opening opposite to the hole on the cap peripheral wall to supply toner to a toner supply portion through the holes and the toner supply opening from the bottle shaped main body. | This application is based upon and claims the benefit of priority from the prior Japanese Patent Application No. 2003-193869, filed on Jul. 8, 2004 and Japanese Patent Application No. 2003-193814, filed on Jul. 8, 2004; the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a toner supply device and an image forming apparatus that are used in, for example, electro-photographic copiers. 2. Description of the Related Art An image forming apparatus forms an electrostatic latent image on a photosensitive drum that is an image carrier and develops this electrostatic latent image with a developing device. A toner bottle that is a toner supply device is attached to the developing device and toners are supplied to the developing device. A cap portion of the toner bottle is inserted into a coupling that forms a driving unit and connected to the coupling. An opening is provided on a peripheral wall of the cap portion and a toner supply opening is provided on a peripheral wall of the coupling. When the cap portion of the toner bottle is inserted into the coupling, its opening is opposed to the toner supply opening of the coupling. When supplying a toner, the toner bottle is rotated with the rotation of the coupling and when the opening of the toner bottle and the toner supply opening is located at the lower side, a..toner in the toner bottle falls by its own weight through the opening and is supplied in the developing device. As the cap portion of the toner bottle is inserted in the coupling and fitted in the airtight state, when the toner bottle is pulled out, the pressure in the coupling changes rapidly, However, as a hole provided so far to the coupling was only at the toner supply opening. A strong sucking power acts on the toner supply opening. Therefore, there was such a problem that toner adhered to the peripheral edge portion of the toner supply opening is sucked into the toner bottle and the inside of the coupling is contaminated. Further, when some defect was generated and the rotation of the toner bottle was stopped during the image forming operation, operator may pull out the toner bottle erroneously at a position other than the specific position. However, when the toner bottle was pulled out at a position other than the specific position, the coupling was so far kept in the stopped state at that position. Therefore, there was such a trouble that a time was needed to position a toner bottle against the coupling and the toner bottle could not be inserted smoothly into the coupling when reinserting the toner bottle. Further, there are couplings that can be rotated irrespective of the presence of a toner bottle. In this case, however, there was such a problem that if the coupling was erroneously rotated without inserting a toner bottle into the coupling, a toner flows back from the toner supply opening of the coupling and is scattered by centrifugal force. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of this invention is to provide a toner supply device that does not suck a toner from the toner supply opening of the coupling and an image forming apparatus. Another object of this invention is to provide a toner supply device which rotates a coupling when a toner bottle is pulled out from the coupling at a position other than a specific position and disconnects the coupling from a driving unit when a toner bottle is not inserted into the coupling and an image forming apparatus. According to this invention, there is provided a toner supply device comprising: a coupling that has a toner supply opening on a peripheral wall portion; a partition wall that is provided integrally with a specified space along an inner wall of the coupling and has a hole in an opening larger than the toner supply opening on the peripheral wall portion; and a toner bottle containing toner with a cap portion inserted airtight into the partition wall, having a toner replenishing opening opposite to the hole on the cap peripheral wall and supply the toner to a toner supply portion through the holes and the toner supply opening from the toner replenishing opening. Further, according to this invention, there is provided an image forming apparatus comprising: an image forming unit to form an electrostatic latent image on an image carrier; a developing unit to form a toner image by supplying a toner to the electrostatic latent image formed by the image forming unit; and a toner supply device to replenish the toner to the developing unit, wherein the toner supply device includes: a coupling that has a toner supply opening on a peripheral wall portion; a partition wall that is provided integrally with a specified space and has holes larger than the toner supply opening on the peripheral wall portion; and a toner bottle containing toner with a cap portion inserted airtight into the partition wall, having a toner replenishing opening opposite to the hole on the cap peripheral wall and supply the toner to a toner supply portion through the holes and the toner supply opening from the toner replenishing opening. In addition, according to this invention, there is provided a toner replenishing device comprising: a toner bottle containing a toner; a coupling to insert a cap portion side of the toner bottle at a specific position and connect it in the removable state; and a driving unit to rotate the coupling and replenish the toner to a developing device requiring the replenishing of toner from the cap portion by rotating the toner bottle and rotate the coupling to the specific position when the toner bottle is pulled out at a position other than the specific position. Further, according to this invention, there is provided an image forming apparatus comprising: an image forming portion to form an electrostatic latent image on an image carrier; a developing device to form a toner image by supplying a toner to the electrostatic latent image formed by the image forming portion; and a toner supply device to replenish the toner to the developing device, wherein the toner supply device includes: a toner bottle containing the toner; a coupling to connect a cap portion of the toner bottle by inserting it at a specific position; and a driving unit to rotate the toner bottle to replenish the toner to a toner replenishing opening from the cap portion of the toner bottle and to rotate the coupling to the specific position when the toner bottle is pulled out at a position other than the specific position. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram schematically showing the internal construction of an electro-photographic copier that is one embodiment of this invention; FIG. 2 is a side view showing a toner supply device provided to the electro-photographic copier shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a front sectional view showing a coupling of the toner supply device shown in FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a side sectional view showing the coupling shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a side sectional view showing the state of toner supplied by the toner supply device; FIG. 6 is a side sectional view showing the toner bottle pull-out operation; FIG. 7 is a side sectional view showing the toner bottle inserting operation into the coupling; FIG. 8 is a front sectional view showing a modification of the coupling; FIG. 9A is a side view showing the exploded toner supply device; FIG. 9B is a perspective view of the exploded toner supply device; FIG. 10 is a perspective view showing a protrusion of the coupling in the state contacted to the rib of the coupling gear when a toner bottle of the toner supply device was pulled out; FIG. 11 is a side view showing the state of the coupling to rotate when the drive gear is rotated from the state shown in FIG. 10; FIG. 12 is a perspective view showing the state when the coupling gear was rotated in a certain amount and the protrusion was intruded into the concave portion; FIG. 13 is a side sectional view showing the state when the coupling ear was completely disengaged from the drive gear; and FIG. 14 is a side view showing the state when a toner bottle was inserted in the coupling. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION This invention will be explained below in detail referring to embodiments shown in attached drawings. FIG. 1 schematically shows the internal construction of an electro-photographic copier that is an image forming apparatus in one embodiment of this invention. Reference Numeral 10 shown in FIG. 1 is a main body of a copier. An image forming portion 10a is provided at almost the center in the main body 10. Image forming portion 10a is equipped with a photosensitive drum as an image carrier that is rotatable in the arrow direction. Around a photosensitive drum 1, there are provided a main charger 2 to charge the surface of photosensitive drum 1, a developing device 3 to develop an electrostatic latent image on photosensitive drum 1 with a toner, a transfer charger 4 to transfer a toner image on photosensitive drum 1 on a paper, a cleaner 5 to remove residual toner on photosensitive drum 1, and an charge eliminator 6 to remove electric potential remained on photosensitive drum 1 in order along the rotating direction of the drum. Above developing device 3, a toner supply device 9 as a toner supply means to supply toner to developing device 3 is provided. On photosensitive drum 1, an exposure unit 7 is provided as an image forming means to form an electrostatic latent image by applying an image data beam 7a to the surface of photosensitive drum 1. At the lower side in the main body of the copier, a paper supply unit 10b is provided to supply paper. Paper supply unit 10b is provided with plural stages of paper supply cassettes 12 housing paper. Paper housed in paper supply cassettes 12 is taken out by rotating a pick-up roller 13. The taken out paper is conveyed upward by a paper conveying unit 15. In paper conveying unit 15, paper supply/separation rollers 16 to separate and supply paper one by one, a conveying roller pair 17 to hold and convey paper, an aligning roller pair 18 to align paper, a fixing device 19 to fix a transferred toner image on paper, an exit roller pair 20 to discharge paper, and a paper receiving tray 21 to receive discharged paper are provided in order along the paper conveying direction. At the upper side in main body 10, an image reader 10c is provided. A document placed on a document table glass 23 is optically read with this image reader 10c. On document table glass 23, a document feeding unit 24 is provided so that it can be opened/closed. Next, the image forming operation of the above-mentioned image forming apparatus will be explained. When forming an image, a document image on document table glass 23 is optically read with image reader 10c and the surface of photosensitive drum 1 is uniformly charged with main charger 2. Image data beam 7a is irradiated on charged photosensitive drum 1 based on the read image data from exposure unit 7 and an electrostatic latent image is formed thereon. This electrostatic latent image is sent to developing device 3 by rotating photosensitive drum 1 and is developed by a toner supplied from developing device 3. A developed toner image is moved to oppose to transfer charger 4 by rotating photosensitive drum 1. At this time, on the other hand, paper P is supplied from paper supply cassettes 12 and fed into an image transfer portion 2a that is provided between photosensitive drum 1 and transfer charger 4, and a toner image formed on photosensitive drum 1 is transferred on a paper P. After transferred, the paper P is separated from photosensitive drum 1 and sent to fixing device 19. This toner image is heated in fixing device 19 and pressurized and foxed on the paper P. After the image was fixed, the paper P is discharged on paper receiving tray 21 by paper exit roller pair 20. Thereafter, the image forming operation is repeated in the same manner as described above. FIG. 2 is a side sectional view showing toner supply device 9. The cap portion of a toner bottle 25 that is a toner container containing a toner t that is a developer is connected to a driving unit 26 and is driven to rotate. Driving unit 26 has a cylindrical shape coupling 29 that inserts a cap portion 28 of toner bottle 25 and connects it to driving unit 26 detachably. Coupling 29 is provided rotatably in a cylindrical casing 30. At the bottom side of the peripheral wall portion of casing 30, a toner replenishing opening 30b is perforated. At the center of the inner bottom of coupling 29, an outlet portion 29a is provided. The external wall portion of outlet portion 29a is in the circular shape and the inner wall is in the polygonal shape. Outlet portion 29a is inserted rotatably in a fixing opening 30a perforated on casing 30. On the peripheral wall portion of coupling 29, a toner supply opening is perforated. When toner bottle 25 is inserted, coupling 29 is at the specific position, that is, in the state where toner supply opening 29b is positioned at the upper side. At this specific position, toner bottle 25 is inserted into coupling 29 and its toner supply opening 28a is opposed to toner supply opening 29b. In outlet portion 29a of coupling 29, a coupling gear 32 is attached as a driven gear slidably in the inserting direction of toner bottle 25. Coupling gear 32 has a shaft 32a in the polygonal section and one end of shaft 32a is inserted into outlet portion 29a slidably. The other end of shaft 32a has a gear portion protruded via a disc shape plate 32b. Gear 32c is meshed with a drive gear 34. A drive motor (not shown) is connected to this drive gear 34. Coupling gear 32 is pressed in the direction where gear portion 32c of coupling gear 32 is separated by a pressing member that will be described later, that is, in the direction to pull out toner bolt 25. FIG. 3 is a front sectional view showing coupling 29 described in the above and FIG. 4 is its side sectional view. In the inside of coupling 29, a partition wall 35 is provided integrally with a specified space on its inner wall surface. On the peripheral wall of partition wall 35, plural holes 35a are drilled in the peripheral direction. A total opening amount of these plural holes 35a is larger than the amount of opening of toner supply opening 29b. On the other hand, opening 28a of cap portion 28 of toner bottle 25 is opened/closed with a shutter 36. Shutter 36 is attached to a projection portion 37 in the radial direction and pressed in the direction to close opening 28a by a spring (not shown). On the partition wall 35 of coupling 29, a guide portion 40 is provided to guide a projecting portion 37 of toner bottle 25 and the opening 28a of its cap portion 28 to face toner supply opening 29b. A size L1 in the depth direction of coupling 29 is larger than a size L2 in the depth direction of partition wall 35. A size L4 to holes 35a is smaller than a size L3 to the opening end of coupling 29. Next, the toner supply operation will be explained. In the state shown in FIG. 2, when the drive motor is driven and a drive gear 34 is rotated, coupling gear 32 is rotated by gear portion 32c. With this rotation, coupling 29 is rotated and toner bottle 25 is rotated. With this rotation, when toner supply opening 29b of coupling 29 is moved to face toner supply opening 30b of casing 30, toner t in toner bottle 25 drops and is supplied into developing device 3 from toner replenishing opening 30b of casing 30 through opening 28a of cap portion 28 and toner supply opening 29b as shown by the arrow. When toner in toner bottle 25 is exhausted as a result of supply of toner as described above, it is necessary to exchange toner bottle 25 with a new toner bottle 25. In this case, after pulling used toner bottle 25 out of coupling 29, insert a new toner bottle 25 into coupling 29. Because cap portion 28 of toner bottle 25 is inserted into partition wall 35 of coupling 29 and connected airtight, when toner bottle 25 is pulled out, the inside of partition wall 35 becomes the negative pressure state as shown in FIG. 6. However, the air existing between coupling 29 and partition wall 35 is sucked into the inside of partition wall 35 from holes 35a of partition wall 35 as shown by the arrow. By this suction, sucking force acting to toner supply opening 29b of coupling 29 is lowered and toner remaining on the peripheral edge of toner supply opening 29b will not be sucked from toner supply opening 29b. Therefore, it becomes possible to prevent contamination of toner in coupling 29 certainly. When inserting new toner bottle 25 into coupling 29, first insert cap portion 28 of toner bottle 25 into the front end side of partition wall 35 along the inner surface of coupling 29 as shown in FIG. 7. Then, turn toner bottle 25 in the peripheral direction on the inner surface of coupling 29 from this state and at a position where its projecting portion 37 is opposed to a guide portion 40, push toner bottle 25 inward. Thus, projecting portion 27 of cap portion 28 of toner bottle 25 is inserted into guide portion 40. When inserting toner bottle 25, a shutter 36 contacts a stopper (not shown) and is opened and opening 28a is faced to toner supply opening 29b of coupling 29 via holes 35a of partition. When coupling 29 is turned from this state and toner supply opening 29b is positioned at the lower portion side, toner in toner bottle 25 drops downward by its own weight through opening 28a of cap portion 28 and replenished to developing device 3. As described above, when pulling out toner bottle 25, the air between coupling 29 and partition wall 35 is sucked into the inside through holes 35a of partition wall 35 and air sucking force acting on toner supply portion 29b of coupling 29 can be lowered and toner will not be sucked through toner supply portion 29b. Accordingly, it becomes possible to surely prevent contamination of toner in the coupling. Further, when inserting new toner bottle 25 in coupling 29, after inserting toner bottle 25 along the inner surface at the front end side of coupling 29, only turn toner bottle 25. Thus, toner bottle 25 can be positioned and the inserting work of toner bottle 25 becomes easy. FIG. 8 is a sectional view showing a coupling 45 in a second embodiment of this invention. In this second embodiment, plural ribs 47a, 47b and 47c are provided as supporting members by projecting in the peripheral direction between the inner surface of coupling 45 and outer surface of partition wall 46 and a partition wall 46 is supported by these plural ribs 47a, 47b and 47c. Rib 47a is positioned at the opposite side to a toner supply opening 45a of coupling 45 and other ribs 47b and 47c are arranged in a range formed at an angle ±45° by a straight line S connecting toner supply opening 45a and rib 47a and straight lines S1 and S2 passing the center of coupling 45. Ribs 47a, 47b and 47c are formed in a length equal to a depth L2 of a partition wall 46 so as not to projecting forward from the opening end of partition wall 46. Thus, when inserting toner bottle 25, it can be inserted smoothly without contacting ribs 47a, 47b and 47c by cap portion 28. According to the second embodiment, the strength of partition wall 46 can be increased and the positional relation between toner supply opening 45 and opening 28a of cap portion 28 of toner bottle 25 can maintained satisfactorily. Next, a third embodiment of this invention will be explained. FIG. 9A is a side view showing exploded casing 30, coupling gear 32 and drive gear 34, and FIG. 9B is its exploded perspective view. On casing 30, a circular shape rib 30c is provided by projecting to enclose the periphery portion of fixing opening 30a and a concave portion 30a is formed on this rib 30c. On coupling gear 32, a protrusion 32d is formed projecting toward the front surface of a rib 30c. When toner bottle 25 is inserted and its edge face pushes shaft 32a, coupling gear 32 moves against the pressing force of pressing member 38 composed of a coil spring and mesh its gear portion 32c with drive gear 34. When toner bottle 25 is pulled out, coupling gear 32 is moved in the toner bolt pulling out direction by the compression force of compression member 38 and brings protrusion 32d to contact the front end of rib 30c of casing 30. At the time of this contact, gear portion 32c of coupling gear 32 shifts from drive gear 34 by its moving amount but the meshed state is maintained. When protrusion 32d of coupling gear 32 is kept in contact with the front end of rib 30c of casing 30 and coupling gear 32 is rotated and its protrusion 32d falls in concave portion 30d of rib 30c of casing 30, gear portion 32c of coupling gear 32 is completely separated from drive gear 34 and the meshed state is cancelled. Next the toner replenishing operation will be explained. When the drive motor is driven and drive gear 34 is driven to rotate, coupling gear 32 is turned by gear portion 32c and coupling 29 is rotated and then, toner bottle 25 is rotated. As a result, opening 28a of cap portion 28 of toner bottle 25 and toner supply opening 29b of coupling 29 are opposed to toner replenishing opening 30b of casing 30 as shown in FIG. 5. Then, toner t in toner bottle 25 drops from toner replenishing opening 30b through opening 28a and toner supply opening 29b and supplied in developing device 3 as shown by the arrow. In the image forming operation described above, when a certain defect was caused, toner bottle 25 would be stopped to rotate and bottle 25 would be pulled out irrespective of its position when bottle 25 was stopped to rotate. At this time, coupling gear 32 moves in the direction to pull out toner bottle 25 by the pressing force of a pressing member 38 and brings protrusion 32d to contact the front end of rib 30c as shown in FIG. 10. By this contact, gear portion 32c of coupling gear 32 and drive gear 34 are kept in the meshed state. When the power source is turned ON in this state, drive gear 34 is rotated and gear portion 32c of coupling gear 32 is rotated. As a result of this rotation, coupling 29 is rotated and with this rotation, protrusion 32d of coupling gear 32 slides along the front edge surface of rib 30c of casing 30. When drive gear 34 is rotated for a specified amount (below one turn), protrusion 32d of coupling gear 32 falls into concave portion 30d of rib 30c of casing 30 as shown in FIG. 12. As a result, gear portion 32c of coupling gear 32 is completely separated from drive gear 34 and the meshed sate is cancelled and coupling 29 is stopped at a specific position as shown in FIG. 13. After coupling 29 is stopped at the specific position, insert cap portion 28 of toner bottle 25 into coupling 29 and connect it to coupling 29 as shown in FIG. 14. Further, coupling gear 32 is pushed in against the pressing force of pressing member 38 and it becomes possible to transmit power by engaging gear portion 32c with drive gear 34. After toner bottle 25 is pulled out from coupling 29 at a position other than the specific position, coupling 29 is rotated to the specific position as described above. Therefore, the positioning of toner bottle 25 to coupling 29 becomes easy and it becomes smooth to insert toner bottle 25 into coupling 29. Further, this invention is not restricted to the embodiments described above but needless to say, it is possible to modify it variously within its scope. As explained above, this invention displays such effects that it is able to lower the sucking force acting on the toner supply opening of the coupling, reduce the suction of toner from the toner supply opening to the extent possible and prevent contamination of the coupling. Further, in this invention, when a toner bottle is pulled out from the coupling at a position other than the specific position, the coupling is rotated to the specific position and therefore, it becomes easy to position a toner bottle to the coupling and smoothly insert a toner bottle. When a toner bottle was not inserted into the coupling, the coupling is disconnected from the driving unit and therefore, the coupling will not be rotated and toner does not flow back from the toner supply opening of the coupling and is not dispersed by the centrifugal force. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a toner supply device and an image forming apparatus that are used in, for example, electro-photographic copiers. 2. Description of the Related Art An image forming apparatus forms an electrostatic latent image on a photosensitive drum that is an image carrier and develops this electrostatic latent image with a developing device. A toner bottle that is a toner supply device is attached to the developing device and toners are supplied to the developing device. A cap portion of the toner bottle is inserted into a coupling that forms a driving unit and connected to the coupling. An opening is provided on a peripheral wall of the cap portion and a toner supply opening is provided on a peripheral wall of the coupling. When the cap portion of the toner bottle is inserted into the coupling, its opening is opposed to the toner supply opening of the coupling. When supplying a toner, the toner bottle is rotated with the rotation of the coupling and when the opening of the toner bottle and the toner supply opening is located at the lower side, a..toner in the toner bottle falls by its own weight through the opening and is supplied in the developing device. As the cap portion of the toner bottle is inserted in the coupling and fitted in the airtight state, when the toner bottle is pulled out, the pressure in the coupling changes rapidly, However, as a hole provided so far to the coupling was only at the toner supply opening. A strong sucking power acts on the toner supply opening. Therefore, there was such a problem that toner adhered to the peripheral edge portion of the toner supply opening is sucked into the toner bottle and the inside of the coupling is contaminated. Further, when some defect was generated and the rotation of the toner bottle was stopped during the image forming operation, operator may pull out the toner bottle erroneously at a position other than the specific position. However, when the toner bottle was pulled out at a position other than the specific position, the coupling was so far kept in the stopped state at that position. Therefore, there was such a trouble that a time was needed to position a toner bottle against the coupling and the toner bottle could not be inserted smoothly into the coupling when reinserting the toner bottle. Further, there are couplings that can be rotated irrespective of the presence of a toner bottle. In this case, however, there was such a problem that if the coupling was erroneously rotated without inserting a toner bottle into the coupling, a toner flows back from the toner supply opening of the coupling and is scattered by centrifugal force. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An object of this invention is to provide a toner supply device that does not suck a toner from the toner supply opening of the coupling and an image forming apparatus. Another object of this invention is to provide a toner supply device which rotates a coupling when a toner bottle is pulled out from the coupling at a position other than a specific position and disconnects the coupling from a driving unit when a toner bottle is not inserted into the coupling and an image forming apparatus. According to this invention, there is provided a toner supply device comprising: a coupling that has a toner supply opening on a peripheral wall portion; a partition wall that is provided integrally with a specified space along an inner wall of the coupling and has a hole in an opening larger than the toner supply opening on the peripheral wall portion; and a toner bottle containing toner with a cap portion inserted airtight into the partition wall, having a toner replenishing opening opposite to the hole on the cap peripheral wall and supply the toner to a toner supply portion through the holes and the toner supply opening from the toner replenishing opening. Further, according to this invention, there is provided an image forming apparatus comprising: an image forming unit to form an electrostatic latent image on an image carrier; a developing unit to form a toner image by supplying a toner to the electrostatic latent image formed by the image forming unit; and a toner supply device to replenish the toner to the developing unit, wherein the toner supply device includes: a coupling that has a toner supply opening on a peripheral wall portion; a partition wall that is provided integrally with a specified space and has holes larger than the toner supply opening on the peripheral wall portion; and a toner bottle containing toner with a cap portion inserted airtight into the partition wall, having a toner replenishing opening opposite to the hole on the cap peripheral wall and supply the toner to a toner supply portion through the holes and the toner supply opening from the toner replenishing opening. In addition, according to this invention, there is provided a toner replenishing device comprising: a toner bottle containing a toner; a coupling to insert a cap portion side of the toner bottle at a specific position and connect it in the removable state; and a driving unit to rotate the coupling and replenish the toner to a developing device requiring the replenishing of toner from the cap portion by rotating the toner bottle and rotate the coupling to the specific position when the toner bottle is pulled out at a position other than the specific position. Further, according to this invention, there is provided an image forming apparatus comprising: an image forming portion to form an electrostatic latent image on an image carrier; a developing device to form a toner image by supplying a toner to the electrostatic latent image formed by the image forming portion; and a toner supply device to replenish the toner to the developing device, wherein the toner supply device includes: a toner bottle containing the toner; a coupling to connect a cap portion of the toner bottle by inserting it at a specific position; and a driving unit to rotate the toner bottle to replenish the toner to a toner replenishing opening from the cap portion of the toner bottle and to rotate the coupling to the specific position when the toner bottle is pulled out at a position other than the specific position. | 20040608 | 20070717 | 20050113 | 67919.0 | 0 | WONG, JOSEPH S | TONER SUPPLY DEVICE AND IMAGE FORMING APPARATUS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,862,834 | ACCEPTED | Golf ball mixing and dispensing apparatus | The present invention provides an apparatus and system for mixing castable polyurethanes for dispensing into a golf ball mold for application to a golf ball sub-assembly. The apparatus comprises a mixing block for merging together at least two polyurethane components, then a temperature control chamber to remove excess heat that is produced by the exothermic reaction resulting from the mixing of the urethane components. The mixing of the components is by passing the components through a tortuous mixing path created by a disposable static mixer element. The mixed components are dispensed into the golf ball mold by a multiple lead nozzle assembly. | 1. An apparatus for mixing and dispensing of components for applying to a golf ball sub-assembly, the apparatus comprising: a mixing block for receiving at least two components; means for pumping the components through the mixing block; a mixer body having a middle portion defining a bore extending axially along its longitudinal axis, means for mixing the components; a temperature control chamber encompassing the mixer body for controlling heat generated by an exothermic reaction created by the components combining and mixing; and a nozzle assembly for dispensing the mixed components into a mold cavity containing the golf ball sub-assembly. 2. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the mixing means for the components comprises: a dynamic mixer element having a structure comprising of multiple segments at a 90 degree relationship to each other to therein create a tortuous mixing path for the components to pass through. 3. The apparatus according to claim 2, wherein the dynamic mixer element is formed of plastic material and is generally disposable. 4. The apparatus according to claim 2, wherein the dynamic mixer element is rotated by a drive shaft. 5. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the components comprise castable polyurethanes, polyureas, and blends thereof. 6. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the temperature control chamber includes water as a coolant. 7. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the nozzle assembly comprises a plurality of dispensing ports. 8. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein connections coupling the mixing block to the mixer body and also to the temperature control chamber, and the nozzle assembly coupled to the temperature control chamber, are quick change connections that do not require tools. 9. The apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the gel time will be a minimum of 60 seconds. 10. The apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the temperature of the urethane material is maintained at less than 180° F. 11. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the temperature control chamber comprises: a mixing housing having a helical cooling channel spirally about an outer perimeter and along a longitudinal length of the housing, the helical groove having inlet and outlet water openings for circulating cooling water about the housing; and a cooling jacket surrounding the mixing housing, the cooling jacket having an o-ring at each end to create a relatively tight seal with the housing. 12. An apparatus for mixing and dispensing of castable urethane components for applying to a golf ball sub-assembly, the apparatus comprising: a mixing block for receiving at least two components, the mixing block having means for propelling the components through the apparatus; a mixing housing having middle portion defining a bore extending axially therein, the mixing housing having means disposed in the bore for mixing the components, the mixing housing having a helical groove extending generally about the outer perimeter and along the longitudinal length of the housing, the helical groove having a water inlet and a water outlet for allowing the circulating cooling water about the housing; a cooling jacket surrounding the mixing housing in a relatively tight sealing relationship to the housing, the jacket providing a means for controlling the heat generated by an exothermic reaction from the urethane components combining and mixing; and a nozzle assembly for dispensing the mixed components into a mold cavity containing the golf ball sub-assembly. 13. A urethane mixing process for producing a homogenous material from a mixture of reactive components, the system comprising: providing at least two castable urethane components; pumping the urethane components into and through a mixer body; mixing the urethane components in the mixer body by means of a dynamic mixer element; cooling the mixer body of exothermic heat generated by the mixing of the urethane components; and dispensing the urethanes into a golf ball mold cavity for forming about a golf ball sub-assembly. 14. The process according to claim 13, wherein the temperature of the urethanes during mixing is maintained at less than 180° F. 15. The process according to claim 13, wherein the gel time of the components during mixing is greater than 60 seconds. 16. The process according to claim 13, wherein the dynamic mixer element is a plastic disposable rotor. 17. The process according to claim 13, wherein the dispensing of the urethane components is pneumatically controlled. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to an apparatus for mixing of castable polyurethanes, and, more particularly, to an improved apparatus for temperature control and dispensing of the mixture. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In castable flow molding processes employing a plurality of castable polyurethane components, the homogeneity and the quality of the molded material is mainly determined by the mixing operation which immediately precedes the molding. For example, after an amount of time in which the reactants come into contact, a polymerization reaction process begins producing the moldable material. Many times, striae form within the moldable material that is visible. The striae are a result of poor mixing which inhibits the quality of the material. Therefore, it is desirable to produce a mixture which is as homogeneous as possible, in the shortest possible time, in order to bring about a uniform reaction to avoid the formation of striae. However, there is an additional difficulty presented in mixing reactive components in the case of polyurethane, in that the two components, i.e., polyol and the isocyanate, have substantially different viscosities. The use of known mixing processes does not lead to the desired result for producing a high quality polyurethane material. For example, with some processes that employ static mixers that make use of various known mixers for mixing liquids in the laminar flow regime, it is found that a relatively long mixing length is needed to produce sufficient mixing. Often, the mixture requires a relatively long time to pass through this long mixing length, meanwhile, the polymerization process has already begun. Due to the quick setting characteristics of polyurethane, the material will gel or “set up” within the mixer instead of being discharged into the usual succession of molds. The molds are generally moved past the discharge of the mixer in time relation to the discharge. If, for any reason, a slight delay or decrease in the flow rate of the mixture through the mixer occurs, the mixture gels in portions of the mixer and restricts flow, thus further slowing the discharge and resulting in the entire mixer being clogged with hard setting components. An improvement in slowing down the gel time is necessary to allow the mixture to progress through the system. Generally, static mixers are in the form of a tubular chamber, with a rigid static mixing device disposed therein. Because of the very nature of the static mixer, the mixer cannot be cleaned readily once any appreciable quantity of material has gelled in the various mixing elements which form the static mixing device. Attempts have been made to clean the static mixer, but due to the cementing and interlocking effects of the material this approach has proven impractical. Therefore, available static mixers perform poorly in practice because the mixer may only be used, in some instances, for 15 to 30 minutes before “plugging-up”. If in place of the static mixer, a dynamic mixer may be employed with the aim of reducing the mixing time. While the results generally improve the quality of mixing, the temperature of the reaction mixture may be increased by frictional and shear heating, and local fractions of the mixture which can be generated in an advanced state of polymerization must be eliminated. Consequently, when dynamic mixers are used, significant improvements must be made towards controlling the exothermic temperatures. Additionally, caution must be taken to insure that the dynamic mixer does not introduce pockets of gas in the form of air bubbles into the moldable material, which may lead to poor quality. Moreover, dynamic mixers may require frequent flushing with solvents resulting in a sludge material which has to be disposed of. The present invention is directed to overcoming one or more of the problems as set forth above. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to an apparatus for mixing and dispensing of urethane components for application to a golf ball sub-assembly. The apparatus comprises a rear mixing block for receiving at least two components, a system for pumping the urethane components through the mixing block, a mixer body having a middle portion that defines a bore extending axially along its longitudinal axis with a plastic disposable dynamic mixer element disposed in the bore for mixing the components, a temperature control chamber encompassing the mixer body for controlling heat generated by the exothermic reaction that is created when the urethane components combine and mix, and a nozzle assembly for dispensing the mixed urethane components into a mold cavity containing the golf ball sub-assembly. Employed in the present invention is a dynamic mixer element having a structure of multiple segments at a 900 relationship to each to create a tortuous and effective mixing path. Another embodiment of the apparatus has for a temperature control chamber, a mixing housing encompassed by a cooling jacket. The mixing housing has a middle portion defining a bore extending axially therein with means disposed in the bore for mixing the components. The mixing housing has a helical groove extending generally about its outer perimeter and along the longitudinal length of the housing, and having a water inlet and a water outlet for permitting the cooling water to circulate about the housing. The cooling jacket surrounds the mixing housing in a relatively tight sealing relationship to the housing, and provides a means for controlling the heat generated by the exothermic reaction of the urethane components combining and mixing. The apparatus is completed by a nozzle assembly which utilizes pneumatic pressure to dispense the mixed urethane components into a mold cavities containing a golf ball sub-assemblies. The present invention provides for a process to mix urethane reactive components into homogenous material. The process comprises pumping bulk materials through the apparatus wherein they are mixed by a plastic disposable mixer element, while the temperature of the mixing components (which emit a relatively large amount of heat due to their exothermic reaction), is controlled. The mixed urethane composition is dispensed into a golf ball mold cavity for forming around a golf ball sub-assembly. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a better understanding of the present invention, reference may be made to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is an expanded view of the apparatus; FIG. 1a is cutout segmented view of the mixer element; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the completed apparatus of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 a perspective of the temperature control chamber of the invention; FIG. 4 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a temperature control chamber having a cooled mixer comprising a helical cooling channel; and FIG. 5 is a cross section view of the cooled mixer of FIG. 4. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCLOSURE Referring to FIGS. 1 to 3, an apparatus 10 of a hybrid urethane mixing system for producing a homogenous material from a mixture of a plurality of reactive components is shown. The apparatus 10 is comprised of four main portions: a mixing portion comprising of a mixer housing 11, having a rear mixing block 11a, and a front mixing block 11b, and a mixer body 12; a temperature control chamber 13 encompassing the mixer body 12; and, a nozzle assembly 14. The apparatus 10 utilizes a disposable plastic mixer element 16 (rotor). The apparatus 10 is designed to yield a more consistent product and enhanced temperature control for a urethane molding process for golf balls. Advantageously, the present invention is directed to producing a flow moldable material from at least two castable urethane materials, such as polyurethanes, polyureas, and blends thereof. The materials need to be mixed, temperature controlled, and dispensed. In an embodiment of the invention, pumps (not shown) are provided to pump materials in pre-measured amounts into the apparatus through openings 17a and 17b, in the rear mixing block 11a wherein they have an initial mixing. The materials are then pumped through to the mixer body 12 which contains the disposable plastic mixer element (rotor) 16 that is rotated by attachment to a slotted drive shaft 18. It is in the mixer body 12 where the primary mixing takes place. The front mixing block 11b has an internal groove 15 having four apertures 15a for quick disconnect to the mixer body 12. At the rear end of the mixer body 12 are four raised ridges 19 which when inserted into the internal groove 15 through the apertures 15a the connection is completed by merely rotating the mixer body 12, within the internal groove 15. The front mixing block 11b also has four corner sections 20 that inherently define a large opening for receiving the temperature control chamber 13 which has four raised lip sections 25 disposed about its outer perimeter for easy insertion into four internal slots 23 defined in the four corner sections 20 for a quick disconnect fitting therein. A drive shaft 18 has a leading end slotted to allow a relatively easy friction fit coupling to the disposable mixer element 16, which is dimensioned to fit within the slot of the drive shaft 18 without the use of tools. The dynamic mixer element 16 includes left and right hand helical elements that aggressively mix the material as the material is pumped through the mixer body 12. The mixer body 12 is surrounded by an outer sleeve which forms the temperature control chamber 13. Controlling the temperature is extremely necessary in order to control the heat generated by the exothermic reaction from the urethane components combining and mixing. For a cooling medium, water is introduced to the temperature control chamber 13 by a water inlet 28 in near proximity to the front mixing block 11b and is removed via a water outlet 29 near the other end of the temperature control chamber 13. The water temperature control chamber 13 provides uniform process temperatures in the mixer body 12 which minimize “plating out” (build-up of cured material) on the dynamic mixer element 16. With reduced plate-out, the rotor cycle time is increased and apparatus downtime is reduced. A bracket assembly 26 consisting of an upper section 26a and a lower section 26b is clamped about the temperature control chamber 13 at the end nearer to the nozzle assembly 14, and is coupled together by simple hex screws. This bracket assembly 26 forms a base that is connected to one end of an extended arm portion 31 of the nozzle assembly 14. After the material passes through the mixer body 12, it is then forced out of the nozzle assembly 14 through two dispensing ports 21a and 21b, and dispensed into a ball mold cavity to be applied about a golf ball sub-assembly (not shown). The dispensing ports 21a and 21b are seated in a fixture 32 which is connected to the other end of the extended arm portion 31. The ports 21 a and 21b are caused to move vertically into and out of the ball mold cavities by pneumatic pressure. This pressure propels a piston rod 33, housed within a tube 34, to move down into the golf ball mold cavity and gradually be raised out of the cavity as the castable polyurethane material is deposited in the mold cavity. The temperature control chamber 13 has at one end, near to the nozzle assembly 14, an insulating member 36 which is sandwiched between the temperature control chamber 13 and a relatively circle mounting member 37. The mounting member 37 has a slotted recess 38 defined therein, and the insulating member 36 and mounting member 37 are coupled to the chamber 13 by hex screws 39. The nozzle assembly 14 includes a dispensing tube housing 35 that holds the plastic tubing making up the dispensing tubes 21a and 21b. This is done by means of a simple hex screw 40. The dispensing tube housing 35 includes a pair of ears 41 which are inserted into the slotted recess 38 of the mounting member 37 by a simple quick disconnect motion by the operator which requires only a manual rotation of the ears 41 within the slotted recess 38. The design of the mixing system minimizes exposure to urethane raw materials by utilizing tool-free, quick-change components. The turn-to-lock connections and the slotted rotor drive shaft 18 are design features that make the operator's mixer maintenance tasks quicker and more efficient. The development of the quick-change mixer assembly provides for a reduction in the downtime necessary to service the apparatus 10 which requires frequent changing of the disposable mixer element 16 and even more frequent changing of the plastic tubing making up the dispensing ports 21a and 21b of the nozzle assembly 14. The reduction in the mixer block mass allows for enhanced water temperature control along the entire length of the mixer rotor 16 resulting in better mixer performance and increased mixer life. Utilizing a disposable dynamic mixer element 16 eliminates the need for relatively expensive machined mixing rotors, which require significant cleaning and maintenance. When cleaning non-disposable rotors, workers are often exposed to cleaning chemicals and sensitive urethane materials. The present invention, in using the disposable dynamic mixer element 16, requires only that the mixer element 16 be periodically removed and discarded, and this generally eliminates any undesirable chemical exposure to workers. Frequent cleaning and repeated use of a permanent mixing rotor can often change the rotor mixing characteristics resulting in process variations due to rotor wear. The disposable dynamic mixer element 16 may be removed and replaced without the use of tools. This tool-free feature is very critical to the system, for in addition to the great reduction in downtime, it also eliminates the contamination of tools when such tools are required to service the mixer. As shown in FIGS. 1 and 1a, the disposable plastic mixer element 16 generally is longer, smaller in diameter, and is less massive than non-disposable rotors. These features help to achieve improved temperature control. The mixer element 16 is disposed within a bore 22 that extends axially along the middle portion of the mixer body 12. The mixer element 16 is constructed of a predetermined number of segments which have right and left-hand helical twists, and extend axially along the bore 22. The segments are alternated and oriented such that one segment lies at 90° with respect to an adjacent segment. For example, one segment has an opposite helical twist and is shifted by a (radial) angle of 90° with respect to a preceding segment. Moreover, the mixer body 12 and the mixing segments define a tortuous mixing path which insure that the components are aggressively mixed The number of mixing segments comprising the dynamic mixer element 16 is dependent on the length of the bore 22. The extra length of the mixer element 16 provides increased surface area for better mixing, but also provides for greater surface contact for the cooling water flow. The relatively small diameter of the mixer element 16 and mixer body 12 improve forward material flow through the mixer (first in/first out). The temperature control of the mixing components results in an improved cure rate (gel) control, and produces improved material processing properties such as smooth flow and excellent shot cut-off. The gel rate time of the material flowing through the present invention is controlled such that the gel time will be at least 60 seconds, and preferably at least 70 seconds. The temperature of the urethane material is maintained at less than 180° F., preferably at less than 150° F. The dynamic mixer element 16 is available from ConProTec, Inc. of Salem, N.H. under the trade name “STRATOMIX”®. The apparatus 10 is completed by a three hole packing gland 42 inserted into the back of the rear mixing block 11a and a lubricating chamber 43 and bearings 44 and 45 disposed within a bearing housing 46 support of the drive shaft 18. The bearing hosing having a two-hole packing gland 47 insulating it from the lubricating chamber 43. The apparatus 10 is made of parts that are generally stainless steel but it is appreciated that many various metals may be employed without affecting the structural integrity of the apparatus. FIGS. 4 and 5 disclose another embodiment of a temperature control chamber. This embodiment includes a cooled mixer chamber 50 comprising a mixing housing 51 encased in a cooling jacket 52. A helical cooling channel 53 is spirally disposed about the mixing housing 51, with the mixing housing 51 having a helical groove contour that extends around the length of its outer perimeter and provides a track for placement of the helical cooling channel 53. The cooling jacket 52 has o-ring seals 56 disposed at each end to create a water tight seal between the jacket 52 and mixing housing 51. The helical cooling channel 53 has an inlet opening 54 for introducing cooling water and an outlet opening 55 for removal of the heated water after it has passed through the cooling channel 53. This provides positive and very efficient coolant flow over the length of the mixing housing 51. This embodiment is especially beneficial for use with castable polyurethanes which are introduced into the mixing housing through receiving ports 57a and 57b. While it is apparent that the illustrative embodiments of the invention herein disclosed fulfill the objective stated above, it will be appreciated that numerous modifications and other embodiments may be devised by those skilled in the art. Therefore, it will be understood that the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications and embodiments which come within the spirit and scope of the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In castable flow molding processes employing a plurality of castable polyurethane components, the homogeneity and the quality of the molded material is mainly determined by the mixing operation which immediately precedes the molding. For example, after an amount of time in which the reactants come into contact, a polymerization reaction process begins producing the moldable material. Many times, striae form within the moldable material that is visible. The striae are a result of poor mixing which inhibits the quality of the material. Therefore, it is desirable to produce a mixture which is as homogeneous as possible, in the shortest possible time, in order to bring about a uniform reaction to avoid the formation of striae. However, there is an additional difficulty presented in mixing reactive components in the case of polyurethane, in that the two components, i.e., polyol and the isocyanate, have substantially different viscosities. The use of known mixing processes does not lead to the desired result for producing a high quality polyurethane material. For example, with some processes that employ static mixers that make use of various known mixers for mixing liquids in the laminar flow regime, it is found that a relatively long mixing length is needed to produce sufficient mixing. Often, the mixture requires a relatively long time to pass through this long mixing length, meanwhile, the polymerization process has already begun. Due to the quick setting characteristics of polyurethane, the material will gel or “set up” within the mixer instead of being discharged into the usual succession of molds. The molds are generally moved past the discharge of the mixer in time relation to the discharge. If, for any reason, a slight delay or decrease in the flow rate of the mixture through the mixer occurs, the mixture gels in portions of the mixer and restricts flow, thus further slowing the discharge and resulting in the entire mixer being clogged with hard setting components. An improvement in slowing down the gel time is necessary to allow the mixture to progress through the system. Generally, static mixers are in the form of a tubular chamber, with a rigid static mixing device disposed therein. Because of the very nature of the static mixer, the mixer cannot be cleaned readily once any appreciable quantity of material has gelled in the various mixing elements which form the static mixing device. Attempts have been made to clean the static mixer, but due to the cementing and interlocking effects of the material this approach has proven impractical. Therefore, available static mixers perform poorly in practice because the mixer may only be used, in some instances, for 15 to 30 minutes before “plugging-up”. If in place of the static mixer, a dynamic mixer may be employed with the aim of reducing the mixing time. While the results generally improve the quality of mixing, the temperature of the reaction mixture may be increased by frictional and shear heating, and local fractions of the mixture which can be generated in an advanced state of polymerization must be eliminated. Consequently, when dynamic mixers are used, significant improvements must be made towards controlling the exothermic temperatures. Additionally, caution must be taken to insure that the dynamic mixer does not introduce pockets of gas in the form of air bubbles into the moldable material, which may lead to poor quality. Moreover, dynamic mixers may require frequent flushing with solvents resulting in a sludge material which has to be disposed of. The present invention is directed to overcoming one or more of the problems as set forth above. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to an apparatus for mixing and dispensing of urethane components for application to a golf ball sub-assembly. The apparatus comprises a rear mixing block for receiving at least two components, a system for pumping the urethane components through the mixing block, a mixer body having a middle portion that defines a bore extending axially along its longitudinal axis with a plastic disposable dynamic mixer element disposed in the bore for mixing the components, a temperature control chamber encompassing the mixer body for controlling heat generated by the exothermic reaction that is created when the urethane components combine and mix, and a nozzle assembly for dispensing the mixed urethane components into a mold cavity containing the golf ball sub-assembly. Employed in the present invention is a dynamic mixer element having a structure of multiple segments at a 900 relationship to each to create a tortuous and effective mixing path. Another embodiment of the apparatus has for a temperature control chamber, a mixing housing encompassed by a cooling jacket. The mixing housing has a middle portion defining a bore extending axially therein with means disposed in the bore for mixing the components. The mixing housing has a helical groove extending generally about its outer perimeter and along the longitudinal length of the housing, and having a water inlet and a water outlet for permitting the cooling water to circulate about the housing. The cooling jacket surrounds the mixing housing in a relatively tight sealing relationship to the housing, and provides a means for controlling the heat generated by the exothermic reaction of the urethane components combining and mixing. The apparatus is completed by a nozzle assembly which utilizes pneumatic pressure to dispense the mixed urethane components into a mold cavities containing a golf ball sub-assemblies. The present invention provides for a process to mix urethane reactive components into homogenous material. The process comprises pumping bulk materials through the apparatus wherein they are mixed by a plastic disposable mixer element, while the temperature of the mixing components (which emit a relatively large amount of heat due to their exothermic reaction), is controlled. The mixed urethane composition is dispensed into a golf ball mold cavity for forming around a golf ball sub-assembly. | 20040607 | 20070724 | 20051208 | 92575.0 | 0 | SOOHOO, TONY GLEN | GOLF BALL MIXING AND DISPENSING APPARATUS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,862,878 | ACCEPTED | Control of terminal applications in a network environment | a mechanism and method for controlling the rights and/or behavior of applications in a terminal, especially in a mobile terminal, are disclosed. At least some of the messages generated by an application residing in the terminal and destined for a communication network are diverted to an independent controlling entity also residing in the terminal. In the controlling entity, the messages are controlled before being transmitted to the network. Depending on the application and its behavior in the terminal, the control entity may modify the messages or even prevent their sending to the network. The modification may include inserting control data, such as a digest, which can be used to authenticate the application. | 1. A method for controlling applications in a communication terminal, the method comprising the steps of: sending messages from an application towards a communication network, the application residing in a communication terminal; diverting a message of the messages to a controlling entity residing in the communication terminal; and controlling the message in the controlling entity before the message is transmitted from the communication terminal to the communication network. 2. A method according to claim 1, further comprising a step of checking a right related to the application, the right indicating whether the application is authorized to run in the terminal, the checking step performed prior to the sending step. 3. A method according to claim 2, wherein the controlling step includes a step of modifying the message diverted to the controlling entity. 4. A method according to claim 3, further comprising a step of authenticating the application in response to reception of the message modified in the modifying step. 5. A method according to claim 4, further comprising a step of creating a token for the authenticating step. 6. A method according to claim 5, further comprising a step of retrieving the token from a first network node, wherein the creating step is performed in the first network node. 7. A method according to claim 6, wherein the retrieving step comprises performing the retrieving step in response to the checking step. 8. A method according to claim 6, further comprising a step of downloading the application from a second network node to the communication terminal. 9. A method according to claim 8, wherein the modifying step includes the steps of: calculating a digest based on the token and a secret key; and adding the digest in the message diverted to the controlling entity. 10. A method according to claim 9, further comprising the steps of: generating the secret key in the second network node; and transferring the secret key to the communication terminal. 11. A method according to claim 10, wherein the transferring step comprises performing the transferring step in connection with the downloading step. 12. A method according to claim 10, wherein the downloading step comprises downloading the application from the second network node, in which the first and second network nodes are the same. 13. A method according to claim 9, wherein the authenticating step comprises verifying the digest. 14. A method according to claim 13, wherein verifying step comprises verifying the digest in the first network node. 15. A method according to claim 4, wherein the modifying step includes a step of adding an identifier in the message diverted to the controlling entity, in which the identifier identifies the application. 16. A method according to claim 15, wherein the authenticating step includes: generating a token in response to reception of the message including the identifier; and sending the token to the communication terminal. 17. A method according to claim 16, further including a step of calculating a digest based on the token and a secret key, the calculating step performed in the communication terminal. 18. A method according to claim 17, wherein the authenticating step includes verifying the digest calculated in the communication terminal. 19. A method according to claim 1, wherein the controlling step comprises preventing the message diverted to the controlling entity from being transmitted to the communication network. 20. A method according to claim 1, further comprising the steps of: storing a plurality of applications in the communication terminal, and maintaining a repository including application identifiers for the plurality of applications for which the diverting and controlling steps are to be performed. 21. A method according to claim 20, further comprising a step of examining whether the diverting and controlling steps are performed for the message sent from the application towards the network, the examining step including comparing an application identifier of the application identifiers within the message with the application identifiers stored in the repository. 22. A method according claim 21, wherein the examining step further includes examining message type. 23. A method according claim 1, wherein the diverting step includes diverting the messages to the controlling entity. 24. A terminal for a communication system, the terminal comprising: an application to send messages towards a communication network; diverting means for diverting a message of the messages sent from the application and destined for the communication network to a controlling entity residing in the terminal, wherein the controlling entity is configured to control the message before it is transmitted to the communication network. 25. A terminal according to claim 24, wherein the controlling entity is configured to check a right related to the application, the right indicating whether the application is authorized to be run in the terminal. 26. A terminal according to claim 24, wherein the controlling entity resides in a tamper resistant area of the terminal. 27. A terminal according to claim 24, wherein the controlling entity is configured to add a digest in the message. 28. A terminal according to claim 24, wherein the controlling entity is configured to add an identifier in the message, wherein the identifier identifies the application. 29. A terminal according to claim 24, wherein the diverting means comprise a software module residing between the at least one application and a protocol stack residing in the terminal. 30. A terminal according to claim 24, wherein the diverting means are introduced into a protocol stack residing the terminal. 31. A terminal according to claim 24, further including a repository including application identifiers for determining whether the message sent by the application is diverted to the controlling entity. 32. A terminal according to claim 24, wherein the terminal comprises a mobile terminal. 33. A system for authenticating applications in a communication network, the system comprising: an application to send messages towards a communication network; diverting means for diverting a message of the messages sent from the application and destined for the communication network to a controlling entity residing in a terminal, the controlling entity configured to add control data to the message; authentication means for receiving the control data to initiate authentication of the application in response to reception of the control data; and connection set-up means, responsive to the authentication means, for setting up a connection when the application is successfully authenticated by the authentication means. 34. A system according to claim 33, wherein the authentication means comprises authentication means for receiving the control data, in which the control data includes a digest calculated based on a secret key and a token, the authentication means configured to verify the digest. 35. A system according to claim 33, wherein the system further includes a delivery server for delivering applications to communication terminals, the delivery server located in the communication network. 36. A system according to claim 35, wherein the delivery server generates a secret key in connection with a download of the application from the delivery server to the terminal. 37. A system according to claim 33, wherein the control data includes an identifier identifying the application. 38. A system according to claim 35, wherein the authentication means send a token to the terminal in response to reception of an identifier for calculating a digest in the terminal, in which the authentication means verifies the digest. 39. A system for controlling applications in a communication terminal, the system comprising: sending means for sending messages from an application towards a communication network, the application residing in a communication terminal; diverting means for diverting a message of the messages to a controlling entity residing in the communication terminal; and controlling means for controlling the message in the controlling entity before the message is transmitted from the communication terminal to the communication network. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to control of applications residing in a communication terminal, especially in a mobile terminal. More particularly, the invention relates to a mechanism for controlling the rights and/or behavior of terminal applications in a network environment. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The current development towards truly mobile computing and networking has brought on the evolvement of various access technologies, which also provide the users with access to the Internet when they are outside their own home network. The first public communication network that provides a truly ubiquitous World Wide Web (WWW) access is the GSM-based mobile telephone network. So far, the use of the Internet has been dominated by person-to-machine communications, i.e. information services. The evolution towards the so-called third generation (3G) wireless networks brings along mobile multimedia communications, which will also change the way IP-based services are utilized in public mobile networks. The IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), as specified by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), integrates mobile voice communications with Internet technologies, allowing IP-based multimedia services to be utilized in mobile networks. The new multimedia capable mobile terminals (multimedia phones) provide an open development platform for application developers, allowing independent application developers to design new services and applications for the multimedia environment. The users may, in turn, download the new applications/services to their mobile terminals and use them therein. A drawback related to the open development platform is the possibility to use fraudulent applications. At present, the mobile terminals and the mobile communication environment lack sufficient technical means for ascertaining that the applications developed for the open platform behave in an appropriate and rightful manner. This allows deceptive application developers to misuse the new communication environment and to develop applications that behave contrary to the agreements made with the operator of the network, for example. The present invention seeks to eliminate the above-described drawback. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention seeks to bring about the necessary mechanisms, for both terminals and networks, for efficiently controlling the behavior of applications residing in a terminal, especially in a mobile terminal, and for eliminating the possibility to misuse another application in place of a valid application. In the present invention, the control mechanisms rest on a separate controlling entity residing in a terminal. At least some of the outbound messages generated by an application in a terminal are diverted to the controlling entity on their way from the application to the network. The controlling entity evaluates whether any changes are needed in the message or in the behavior of the application. Based on the evaluation, the control entity then returns the message intact or in a modified form. The controlling entity may even prohibit the sending of the message, if it detects that the application has no pertinent rights or that the application is not behaving, as it should. The controlling entity resides in a tamper resistant area of the terminal, so that its operation cannot be affected by the user or other parties that are beyond the control of the network operator. The outbound messages of an application are thus controlled by a controlling entity, which is totally independent of the applications residing in the terminal. Due to its nature, the controlling entity is also termed the trusted agent in this context. Thus one embodiment of the invention is the provision of a method for controlling applications in a communication terminal. The method includes the steps of sending messages from an application towards a communication network, where the application resides in the communication terminal, and diverting at least one message destined for the communication network to a controlling entity residing in the communication terminal. The method also includes controlling, in the controlling entity, the at least one message diverted to it before being transmitted from the communication terminal to the communication network. In another embodiment the invention provides a terminal for a communication system. The terminal includes one or more applications configured to send messages towards a communication network and diverting means for diverting selected messages sent from an application and destined for the communication network to a controlling entity residing in the terminal, where the controlling entity is configured to control the selected messages before it is to be transmitted to the communication network. The invention also provides the mechanisms needed in the network for controlling the applications residing in a terminal, the mechanisms resting on the above operation of the controlling entity. One embodiment the invention thus provides a system for authenticating applications in a communication network. In a communication terminal the system includes at least one application configured to send messages towards the communication network and diverting means for diverting at least some of the messages sent from an application and destined for the communication network to the controlling entity residing in the terminal, the controlling entity being configured to add control data to at least some of the messages diverted to it. In the communication network the system further includes authentication means for receiving the control data, the authentication means being configured to initiate authentication of the application in response to reception of the control data. The system further includes connection set-up means, responsive to the authentication means, for setting up a connection when the application is successfully authenticated by the authentication means. By means of the solution of the invention, certain open platform applications, which the users may use in their terminals, can be efficiently controlled so that the applications cannot misuse the communication environment. In one embodiment of the invention, an application is authenticated by having the controlling entity provide an initial message sent by the application towards the network with a digest or digital signature, which is verified in the network prior to the setting up of a session. In this way, the network may ensure that the message was generated by an application that is controlled in the terminal so that misuse is not possible. This allows the network operators to use application-specific billing without a risk of misuse of the terms of an invoicing agreement, for example. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the following, the invention and many of its embodiments are described more closely with reference to the examples shown in FIGS. 1 to 10 in the appended drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a communication environment in which the principles of the present the invention may be beneficially implemented; FIG. 2 illustrates one embodiment of a mobile terminal according to the invention; FIG. 3 illustrates one embodiment of a message exchange between the different entities in the terminal of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 illustrates another example of a communication environment in which the principles of the present the invention may be beneficially implemented; FIG. 5 illustrates one embodiment of the invention for utilizing the control mechanism of the terminal for authenticating an application; FIG. 6 illustrates another embodiment of a mobile terminal according to the invention; FIG. 7 and FIG. 8 illustrate two further embodiments of a mobile terminal according to the invention; FIG: 9 illustrates another embodiment of the invention for utilizing the control mechanism of the terminal for authenticating an application; and FIG. 10 illustrates still another embodiment of the invention for utilizing the control mechanism of the terminal for authenticating an application. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 shows an example of a general communication environment in which the present invention can be applied, the communication environment being based on the IMS architecture as defined by the 3GPP. It is thus assumed here that a call processing server 110 includes the Call State Control Functions (CSCF) according to the IMS architecture and that it is connected to the core network elements, such as the Home Subscriber Server (HSS) 112, needed for provision of multimedia services. The HSS contains the master database for a given user. The call processing server, which also generates billing data for a separate billing system (not shown in the figure), is connected to a General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) network 104. The GPRS network is further connected to a Radio Access Network (RAN) 103 comprising a plurality of base stations 102 with which mobile terminals 100 communicate through a radio interface. The user of a mobile terminal is thus a subscriber in a mobile communication system, such as the GSM or UMTS system, while the terminal is typically a multimedia phone. A delivery server 111, from which applications may be downloaded to the mobile terminals is connected to the GPRS network, either directly or through another packet network, such as the Internet. FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of one embodiment of a terminal according to the invention. The entities relevant to the invention reside in a tamper resistant area 200 of the terminal or in an open platform area 201. The tamper resistant area includes at least one trusted agent 212, which acts as a controlling entity controlling the rights and behavior of the applications. The trusted agent may be a dedicated software agent or a Digital Rights Management (DRM) agent whose normal functionality has been modified for the method of the invention. The open platform area in turn includes a plurality of applications 2101 to 210N which may be downloaded from the delivery server 111, for example. The applications access the network through a protocol stack 220, which is a Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) stack in this environment. The tamper resistant area may further include an application repository 211 that includes identifiers of applications that need to be controlled by the trusted agent 212. The arrows provided with underlined numbers 1-10 present the cooperation of the different terminal entities when an authorized application residing in the terminal is started. The applications are typically downloaded in encrypted form from the delivery server. When a user downloads an encrypted application, the encrypted application instance is normally accompanied with a rights module including a key 213 for decrypting the application and a rights voucher 214, which expresses the rights acquired by the user for the application. As also discussed below, it is assumed here that the key and the rights voucher are utilized according to the normal functionality of a DRM agent. FIG. 3 illustrates the message exchange between the above terminal entities, when an application is started. Reference numbers 1-10 correspond to the steps provided with like numbers in FIG. 2. It is assumed here that the user of the mobile terminal 100 starts application 210N. This may be a chess application, for example, in which case the user wants to play chess with the user of another mobile terminal containing a similar chess application. When the user starts the application, the application communicates (step 1) with the trusted agent. The trusted agent checks (step 2) the rights of the application and allows the decryption of the application if it detects that the application is legally downloaded from the delivery server or is otherwise legally acquired. The checking of the rights and the decryption of the application is normally handled by the DRM agent, so if there is a separate trusted agent in addition to a normal DRM agent, these steps may be handled by the DRM agent. In connection with the decryption of the application, the trusted agent also writes the identifier of the application to the application repository, if it detects that the application is such that its behavior needs to be controlled (step 3). If there is a separate trusted agent in addition to a normal DRM agent in the terminal, the DRM agent may transfer the control of the operation to the trusted agent before the writing event. After the decryption, the application starts a session by sending an INVITE request according to the SIP protocol to the opposite terminal (step 4). The INVITE request invites the opposite terminal to participate in the session, which is here assumed to be a chess session, and it includes a description of the session, for example. The INVITE request further includes the identifier of the application, which is then utilized by the SIP protocol stack. When the protocol stack receives the outbound INVITE request generated by the application, it checks from the application repository whether the application is such that it needs to be controlled (step 5). If the application identifier is found in the repository, the repository returns a positive response (step 6) indicating that the application needs to be controlled. When the protocol stack receives the positive response, it sends the INVITE request to the trusted agent (step 7). The trusted agent then examines the request and checks, whether the application behaves as it should be behaving (step 8). The trusted agent may modify the request, for example by adding control data, such as control parameters, to the request. As discussed below, the trusted agent may also prohibit the sending of the request. If the trusted agent allows the sending of the request, it returns the request, either as such or in a modified form, to the SIP protocol stack (step 9). The protocol stack then transmits the INVITE request to the network (step 10). If the response at step 6 from the application repository is negative, the protocol stack transmits the INVITE request directly to the network, i.e. the INVITE request is not sent to the trusted agent. In one embodiment of the invention, the applications are authenticated by means of the above mechanism. In another embodiment, the mechanism is utilized for ensuring that authorized applications obey the SIP policies of the operator. The authentication of the applications is discussed first. FIG. 4 shows an example of a general communication environment in which the authentication of the applications can be implemented. The communication environment now includes an authentication server 120 for authenticating the application before a session is set up. Otherwise the environment may be as discussed in connection with FIG. 1. FIG. 5 illustrates one embodiment of the message exchange in the environment of FIG. 4. When the application is started, the trusted agent first checks the rights of the application (step 2). If the rights are valid, the trusted agent sends a token request to the authentication server (step 2A) requesting a token for the session that is about to start. In response to the request, the authentication server returns a token to the trusted agent (step 2B). The token request may include, for example, the subscriber identifier in question so that the authentication server will be able to associate a subsequent authentication request with the correct token. The token is typically a random number used in digest calculation, i.e. it is different for each request (session) in order to eliminate misuse by replaying messages. When the trusted agent has received the token, the application control continues as discussed in connection with FIGS. 2 and 3. Reference numeral 230 in FIG. 5 refers to the block marked with the same reference numeral in FIG. 3. However, in the example of FIG. 5 the trusted agent modifies the INVITE request by adding a digest, or a digital signature, to the INVITE request at step 8. In other words, in the embodiment of FIG. 5 the control data shown in the modified INVITE request of FIG. 3 includes a digest. The INVITE request is then transmitted (step 10) to the call processing server, which now performs an additional authentication step in order to authenticate the application. For this purpose, the call processing server sends an authentication request to the authentication server (step 11). This authentication request includes, in addition to the digest, the subscriber identifier so that the authentication server is able to identify the correct token it previously assigned for this session. The authentication request may also include the whole INVITE request (including the subscriber identifier). Based on the token found, the authentication server calculates a digest and compares it with the digest received in the authentication request. The token may also be transmitted to the authentication server, whereby no other search keys are needed for identifying the correct token in the authentication server. The digest may be calculated in a standard manner using the same algorithm in the terminal and in the authentication server and using a secret key, the token, and possibly also other predetermined data, such as the subscriber identifier, as the input data for the algorithm, which then outputs the digest. The secret key may be a symmetric key (shared secret) or the private key of the trusted agent. In the latter case the authentication server uses the public key of the trusted agent. The algorithm used may be the MD5 or the SHA-1, for example. As discussed below, the secret key may received in connection with each application download (the key in the rights module), or a key stored permanently in the tamper resistant area may be used for the authentication of the applications. If the authentication server detects that the digest calculated by it matches the digest received in the authentication request, the application is successfully authenticated. In other words, the authentication server can be sure that the application is controlled by the trusted agent in the terminal, and therefore no misuse is possible in the terminal. The authentication server then returns an authentication response to the call processing server (step 12). If the response indicates that the authentication was successful, the call-processing server forwards the INVITE request to the opposite terminal (step 13) and generates a charging record for the session. However, if the authentication did not succeed, the call processing server sends an error message to the terminal. The above-described embodiments of the terminal may be modified by omitting the use of the application repository, for example. In this case, the SIP protocol stack sends the INVITE request of each authorized application to the trusted agent, since it cannot be sure whether the application is such that it needs to be controlled. The trusted agent then examines whether any control operations are needed. As mentioned above, in one embodiment of the invention the applications are controlled to ensure that they obey the policies set by the operator. In this embodiment of the invention, the tamper resistant area includes the policy rules set for the terminals. As shown in FIG. 6, which illustrates this embodiment of the terminal, the rules may be stored in a separate database 250 in the tamper resistant area. The operation of the terminal corresponds to that described in connection with FIGS. 2 and 3, except that in this embodiment the trusted agent compares the behavior of the application to the policy rules at step 8. Moreover, in this embodiment the type(s) of the messages may be different. Depending on the result of the comparison, the trusted agent may then allow or prohibit the sending of the message, for example. The policy rules may also be stored in the application repository, if the repository is used in the terminal. The policy rules may include, for example, load parameters that indicate whether an application is causing excessive load. A default set of the policy rules may be stored in the tamper resistant area in the manufacturing phase of the terminal, and/or the operator may be able to download policy rules into the tamper resistant area. The functionality needed in the SIP protocol stack may be introduced as changes made within the protocol stack, as is assumed in the above examples. Alternatively, the functionality may be introduced as a separate middleware modification module that resides between the application(s) and the protocol stack and which thus also provides an Application Program Interface (API) for the applications. This embodiment is illustrated in FIGS. 7 and 8. In FIG. 7 it is assumed that no application repository is utilized in the tamper resistant area, but that the middleware modification module 260 sends all the INVITE requests to the trusted agent (step 5 in the figure). FIG. 8 shows an embodiment with the application repository. It is further assumed in FIG. 7 and FIG. 8 that the trusted agent fetches the token from the network (steps 3 and 4, respectively) after the rights of the application have been checked (steps 1 and 2). The token may also be fetched after the application has been started, since the INVITE request is in any case diverted to the trusted agent for the addition of the digest. The above-described mechanism cannot prevent unauthorized applications, i.e. applications that are not approved by the operator, from being used in the terminal. Rather, the above mechanism prevents an unauthorized application from being used in place of a valid application. If the use unauthorized applications is also to be eliminated, the SIP stack must be moved to the tamper-proof area or the possibility to change the SIP stack is to be eliminated otherwise. In the above examples, it is assumed that the SIP stack (or the middleware modification module) can be changed but the trusted agent offers its services only to a valid SIP stack (or middleware modification module). The authentication of the application may also be performed in another network element than the authentication server. FIG. 9 illustrates an example, in which the authentication occurs in the delivery server. When the user decides to download an application from the delivery server (step 900), a download request is sent from the terminal to the delivery server (step 901). In response to the request, the delivery server generates a secret key and an identifier, which are specific to the application instance to be sent to the user (step 902). The delivery server then sends the encrypted content (application) to the terminal, together with a rights module that includes a key and the identifier generated (step 903). When the application is started (step 904), the trusted agent checks the rights of the application (step 905) and sends a token request to the delivery server if the rights are valid (step 906). The token request includes the identifier of the application instance. Upon receiving the request, the delivery server generates a token, associates it with the identifier of the application instance (step 907), and returns the token to the terminal (step 908). When the trusted agent has received the token, the application control may continue as discussed in connection with FIGS. 2 and 3. Reference numeral 230 in FIG. 9 refers to the block marked with the same reference numeral in FIG. 3. However, in the example of FIG. 9 the trusted agent may now modify the INVITE request by adding the digest and the identifier of the application instance to the INVITE request (which includes the user identity in the message header). This INVITE request is sent to the call processing server (step 909), which finds out the correct delivery server (step 910) and sends the authentication request to that delivery server (step 911). The authentication request includes the digest, the identifier of the application instance, and the identifier of the user. Based on the binding established earlier at step 907, the delivery server finds the correct token, whereby it can calculate the digest and compare the calculated digest with the digest received in the authentication request (step 912). The delivery server then returns the authentication response to the call processing server (step 913). If the response indicates that the authentication was successful, the call processing server may then invite the other party/parties to the session (step 914). However, if the authentication did not succeed, the call processing server sends an error message to the terminal. In the example of FIG. 9, the calculation of the digest is based on an application-instance-specific secret key generated by the delivery server in connection with the download of the application, i.e. different keys are generated for each download of a particular application (such as a chess application) by the delivery server. It is also possible that an application-specific (i.e. not instance-specific) secret key is generated by the delivery server, in which case different keys are generated for different applications. However, as mentioned above, the authentication may also be based on a public/private key pair or a shared secret, which may not be application-specific. The private key and a certificate (including the corresponding public key) may be stored in the terminal already in the manufacturing phase, for example. If the authentication process utilizes a permanent private key stored in the tamper-resistant area, all the applications are authenticated by means of the same key. In case of a key that is not application-specific, the trusted entity is actually the entity authenticated. However, as in this case the authenticating entity can be sure that the application is controlled by the trusted agent in the terminal, the authentication of the application here refers to all the above alternative uses of a key/shared secret. The authentication may also be introduced into the call processing server, for example, or the authentication server may be in connection with the delivery server or the call processing server. However, if the authentication process utilizes application-specific or application-instance-specific keys generated by the delivery server and another entity than the delivery server acts as the authenticating entity, the keys must be transferred to the said another entity. In one embodiment of the invention, the terminal may fetch several tokens at a time and use them one by one. Each time an application is started, the terminal takes one of the tokens fetched and uses it for calculating the digest. Once a token is used, it is discarded. In this embodiment, token identifiers may be used to indicate the token used at each time. The authenticating entity (such as the delivery server) may send the identifiers together with the tokens to the terminal, and the terminal may insert the token identifier in the INVITE request, whereby the authenticating entity may perform the authentication based on the correct token. In another embodiment of the invention, the call processing server challenges the terminal after the INVITE request is sent. In this embodiment, which is illustrated in FIG. 10, the download and the start of the application (steps 1000 to 1005) as well as the application control in the terminal may be performed as disclosed above. However, the token request is not sent prior to the INVITE request, but the terminal first sends an INVITE request failing to include the digest (step 1009). When the delivery server receives the INVITE request, it generates a token (step 1010) and sends it to the terminal. The terminal then calculates the digest based on the token and returns the digest to the delivery server, which then also calculates the digest and compares it with the digest received from the terminal (step 1016). The authentication result is then sent to the call processing server (step 1017), and the process continues in the above-described manner. In still another embodiment of the invention, the terminal and the authenticating entity, such as the delivery server, are provided with their respective counters. The terminal increments its counter each time an application is started and uses the counter value for the calculation of the digest. The authenticating entity in turn increments its counter each time a digest is checked. In this way no token needs to be transmitted, since the counter value acts as a token. However, a synchronization mechanism is needed for the counters to maintain them synchronized. Although the invention was described above with reference to the examples shown in the appended drawings, it is obvious that the invention is not limited to these, but may be modified by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. For example, in the above examples the mutual order of some messages may be changed and one message shown in the examples may in practice comprise more than one message. The mechanism may also be applied to other type of messages than the above-mentioned INVITE request, especially if the behavior of the applications is controlled. If the communication is session-based, the authentication needs to be performed only for the message initiating the session, while in an event-based communication each message needs to be authenticated. The mechanism may also be used in another than the above-described IMS-based environment, in which case the protocol stack used may also be another than an SIP stack. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The current development towards truly mobile computing and networking has brought on the evolvement of various access technologies, which also provide the users with access to the Internet when they are outside their own home network. The first public communication network that provides a truly ubiquitous World Wide Web (WWW) access is the GSM-based mobile telephone network. So far, the use of the Internet has been dominated by person-to-machine communications, i.e. information services. The evolution towards the so-called third generation (3G) wireless networks brings along mobile multimedia communications, which will also change the way IP-based services are utilized in public mobile networks. The IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), as specified by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), integrates mobile voice communications with Internet technologies, allowing IP-based multimedia services to be utilized in mobile networks. The new multimedia capable mobile terminals (multimedia phones) provide an open development platform for application developers, allowing independent application developers to design new services and applications for the multimedia environment. The users may, in turn, download the new applications/services to their mobile terminals and use them therein. A drawback related to the open development platform is the possibility to use fraudulent applications. At present, the mobile terminals and the mobile communication environment lack sufficient technical means for ascertaining that the applications developed for the open platform behave in an appropriate and rightful manner. This allows deceptive application developers to misuse the new communication environment and to develop applications that behave contrary to the agreements made with the operator of the network, for example. The present invention seeks to eliminate the above-described drawback. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention seeks to bring about the necessary mechanisms, for both terminals and networks, for efficiently controlling the behavior of applications residing in a terminal, especially in a mobile terminal, and for eliminating the possibility to misuse another application in place of a valid application. In the present invention, the control mechanisms rest on a separate controlling entity residing in a terminal. At least some of the outbound messages generated by an application in a terminal are diverted to the controlling entity on their way from the application to the network. The controlling entity evaluates whether any changes are needed in the message or in the behavior of the application. Based on the evaluation, the control entity then returns the message intact or in a modified form. The controlling entity may even prohibit the sending of the message, if it detects that the application has no pertinent rights or that the application is not behaving, as it should. The controlling entity resides in a tamper resistant area of the terminal, so that its operation cannot be affected by the user or other parties that are beyond the control of the network operator. The outbound messages of an application are thus controlled by a controlling entity, which is totally independent of the applications residing in the terminal. Due to its nature, the controlling entity is also termed the trusted agent in this context. Thus one embodiment of the invention is the provision of a method for controlling applications in a communication terminal. The method includes the steps of sending messages from an application towards a communication network, where the application resides in the communication terminal, and diverting at least one message destined for the communication network to a controlling entity residing in the communication terminal. The method also includes controlling, in the controlling entity, the at least one message diverted to it before being transmitted from the communication terminal to the communication network. In another embodiment the invention provides a terminal for a communication system. The terminal includes one or more applications configured to send messages towards a communication network and diverting means for diverting selected messages sent from an application and destined for the communication network to a controlling entity residing in the terminal, where the controlling entity is configured to control the selected messages before it is to be transmitted to the communication network. The invention also provides the mechanisms needed in the network for controlling the applications residing in a terminal, the mechanisms resting on the above operation of the controlling entity. One embodiment the invention thus provides a system for authenticating applications in a communication network. In a communication terminal the system includes at least one application configured to send messages towards the communication network and diverting means for diverting at least some of the messages sent from an application and destined for the communication network to the controlling entity residing in the terminal, the controlling entity being configured to add control data to at least some of the messages diverted to it. In the communication network the system further includes authentication means for receiving the control data, the authentication means being configured to initiate authentication of the application in response to reception of the control data. The system further includes connection set-up means, responsive to the authentication means, for setting up a connection when the application is successfully authenticated by the authentication means. By means of the solution of the invention, certain open platform applications, which the users may use in their terminals, can be efficiently controlled so that the applications cannot misuse the communication environment. In one embodiment of the invention, an application is authenticated by having the controlling entity provide an initial message sent by the application towards the network with a digest or digital signature, which is verified in the network prior to the setting up of a session. In this way, the network may ensure that the message was generated by an application that is controlled in the terminal so that misuse is not possible. This allows the network operators to use application-specific billing without a risk of misuse of the terms of an invoicing agreement, for example. | 20040608 | 20070515 | 20050623 | 78187.0 | 19 | LE, DANH C | CONTROL OF TERMINAL APPLICATIONS IN A NETWORK ENVIRONMENT | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,862,888 | ACCEPTED | System and method for providing a service | A method of providing a service, comprising the steps of contacting one of a plurality of server electronic addresses from a first electronic address; identifying, at the server electronic address, the first electronic address from which the contact is made; and providing a service based on a service definition depending on a combination of the server electronic address and the first electronic address, and wherein the service definition comprises one or more second electronic addresses for execution of the service. | 1. A method of providing a service, comprising the steps of contacting one of a plurality of server electronic addresses from a first electronic address; identifying, at the server electronic address, the first electronic address from which the contact is made; and providing a service based on a service definition depending on a combination of the server electronic address and the first electronic address, and wherein the service definition comprises one or more second electronic addresses for execution of the service. 2. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the service definition is set up by a person associated with the first electronic address. 3. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the service definition is set up by a person associated with the second electronic addresses. 4. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the one or more second electronic addresses include the first electronic address and/or the server electronic address. 5. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the service definition comprises one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the one or more second electronic addresses, leaving a message at the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an email to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an SMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending a fax to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an IM to the one or more second electronic addresses; sending an MMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, making a calling card call to the one or more second electronic addresses, making an access sequence call to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending audio data to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending video data to the one or more second electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the one or more second electronic addresses. 6. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the service definition comprises one or more of a group comprising receiving a voice call from the one or more second electronic addresses, recording a message from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an email from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an SMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a fax from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an IM from the one or more second electronic addresses; receiving an MMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a calling card call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an access sequence call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving audio data from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving video data from the one or more second electronic addresses, and receiving multi-media data from the one or more second electronic addresses. 7. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein contacting the server electronic from the first electronic address comprises one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the server electronic address, sending an email to the server electronic address, sending an SMS to the server electronic address, sending a fax to the server electronic address, sending an IM to the server electronic address; sending an MMS to the server electronic address, making a calling card call to the server electronic address, making an access sequence call to the server electronic address, sending audio data to the server electronic addresses, sending video data to the server electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the server electronic addresses. 8. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the service definition comprises conversion of one communication format into another communication format. 9. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the service definition comprises recording a communication to and/or from the one or more second electronic addresses. 10. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the service definition comprises a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address. 11. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the service definition comprises a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address and connecting the third electronic address to the server electronic address. 12. A system for providing a service, the system comprising: an electronic device having a first electronic address; a server having associated with it a plurality of server electronic addresses; a database accessible by the server; wherein the electronic device contacts one of the server electronic addresses; the server identifies the first electronic address from which the contact is made; and the server initiates a service based on a service definition stored in the database depending on a combination of the server electronic address and the first electronic address, and wherein the service definition comprises one or more second electronic addresses for execution of the service. 13. The system as claimed in claim 12, wherein the server further comprises a user-interface unit for setting up the service definition by a person associated with the first electronic address. 14. The system as claimed in claim 12, wherein the server further comprises a user-interface unit for setting up the service definition by a person associated with the second electronic addresses. 15. The system as claimed in claim 12, wherein the one or more second electronic addresses include the first electronic address and/or the server electronic address. 16. The system as claimed in claim 12, wherein the service definition comprises one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the one or more second electronic addresses, leaving a message at the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an email to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an SMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending a fax to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an IM to the one or more second electronic addresses; sending an MMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, making a calling card call to the one or more second electronic addresses, making an access sequence call to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending audio data to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending video data to the one or more second electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the one or more second electronic addresses. 17. The system as claimed in claim 12, wherein the service definition comprises one or more of a group comprising receiving a voice call from the one or more second electronic addresses, recording a message from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an email from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an SMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a fax from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an IM from the one or more second electronic addresses; receiving an MMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a calling card call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an access sequence call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving audio data from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving video data from the one or more second electronic addresses, and receiving multi-media data from the one or more second electronic addresses. 18. The system as claimed in claim 12, wherein contacting the server electronic address from the first electronic address comprises one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the server electronic address, sending an email to the server electronic address, sending an SMS to the server electronic address, sending a fax to the server electronic address, sending an IM to the server electronic address; sending an MMS to the server electronic address, making a calling card call to the server electronic address, making an access sequence call to the server electronic address, sending audio data to the server electronic addresses, sending video data to the server electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the server electronic addresses. 19. The system as claimed in claim 12, wherein the server converts one communication format into another communication format as part of the initiating of the service. 20. The system as claimed in claim 12, wherein the server records a communication to and/or from the one or more second electronic addresses as part of the execution of the service. 21. The system as claimed in claim 12, wherein the service definition comprises a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address. 22. The system as claimed in claim 12, wherein the service definition comprises a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address and connecting the third electronic address to the server electronic address. 23. A computer readable medium having stored thereon computer readable code means for instructing a computer controlled system to execute a method of providing a service, the method comprising the steps of contacting one of a plurality of server electronic addresses from a first electronic address; identifying, at the server electronic address, the first electronic address from which the contact is made; and providing a service based on a service definition depending on a combination of the server electronic address and the first electronic address, and wherein the service definition comprises one or more second electronic addresses for execution of the service. | FIELD OF INVENTION The present invention relates broadly to a method and system for providing a service. BACKGROUND In telecommunication, there is a continued demand to provide a larger variety of services utilising the infra-structure of telecommunication networks. With the continued improvement to electronic devices involved in the telecommunication infra-structure, such as computers connected to the internet and mobile phones, the potential for providing a large variety of services has been significantly increased. At the same time, one of the challenges emerging now is to provide such services in a user-friendly way. As an example mobile phones are primarily designed for voice calling and sending short text messages (popularly known as SMS). However there is great demand for access to mobile services, such as send/receive emails from phones/fax machines, call alert, and resource management (e.g. downloading and listening of music). A large number of services have been introduced in recent times. However they are not user friendly and require user familiarity and availability of certain additional technologies, for instance General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), which may not be supported in all mobile phones. There are problems such as the complex, time-consuming and sometimes expensive processes that users have to undergo in order to use the mobile services. In many instances, they have to do one or more of the following: (1) change phones, (2) remember complex commands, (3) pay for expensive services, (4) structure their communication in a prescribed format, and (5) spend time. An example of a prior art for Email-to-Phone service is GB2380897, entitled “Sending Email To Mobile Phone As Text Message”. Another example of a prior art for Email-to-Phone service is GB2381998, entitled “Delivery of email to text telephone”. An example of a message retrieval service is EP1104206, entitled “Mobile Station (MS) Message Selection Identification System”. An example of a music delivery service is DE19950001, entitled “Method for the selection, transmission, and playback of pieces of music by subscribers of a digital mobile communication network”. An example of a service for sending voice emails from a mobile phone is WO02096076, entitled, “Voice Attachment To An Email Using A Wireless Communication Device”. An example for a service for sending audio file attachments in an electronic message from a telephone is U.S. Pat. No. 6,385,306, entitled, “Audio file transmission method”. An example of a service for sending text and multimedia messages to email users from a mobile phone is WO03024069, entitled, “Method And System For Handling Multi-Part Messages Sent To E-Mail Clients From Cellular Phones”. An example of a service for sending SMS/voice emails/IM from a mobile phone WO0135615, entitled, “Telephone Based Access To Instant Messaging”. An example of telephony and online communication service is CA2379741, entitled, “Instant Messaging Using A Wireless Interface”. An example of a user-to-user voice messaging service is EP1185068, entitled, “Method and apparatus for voice messaging originated by mobile terminals”. An example of a solution to a voice/fax messaging service is WO0110089, entitled, “A Method And System For Electronic Messaging”. An example of mobile phone call recording, storing and retrieving service is US2002155847, entitled, “Communications recording system”. An example of a Personalised Identification Number (PIN) based telephone service is U.S. Pat. No. 6072860, entitled, “Telephone apparatus with recording of phone conversations on massive storage”. An example of a mobile phone for secured recording and reproduction of phone conversation is RU2207740, entitled, “Mobile Phone With Scope For Uninterrupted Recording”. An example of a mobile set for real time recording of voice/data/video is US2004041694, entitled, “Methods of recording voice signals in a mobile set”. An example of a telephone recording service is WO02069612, entitled, “System And Method For Recording Telephone Conversations”. An example of a recording and recorded Call Retrieval service is WO02093874, entitled, “System And Method For Telephone Call Recording And Recorded Call Retrieval”. An example of a service for recording telephone conversation and user memoranda is EP1199870 entitled, “Mobile telephone recording system and method”. An example of a recurring conversation recording service is EP1113652, entitled, “Recurring conversation recording”. An example of an emergency call service solution is U.S. Pat. No. 2002067806, entitled, “System and method for urgent phone message delivery”. Another example of an emergency call service solution is U.S. Pat. No. 6,477,374, entitled, “Apparatus and method for calendar based call routing”. An example of a call screening service is U.S. Pat. No. 5604792, entitled, “Call screening method”. An example of call screening service with selective call acceptance is U.S. Pat. No. 5,596,627, entitled, “Call screening method using selective call acceptance”. Examples of anonymous telephone systems are WO9501037, U.S. Pat. No. 5,361,295, U.S. Pat. No. 5,768,348 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,623,536, where all four are entitled, “Anonymous interactive telephone system”. An example of a system involved in call forwarding service is EP0674419, entitled, “Communication system for processing caller ID information”. An example of a message notification service using email is U.S. Pat. No. 2001039561, entitled, “Method for notifying message reception by e-mail in voice mail system”. An example of an advertising service is CA2388418 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,381,465, both entitled, “System And Method For Attaching An Advertisement To An SMS Message For Wireless Transmission”. An example of a service for music and information delivery is W00128183 entitled, “Method for the selection, transmission, and playback of pieces of music by subscribers of a digital mobile communication network”. An example of a service for anonymous sending of items to a physical address is US2004002903 entitled, “Electronic purchase of gods over a communications network including physical delivery while securing private and personal information of the purchasing party”. The applicant has found that each of the above prior art systems and methods suffer from inflexibility of the customised services provided and/or from complex and not user friendly authentication and/or set-up processes. Hence, it was with knowledge of the foregoing concerns that the present invention was conceived and has now been reduced to practice. SUMMARY In the summary and the claims, the phrase “. . . comprises one or more of a group comprising . . . ” has been used on a number of occasions. This phrase is not intended to treat the different features listed as members of the group as equivalent features. In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of providing a service, comprising the steps of contacting one of a plurality of server electronic addresses from a first electronic address; identifying, at the server electronic address, the first electronic address from which the contact is made; and providing a service based on a service definition depending on the server electronic address and the first electronic address, and wherein the service definition comprises one or more second electronic addresses for execution of the service. Accordingly, the present invention can provide high flexibility due to the use of the first, server, and second electronic addresses in the service definition, while utilising identification of the first electronic address at the server electronic address for authentication and purpose of determination of complete service description for the user using that first electronic address. (First address does more than authentication. It is used for determining the complete service description for the user using that first address) The service definition may be set up by a person associated with the first electronic address. The service definition may be set up by a person associated with the second electronic addresses. The one or more second electronic addresses may include the first electronic address and/or the server electronic address. The service definition may comprise one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the one or more second electronic addresses, leaving a message at the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an email to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an SMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending a fax to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an IM to the one or more second electronic addresses; sending an MMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, making a calling card call to the one or more second electronic addresses, making an access sequence call to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending audio data to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending video data to the one or more second electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the one or more second electronic addresses. The service definition may comprise one or more of a group comprising receiving a voice call from the one or more second electronic addresses, recording a message from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an email from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an SMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a fax from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an IM from the one or more second electronic addresses; receiving an MMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a calling card call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an access sequence call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving audio data from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving video data from the one or more second electronic addresses, and receiving multi-media data from the one or more second electronic addresses. Contacting the server electronic address from the first electronic address may comprise one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the server electronic address, sending an email to the server electronic address, sending an SMS to the server electronic address, sending a fax to the server electronic address, sending an IM to the server electronic address; sending an MMS to the server electronic address, making a calling card call to the server electronic address, making an access sequence call to the server electronic address, sending audio data to the server electronic addresses, sending video data to the server electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the server electronic addresses. The service definition may comprise conversion of one communication format into another communication format. The service definition may comprise recording a communication to and/or from the one or more second electronic addresses. The service definition may comprise a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address. The service definition may comprise a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address and connecting the third electronic address to the server electronic address. Accordingly, for example anonymous calling and receiving can be performed. In accordance with a second aspect of the present invention, there is provided system for providing a service, the system comprising an electronic device having a first electronic address; a server having associated with it a plurality of server electronic addresses; a database accessible by the server; wherein the electronic device contacts one of the server electronic addresses; the server identifies the first electronic address from which the contact is made; and the server initiates a service based on a service definition stored in the database depending on the server electronic address and the first electronic address, and wherein the service definition comprises one or more second electronic addresses for execution of the service. The server may further comprise a user-interface unit for setting up the service definition by a person associated with the first electronic address. The server may further comprise a user-interface unit for setting up the service definition by a person associated with the second electronic addresses. The one or more second electronic addresses may include the first electronic address and/or the server electronic address. The service definition may comprise one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the one or more second electronic addresses, leaving a message at the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an email to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an SMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending a fax to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an IM to the one or more second electronic addresses; sending an MMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, making a calling card call to the one or more second electronic addresses, making an access sequence call to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending audio data to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending video data to the one or more second electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the one or more second electronic addresses. The service definition may comprise one or more of a group comprising receiving a voice call from the one or more second electronic addresses, recording a message from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an email from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an SMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a fax from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an IM from the one or more second electronic addresses; receiving an MMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a calling card call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an access sequence call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving audio data from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving video data from the one or more second electronic addresses, and receiving multi-media data from the one or more second electronic addresses. The electronic device may contact the server electronic address from the first electronic address by one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the server electronic address, sending an email to the server electronic address, sending an SMS to the server electronic address, sending a fax to the server electronic address, sending an IM to the server electronic address; sending an MMS to the server electronic address, making a calling card call to the server electronic address, making an access sequence call to the server electronic address, sending audio data to the server electronic addresses, sending video data to the server electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the server electronic addresses. The server may convert one communication format into another communication format as part of the initiating of the service. The server may record a communication to and/or from the one or more second electronic addresses as part of the execution of the service. The service definition may comprise a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address. The service definition may comprise a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address and connecting the third electronic address to the server electronic address. In accordance with a third aspect of the present invention there is provided a computer readable medium having stored thereon computer readable code means for instructing a computer controlled system to execute a method of providing a service, the method comprising the steps of contacting one of a plurality of server electronic addresses from a first electronic address; identifying, at the server electronic address, the first electronic address from which the contact is made; and providing a service based on a service definition depending on the server electronic address and the first electronic address, and wherein the service definition comprises one or more second electronic addresses for execution of the service. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments of the invention will be better understood and readily apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art from the following written description, by way of example only and in conjunction with the drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing illustrating an embodiment of the invention for sending Emails from a mobile phone. FIG. 2 is a schematic drawing illustrating an embodiment of the invention for receiving Emails at a mobile phone. FIG. 3 is a flowchart of events for sending Emails from a mobile phone in an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 is a flowchart of events for receiving Emails at a mobile phone in an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 is a table illustrating the logical arrangement of a database of Complete Service Descriptions (CSD) of services for users of an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a table illustrating a user initiated CSD selection from a database of CSD of an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a table illustrating a system initiated CSD selection from a database of CSD of an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 is a table illustrating the logical arrangement of a database of Complete CSD for sending SMS as Email in an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 is a table illustrating the logical arrangement of a database of Complete Service Descriptions (CSD) of receiving email as SMS in an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10 is a flow chart illustrating a communication sequence in an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a flow chart illustrating a communication sequence in an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 12 is a flow chart illustrating a communication sequence in an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 13 is a flow chart illustrating a communication sequence in an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 14 is a schematic drawing illustrating a system in an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 15 is a flow chart illustrating a sequence of communication steps in the example embodiment of FIG. 14. FIG. 16 is a flow chart illustrating a communication sequence in an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 17 is a flow chart illustrating a communication sequence in an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 18 is a schematic drawing of a computer system for use in implementation of an example embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The description of the present invention will begin with general definitions and description of some terms and concepts used throughout the specification and the claims. Electronic address: This is an address that is assigned to electronic devices in the context of a telecommunication infra-structure. They include—(i) phone number (mobile or fixed-line including pagers etc), (ii) email address and instant messaging address (IM), and (iii) web-address for the web-sites on the internet. Electronic addresses are assigned to devices in order to facilitate communication. For the users, the i-th user will be identified by his electronic address Mi. Let there be ‘a’ users in the system, identified by their electronic addresses M1, M2, . . . , Ma. Communication: This can be of several types such as text, voice, multi-media and the like. It may also be possible to change the form of communication from one type to another, for instance text can be converted to speech by using text-to-speech converters. A communication occurs between two electronic addresses of the same type, phone number to phone number, SMS from a number capable of sending SMS to another number capable of receiving SMS, and so on. A communication between the same type of electronic address, say Mi and Pj, is denoted by Dij. Communication transformation: A communication ‘D’ can be transformed to another communication ‘E’ by suitable techniques (text-to-speech is one such example). Other examples include (i) taking the text of the SMS and converting it to an email and (ii) taking the voice/fax message and creating an email with the voice/fax message attached to the email as an attachment in suitable format (for instance in MP3 format for voice and tiff format for fax). Service: This is defined in context to what the consumer wishes the system to perform. Instances of service include, “send an SMS”, “establish a voice call”, “send an email” and the like. In general, ‘S’ will denote a service. Service Provider: This is the entity that facilitates provision of the service to the user. It will send/receive communications from the user, determine the complete service description for the said communication, and process it accordingly. Service provider can provide all types of communication for a particular service depending on the nature of the complete service description. Hence in general it can send/receive all types of communication to/from all types of electronic addresses. Service Features: Service features characterise the features of a service. For instance if the service is “make a voice call”, one of its features is “the phone number to be dialed for the voice call”. In this case, another feature can be “make a recording of the voice conversation”. Similarly, if the service is “send an email”, one of its features is “the email address to which email is sent”. In this case another feature can be “the email address to which a carbon copy (cc) of the email is sent to.” The features of a service S will be denoted by SF1, SF2, . . . , SFc. The features of the service may depend on the service itself. Complete Service Description. Taken together the complete service description is “S with features SF1, SF2, . . . , SFc”. Example of a complete service description can be “receive the communication (that is SMS in this example) sent from the mobile number 90214091 (electronic address of the user) to the mobile number 96613446 (electronic address of the service provider) and send it as email to trikaala@hotmail.com.” In general, a first example embodiment of the present invention can be described as providing user customisable communication services utilising a telephone connection in a Telecommunication Network (e.g. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), Global Service For Mobile Communications (GSM) Network, etc). Examples of some messaging services are sending and receiving SMS-to-Email/Email-to-SMS, MMS-to-Email/Email-to-MMS, Fax-to-Email/Email-to-Fax and Voice-to-Email/Email-to-Voice. Other services such as emergency calling and conference calling are described in detail later. The example embodiment for messaging services described makes sending/receiving of emails and other communications using the phones (fixed-line and mobile) as easy as making/receiving a phone call or sending/receiving a SMS (for a mobile phone). The example embodiment for messaging services further covers to sending faxes to email addresses using the ordinary fax machines. One advantage covered by the example embodiments may refer to the convenience and simplicity to manage and access communications using a fixed line/mobile phone. In the first example embodiment of the present invention, with reference to FIG. 1, the system set-up comprises at least one mobile phone 100 (M1, M2, . . . , Ma) and a server 102 that is connected to the Internet 104. Each mobile phone 100 can make only one data/voice line connection to the server 102 at a time. There are ‘a’ number of users that are identified with their mobile phones M1, M2, . . . , Ma. The server 102 acts as a service control centre between the mobile phone 100 and Internet 104. It comprises a database 101, wireless and wired data transceiver 103 and a processor unit 105. It is run by a service provider providing the data/voice line connection(s) and services to the users. The server 102 provides services to the users via data/voice line connection(s) e.g. 107 corresponding to ‘b’ phone number(s) P1, P2, . . . , Pb, where each phone number corresponds to one complete service description. The server is also connected to the Internet. As an example, the server may be computer connected to a Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) modem with Subscriber Identification Module cards for mobile phone number(s) P1, P2, . . . , Pb. For the case where the server supports SMS, as the traffic volume of SMSs go up, a direct link to a SMSC (SMS Centre) may be established to provide for the high traffic. The database 101 is where the user electronic addresses (e.g. user mobile phone numbers) that are used for identifying the user are stored. Also stored in the database 101 is the Complete Service Description (CSD), which comprises all of the service's features. For example, a CSD can be “receive the communication sent from the mobile number 90214091 (electronic address of the user) at the mobile number 96613446 (electronic address of the service provider) and send it as email to trikaala@hotmail.com”. Also stored in the database 101 is the electronic address assigned to the CSD. For example, the electronic address can be a phone number that the user needs to call to acquire a service with a specific complete service description. The detailed description of the use of the database 101 will be described later. In this example embodiment, the server 102 provides an email sending service. At the start, the server 102 receives all communications from each of the mobile phones 100 via each corresponding data/voice line connection e.g. 107 with a specific phone number. Next, the server 102 converts the received communication into one or more emails, after which, the server 102 forwards the email(s) to the desired destination mail server(s) in the Internet 104. For users to gain access to the email sending service, it is preferred that each of the ‘a’ number of users registers his mobile phone(s) 100 M1, M2, . . . , Ma, with a group of one or more email addresses for each of the phone numbers P1, P2, . . . , Pb. Let the group of email addresses registered under user with mobile phone 100 Mi for phone number Pj be denoted by Eij. If a user wishes to use fewer than ‘b’ phone numbers for the service, then they register for as many phone numbers as they wish. The process of registration is a one-time task that can be done via a web-site, email, SMS/MMS, faxing, or calling the service provider. The user with mobile phone 100 Mi may also change the email addresses in each of the groups Eij with a similar process as one used for the registration of groups. In the example embodiment of the present invention, the numbers P1, P2, . . . , Pb are set to be local phone numbers for the users M1, M2, . . . , Ma. Once registered, the users can use the email sending service in the following manner. With reference to FIG. 3, a user Mi has an intention to communicate with Pj to use the emailing service corresponding to Pj. Thus, the user sends a communication, for example, by making a voice call, sending a fax, or sending an SMS/MMS through his mobile phone 100 (FIG. 1) at step 300. Let this communication be denoted by Dij. When the server 102 (FIG. 1) is connected to the mobile phone 100 (FIG. 1) through phone number Pj, it then receives Dij in step 302 at Pj. Next, the server 102 (FIG. 1) finds out the origin of Dij from Mi, for instance, by using caller-ID information in step 304. Knowing Mi and Pj, the server 102 (FIG. 1) performs a database look-up to determine the group of email addresses Eij that Mi has registered for Pj, in step 306. It then converts the communication Dij to an email Tij in step 308. Conversion of Dij to Tij may require making a recording of the voice call Dij, convert it to a file in a suitable format (say MP3) and put the file as an attachment in an email with a suitable header etc. Then, the server 102 (FIG. 1) sends it to each of the email addresses in Eij in step 310. Utilising the steps above, besides mobile phones, the present invention, in various embodiments is capable of facilitating sending of emails that originate from other communication devices such as fixed line phones and fax machines. The following shows several examples of usage scenarios of example embodiments. In one example, the user possesses a fax machine Mi. Any fax sent from Mi to Pj (communication Dij in this context) is now sent to each of the email addresses in Eij as an attachment in a suitable format (e.g. TIFF is commonly used for fax). Thus an ordinary fax machine can be used to send a facsimile to an email account by simply dialling a local phone number. In this scenario, the server 102 receives the fax from the fax machine, attaches the fax file to an email and sends it off to destination email addresses. In a second example, the user possesses a fixed line phone Mi. Any call made from Mi to Pj (communication Dij in this context) is now recorded and sent to each of the email addresses in Eij as an attachment in a suitable format (MP3 is commonly used for audio recording). Thus a fixed line phone can be used to send a voice message to an email account by simply dialling a local phone number in much the same way as it is used to make any other phone call. In this scenario, the server 102 receives a voice message from the fixed line phone, attaches the voice message as an MP3 file to an email and sends it off to destination email addresses. In a third example, the user possesses a mobile phone 100 (FIG. 1) Mi. Any call made from Mi to Pj (communication Dij in this context) is now recorded and sent to each of the email addresses in Eij as an attachment in a suitable format (MP3 is commonly used for audio recording). Any SMS sent from Mi to Pj (communication Dij in this context) is now sent to each of the email addresses in Eij as a text email. Thus a mobile phone 100 can be used to send a voice (text) message to an email account by simply dialling (or sending SMS to) a local phone number in much the same way as it is used to make any other phone call (or send an SMS). In this example, the phone numbers P1, P2, . . . , Pb line configuration must be set such that it is capable of receiving phone calls as well as SMS. In this scenario, the server 102 (FIG. 1) receives a voice message from the mobile phone 100 (FIG. 1), attaches the voice message as an MP3 file respectively, to an email and sends it off to destination email addresses. In a fourth example, the user possesses a mobile phone 100 (FIG. 1) Mi. Any SMS/MMS sent from Mi to Pj (communication Dij in this context) is now sent to each of the email addresses in Eij as a text email. Thus a mobile phone 100 (FIG. 1) can be used to send a text/picture message to an email account by simply sending an SMS/MMS much the same way as it is used to send any other SMS/MMS. In this scenario, the server 102 (FIG. 1) receives a text/picture message from the mobile phone 100 (FIG. 1), attaches the text/picture message as text/picture to an email and sends it off to destination email addresses. If the user has a phone with a phone-book, the phone numbers P1, P2, . . . , Pb can be stored in the phone-book and dialled as such. This can eliminates the need to remember any of them. An example embodiment utilising the phonebook is as follows. A user registers his mobile phone (Telephone number: 96613446) for the present service and registers the email address trikaala@hotmail.com at telephone number, 67780703. The user then stores the number 67780703 in his phone-book as “EM Hari”. Whenever the user wishes to send voice email to trikaala@hotmail.com, he will go to the phone-book, select “EM Hari”, press the buttons on his mobile phone to call 67780703 (or an equivalent function), talk, and hang up. The system will do a caller-ID to determine the originating number 96613446. It then lookups the registration that 96613446 (calling number) has made for 67780703 (the called number) to determine the email address trikaala@hotmail.com to which the voice recording is to be sent in an email as an email attachment. If the user Mi wishes to send separate emails to say 20 different persons, he registers their email addresses for this service, one email address for each of P1, P2, and so on and stores it as such in the phone-book (if such feature exists). The process of sending email is reduced to (i) use the phone-book to call, (ii) talk, and (iii) hang up. This invention thus provides similar convenience that the user has for making a regular voice call. Similarly, if the user Mi wishes to send separate emails to say 20 different persons, it registers their email addresses for this service, one email address for each of P1, P2, and so on and stores it as such in the phone-book, (if such feature exists). Now the process of sending email is reduced to use the phone-book to send SMS. In addition, in the example embodiment as described by FIG. 1, there can be a Man-Machine Interface provided on the communication device, e.g. mobile phone 100, where the user can execute “reply” to the received emails (where the email may be received by the user in SMS/MMSNoice recording/Instant Messaging format) and the reply is in the form of an SMS/voice call, which is to be sent off as an email via a phone number. An example embodiment will be described below. What was previously described with reference to examples embodiments pertains to sending emails from a user's communication device. Now, receiving emails will be described. The scenario is to receive an email intended for the user identified by his phone number and make the email (or its suitably modified version) available to the user at his phone in an appropriate manner. In general, when an email is received, the system in an example embodiment checks the email addresses the email is sent to/from, extracts the email according to how the user wishes his email to be processed by the system and takes appropriate steps as per user settings and preferences to communicate the email to the user from the appropriate phone number. With reference to FIG. 2, the following describes an example embodiment of the present invention for receiving emails from a server 202 (directly sent to the server 202 or retrieved via POP3 or other access techniques or forwarded to the server 202), in which the emails are intended for the user identified by a phone number. Similar to the system setup in FIG. 1, the system setup of FIG. 2 comprises at least one mobile phone 200 (M1, M2, . . . , Ma) and the server 202 that is connected to the Internet 204. The server 202 contains a database 202, wireless and wired data transceiver 203, and a processor unit 205. The server 102 provides services to the users via data/voice line connection(s) corresponding to ‘k’ phone number(s) Q1, Q2, . . . , Qk, where each phone number corresponds to one complete service description. It is to note that ‘k’ phone number(s) Q1, Q2, . . . , Qk are used for service of receiving emails as phone communication. There are ‘a’ number of users that are identified with their mobile phones M1, M2, . . . , Ma. The email receiving service of the present invention is provided by the service provider on the server 202 side via ‘k’ phone numbers Q1, Q2, . . . , Qk and a phone number Q0 for default groups. For the users to use the service on mobile phone 200 Mi the user registers a group of one or more email addresses for each of the phone numbers Q1, Q2, . . . , Qk. Let the group of email addresses that Mi registers for Qj be denoted by Gij. If a user wishes to use fewer than ‘k’ phone numbers for the service, then they can register for as many phone numbers as they wish. The process of registration is a one-time task and can be done via a web-site, email, SMS, faxing, or calling the service provider. The user with mobile phone 100 Mi may also change the email addresses in each of the groups Gij with a similar process as one used for the registration of groups. In the example embodiment, the numbers Q1, Q2, . . . , Qk are set to be local phone numbers for the users M1, M2, . . . , Ma. With reference to FIG. 4, users use the service in the following manner. At step 402, the server 202 (FIG. 2) receives an email for the user Mi (directly sent to the system or retrieved via POP3 or other access techniques or forwarded to the system). The recipient email address uniquely identifies the user Mi. The sender email address is then checked to determine the group Gij where the sender email address belongs in step 404 for the user Mi. If it does not belong to any group, then it will belong to a default group G0. After checking the group, which the sender email address belongs for Mi, the recipient (i.e. the user of the mobile phone 200, FIG. 2) of the email is checked in step 406 to determine the user settings, profile and preferences of the type of communication (e.g. SMS/MMS/voice call) that the user chose to receive the sender's email. For example, a user may choose to receive all text based incoming emails through voice recording only instead of SMS. Let a received email to the user Mi from the sender in a group Gij be denoted as Tij. Next, the system converts Tij to a communication Dij based on the user preferences, profile and settings in step 408. Following the conversion of Tij to a communication Dij, Dij is sent to the user Mi via the phone number Qj in step 410. Alternatively, it may generate a notification to the user Mi inviting him to extract the communication Dij via the phone number Qj. Conversion of Tij to Dij may require extracting the attachment file and converting it to an audio signal, converting text to speech, or converting text in the email to an appropriate SMS and so on. Communication for default groups for all the users occurs via Q0. Utilising the steps above, besides mobile phones, the present invention, in various embodiments, is capable of facilitating receiving of emails from other communication devices such as fixed line phones and fax machines. The following shows several examples of usage scenarios of the example embodiment as described for receiving emails. In one example, the user may have a fax machine Mi. Any email sent for the user is converted to fax and sent as such from the phone number Qj when it is sent from one of the email addresses in Gij. Thus an ordinary fax machine can be used to receive an email from a sender's email address as it is used to receive a fax. In this scenario, the server 102 receives an email from a mail server, the email is then converted to fax and sent to the fax machine via phone number Qj. In a second example, the user may have a fixed line/mobile phone 100 as Mi. Any email sent for the user from one of the email addresses in Gij is converted to a voice recording. Either the system can call Mi from Qj and play the voice recording or the user may call the system at Qj to listen to the voice recording depending on the user profile and preferences. In case the user calls Qj, the caller-ID is used to determine Mi and hence the voice recording for the email. In either case, the system and the user may interact further to manage the communication. Thus a fixed line/mobile phone can be used to receive an email sent from a designated email address as a voice message by simply calling a phone number Qj or receiving a call from it. In this scenario, the server 102 receives an email from a mail server, the email is then converted to a voice recording and its contents can be heard when the user calls phone number Qj. In a third example, users may have a mobile phone as Mi. Any email sent for the user from one of the email addresses in Gij is converted to one or more SMSs. The system sends these SMSs to Mi from Qj. The conversion of the email to the SMSs (one or more) is done as per user settings, profile and preferences. Thus a mobile phone 100 can be used to receive an email as SMS (one or more) from a phone number Qj. In this scenario, for example, the server 102 receives an email from a mail server, the email is then converted to an SMS message and its contents can be read via phone number Qj. In a fourth example, users may have a mobile phone as Mi. Any email sent for the user from one of the email addresses in Gij is converted to a voice recording. The system sends an SMS notification to Mi from Qj about the email and its content. The user may now call the system at Qj to listen to the voice recording depending on the user profile and preferences. When the user calls Qj, the caller-ID is used to determine Mi and hence the voice recording for the email. Thus a mobile phone can be used to receive an email as a voice message by simply calling a phone number Qj with a notification sent appropriately. In this scenario, the server 102 receives an email from a mail server, the email is then stored as a voice recording and a notification of the arrival of the email is sent to the user via SMS, after which the user can hear the voice recording via phone number Qj. If the user has a mobile phone 100 with a phone-book, the phone numbers Q1, Q2, . . . , Qk can be stored in the phone-book and dialled as such. This completely eliminates the need to remember any of them. It is noted that an example embodiment can be realised such that the numbers used for sending emails (P1, P2, . . . , Pb) can be same as one or more of the numbers used for receiving emails (Q1, Q2, . . . , Qk). For instance, an SMS sent to 90019001 from 96613446 is sent as email to trikaala@hotmail.com while an email received from trikaala@hotmail.com for the user with mobile 96613446 is sent to 96613446 as one or more SMSs from 90019001. As an example, a user registers his mobile phone 96613446 for the present service and registers the email address trikaala@hotmail.com at 67780703. Next, the user stores the number 67780703 in his phone-book as “EM Hari”. Whenever the system receives an email for the user from trikaala@hotmail.com, the system calls 96613446 from 67780703. On the user's mobile phone 100 with number 96613446, the user sees “EM Hari” as the phone rings. Right away it is known that the call is referring to an email received from “EM Hari”. After which, the user may proceed to receive the email as a voice communication. At the end of hearing the voice communication, the user may reply to the call. The system can make a recording of the user reply. It then lookups the registration that 96613446 has made for 67780703 to determine the email address trikaala@hotmail.com to which the voice recording is to be sent in an email as an email attachment. The user may also call 67780703 to send emails to trikaala@hotmail.com or listen to emails received from that email address via an interactive menu. As another example, a user registers his mobile phone 96613446 for the present service and registers the email address trikaala@hotmail.com at 967780703. The user then stores the number 967780703 in his phone-book as “EM Hari”. Whenever the system receives an email for the user from trikaala@hotmail.com, the system sends it as SMS to 96613446 from 967780703. On the mobile phone 100 96613446, the user sees “EM Hari” as the SMS is received. Right away it is known that the SMS is referring to an email received from “EM Hari”. After which, the user may proceed to read it. He can also reply to the SMS by sending an SMS to 967780703. After the system receives the SMS at 967780703, it will look up the registration that 96613446 has made for 967780703, so as to determine the destination email address trikaala@hotmail.com to which the reply SMS at 967780703 is to be sent to as an email. When the example embodiments described with reference to FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 are viewed as a whole, there is a complete system that comprises capabilities of sending and receiving emails. Considering in combination the example embodiments as described by FIG. 1 and FIG. 2, as emails are sent out by the user with a mobile phone Mi to email addresses in Eij utilising the communications Dij associated with phone number Pj, the email address for the user in the ‘From’ field can be customized as per user settings, profile and preferences. For example, assume that the system sends out emails from its server at www.chatteport.com. An email sent by user Mi to an email address E can have the email address A B@chatteport.com or A@B.chatteport.com in the ‘From’ field, where A identifies user Mi and B identifies the way the user Mi wishes the system to manage the reply sent in response to the email sent to E. Alternatively, an email sent by user with mobile phone Mi to an email address E can have the email address Mi Pj.Qj@chatteport.com in the “From” field. Thus indicating that the reply is to be sent as an SMS to Mi from the phone number Qj for an email sent via phone number Pj. The user may further set the system to forward a copy of the email to the email address of the user with mobile phone 100 Mi. Next, another example embodiment of the present invention showing communication between two or more persons, in which some people use email to communicate and the other people use SMS will be described. This refers to two-way communication whereby the recipient of a communication can reply. For example, there is a person using his email system (e.g. on-line, Outlook, Notes etc) to send/receive emails while another person uses a mobile phone to send/receive SMS. The communication may be initiated by either of the two parties. It is to note that ease of communication is an important factor. Hence the person using the SMS should be able to use the ‘reply’ function to reply to the SMS and the person using the email should be able to use the ‘reply’ function to reply to the email intuitively. Firstly, it is assumed that there exist ‘n’ email addresses, which are e1, e2, . . . , en while there are ‘a’ mobile phone numbers M1, M2, . . . , Ma. The person with the mobile phone number M1 has registered email address e11 against mobile number P1 (any SMS sent by M1 to P1 is forwarded as email to email address e11), e12 against mobile number P2, and so on. Here e11 is any one of e1, e2, . . . , en, e12 is any one of e1, e2, . . . , en but other than e11, and so on. In a similar manner, the person with mobile phone number M2 has registered email address e21 against mobile number P1, e22 against mobile number P2 and so on. The same goes for mobile phone numbers M3, M4, and so on. In the above embodiment, the registration was done by the mobile user with the phone number Mi. He registered the email address eij with the mobile phone number Pj. In yet another embodiment, the person with the email address eij may register the phone number Mi with Pj and inform the user with the mobile phone number Mi to send him an SMS at Pj in order to communicate. In either of the embodiments, the users have the pertinent information in order to communicate. The user with mobile phone number Mi knows which phone number Pj to send the SMS to in order for it to be sent as email to eij and the email users know that the address of the mail server (www.mail server.com) being used for the service. The server configuration will be as follows. It is capable of receiving SMS from M1, M2, and so on at phone numbers P1, P2, and so on (e.g. GSM modems connected to the computer server with SIM cards for mobile numbers P1, P2 and so on can do the job). The server also maintains a database with the numbers M1, M2, and so on and the email addresses registered with P1, P2, and so on. Further fields such as authorization to use the service may also be provided. The server is also capable of sending/receiving emails (e.g. an email server will do the job) with the address xxx@mail server.com, www.mail server.com being the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) for the mail server. The following two example embodiments will illustrate two-way communication whereby the recipient of a communication can reply. For an SMS-to-Email with reply, the mobile user initiates the sending of email with mobile number Mi to an email address eij. The user will send an SMS to the phone number Pj (Pj is stored in the phone-book of Mi for email to eij). The server knows the list of email addresses registered for Mi. It looks up the email address registered by Mi at Pj to get eij and sends the SMS as email to eij. In that email it uses the email address Mi@mail server.com as the email address from which the email to eij is sent. The recipient of the email at eij now can reply to the email by simply pressing the ‘reply’ button and entering the reply message. When the reply email is sent, it is received at the mail server. The mail server extracts Mi from the said email and checks which phone number the user at Mi registered the email address where the email is coming from. This phone number is Pj. It then takes the subject and the text message in the email and sends it to Mi as SMS from Pj. The user at Mi can again press the ‘reply’ button for the SMS and send a reply SMS that is again delivered to the email address. For Email-to-SMS with reply, the sending of email is initiated by the user sending email from one of the email addresses e1, e2, . . . , en, say ej. When sender composes the email, he uses the email address Mi@mail server.com as the destination email address for sending the email as SMS to the user with mobile phone number Mi. When the email is sent, it is received at the mail server. The mail server extracts Mi from the said email and checks which phone number the user at Mi registered the email address where the email is coming from (firstly, ej is compared to all of ei1, ei2, . . . , ein to determine a perfect match; ej must match uniquely with eij; associated with eij is Pj). This is the phone number Pj. It then takes the subject and the text message in the email and sends it to Mi as SMS from Pj. The user at Mi can press the ‘reply’ button for the SMS and send a reply SMS that is again delivered to Pj as SMS. The server checks to see which email address is registered by Mi at Pj to determine the email address eij. The SMS is sent to the email address eij with the email address in the “From” field of the said email as Mi@mail server.com. The recipient of the email at eij now can reply to the email by simply pressing the ‘reply’ button and entering the reply message. It will become apparent to those skilled in the art that the example embodiments described above can be extended to other communication techniques, including to SMS-to-IM and IM-to-SMS, where IM refers to Instant Messaging (e.g. AOL Messenger, ICQ, MSN Messenger etc). Besides providing emailing services as described above, the embodiments described above may comprise more services, and thus more features. An example of such further features can be to provide call alert. In an example embodiment, the system works when the user stores his phone-book with the service provider. In this case, when the call alert SMS is to be composed, the system checks to see if the user has stored his phone-book with the service provider. If ‘yes’ (i.e. the user has stored his phone-book with the service provider), the system accesses the phone-book and uses the caller_ID information to search the phone-book and determine the name for the caller. Now, the name of the caller is inserted in the call alert SMS and it could be “CCC (name of the caller as registered in the phone-book) of phone_number (include the caller's phone number as determined from the caller_ID) tried to call you when you were unreachable”. When the user phone-book contains no entry for the caller_ID, the name is left out from the call alert SMS or the call alert SMS may state “phone_number (include the caller's phone number as determined from the caller_ID) tried to call you when you were unreachable. This number is not in your phone-book”. To make the system more effective, the user with mobile phone number Mi can register the phone number vj with the service provider such that a call alert SMS is always sent from a phone number Pj to the user's mobile phone Mi when the caller calls from vj. It is to note that the user with mobile phone number Mi registers different phone numbers of callers, v1, v2, and so on, against different phone numbers P1, P2, and so on. When the system wants to send a call alert for a caller from phone number vj to the user at Mi, it looks up to check whether Mi registered vj for any of P1, P2, and so on. If the answer is that vj was not registered by Mi, then a call alert SMS is sent to Mi from a phone number say P_last, which is configured for ‘call alert for unregistered callers’. If the answer is that vj was registered by Mi at phone number Pj, a call alert is sent to Mi from Pj. The user Mi may store P1 in his phone-book as call-alert from caller 1 (name), P2 as call-alert from caller 2 (name), and so on. With this new method, as soon as a call alert SMS is received, the user Mi can tell right away who the caller was for the said call alert and does not have to wonder whose phone number is contained in the call alert SMS. The call alert SMS may also be tailor made for the situations when the call comes from a number registered or not-registered by the user. Call alert SMS sent to the user from different phone number may be made different. Further, the system may include both the name of the caller in the call alert SMS and his phone number in the SMS sent from Pj. This way the user can tell right away who the caller was for the said call alert because the name of the caller is included in the call alert along with the phone number of the caller. The communication devices used, e.g. mobile phones can also be programmed to take different actions for call alert for different callers. A call alert for a call missed when the wife called may lead to a flashing SMS and so on. Similarly, a call alert when there is a family/office emergency may lead to a different action and so on. In this instance, the mobile phone checks to determine where the phone number call alert is from and takes the action that the user has programmed on his mobile phone for an SMS from the said phone number. The registration of phone numbers P1, P2, and so on against the caller numbers v1, v2, and so on for the call alert may be done by the user on-line, or by sending SMS or calling or filling out the form. Also the service provider may begin to use different phone numbers to send call alert SMS from and then indicate the user through an information campaign, which comprises the benefits of the new scheme. A small note may also be inserted in the call alert SMS itself pointing to this new system and method. The user may also be informed of the call statistics (most frequently called numbers, most frequent numbers that call him, emergency numbers and so on) in order to assist in the decision process of registration. Another point is that if the phone-book is stored by the user on-line, the voice mail service may be checked to see if the caller phone number is registered by the user. If the user registers it, the caller name can be inserted in the SMS sent to inform the user of the arrival of a voice mail from CCC (name of the caller registered by the user). At this juncture, it is noted that the user may register phone numbers for voice mail retrieval (to be described later) and call alerts so that SMS for the voice mail and call alerts are sent from different numbers for different callers. However, the SMS alerts for voice mail left by a particular caller and a call alert for the same caller may be sent from the same phone number and the user may save that particular phone number in his phone-book as ‘CCC (name of caller) voice mail/call alert’. The content of the SMS may indicate as to whether the SMS is for a call alert or voice mail. Having mentioned Call Alert, the following describes Voice Messaging service as another example features. In this case, the service S is to ‘make a recording of the incoming voice message and make it available on the Internet to target phone numbers’. A user registers a list of phone numbers for his phone number Mi to get this service at the phone number P1. Similar registration is carried out for service provider's numbers P2, P3, and so on. When the user calls P1 from his phone number Mi, the system makes a recording of the voice message, saves it on-line, creates access information for the voice message (user_name, password etc) for each of the phone numbers registered by Mi at Pj, and sends SMS to each of them with the web address and access information. Messages for the same phone numbers from different users may be combined under the same access information. The recipients of the SMS can now go to the web-site and use the access information to retrieve the voice message. Another method for retrieval that may be combined with the web based access method is to send the SMS from a phone number Rj the recipient to call and listen to the message. All messages intended for a particular recipient may be stored at the same phone number or at different numbers depending on the caller-ID of the sender of the message. When the recipient calls Rj, the system uses caller-ID of the recipient to deliver the voice messages intended for the said recipient. More about the methods for voice message retrieval will described later. Also, in an example embodiment, the system may call and deliver the voice message. In another embodiment, the user may register for a service S ‘make a recording of the incoming voice message and arrange for its retrieval by the phone; and send an incoming SMS to target phone numbers’. In this case, the user registers a set of phone numbers S11 for his phone number Mi to get the service for voice message at P1 and another set of phone numbers S12 for his phone number Mi to get the service for SMS at the phone number P1. Similar registrations are made for P2, P3, and so on. When the user calls P1 from his phone number Mi, the system makes a recording of the voice message and arranges for its retrieval by the phone numbers in S11. Similarly, when the user sends an SMS to P1, the system sends it as SMS to the phone numbers in S12. In this example embodiment, S11 and S12 are the same. It will be clear to those skilled in the art that the method described above with reference to voice messaging and retrieval on the Internet is also applicable to e.g. sending faxes with retrieval on the Internet. The next service described is Anonymous calling. Here the service S can be described as ‘anonymous calling to target phone numbers’. The user first registers one or more phone numbers for this service at phone numbers P1, P2, and so on. When he calls Pj, the service provider dials out the phone numbers registered by the user at Pj and completes the voice call. For conference calling, the system may also allow the user option to select from the list of registered phone numbers and add more phone numbers. Similarly, for Anonymous SMS, the service S would be ‘anonymous SMS to target phone numbers’. The user at Mi first registers one or more phone numbers for this service at phone numbers P1, P2, and so on. When he sends an SMS at Pj, the service provider forwards it to the phone numbers registered by the user at Pj. The system can also provide a means for reply back to the user. When any of the targeted persons reply, say from the mobile phone number Qj, it is received at Pj. The system then checks to see which user registered for the sending of anonymous SMS to Qj at Pj. The SMS is then forwarded to that user. The reply feature is an example embodiment that works as long as the same person Qj is not registered by more than one user at Pj. This method for reply back also works for anonymous voice calling. Next, calling card service is described. In an example embodiment, firstly, a user has to dial out long sequences to access the calling card service. This is started by the user dialling the phone number, followed by keying in the pin and then followed by keying in the phone number of the intended recipient of the call. The following now comprise the service S at Pj. The user registers the exact sequence of digits to be dialled. When the user dials Pj using his phone number Mi, the service provider dials out the sequence registered by Mi at Pj. The user at Mi may register enough digits with the service provider such that the service provider simply connects the call for the intended recipient. In another example embodiment of the present invention, it can feature incoming urgent/emergency calls. Sometimes people ignore a call or turn their mobile phones on silent mode so as not to be disturbed say when they are in a meeting. In such a case, they may miss an urgent call from a family member or a business associate. To avoid such a situation, and to absolutely receive the call, the user with mobile phone Mi subscribes to the service S ‘complete the call at all costs for callers with code Xj’ at phone number Pj. Xj is a sequence of numeric digits of sufficiently large length and uniquely identifies Mi at Pj. User with mobile phone number Mi distributes Pj and Xj to only those persons he wishes to take calls from in emergency situations. Call from any caller who calls Pj and enters Xj is always forwarded to Mi from a phone number Bj (Bj and Pj are paired. Bj could be same as Pj). The user with mobile number Mi may also register other phone numbers/email addresses he may be available at. In such a case the service provider makes an attempt to reach the user at Mi but also at other phone numbers (by calling, sending SMS, emailing, instant messaging etc). The user with mobile number Mi can also store Bj in his phone-book as say ‘emergency calls from ABCj’ where ABCj is the person(s) who have been given Pj and Xj by the user at Mi. The mobile phone may also be programmed in a way so as to respond differently (say at the loudest volume in a peculiar ring-tone) to different Bj. Callers are not expected to call Mi via this service regularly. They are expected to use it in case they absolutely have to reach the user with mobile phone number Mi under some urgent/emergency situation. Alternatively, there can be another approach to the example embodiment of handling incoming urgent/emergency calls. In this approach, the user with mobile phone number Mi registers a phone number for the service S ‘complete the call at all costs to the user for caller registered by said user’ at phone number Pj. Different phone numbers are registered by the user at Mi for P1, P2, and so on. The system ensures that a phone number registered by user with phone number Mi at Pj is not registered by any other user at phone number Pj. If any other user wishes to have this service for a phone number registered by Mi at Pj, he is provided this service via a phone number different than Pj. The user with mobile number Mi now distributes Pj to the person(s) whose phone number(s) was registered by him for the service at Pj. Whenever the said person calls Pj, the system performs caller-ID to determine which user registered them at Pj and then forwards the call to that user from a phone number Bj (Bj and Pj are paired. Bj could be same as Pj). In addition, an SMS notification of the emergency may also be sent to Mi from Bj. The user with mobile number Mi may also register other phone numbers/email addresses he may be available at. In such a case the service provider will make an attempt to reach the user at Mi but also at other phone numbers (by calling, sending SMS), emailing, instant messaging etc. In a similar manner, the user with mobile phone number Mi may register more than one phone numbers at phone number Pj for this service and use several numbers P1, P2, . . . to register different persons for different P1, P2, and so on. The methods described above may also be combined. So if someone calls from a phone registered by the user with mobile number Mi at Pj, they need to do nothing more, however if they are calling from some other phone number, then they are required to enter the code Xj before the service provider takes the actions as stipulated. In another embodiment, the person may send SMS to Pj which is then delivered to Mi (once again, the caller-ID of the incoming SMS is used to identify the user) from Bj. User Mi may program Bj as ‘emergency message’ in his phone-book. Message retrieval/delivery will now be described in detail for example embodiments. Most current voice mail services are based on Interactive Voice Response Systems (IVRS) where the user has to spend valuable time to navigate through a voice driven menu. This is quite difficult and time consuming. It is thus desirable to have a system and a method for the user to be able to retrieve his messages in as short a time and in as convenient a way as possible. Assume now there is a message (e.g. voice message, email retrieved by the system etc) for a user to be delivered at his mobile phone number Mi. The user may have programmed the system (programming can be done on a user mobile phone/fixed line phone or during anytime on the server) to inform him of certain voice mails and emails (e.g. from very important persons). In this case, the system can let the user opt for delivery of messages of a special nature (voice mail from spouse, email from boss, stock alert/update, etc) from particular phone number pairs (P1 Q1), (P2 Q2), and so on. The user at Mi registers a set of email addresses and phone numbers for each of the pairs (P1 Q1), (P2 Q2) and so on. Hence when the system determines that the message intended for Mi has the special nature (from the caller-ID information of the caller or the email address of the email intended for the user, from the message itself etc), then it always sends a notification SMS from Pj to Mi. If the user is expected to call in (for voice mail or email read as speech after text-to-speech conversion) then the SMS notification includes Qj in it. The user may now call Qj to retrieve the voice message of the special nature. For certain messages of a particular special nature, the user may also program the system to call him from Qj and deliver the message. The user may store P1, P2 and so on in his phone-book under suitable headings such as ‘Message from spouse/boss’ and Q1, Q2, and so on under suitable headings such as ‘Retrieve message from spouse/boss’ (for instance). The system allows the user to retrieve all messages of a particular special nature at Q1, Q2, and so on. The user may also be allowed to register for additional functionalities for the messages of a particular special nature, for instance for a voice message by the boss, the user may program for the SMS to be sent from P1 to several of his mobile phone numbers along with an email (could be just an email notification or a complete email) to his email address and so on. Messages of different nature will now be processed at different phone numbers (P1 Q1), (P2, Q2), and so on of the system as programmed by the user Mi in the example embodiment. All other messages that are determined to be not associated with any special nature can be lumped together and serviced at one set of phone numbers. The user may store these numbers in his phone-book under ‘Generic messages’ and ‘Retrieve generic messages’ (for instance). Hence the user is able to automatically identify who sent the message before actually calling and retrieving the message and are able to retrieve the message directly in one click. Further, since the phone numbers do not change, the user may call them on his initiative to check for messages in cases such as a lost SMS notification. In another embodiment, Pj and Qj may be same numbers. When the user receives an SMS notification from Pj, he may call back Pj to retrieve his message. There are also Information Notification Services. This can be described in the context of a notification for music (an instance of information) that is played by a radio station. One difficulty is that the listeners can never know which song the radio station will play anytime. One way to solve this problem is for the radio station to let a listener register his mobile phone for the songs of their choice (S1, S2, . . . ) against different phone numbers (P1, P2, . . . ). The radio station can set up a web-site for subscribers to accomplish this. Different users will have different choices. When a song of choice of user with mobile number Mi, say Sj, is about to be played, the radio station will send SMS notification from Pj to Mi. The user can program his phone-book to indicate ‘song S1’ for phone number P1 and so on. Upon notification, the user has the choice to either ignore the song or tune to the radio station and listen to the song. The notification can include a phone number P in the notification for the user to call in and listen to the music. The number P may be fixed by the radio station for broadcasting its music so that the user may also store it under ‘Radio station FM.’. The same system is also applicable when users register with a service provider to provide for notification for stock alerts and so on. Moreover, the example embodiments of the present invention can be extended to provide a Single Number Voice Messages Up and Down service. The features of this service comprise a phone number Pairs (P1 Q1), (P2 Q2) and so on of service provider, a sender phone number Mi, and a recipient number Ri. An example of the user experience of sender Mi is as follows. Firstly, both users with phone numbers Mi and Ri register with the service provider so that every voice message sent/received to/from Mi and Rj is done via one such pair (P Q). The next step relates to the sending of voice message from sender phone number Mi. Sender calls P from his phone number Mi (from the phone-book or through some other means) and leaves a voice message. The service provider records the voice message and the incoming phone number Mi (using caller-ID). Also, knowing that Mi has registered with Ri for the service at (P Q), the system now knows that the message is meant for Ri. It is then sent to Ri as per service agreements during registration and so on. The next step relates to the receiving of voice messages on sender phone number Mi. Now, the system has a message for Mi, which is sent by Ri. Depending on the system preferences set by Mi, the system either calls Mi from the phone number Q and plays the message or sends an SMS from phone number Q inviting Mi to call Q to listen to the voice message. Alternatively, Mi can Q anytime to retrieve any messages sent by Ri. In this case, all voice message communications between Mi and Ri occur with the phone number pair (P Q). Thus for convenience, P can be stored in the phone-book of Mi for “voice message to Ri” and Q as “voice message from Ri”. All messages sent by Mi for Ri and vice versa are accessible via (P Q). Further features may be built in such as a message left by Mi for Ri at P is also sent as email to pre-registered email address(es). The phone number Pj for sending voice message and Qj for retrieving voice message can be the same number also in an embodiment whereby the user at Mi calls Pj to send a message and Pj calls Mi to deliver a message. Other combinations are possible whereby if there are any voice messages at Pj for the user at Mi, they are read to him first when he calls and then he is asked to deposit his voice message. Based on the above description for a Single Number Voice Messages Up and Down service, it will be appreciated that the same number P can also be use for all SMS communications. Further, it can be extended to more than two persons to create a ‘buddy group’ (‘buddy SMS’ and/or ‘buddy voice message’ system) where any message (voice or SMS) left/sent by one is delivered to all the buddies registered at P. Caller-ID of the person sending/leaving the message is used to identify the ‘buddy group’ Different buddy groups can be registered at different numbers P1, P2, and so on. Example embodiments may also be extended to provide Reminder Services. In many cases, one registers with a reminder service where they register certain SMS to be pushed to their mobile phone at a pre-selected time (meetings', appointments' reminders etc). These SMSs are sent from a single number by the service provider. Thus the recipient has no way of knowing as to the nature of reminder till he opens up the reminder SMS and reads its contents. Now with this reminder service, the user can choose to get reminders from one of the many numbers P1, P2, and so on. The number that the user selects to receive reminder from depends on the nature of reminder and other user preferences. These phone numbers that the reminders are sent from can be stored by the user in his phone-book. As the reminder is received, the user knows what the reminder is about from the phone number it is sent from and the corresponding phone-book entry. The user may also program the system to do different things for the reminders originating from different numbers, such as a reminder coming from P (say for some meeting with boss) is sent to several mobile phone numbers while some others (e.g. not so important ones) are sent only to one mobile number. Another feature of an example embodiment of the present invention is, for example, the use of audio (voice, celebrity voice etc) for reminders. The system sends SMS and/or places a voice call from one of P1, P2, . . . , to the person the reminder is intended for. The system may also send an SMS from a phone number that the user may call and listen to the voice reminder. Thus far all reminders have been SMS based. It is possible to combine services such that at the same service provider's phone number P, the service that the user with mobile phone number Mi gets is different from the service that user with mobile phone number Mf gets. This is possible as the service is caller-ID dependent. The service that the user with mobile phone number Mi gets at P could in turn be a combination of services described under individual headlines here. For instance, user with mobile phone number 96613446 calls 61234567 the service can be ‘number 1 song on US chart’ while when 96417415 calls 61234567, the service can be ‘send a voice mail as email to trikaala@hotmail.com and deposit it in the voice mail account of 96247977’. In the following, as another example embodiment, an information retrieval service called “Music Information Services” will be described. The example embodiment described is applicable to other types of audio information as well. Mobile phones (including GPRS phones) suffer from two major problems, memory and processing capability. Some advanced models of phones have reasonably large memories (memory stick etc) and processing capability that may allow a person to transfer the music from the PC to the phone and play it. Even then the memory on the phone may be limited and it may not be possible to store the entire selection of the music that a listener desires to store on the mobile phone. This example embodiments let the user select his music and be able to listen to it in as easy a manner as possible. In the framework of the example embodiments described so far, the user gets a service S ‘listen to the desired music’ at a phone numbers P1, P2 and so on. Hence the user just calls Pj and listens to the music of his choice. Pj is programmed for the music of user's choice. Different users calling the same number Pj will listen to the music of their choice. The example embodiment provides some solutions to accomplish the task of making the music of choice available at the number Pj. For instance the Music Service Provider (MSP) could offer the number one song on a particular chart at P1, number two song at P2, and so on. Depending on the marketing approach and mix of music, MSP may also offer several top songs on P1 and so on. Different users calling P1 at different times will get to listen to the top music on a particular chart from the very beginning. As users register/subscribe for this service, they will be able to select the particular chart that they want. As the caller calls in, the MSP will perform caller-ID to determine the particular chart that the user has subscribed for and would then play the corresponding music in the chart. The user is also able to store the phone numbers and the music they play in his phone-book. Now the music of choice (top songs on a chart of choice) is easily available to the user. Another example is to create a database DB with the MSP that the user can upload his music to. Each of the subscribers is assigned his own storage space S in the database DB and an account with the database server that can be used by the subscriber to upload his music from his Personal Computer (PC) (or some web-site on the internet, sharing from other sources) to his storage space using the internet. This said account with the database server is linked uniquely to the phone number of the subscriber. The DB is now accessible by a computer system/server termed the Music Server (MS). The MS can access the music file/folder in any storage space, input it to one of the many players that convert the contents of the said file/folder to music in audio form and make it available to any one who calls a given phone number P. The user now calls P, the MS performs caller-ID to determine the identity of the user and hence the music that he wishes to listen to (this is the same music that the user has uploaded into his storage space S). The MS then accesses the file/folder that was uploaded by the said user, converts it to music in audio form and plays it for the caller on the phone. The MSP may also provide a software program that the user may run on his PC to upload and manage files/folders in his storage space S. This program may also compress the information before uploading it to his storage space in order to save the overall transmission time. The database DB may also store information in compressed form and decompress it as and when required. The compression/decompression used by the database DB may further depend on the fact that the music is accessed using the phone network. The method described in the above paragraph is readily generalised to provide for several databases DB1, DB2, . . . , that the user can upload music to with each of the databases now accessible by calling a different phone number P1, P2, and so on respectively. All such databases can also be a part of a bigger database that can be accessed by calling P. At P, the user may be asked to navigate using Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF) tones to select and play the music of his choice stored in DB1, DB2, and so on. The user calls P1, P2, and so on to reach directly to the music of his choice in DB1, DB2, and so on. MSP may also provide for the users to share their music with other users based on authorisations and so on. Many service providers also provide for GPRS based access to data stored on the server. In this instance, the MS will provide for GPRS based access to the music stored in DB1, DB2, via a different URL for each and so on. A music player software/hardware needs to be provided for at the mobile phone (say a pocket PC etc) for the digital data stream to be converted to music in audio form. Whether the music is downloaded using the GPRS etc or by simply calling, it may be recorded at the mobile device for playing in the future. The example embodiment is applicable for archival and its retrieval of content of a wider variety. With reference to FIG. 14, the system set-up of the example embodiment may comprise a database (DB) 171 with storage spaces for at least one user data 175 (e.g. the data of registered caller_ID information, pre-selected songs the user wishes to listen etc.), a Music Service Provider (MSP) 172 with a Music server controlling all features of the MSP 172, a Phone network 173 (e.g. PSTN) capable of connecting to at least one phone user 174, the Internet for connecting to the servers of other Music Providers 177 and connecting to at least online user 178. With reference to FIG. 15, the example embodiment above may be described by the following steps. To begin with, at step 181, a phone user 174 (FIG. 14) with phone number Mi calls the MSP 172 (FIG. 14) at Pj. Next, the MS of the MSP 172 (FIG. 14) checks pre-stored information 175 (FIG. 14) in the DB 171 (FIG. 14) to verify whether Mi is authorized for service in step 183. If Mi is authorized for the service, the MS extracts caller-ID information belonging to the user phone 174 (FIG. 14) in step 186. If Mi is not authorized for the service, in step 185, the MS disconnects the user or play subscription information such as prompting the user to register. After the caller-ID information is extracted, the caller-ID is utilized to determine music that Mi wants to listen at Pj in step 187. Next, at step 188, the music file(s)/folder(s) associated with the music that the user wishes to listen is extracted from the DB 175 (FIG. 14) by the MS. If required, the MS converts files to audio form and played the music to the caller. Finally, at step 189, the MS either asks the user or waits for user further instruction/selection from Mi and/or disconnect. An example of the database for use in an example embodiment of the present invention will be described in detail as follows. Consider a service S to be provided to users with electronic addresses M1, M2, . . . , Ma. It requires features for a complete description. The complete service description is “S with features SF1, SF2, . . . , SFc. For each of the users that wish to use the service S, all the possible complete service descriptions are determined based on the feature values of interest to the users. In the database illustrated as table 500 in FIG. 5, for the user with electronic address M1, let the complete service descriptions be CSD(1,1), CSD(2,1), . . . , CSD(b,1). Here CSD denotes ‘complete service description’. CSD is followed by (j,1) where j denotes the j-th CSD, and 1 denotes the first electronic address. For the i-th user with electronic address Mi, let the complete service descriptions be CSD(1,i), CSD(2,i), . . . , CSD(b,i). There is a total of a×b CSD; there are b CSD for each of the ‘a’ electronic addresses. These CSD in the database can be arranged in a table form as shown in FIG. 5. Examples of the electronic address can be a phone number (mobile or fixed), email address, instant messaging address and so on. Moreover, the CSD for the electronic addresses belonging to each user may be determined without taking into consideration the CSD of any other user. This example embodiment the database consists of assigning an electronic address P1 to provide the first CSD (more precisely CSD(1,1), CSD(1,2), CSD(1,3), . . . , CSD(1, a)) to all users. Similarly it assigns an electronic address P2 to provide the second CSD (more precisely CSD(2,1), CSD(2,2), CSD(2,3), . . . , CSD(2, a)) to all users. In general, Pj is assigned to provide the j-th CSD (more precisely CSD (j,1), CSD(j,2), CSD(j,3), . . . , CSD (j,a)) to all users. Any user with electronic address say Mi will be registered for the service (either by himself or by someone else depending on the service) in a way that its first CSD (CSD(1,i) to be precise) is registered with P1, its second CSD (CSD(2,i) to be precise) is registered with P2, and so on. The i-th user with electronic address Mi is registered with the service provider to be provided with service S having the j-th complete service description (CSD(1,i) to be precise) via the electronic address Pj of the service provider. The service provider may offer its electronic addresses P1, P2, . . . , Pb and the user registration may be performed by the users, service provider, or a third party. These registrations can be altered by/for the users as per agreements, user preferences, settings etc. Registration for the service is expected to take place less frequently than the usage of the service in most methods. This registration information is stored with the service provider in the database that resides with the service provider. Other types of information may also be stored including authorization for the use of service, payment information, service specific information and so on. The user can store the electronic addresses P1, P2, . . . , Pb in a suitable way that could be in a phone-book of a phone if these electronic addresses are phone numbers or an address book of a email system if these electronic addresses are email addresses and so on. Depending on the service, there are two scenarios, either the user or the service provider initiates a contact with the other. The contact is established between Mi and Pj. Once this is done, a communication Dij is sent from one to the other (either one of the user or the service provider can be the source or destination). We note that the key to providing a simple user-experience is to ensure that the communication is as simple as possible (just call and talk, just send SMS, just send email). The communication is not used to extract any feature information about the complete service description. In the first scenario, if the user initiates the contact, he determines which CSD he wishes to get, determines Pj accordingly and then contacts the service provider at Pj using Mi. When the user at Mi contacts the service provider at Pj, the service provider determines Mi (using caller-ID for phones, email address for emails, instant messaging ID for instant messaging etc). Knowing Mi and Pj, the service provider performs a data-base look-up to determine the CSD(j,i) and provides it to the communication Dij. Once the data-base is set up with the service provider, the user just has to contact the service provider at a suitable Pj depending on the CSD which is then provided to the communication Dij. The content of the communication are not processed to determine which complete service description is to be provided as that would require the user to remember to format the content of the communication for that complete service description. The complete service description is determined only from Mi and Pj. With reference to FIG. 10, in step 131 the user determines the CSD he wishes to use for the service S. Let this be CSD(j,i). In Step 132, the user contacts the service provider at its electronic address Pj using its electronic address Mi. The service provider then determines the electronic address Mi of the user at step 133 via caller-ID or by noting the email address the email is sent from and so on. Knowing the electronic address Mi of the user and the electronic address Pj that the user contacted, the service provider determines the complete service description CSD(j,i) to be provided at step 134. The service provider does this by doing a database look-up as shown in FIG. 6, wherein row 62 and column 66 intersect to determine block 64, which contains CSD(j,i). Following that, in step 136, an exchange of communication Dij occurs between the user and the service provider via their electronic addresses Mi and Pj respectively. Knowing the complete service description CSD(j,i), the service provider processes the communication Dij accordingly at step 138. In the above example, it is assumed that the communication could be from either the user to the service provider or vice versa. In the second scenario, if the service provider is to initiate the contact, it first determines which CSD it wishes to provide. If it is CSD(j,i), then the data-base look up is used to determine the user Mi to be contacted and the electronic address Pj to be used for the contact. Accordingly the service provider contacts Mi using Pj and provides CSD(j,i) to the communication Dij. The content of the communication are not processed to determine which complete service description is to be provided as that would require the content of the communication in a certain format for that complete service description. The complete service description is determined only from the features such as the electronic addresses (phone numbers, email/IM addresses) the communication is sent to/received from and so on. The complete service description is determined only from Mi and Pj. With reference to FIG. 11, in step 141 the user determines the CSD he wishes to use for the service S. Let this be CSD(j,i). In Step 143, from the complete service description CSD(j,i), the service provider determines, by looking up the database, the electronic address Mi of the user and the electronic address Pj, where both Mi and Pj are to be used to provide CSD(j,i). In FIG. 7, the logical representation of the database lookup is shown as row 72 and column 76 intersecting at block 74 to give CSD(j,i). After that, the service provider uses its electronic address Pj to contact the user at electronic address Mi at step 145. Following that, in step 147, an exchange of communication Dij occurs between the user and the service provider via their electronic addresses Mi and Pj respectively. Knowing the complete service description CSDU,i), the service provider processes the communication Dij accordingly at step 149. In the above example, it is assumed that the communication could be from either the user to the service provider or vice versa. Further, as the cost of communication in the example embodiments of the present invention may be a factor, in situations when service provider's electronic addresses are phone numbers, the service provider's phone numbers are made local or toll-free to the user as a preferred embodiment. The following example embodiments of the present invention use Caller/Mobile Station Identifications (ID) and services e.g. SMS and email, to illustrate the two scenarios above. EXAMPLE 1 Enabling SMS to Email Communication. Consider two users with mobile phone numbers M1=96613446 and M2=90214091. The service S is ‘send the SMS received from the user as email’. This requires one feature ‘email address of the recipient’. Say user of 96613446 wants the service for email addresses a@b.com and c@d.com while 90214091 wants it for e@f.com and g@h.com. With Reference to FIG. 6, the CSD for 96613446 are: CSD(1,1) “send an SMS received from user 96613446 as email to a@b.com.” CSD(2,1) “send an SMS received from user 96613446 as email to c@d.com.” Similarly the CSD for 90214091 are: CSD(1,2) “send an SMS received from user 90214091 as email to e@f.com.” CSD(2,2) “send an SMS received from user 90214091 as email to g@h.com.” The service provider needs two electronic addresses (phone numbers capable of receiving SMS from a mobile phone). Let these be 9123 and 9124. The service provider provides these numbers and the users are required to register with the service provider for these CSD. An on-line account is created on the service provider's web-site that the users can log into to specify their registrations. Once registrations are done, the service provider's database looks like FIG. 8. With reference to FIG. 8, once this registration is completed, the user with electronic address as mobile phone number 96613446 (block 81) can store 9123 (block 87) in his mobile phone-book as “EM A” to denote “email to a@b.com (block 83)” and 9124 (block 89) as “EM C” to denote “email to c@d.com (block 85)”. Similarly, the user with electronic address as mobile phone number 90214091 (block 82) can store 9123 (block 87) in his mobile phone-book as “EM E” to denote “email to e@f.com (block 84)”. 9124 (block 89) as “EM G” to denote “email to q@h.com (block 86)”. After storing and naming the respective numbers, in order to send email to a recipient with email address of a@b.com, the user of mobile phone 96613446 starts by composing a text SMS, goes to the phone-book, selects the entry “EM A” (which corresponds to 9123) and presses the send button. Note that the user does not need to remember any format or insert any commands into the SMS. When the SMS is received at 9123, through caller-ID information, the service provider identifies the registered sender mobile phone number as 96613446 (block 81) in the database. Knowing the sender mobile phone number, 96613446, and the number, 9123, the service provider performs a look-up of the database using 96613446 (block 81) and 9123 (block 87) to determine the CSD. Once the CSD is determined as “send SMS received from 96613446 as email to a@b.com”, the service provider creates an email with the SMS text as the content of the email and sends it to a@b.com. Thus, it can be seen that once registration is done, sending an email is as easy as sending an SMS i.e. write the SMS, select the number from the phone-book, press ‘send’ and the email will be sent. EXAMPLE 2 Enabling Email to SMS Communication Consider the previous example, now with the users seeking for the service S of “the recipient of the emails should be able to reply to the email by simply pressing the ‘reply’ button on their email system and the reply should be pushed to the user as SMS so that the user knows right away who the sender is”. This is done by letting the service provider use a unique email address for each sender. Typically, the email address for the mobile number 96613446 may be of type 96613446@xyz.com (other configurations are possible). This email address is inserted in the ‘from’ field of each email sent out by the service provider. The service S requires two pieces of information that is the email address of the recipient and the email address of the sender. For instance, the user of mobile phone with telephone number, 96613446, wants the above service for email addresses a@b.com and c@d.com while the user of mobile phone with telephone number, 90214091, wants the service for e@f.com and g@h.com. With Reference to FIG. 9, the CSD for 96613446 are: CSD(1,1) “For an email received at 96613446@xyz.com, sent by a@b.com, take the email text, convert it to SMS and send to 96613446”. CSD(2,1) “For an email received at 96613446@xyz.com, sent by c@d.com, take the email text, convert it to SMS and send to 96613446”. Similarly the CSD for 90214091 are: CSD(1,2) “For an email received at 90214901@xyz.com, sent by e@f.com, take the email text, convert it to SMS and send to 90214091”. CSD(2,2) “For an email received at 90214091@xyz.com, sent by g@h.com, take the email text, convert it to SMS and send to 90214091”. The phone-book entries in the mobile phones of the users are same as the previous example. That is, “EM A” to denote block 93, “EM C” to denote block 95, “EM E” to denote block 94 and “EM G” to denote block 96. When an email is received, the service provider checks the email for the recipient's email address and the sender's email address. This check provides the service provider with the required features of the service. Taking as an example a case of an email that is to be sent to 90214091@xyz.com and the email is from g@h.com. In the database as illustrated in FIG. 9, the CSD of the case is determined to be “For an email received at 90214091@xyz.com, sent by g@h.com, take the email text, convert it to SMS and send to 90214091” (block 96). After determining the CSD, the service provider takes the text of the email and converts it to an SMS. The service provider then performs the database look-up to determine the user mobile number 90214091 (block 92) and the phone number 9124 (block 99), in which 9124 is the number the service provider will be using to send out the SMS. Next, the service provider will push the SMS to the user at 90214091 using the number 9124. As the SMS is received at 90214091, the mobile phone with number 90214091 makes use of the functionality of caller-ID service to indicate to the user that the SMS is sent from “EM G”. The user knows right away that the SMS corresponds to an email sent from g@h.com. If the user wishes, he can simply use the ‘reply’ function to send an SMS reply back to the service provider and the SMS will be reconstructed as an email to be sent to the email address g@h.com. EXAMPLE 3 Enabling SMS to Email and Email to SMS Communication It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the services in Examples 1 and 2 (SMS sent as email and email sent as SMS respectively) above can be provided for by the service provider using the same set of electronic addresses to further enhance the utility of the overall system and method. In this case, the user with the mobile phone can send SMS to the service provider. This SMS is then constructed as an email to be sent utilising a registered sender email address to a registered destination email address. Conversely, when the targeted user wishes to reply to the sender's email, he may make use of his registered destination email address to send an email to the registered sender email address. This email is then constructed as an SMS to be sent from the registered destination email address to the user with the mobile phone. This back and forth of SMS to email to SMS is accomplished with both parties (one sending SMS and other sending email) using a simple ‘reply’ feature for their communication. It is clear to those skilled in the art that the electronic addresses and the service provider systems must be suited to handle the nature of communication they are being designed to handle. For instance, if the service in Example 1 relates to voice calling instead of SMS, then the service provider must be able to receive a voice call at the two service provider's phone numbers, make a voice recording of the caller's voice message, convert it to a file with suitable format, attach it to the email and send it out. Since all communication occurs between the electronic addresses of the user and the service provider, it will be worthwhile to minimise the costs of such communications. Hence, for SMS and voice calls, it might be best if the service provider's phone numbers are local or toll-free to the user. EXAMPLE 4 Enabling SMS/Voice Call to Email Communication Consider an extension of the service described in Example 1. The service S is now “send the SMS or a voice message received from the user as email”. Thus, the user can either send an SMS or call from his mobile phone. Now, the CSD for 96613446 are: CSD(1,1) “send an SMS/voice message received from user 96613446 as email to a@b.com” CSD(2,1) “send an SMS/voice message received from user 96613446 as email to c@d.com” Similarly the CSD for 90214091 are: CSD(1,2) “send an SMS/voice message received from user 90214091 as email to e@f.com” CSD(2,2) “send an SMS/voice message received from user 90214091 as email to q@h.com.” The rest of the system and the method and its workings are clear from the descriptions here and in Example 1. Hence the user can either call (same as voice call) or send an SMS (same as sending regular SMS) and send an email out to one or more email addresses. EXAMPLE 5 Enabling Fax to Email Communication At this stage, it should be obvious to those skilled in the art as to how to use a fax machine to send faxes as email attachments to one or more email addresses by simply making a regular fax call. It has been stated that caller-ID can be used to identify the electronic address when it corresponds to a phone. In some situations, caller-ID may not work (in some places caller-ID does not work for voice calls for mobile phones when they roam). In that case, the service provider may assign account name and pin to the users in order for them to use to authenticate themselves to the service provider when they initiate the contact. Collecting from the description made so far and describing further details, the following are numerous example embodiments of the service the present invention can provide. I. Sending Text Emails/IM from Mobile Phone (SMS to Email, SMS to IM) In this example embodiment, the electronic addresses of the user and the service provider are capable of sending and receiving SMS, respectively. The service has been described in Example 1 above. An SMS sent by the user from Mi to Pj is pushed to the email address(es)/IM address(es) registered at Pj for Mi in the appropriate form as email/IM. In case of IM, sending of SMS from Mi to Pj is also to allow for the IM service provider to sign in the user for IM if not done so already and deliver the SMS as IM if parameters of IM (the person at destination is on-line and so on) are met. II. Sending Group SMS from Mobile Phone (SMS to Group SMS) In this example embodiment, the electronic addresses of the user and the service provider are capable of sending and receiving SMS, respectively. The service is to push one SMS and have it delivered to one or more electronic addresses (that can receive SMS, example is mobile phones) as SMS. An SMS sent by the user from Mi to Pj is pushed to the mobile phone numbers registered at Pj for Mi as SMS. III. Sending Text Emails/IM+SMS from Mobile Phone (SMS to Email, SMS to IM, SMS to Group SMS in one) This is a combination of example embodiments in I and II above. One or more email/IM addresses and mobile phone numbers are registered at Pj. An SMS sent by the user from Mi to Pj is pushed to the email address(es)/IM address(es) and mobile phone numbers registered at Pj for Mi in the appropriate form as email/IM and SMS, respectively. IV. Sending Text Emails/IM from Mobile Phone (SMS to Email, SMS to IM and Reply) In this example embodiment, the electronic addresses of the user and the service provider are capable of sending and receiving SMS, respectively. The service has been described in Examples 2 and 3. Example 2 describes ‘email to SMS’ service and Example 3 describes ‘SMS to email and reply’ service. The description is sufficient for those skilled in the art to apply it to IM as well. V. SMS Backup Service In this service, the user wishes to save the short messages received from different mobile numbers through SMS in a way to distinguish who the sender is. For instance, the user with mobile phone number Mi wishes to clearly identify senders with mobile numbers Q1, Q2, . . . , Qb. An ID for Q1 at P1 say ‘Raj’, ID for Q2 at P2 say ‘Ram’, and so on are registered for user at Mi. In preferred embodiment, ‘Raj’ is the phone-book entry in the user's phone-book for P1, ‘Ram’ is the phone-book entry in the user's phone-book for P2, and so on. The user can save P1 in the phone-book as ‘Raj BkUp’, P2 as ‘Ram BkUp’, and so on. When the user wishes to backup an SMS he received from ‘Raj’, he forwards it to ‘Raj BkUp’. When the SMS is received at P1, the service provider checks preferences/settings for mobile phone number Mi. The user may be signed for this SMS to be sent to his designated email address with a suitable subject such as ‘SMS Backup from Raj’ and from an email address such as ‘Raj bkup@serviceprovider.com’ to clearly identify the SMS and its original sender in user's email system. The user may also sign for this SMS to be saved in an on-line account under the heading ‘SMS Back-up from Raj’. The same is true for SMS received from other users. VI. Sending SMS/Voice Emails/IM from Mobile Phone (SMS/Call to Email/IM) In this service, the electronic addresses of the user and the service provider are capable of sending and receiving SMS/voice calls, respectively. The service has been described in Example 4. An SMS/voice call sent by the user from Mi to Pj is pushed to the email address(es)/IM address(es) registered at Pj by Mi in the appropriate form as email/IM. Voice call is recorded and pushed as a file in an appropriate format. In case of IM, SMS/voice call from Mi to Pj is also to allow for the IM service provider to sign in the user for IM if not done so already and deliver the SMS/voice file as IM if parameters of IM (the person at destination is on-line and so on) are met. From this description and the descriptions in W, the following services will become clear to those skilled in the art: (a) ‘sending SMS/voice email/IM from mobile phone and reply’, (b) ‘sending voice emails/IM from fixed-line phone’, (c) ‘sending voice emails/IM and reply from fixed-line phone’, and (d) ‘sending voice emails in a way that the email sent to the recipient's email address contains a link to the voice file where the voice file is stored on a computer server and is retrieved when the recipient clicks on the link in the email or visits the server using internet or intranet’. VII. Voice Messaging to/from a Phone The service is to ‘send/receive voice messages to/from a phone’. In this service, electronic addresses of the user and service provider are capable of sending/receiving voice calls. The user at Mi registers at Pj the phone number Qj of another person. When he calls Pj and leaves a voice message, the service provider makes a recording of the message, and delivers it to Qj. Similarly for a call from Qj to Pj, a voice recording is made and delivered to Mi. The service provider ensures that when Mi registers Qj at Pj, no other user registers Qj at Pj for the voice message from Qj to Pj to be delivered to Mi. The delivery of voice message from Pj to Qj and from Pj to Mi is done as per settings. Instances of delivery from Pj to Qj include: push an SMS notification from Pj to Qj, inviting Qj to call in to listen, or just call from Pj to Qj and deliver and so on. Two sets of service provider's numbers may also be used, one from user to the service provider and the other from service provider to the user. VIII. Missed Call Alert Notification Service In this case, the electronic addresses of the user and the service provider are capable of receiving and sending SMS. Many service providers push an SMS notification if a mobile phone subscriber misses an incoming call for whatever reason. Typically the SMS reads like ‘90214091 was trying to call you at 9 am Mar. 12, 2003′. The user has to open the SMS to know who the caller was and even then may not be able to recognize who the caller was from the phone number in the SMS. In this example embodiment, the service covered is ‘missed call alert notification’. The user at Mi registers at Pj the phone number Qj for the service. When the user at Mi misses a call from a number Q and service provider generates a notification for missed call for Mi, it further checks to see if Q is registered by the said user at any of the service provider's numbers for this service. If it is registered say at Pj, the service provider sends the SMS notification for the missed call to Mi from Pj. The SMS notification itself may include more information about the missed call from Qj (for instance if the user Mi has registered a name for Qj say ‘Raj’ the SMS notification could say ‘Raj at Qj was trying to call you at 9 am Mar. 12, 2003’. The user at Mi, even before opening the SMS to read its content, will be able to tell that he missed a call from ‘Raj’ if he has stored Pj in his phone-book under ‘MC fm Raj’. In addition, the user may sign for this missed call notification alert to be sent to his designated email address along with his mobile number with a suitable subject such as ‘missed call from Raj at Qj’ and from an email address such as ‘Raj mscall@serviceprovider.com’ to clearly identify the notification and the caller whose call is missed in user's email system. The user may also sign for this notification to be saved in an on-line account under the heading ‘missed call notification from Raj’. Same is true for missed call notifications for calls missed from other users. IX. Sending Voice/Fax Messages when only Phone Number of Intended Recipient is Known In many cases, a user at Mi wishes to send a voice/fax message to a person about whom he only knows a phone number. Unlike the system and method in VII, the user may not wish this message to be delivered to/retrieved by the intended person at his phone for whatever reasons. Instances of such situations include knowing mobile phone number of the intended person and wanting to deliver a fax, knowing the mobile phone number of the intended person which incurs charges when contacted directly by the user using Mi. In this case the service is ‘sending voice/fax communications on the internet when only phone number of intended recipient is known’. The electronic address of the user Mi and the service provider Pj must be capable of sending and receiving voice and/or fax calls. The user at Mi registers at Pj, the phone number Qj of the intended person for the said communication. When the user initiates a contact using Mi at Pj, the service provider receives the voice/fax communication, creates an on-line account for Qj (with password protection), sends a suitable notification to Qj (including identity of sender and account access information such as the web-site address, account name, password etc), and makes the voice/fax file available to Qj when he uses the web-site to retrieve the information. Other functions may be provided to further facilitate the retrieval of the information. The sender does not need to know anything more than the phone number of the intended recipient. This notification to Qj can be an SMS notification if Qj is a mobile number or a voice call if Qj is not capable of receiving a SMS notification. X. Service of Making/Receiving Anonymous Phone Calls For this service, an example embodiment is such that the electronic addresses of a user and a service provider are phone numbers. The service is that the user wishes to make an anonymous call from his phone Mi to another person's phone Qj. With reference to FIG. 12, at the start, the user registers Qj at Pj for this service. Thus, when he calls Pj, the service provider calls Qj from another number Rj and connects the two calls so that a conversation between Mi and Qj can take place. The service provider's numbers Pj and Rj are paired and could be same in those instances where a call can be received at and dialled from the same number simultaneously. At step 151, the user at Mi calls Pj. At step 153, the service provider calls Qj from Rj. The user at Mi can store Pj in his phone-book as ‘Raj ANMS’ to denote that it is meant for calling Raj anonymously. Rj may even be a private number. At step 155, the service provider connects the call from Mi to Pj with the call from Rj to Qj. In step 157, targeted user Qj receives a call from Rj. This system and method works when the service also includes reply that is service is ‘make and receive anonymous calls’. In this case the user at Mi wishes to call a person at Qj anonymously and also would want that person at Qj to be able to call him back at Mi without knowing Mi. To begin with, the user at Mi registers Qj with the service provider at Pj and gives Rj to the person at Qj. In this case, the user at Mi calls service provider at Pj and the service provider calls Qj from Rj and connects the two calls. Rj may even be a private number. For reply, in step 157*, the person at Qj calls Rj. The service provider knows that it is a call for the user at Mi from the caller-ID Qj of the caller. Hence, the service provider calls Mi from Pj in step 153*. After that, in step 155*, the service provider connects the two calls. For this method to work, the service provider has to ensure that no other user registers Qj at Pj. If a user other than the user at Mi wishes to make/receive anonymous phone calls to Qj, the service provider assigns a number different from the one assigned to Qj for Mi. Finally, in step 151*, the user with number Mi receives the call from Pj. This service can be extended when both parties wish to remain anonymous to each other. Say their numbers are Mi and Ui. In this case both of them subscribe to this service with their service providers. The user at Mi registers that he wishes to use this service and gets a pair of numbers Pj & Rj. Similarly the user at Ui registers that he wishes to use this service and gets a pair of numbers Sj & Tj. The user at Mi gives the user at Ui the number Rj and the user at Ui gives the user at Mi the number Tj. Thus the user at Mi only knows Tj and the user at Ui only knows Rj. They now return back to their service providers. The user at Mi register Tj as the destination number for his calls to Pj and the user at Ui registers Rj as the destination for his calls to Sj. When the user at Mi calls Pj, it triggers a call to Tj from Rj. Based on caller-ID of Rj, a call to Tj from Rj triggers a call from Sj to Ui. All these calls are then connected. A similar scenario exists when the user at Ui calls Sj. For this method to work no other users besides the ones at Mi and Ui can be assigned the numbers Tj at Pj and Rj at Sj. XI. Service of Sending/Receiving Anonymous SMS Based on the description of the system and method for making anonymous phone calls in the previous method, the system and method for sending/receiving anonymous SMS and the system and method for sending/making/receiving voice calls as well as SMS will be obvious to those skilled in the art. XII. Other Services such as Calling Cards/Access to Accounts The service is make a ‘calling card call’ to a person with phone number Qj. This done by the user at Mi registering at Pj the entire calling card sequence followed by the number Qj (including pauses, #, * etc). Now when the user at Mi calls Pj, the service provider dials out the entire sequence stored by the user and connects the call. Other instances of this service include automatic access to bank account information and direct access to certain information in IVRS systems. XII. Service of Recording Calls The service is ‘recording a voice call’. The user at Mi registers a phone number Qj at Pj for this service. When the user at Mi calls Pj, the service provider calls Qj from another number Rj and connects the two calls while also making a recording of the call. The user at Mi may then be given access to the recording via a suitable delivery means such as internet, emailing, physical delivery, calling etc. XIV. Service of Conference Calling The service is taking a conference call’. The user at Mi registers a set of phone number [Aj, Bj, . . . ] at Pj for this service. When the user at Mi calls Pj, the service provider calls the set of numbers registered at Pj simultaneously and establishes a conference call among these numbers. The call may even be recorded by the service provider as per user settings. XV. Service of Emergency Calling The service is ‘emergency calling’. The electronic address of the user and the service provider are phone numbers capable of making/receiving phone calls. In this service, the user does not wish to take a call from a person unless it is an emergency call from that person. Instances include the user being in a meeting and not wanting to take a call from anyone unless it is an emergency call from wife. Hence he may reject a call if he sees on his phone that it is his wife calling as the call is received. Ordinarily the user may decide to call back later say after the meeting. But there are situations when the wife really would like the user to take the call, say if there is an accident. Hence there is a need for a system and method for a user to be able to know that it is an emergency call as the call comes in without taking any actions such as take the call and ask if it is urgent or have it forwarded to some answering service etc. Further the user may not wish to receive emergency calls from everyone. Only those who he authorises should be able to call him as ‘emergency call’. The system and the method work as follows. The user at Mi registers the wife's phone number Qj at the service provider's riumber Pj for this service and stores Pj in his phone-book as ‘EMR form Wife’. The service provider's numbers Pj and Rj work in pairs. The user gives Rj to his wife to use if she wishes to reach him in emergency situation. The wife can store Rj in her phone-book as ‘EMR to Hbby’. Under ordinary situation she will call Mi directly from Qj (go to phone-book, select ‘hbby’, and call). When there is any emergency situation, the wife calls Rj (go to phone-book, select *EMR to Hbby’, and call) which triggers a call from Pj to Mi after the service provider checks to see if Qj is registered for the service and at what number of the service provider. Then the service provider connects the two calls. The user's phone at Mi shows an incoming call from ‘EMR form Wife’. The user may also program a special ring-tone or other modes (loud rings, vibration, etc) if the call comes in from Pj. Further the user may register at Pj with the service provider to not only connect the call, but also send SMS, call/SMS other parties, send emails etc from preset electronic addresses and so on. The user at Mi can register different person's numbers at different service provider's numbers P1, P2, and so on in order to determine if it an emergency situation from wife or child or parents and so on. In another embodiment, the system and the method work as follows. The user at Mi registers his wife's phone number Qj at the service provider's number Pj for this service and stores Pj in his phone-book as ‘EMR to Wife’. He then gives Rj to his wife to put in her phone-book as ‘EMR form Hbby’. Under ordinary the user calls Qj from Mi directly (go to phone-book, select ‘Wife’, and call). When there is any emergency situation, he calls Pj (go to phone-book, select ‘EMR to Wife’, and call) which triggers a call from Rj to Qj and the service provider connects the two calls. The wife's phone shows an incoming call from ‘EMR form Hbby’. The wife may also program a special ring-tone or other modes (loud rings, vibration, etc) if the call comes in from Rj. Further the user at Mi may register Qj with the service provider at Pj to not only connect the call to Qj, but also register other electronic addresses to send SMS, call/SMS other parties, send emails etc from preset electronic addresses and so on when he calls Pj. The user at Mi can register different person's numbers at different service provider's numbers in order to call different persons under different emergency situations. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that both husband at Mi and wife at Qj can subscribe to this service where the husband registers Tj at Pj and wife registers Rj at Sj along with other electronic addresses. Pj is paired with Rj and Sj is paired with Tj. A call from Qj in emergency situation is made to Sj which triggers a call from Tj to Rj that are connected. The call from Tj to Rj triggers a call from Pj to Mi that are connected. Thus the wife is able to notify not only her husband but others as well with one call in emergency situation and the husband is able to set his preferences and enable communications accordingly when he receives an emergency call from the wife. Finally it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that both husband and wife can subscribe to the service in a way that in an emergency situation with the wife, she can call husband and receive call from him if he is in emergency situation at the same number. She could then store that number in her phone-book at ‘EMR Hbby’. XVI. Service of Voice Mail Retrieval In this example embodiment, the electronic addresses of the user and the service provider are capable of making and receiving voice calls and the service is ‘voice mail retrieval’. Many service providers push an SMS notification if there is voice mail for a mobile phone subscriber for whatever reason. Typically the SMS reads like ‘90214091 has left a voice message for you at 9 am Mar. 12, 2003’. The user has to open the SMS to know who the caller was and even then may not be able to recognise who the caller was from the phone number in the SMS. Also the service providers provide a single number for the users to call in and retrieve their voice mails using IVRS that can be cumbersome and time-consuming. In this example embodiment, the service covered is ‘voice mail retrieval’. With reference to FIG. 13, at the start, the user at Mi registers at Pj the phone number Qj for the service. When there is a voice message for the user from a number Qj, service provider generates a notification for the voice message for Mi. Next, the service provider checks its database in a manner similar to the one previously described to see if Qj is registered by the user at any of the service providers numbers for this service. On the service provider side, in step 161, if Qj is registered say at Pj, the service provider sends the SMS notification for the voice message to Mi from Pj and stores the voice message in such a way that it could be played to the user at Mi when he calls into Pj. The SMS notification itself may include more information about the voice message from Qj. For instance, if the user Mi has registered a name for Qj say ‘Raj’ the SMS notification could say ‘Raj at Qj left a voice message for you at 9 am Mar. 12, 2003’. The user at Mi, even before opening the SMS to read its content, will be able to tell that he has a voice message from ‘Raj’ if he has stored Pj in his phone-book under ‘VM fm Raj’. On the user side, after receiving the SMS notification from Pj for a voice mail left by Qj in step 167, the next step 169 is the user calls into Pj directly to retrieve voice mail from the phone number Qj. At this point, the user is also capable of managing the voice mail, e.g. rewinding and replaying the voice mail etc. Even if there is no notification (for instance fixed line phones) or the user does not recall or has deleted it, he can still call into Pj to check if there is any voice message from Qj. This method is useful for the user to know and retrieve voice messages from important persons in a fast manner. Back on the service provider side, in step 163, once Mi calls Pj, the service provider will play the voice message left by Qj. At step 165, the user may further interact with the system at the service provider to manage the voice mails. In addition, the user at Mi may sign for this voice message to be sent to his designated email address along with SMS notification at his mobile number Mi with a suitable subject such as ‘voice message from Raj at Qj’ and from an email address such as ‘Raj vm@serviceprovider.com’ to clearly identify the caller whose voice message is being sent in user's email system. The user may also sign for this voice message to be saved in an on-line account under the heading ‘voice message from Raj’. All of these things may be done together thereby giving user the choice of retrieving voice messages by either calling the voice mail system or via an on-line account or from the email system. Same is true for voice messages from other users. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that this system and the method can also be used by users to register different originating phone numbers for incoming faxes and voice messages into a unified messaging service (UMS) provider's system and have them delivered into the user's email accounts from different email addresses of the service provider and with different subjects depending on the caller-ID of the originating phone numbers. XVII. Service of Advertising and Other Information Services In this case, the service is ‘advertising and other similar information services’. The electronic addresses of the user and the service provider are phone numbers. In one instance of this service for advertising, the user at Mi registers a mobile phone number Qj at Pj. For any SMS that the user wishes to send to Qj, he now sends it from Mi to Pj, the service provider appends a suitable advertisement (which may also lead to transformation of SMS to one or more SMSs or MMSs) and then sends that communication to Qj. Several other variations are possible. The service provider may encourage users to register for listening to information messages at Pj before connecting the call to Qj. The user may also wish the service provider to add information messages during the call (such as background audio). XVIII. Service of Information/Reminder Notification In this case the service is ‘information and reminder notification’. In most embodiments, these types of services are SMS based. The electronic addresses of the user and the service provider must be able to receive and send SMS. An instance of this service is song notification when radio station is to play it. Different users may wish to be notified via SMS of different songs as the radio station is about to play it. The users register different songs at different numbers. When the radio station is about to play the song that the user at Mi has registered for notification at Pj, the service provider sends an SMS notification from Pj to Mi. This way the user knows which song it is even before opening the SMS if Pj is stored in his phone-book under a heading for the song. Similar description is also possible for reminder services when different reminders or different types of reminders are sent from different numbers for the ease of the user. Service of Music/Information Delivery In this case, the service is ‘music/information delivery’ and the electronic addresses of the user and the service provider are phone numbers. In this service, the user will register one or more audio messages (songs, music, speeches, audio-books etc) to be played to him when he calls Pj using Mi. Audio messages at different service provider's numbers are different for the user at Mi and different users select their own audio messages for listening. These audio messages may be selected from a menu offered by the service provider, third parties, and could even be uploaded to the service provider's data-base by the user using well known techniques for information transfer using the internet. The user at Mi may call into Pj or choose settings such that Pj calls Mi and listen to the audio message that he selected or uploaded. This system and a method can be used to offer music to the users in a way that they pay for it when they access it using their phones. Services from Email Accounts and IM Many of the services described above have been described in the telephony domain when the electronic address of the user and the service provider were phone numbers. It will become apparent to those skilled in the art that similar services can also be described when the electronic addresses are either email or IM addresses. For instance a service of sending group SMS to all the numbers registered by Mi at Pj when Mi sends an SMS to Pj, can also be translated to a service of ‘group SMS’. Now an email sent by the user using an email address Mi to an email address Pj will be converted to SMS and sent as SMS to those phone numbers registered for an email sent from Mi to the email address Pj. Same goes for IM addresses. The delivery of such services from email and/or IM accounts further facilitates the user. For instance, now he may send anonymous emails by selecting a suitable email address from his email address book. For emergency service, an IM sent from Qj to Pj (user with IM address Mi registers IM address Qj for the emergency service at IM address Pj) is picked up by the service provider. It is then delivered to the user at Mi from Pj along with other things that the user may set the system for including calling, sending SMS to one or more persons including him, sending emails, IM and so on. Service of Retrieving Information from Web-Sites In this case the service is ‘retrieving information from web-sites’. The electronic addresses of the user and the service provider are phone numbers. The user at Mi selects certain information on a web-site of his preference (stock quotes, weather reports etc) and registers to have it delivered to him at Pj. Information at different service provider's numbers is different for the user at Mi and different users select their own information for the service. Delivery may involve the service provider sending SMS/calling Mi from Pj or the user sending SMS/calling the service provider at Pj depending on the user settings, preferences and nature of information. Service of Call-Back In this case the service is ‘call-back’ and the electronic addresses of the user and the service provider are phone numbers. In many cases the user at Mi would like to call Qj in a way that it is a call-back to Mi. The user registers Qj at Pj for this service of callback. When he wants to call Qj, he establishes a contact with Pj instead. This contact can be an SMS sent from Mi to Pj in no particular format or a quick call and hang-up after one or more rings from Mi to Pj or some other equivalent contact. This triggers the service provider to establish a call to Qj and Mi and connect the two calls. Service for Anonymous Sending of Items to a Physical Address In this case the service is ‘anonymous sending of physical items to physical addresses’. In two example embodiments that is achieved by way of utilizing electronic addresses associated with physical addresses at the service provider, and, by way of utilizing electronic markers associated with physical addresses at the service provider, respectively. With reference to FIG. 16, an example embodiment describing the service by way of utilizing electronic addresses associated with physical addresses at the service provider is as follow. To begin with, in step 902, a client who has pre-registered the service with the CSD of ‘send an item if communication received from EA1 on EA2 to PA2. The client then sends a communication from an Electronic address (EA1) to the service provider's server Electronic Address (EA2). The item to be sent must be specified by the client at the time of client registration. At step 904, the server looks up its database 908 of pre-registered CSDs utilizing EA1 and EA2 to identify the specific CSD. Once the server identifies the CSD, in step 906, the server sends off the item to PA2. As an example, a paper note may be printed by the server stating the CSD requested by the client and a staff at the service provider acts on the request by preparing the item and send it off to PA2 through the local Post Office. In another example embodiment, the server may be connected to an electronic warehouse, thus further reducing any human input into the service provision. Hence, utilizing this method, the physical address and identity of the sender is not revealed to the recipient of the item. With reference to FIG. 17, an example embodiment describing the service by way of utilizing electronic markers associated with physical addresses at the service provider is as follows. To begin with, in step 912, a client who has pre-registered the service with the CSD of ‘send item associated with electronic marker PAM1 received at SPAL to PA2’. The client then sends an item tagged with a Physical Address Marker (PAM1) to the Service provider's Physical Address (SPA1). This marker can be a barcode tag or Radio Frequency Identification Device (RFID) tag or the like. At step 914, upon receiving the item from the client, a staff at the service provider e.g. scans PAM1 using a barcode reader (assuming PAM1 is a barcode tag) that is connected to a server at the service provider. Once the server receives the scanned data, the server looks up a database 918 residing in it or in another computer of a connected computer network. Utilizing the barcode number of PAM1 and SPA1, the server then identifies the specific CSD in the database. Once the CSD is identified, in step 916, the staff at the service provider sends off the item to PA2. As an example, a paper note stating the specific CSD requested by the client may be printed by the server. The staff at the service provider then acts according to the description of the CSD by sending off the item to PA2 through the local Post Office. Hence, similarly, utilizing this second method, the physical address and identity of the sender is not revealed to the recipient of the item. Also SPA1 and PA2 can be electronic address based physical address of the kind ‘abc@yahoo.com, 1234 Anystreet, Anytown, Anystate, 12345’. The electronic address based PA2 for the recipient may be created on the fly if it does not exist beforehand and the recipient can be notified of the item and asked to arrange for its delivery via his electronic address. Thus one may send/receive a physical item to/from another person knowing only the electronic addresses. It will appreciated by a person skilled in the art that the methods described above with reference to FIGS. 16 and 17, can be readily modified or extended to relate to anonymous receipt of items by the client. In one embodiment a scenario can be realized in which neither party to the exchange knows the others physical address and identity. It will be appreciated by a person skilled in the art that the methods and systems of the example embodiment can be implemented utilising a computer system 800, schematically shown in FIG. 18. It may be implemented as software, such as a computer program being executed within the computer system 800, and instructing the computer system 800 to conduct the method of the example embodiment. The computer system 800 comprises a computer module 802, input modules such as a keyboard 804 and mouse 806 and a plurality of output devices such as a display 808, and printer 810. The computer module 802 is connected to a computer network 812 via a suitable transceiver device 814, to enable access to e.g. the Internet or other network systems such as Local Area Network (LAN) or Wide Area Network (WAN). The computer module 802 in the example includes a processor 818, a Random Access Memory (RAM) 820 and a Read Only Memory (ROM) 822. The computer module 802 also includes a number of Input/Output (I/O) interfaces, for example I/O interface 824 to the display 808, and I/O interface 826 to the keyboard 804. The components of the computer module 802 typically communicate via an interconnected bus 828 and in a manner known to the person skilled in the relevant art. The application program is typically supplied to the user of the computer system 800 encoded on a data storage medium such as a CD-ROM or floppy disk and read utilising a corresponding data storage medium drive of a data storage device 830. The application program is read and controlled in its execution by the processor 818. Intermediate storage of program data maybe accomplished using RAM 820. Embodiments of the present invention can provide the following advantages: 1) Allows the simplicity of making/receiving regular voice calls and/or sending/receiving regular SMS for numerous services. 2) Simple to use and non-limiting in their utility for the consumer. The concept of simplicity apparent in the embodiments are based on the following user experiences: (A) The user experience of making a voice call—“pick a phone number (from phone-book or otherwise) and dial it (or the phone can dial it out at the touch of a button), talk and hang up” is very powerful due to its simplicity thereby enabling its wide-spread use. (B) The user experience of sending a SMS—“enter the text, pick a phone number (from phone-book or otherwise) and send the SMS at the touch of a button” is very powerful due to its simplicity thereby enabling its wide-spread use. (C) The user experience of managing an incoming voice call—“pick the receiver or press a button to receive a call, talk and hang up” is very powerful due to its simplicity thereby enabling its wide-spread use. The caller-ID information can be used in a variety of ways to manage the call (reject it, different ring-tones for different calling numbers etc). (D) The user experience of receiving a SMS—“just click on the proper button on the phone to open and read the SMS” is very powerful due to its simplicity thereby enabling its wide-spread use. The caller-ID information can be used in a variety of ways to manage the SMS (reply, read it now vs later, urgent vs non-urgent etc). (E) The user experience of managing emails from a PC (connected to internet) is simple. Use of address book in the email system makes it simple for the user to manage email communications. (F) The user experience of managing instant messaging (IM) from a PC (connected to internet) is simple. Use of address book in the IM system makes it simple for the user to manage IM communications. In the first four instances (A)-(D), the user experience was simple. However the communication (only voice call, SMS) was limited—“The user used a phone (mobile, fixed-line) only and calling/sending/receiving took place from/to a phone number.” Similarly, in the last two instances (E)-(F), the user experience of managing messaging (emails, IM) from PC (connected to internet) is simple. However it is limited to “sending/receiving emails (or IM) from one email address (or IM address) to another.” Hence, in one aspect of the example embodiments that was describe here, the objective is to remove the limitations of the simple user experience associated with using the phone or the PC. In another aspect of the example embodiments that was describe here, the objective is to bring about the simplicity of the user experience to other specific aspects of communication besides making/receiving voice calls, sending/receiving SMS from a phone, and managing emails from a PC. It will further be appreciated by a person skilled in the art that another advantage of embodiments of the present invention is their independence of the telephone company switches. Rather, the system and the method in embodiments of the present invention is provided simply via the server phone addresses, for those applications where the service is provided via a plurality of server phone numbers. In the foregoing manner, methods and systems for providing a service are disclosed. Several embodiments are described. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art in view of this disclosure that numerous changes and/or modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In telecommunication, there is a continued demand to provide a larger variety of services utilising the infra-structure of telecommunication networks. With the continued improvement to electronic devices involved in the telecommunication infra-structure, such as computers connected to the internet and mobile phones, the potential for providing a large variety of services has been significantly increased. At the same time, one of the challenges emerging now is to provide such services in a user-friendly way. As an example mobile phones are primarily designed for voice calling and sending short text messages (popularly known as SMS). However there is great demand for access to mobile services, such as send/receive emails from phones/fax machines, call alert, and resource management (e.g. downloading and listening of music). A large number of services have been introduced in recent times. However they are not user friendly and require user familiarity and availability of certain additional technologies, for instance General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), which may not be supported in all mobile phones. There are problems such as the complex, time-consuming and sometimes expensive processes that users have to undergo in order to use the mobile services. In many instances, they have to do one or more of the following: (1) change phones, (2) remember complex commands, (3) pay for expensive services, (4) structure their communication in a prescribed format, and (5) spend time. An example of a prior art for Email-to-Phone service is GB2380897, entitled “Sending Email To Mobile Phone As Text Message”. Another example of a prior art for Email-to-Phone service is GB2381998, entitled “Delivery of email to text telephone”. An example of a message retrieval service is EP1104206, entitled “Mobile Station (MS) Message Selection Identification System”. An example of a music delivery service is DE19950001, entitled “Method for the selection, transmission, and playback of pieces of music by subscribers of a digital mobile communication network”. An example of a service for sending voice emails from a mobile phone is WO02096076, entitled, “Voice Attachment To An Email Using A Wireless Communication Device”. An example for a service for sending audio file attachments in an electronic message from a telephone is U.S. Pat. No. 6,385,306, entitled, “Audio file transmission method”. An example of a service for sending text and multimedia messages to email users from a mobile phone is WO03024069, entitled, “Method And System For Handling Multi-Part Messages Sent To E-Mail Clients From Cellular Phones”. An example of a service for sending SMS/voice emails/IM from a mobile phone WO0135615, entitled, “Telephone Based Access To Instant Messaging”. An example of telephony and online communication service is CA2379741, entitled, “Instant Messaging Using A Wireless Interface”. An example of a user-to-user voice messaging service is EP1185068, entitled, “Method and apparatus for voice messaging originated by mobile terminals”. An example of a solution to a voice/fax messaging service is WO0110089, entitled, “A Method And System For Electronic Messaging”. An example of mobile phone call recording, storing and retrieving service is US2002155847, entitled, “Communications recording system”. An example of a Personalised Identification Number (PIN) based telephone service is U.S. Pat. No. 6072860, entitled, “Telephone apparatus with recording of phone conversations on massive storage”. An example of a mobile phone for secured recording and reproduction of phone conversation is RU2207740, entitled, “Mobile Phone With Scope For Uninterrupted Recording”. An example of a mobile set for real time recording of voice/data/video is US2004041694, entitled, “Methods of recording voice signals in a mobile set”. An example of a telephone recording service is WO02069612, entitled, “System And Method For Recording Telephone Conversations”. An example of a recording and recorded Call Retrieval service is WO02093874, entitled, “System And Method For Telephone Call Recording And Recorded Call Retrieval”. An example of a service for recording telephone conversation and user memoranda is EP1199870 entitled, “Mobile telephone recording system and method”. An example of a recurring conversation recording service is EP1113652, entitled, “Recurring conversation recording”. An example of an emergency call service solution is U.S. Pat. No. 2002067806, entitled, “System and method for urgent phone message delivery”. Another example of an emergency call service solution is U.S. Pat. No. 6,477,374, entitled, “Apparatus and method for calendar based call routing”. An example of a call screening service is U.S. Pat. No. 5604792, entitled, “Call screening method”. An example of call screening service with selective call acceptance is U.S. Pat. No. 5,596,627, entitled, “Call screening method using selective call acceptance”. Examples of anonymous telephone systems are WO9501037, U.S. Pat. No. 5,361,295, U.S. Pat. No. 5,768,348 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,623,536, where all four are entitled, “Anonymous interactive telephone system”. An example of a system involved in call forwarding service is EP0674419, entitled, “Communication system for processing caller ID information”. An example of a message notification service using email is U.S. Pat. No. 2001039561, entitled, “Method for notifying message reception by e-mail in voice mail system”. An example of an advertising service is CA2388418 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,381,465, both entitled, “System And Method For Attaching An Advertisement To An SMS Message For Wireless Transmission”. An example of a service for music and information delivery is W00128183 entitled, “Method for the selection, transmission, and playback of pieces of music by subscribers of a digital mobile communication network”. An example of a service for anonymous sending of items to a physical address is US2004002903 entitled, “Electronic purchase of gods over a communications network including physical delivery while securing private and personal information of the purchasing party”. The applicant has found that each of the above prior art systems and methods suffer from inflexibility of the customised services provided and/or from complex and not user friendly authentication and/or set-up processes. Hence, it was with knowledge of the foregoing concerns that the present invention was conceived and has now been reduced to practice. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In the summary and the claims, the phrase “. . . comprises one or more of a group comprising . . . ” has been used on a number of occasions. This phrase is not intended to treat the different features listed as members of the group as equivalent features. In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of providing a service, comprising the steps of contacting one of a plurality of server electronic addresses from a first electronic address; identifying, at the server electronic address, the first electronic address from which the contact is made; and providing a service based on a service definition depending on the server electronic address and the first electronic address, and wherein the service definition comprises one or more second electronic addresses for execution of the service. Accordingly, the present invention can provide high flexibility due to the use of the first, server, and second electronic addresses in the service definition, while utilising identification of the first electronic address at the server electronic address for authentication and purpose of determination of complete service description for the user using that first electronic address. (First address does more than authentication. It is used for determining the complete service description for the user using that first address) The service definition may be set up by a person associated with the first electronic address. The service definition may be set up by a person associated with the second electronic addresses. The one or more second electronic addresses may include the first electronic address and/or the server electronic address. The service definition may comprise one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the one or more second electronic addresses, leaving a message at the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an email to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an SMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending a fax to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an IM to the one or more second electronic addresses; sending an MMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, making a calling card call to the one or more second electronic addresses, making an access sequence call to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending audio data to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending video data to the one or more second electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the one or more second electronic addresses. The service definition may comprise one or more of a group comprising receiving a voice call from the one or more second electronic addresses, recording a message from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an email from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an SMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a fax from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an IM from the one or more second electronic addresses; receiving an MMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a calling card call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an access sequence call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving audio data from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving video data from the one or more second electronic addresses, and receiving multi-media data from the one or more second electronic addresses. Contacting the server electronic address from the first electronic address may comprise one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the server electronic address, sending an email to the server electronic address, sending an SMS to the server electronic address, sending a fax to the server electronic address, sending an IM to the server electronic address; sending an MMS to the server electronic address, making a calling card call to the server electronic address, making an access sequence call to the server electronic address, sending audio data to the server electronic addresses, sending video data to the server electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the server electronic addresses. The service definition may comprise conversion of one communication format into another communication format. The service definition may comprise recording a communication to and/or from the one or more second electronic addresses. The service definition may comprise a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address. The service definition may comprise a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address and connecting the third electronic address to the server electronic address. Accordingly, for example anonymous calling and receiving can be performed. In accordance with a second aspect of the present invention, there is provided system for providing a service, the system comprising an electronic device having a first electronic address; a server having associated with it a plurality of server electronic addresses; a database accessible by the server; wherein the electronic device contacts one of the server electronic addresses; the server identifies the first electronic address from which the contact is made; and the server initiates a service based on a service definition stored in the database depending on the server electronic address and the first electronic address, and wherein the service definition comprises one or more second electronic addresses for execution of the service. The server may further comprise a user-interface unit for setting up the service definition by a person associated with the first electronic address. The server may further comprise a user-interface unit for setting up the service definition by a person associated with the second electronic addresses. The one or more second electronic addresses may include the first electronic address and/or the server electronic address. The service definition may comprise one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the one or more second electronic addresses, leaving a message at the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an email to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an SMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending a fax to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending an IM to the one or more second electronic addresses; sending an MMS to the one or more second electronic addresses, making a calling card call to the one or more second electronic addresses, making an access sequence call to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending audio data to the one or more second electronic addresses, sending video data to the one or more second electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the one or more second electronic addresses. The service definition may comprise one or more of a group comprising receiving a voice call from the one or more second electronic addresses, recording a message from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an email from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an SMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a fax from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an IM from the one or more second electronic addresses; receiving an MMS from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving a calling card call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving an access sequence call from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving audio data from the one or more second electronic addresses, receiving video data from the one or more second electronic addresses, and receiving multi-media data from the one or more second electronic addresses. The electronic device may contact the server electronic address from the first electronic address by one or more of a group comprising making a voice call to the server electronic address, sending an email to the server electronic address, sending an SMS to the server electronic address, sending a fax to the server electronic address, sending an IM to the server electronic address; sending an MMS to the server electronic address, making a calling card call to the server electronic address, making an access sequence call to the server electronic address, sending audio data to the server electronic addresses, sending video data to the server electronic addresses, and sending multi-media data to the server electronic addresses. The server may convert one communication format into another communication format as part of the initiating of the service. The server may record a communication to and/or from the one or more second electronic addresses as part of the execution of the service. The service definition may comprise a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address. The service definition may comprise a third electronic address, and the execution of the service comprises contacting the second electronic address from the third electronic address and connecting the third electronic address to the server electronic address. In accordance with a third aspect of the present invention there is provided a computer readable medium having stored thereon computer readable code means for instructing a computer controlled system to execute a method of providing a service, the method comprising the steps of contacting one of a plurality of server electronic addresses from a first electronic address; identifying, at the server electronic address, the first electronic address from which the contact is made; and providing a service based on a service definition depending on the server electronic address and the first electronic address, and wherein the service definition comprises one or more second electronic addresses for execution of the service. | 20040607 | 20090217 | 20050113 | 63434.0 | 1 | JACOBS, LASHONDA T | SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING A SERVICE | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,862,942 | ACCEPTED | Phonographic turntable with built-in audio to USB or firewire device | The present invention is a turntable which includes an internal analog to digital converter and a controller for a standard digital format. This allows a jack for a standard digital frat to be incorporated into the turntable, so that digital signals are generated to be received by the soundcard of an external computer or similar piece of digital equipment. | 1. A turntable including. a rotatable platter, a tonearm for receiving a phono cartridge, an analog to digital converter or receiving a signal from the phono cartridge; and a controller for generating an output digital signal from an output of said analog to digital converter; wherein said analog to digital converted and said controller are included within said turntable. 2. The turntable of claim 1 wherein said output digital signal is a standard computer protocol. 3. The turntable of claim 1 wherein said output digital signal uses universal serial bus (USB) protcol. 4. The turntable of claim 1 wherein said output digital signal uses firewire (IEEE-1394) protocol. 5. The turntable of claim 2 wherein said turntable further includes a jack for outputting said output digital signal. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a phonographic turntable which includes a built-in audio conversion device, which is typically to USB, firewire, or other computer digital communication protocol, inside the turntable. 2. Description of the Prior Art The standard phonographic turntable, as an analog device, is diminishing in commercial popularity due to the ever increasing capabilities of digital music equipment. Digital music equipment has many advantages in that it can be either connected directly to a home computer or can play music through a common storage device (such as a compact disk). However, the standard phonographic turntable is still embedded within the popular music culture, at least for the reason that many people still own vinyl LPs which may be difficult or even impossible to replace with compact disks. Similarly, the standard phonographic turntable is embedded within the disk jockey culture at dance clubs and similar institutions. Some applications have connected the line level output of a turntable (or the output of a phono pre-amp which has received the audio output from the phono cartridge) to the analog input of a computer sound card. Other applications have used an external audio conversion device between the turntable and the soundcard. In addition, there are currently several devices that allow the phonographic turntable to act as a control device, similar to a computer mouse, to modulate or apply some effect (such as “scratching”) to audio playing within the computer. The SPDIF (Sony/Phillis Digital Interface) has been built into some turntables in order to provide a digital output. However, this is not a standard protocol such as USB (universal serial bus) or firewire (EEE 1394). OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore an object of this invention to provide a turntable which includes digital output in a standard protocol, such as USB or firewire. It is therefore a further object of the present invention to provide a turntable which eliminates the need for external audio conversion devices. It is therefore a further object of the present invention to provide a turntable which maintains the familiar feel of a standard turntable to a disk jockey or similar operator. These and other objects are attained by providing a turntable with such conventional features as a revolving platter, a pivoting tonearm and an analog phono cartridge and further providing an audio conversion device to USB, firewire or other standard computer digital communication protocol internally within the turntable. Therefore, a standard digital output is generated for simple connection to a computer or other digital equipment. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Further objects and advantages of the invention will become aunt from the following description and claims, and from the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic of the USB version of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic of the firewire version of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings in detail wherein like numerals refer to like elements throughout the several views, one sees that FIG. 1 is a schematic of the turntable 10 of the present invention, in the USB configuration. Turntable 10 includes a rotatable platter 12 (shown in phantom), a pivotable or similar traveling tonearm 14 supporting a phono cartridge 16 at its distal end, typically by way of a conventional attachment between tonearm 14 and phono cartridge 16. The phono cartridge 16 engages a conventional LP record rotating on platter 12. The phono cartridge generates a conventional analog electrical signal, representative of the audio recording on the LP record. The conventional analog electrical signal is received by the analog to digital converter (ADC) 18. The output of the analog to digital converter 18 is digital and is received by the USB controller 20. Both the analog to digital converter 18 and the USB controller 20 are within the turntable 10. This results in a USB signal being generated from the turntable 10 from a USB jack 22 which is on the cabinet of the turntable 10. This USB signal from USB jack 22 can be fed directly to an external computer 100 (or similar digital processing equipment) so that the digital signal, typically a digital audio signal, can be processed by the computer 100. FIG. 2 is a schematic of turntable 10 of the present invention, in the firewire configuration. Turntable 10 includes a rotatable platter 12 (shown in phantom), a pivotable or similar traveling tonearm 14 supporting a phono cartridge 16 at its distal end, typically by way of a conventional attachment between tonearm 14 and phono cartridge 16. The phono cartridge 16 engages a conventional LP record rotating on platter 12, substantially identical to that shown in FIG. 1. The phono cartridge generates a conventional analog electrical signal, representative of the audio recording on the LP record. The conventional analog electrical signal is received by the analog to digital converter (ADC) 18. The output of the analog to digital converter 18 is digital and is received by the firewire controller (link layer) 26. The output of the rewire controller (link layer) 18 is received by physical (PHY) layer 28. The analog to digital converter 16, the firewire controller (link layer) 26 and the physical SHY) layer 28 are all contained within the turntable 10. This results in a USB signal being generated from the turntable 10 from a firewire jack (IEEE-1394) 30 which is on the cabinet of the turntable 10. This firewire signal from firewire jack 30 can be fed directly to an external computer 100 (or similar digital processing equipment) so that the digital signal, typically a digital audio signal, can be processed by the computer 100. Thus the several aforementioned objects and advantages are most effectively attained. Although preferred embodiments of the invention have been disclosed and described in detail herein, it should be understood that this invention is in no sense limited thereby and its scope is to be determined by that of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a phonographic turntable which includes a built-in audio conversion device, which is typically to USB, firewire, or other computer digital communication protocol, inside the turntable. 2. Description of the Prior Art The standard phonographic turntable, as an analog device, is diminishing in commercial popularity due to the ever increasing capabilities of digital music equipment. Digital music equipment has many advantages in that it can be either connected directly to a home computer or can play music through a common storage device (such as a compact disk). However, the standard phonographic turntable is still embedded within the popular music culture, at least for the reason that many people still own vinyl LPs which may be difficult or even impossible to replace with compact disks. Similarly, the standard phonographic turntable is embedded within the disk jockey culture at dance clubs and similar institutions. Some applications have connected the line level output of a turntable (or the output of a phono pre-amp which has received the audio output from the phono cartridge) to the analog input of a computer sound card. Other applications have used an external audio conversion device between the turntable and the soundcard. In addition, there are currently several devices that allow the phonographic turntable to act as a control device, similar to a computer mouse, to modulate or apply some effect (such as “scratching”) to audio playing within the computer. The SPDIF (Sony/Phillis Digital Interface) has been built into some turntables in order to provide a digital output. However, this is not a standard protocol such as USB (universal serial bus) or firewire (EEE 1394). | <SOH> OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is therefore an object of this invention to provide a turntable which includes digital output in a standard protocol, such as USB or firewire. It is therefore a further object of the present invention to provide a turntable which eliminates the need for external audio conversion devices. It is therefore a further object of the present invention to provide a turntable which maintains the familiar feel of a standard turntable to a disk jockey or similar operator. These and other objects are attained by providing a turntable with such conventional features as a revolving platter, a pivoting tonearm and an analog phono cartridge and further providing an audio conversion device to USB, firewire or other standard computer digital communication protocol internally within the turntable. Therefore, a standard digital output is generated for simple connection to a computer or other digital equipment. | 20040608 | 20090728 | 20051208 | 99575.0 | 7 | SIMPSON, LIXI CHOW | PHONOGRAPHIC TURNTABLE WITH BUILT-IN AUDIO TO USB OR FIREWIRE DEVICE | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,863,032 | ACCEPTED | User interface method and apparatus, and computer program | A user interface method includes acquiring a shape of an object arrangement area entered by a user's sketch operation; acquiring an object conversion parameter based on the acquired shape of the object arrangement area; acquiring a symbol entered by a user's sketch operation; searching registered objects for a display object associated with the acquired symbol; converting initial data of the display object to form a converted display object based on the object conversion parameter; and displaying the converted display object in the object arrangement area. | 1. A user interface method, comprising: acquiring a shape of an object arrangement area entered by a user's sketch operation; acquiring an object conversion parameter based on the acquired shape of the object arrangement area; acquiring a symbol entered by a user's sketch operation; searching registered objects for a display object associated with the acquired symbol; converting initial data of the display object to form a converted display object based on the object conversion parameter; and displaying the converted display object in the object arrangement area. 2. The user interface method according to claim 1, wherein the initial data includes initial shape data of the display object; and the converting step includes changing the shape of the display object from the initial shape. 3. The user interface method according to claim 1, wherein the object arrangement area has an initial set shape; and the object conversion parameter is acquired based on a comparison between the initial set shape and the acquired shape of the object arrangement area. 4. The user interface method according to claim 3, wherein the initial set shape of the object arrangement area is three-dimensional, and the acquired shape of the object arrangement area is two-dimensional, the method further comprising: converting the initial set shape into a two-dimensional projection, wherein the object conversion parameter is acquired based on a comparison between the two-dimensional projection of the initial set shape and the acquired shape of the object arrangement area. 5. The user interface method according to claim 3, wherein the initial set shape of the object arrangement area is three-dimensional, and the acquired shape of the object arrangement area is two-dimensional, the method further comprising: extending the acquired shape of the object arrangement area into three dimensions, wherein the object conversion parameter is acquired based on a comparison between the acquired shape of the object arrangement area extended into three dimensions and the initial set shape of the object arrangement area. 6. The user interface method according to claim 1, wherein the acquired symbol is selected from the group consisting of characters, character strings, and sentences; and the display object associated with the acquired symbol is an image object related to a meaning of the acquired symbol. 7. A user interface apparatus, comprising: means for acquiring a shape of an object arrangement area entered by a user's sketch operation; means for acquiring an object conversion parameter based on the acquired shape of the object arrangement area; means for acquiring a symbol entered by a user's sketch operation; means for searching registered objects for a display object associated with the acquired symbol; means for converting initial data of the display object to form a converted display object based on the object conversion parameter; and means for displaying the converted display object in the object arrangement area. 8. A recording medium recorded with a computer program for causing a computer to perform a user interface process, the user interface process comprising: acquiring a shape of an object arrangement area entered by a user's sketch operation; acquiring an object conversion parameter based on the acquired shape of the object arrangement area; acquiring a symbol entered by a user's sketch operation; searching registered objects for a display object associated with the acquired symbol; converting initial data of the display object to form a converted display object based on the object conversion parameter; and displaying the converted display object in the object arrangement area. 9. A user interface apparatus, comprising: a first acquiring unit operable to acquire a shape of an object arrangement area entered by a user's sketch operation; a second acquiring unit operable to acquire an object conversion parameter based on the acquired shape of the object arrangement area; a third acquiring unit operable to acquire a symbol entered by a user's sketch operation; a searching unit operable to search registered objects for a display object associated with the acquired symbol; a converting unit operable to convert initial data of the display object to form a converted display object based on the object conversion parameter; and a displaying unit operable to display the converted display object in the object arrangement area. 10. A system for performing a user interface process, the system comprising: a processor operable to execute instructions; and instructions, the instructions including: acquire a shape of an object arrangement area entered by a user's sketch operation; acquire an object conversion parameter based on the acquired shape of the object arrangement area; acquire a symbol entered by a user's sketch operation; search registered objects for a display object associated with the acquired symbol; convert initial data of the display object to form a converted display object based on the object conversion parameter; and display the converted display object in the object arrangement area. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application claims priority from Japanese Application No. 2003-168357 filed on Jun. 12, 2003, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a user interface method and device, and a computer program. Many sketch interfaces are available that allow the user to perform interaction in the three-dimensional space through a two-dimensional operation. For example, see Teddy in Igarashi, T., Satoshi, M., Hidehiko, T., “Teddy: A Sketching Interface for 3D Freeform Design”, in Proc. of SIGGRAPH 99, 409-416, 1999, and Flat3D in Hiroaki Tobita, Junichi Rekimoto, “Flat3D: A Shared Virtual 3D World System for Creative Activities and Communication”, IPSJ JOURNAL, Vol. 44, No. 02, 2003. The operation of such sketch interface systems is simple because the user can perform all operations in three dimensions in exactly the same manner as the user performs operations in two dimensions. On the other hand, it is sometimes difficult to simply acquire an object with exact fidelity to the design image because the result of drawing work depends largely on the user's design skill. Another method for building a scene is by describing the parameters (shape, position, size, color, etc.) of an object in the two- or three-dimensional space as a script. For example, see the Maya(™) Mel script in Aliasiwavefront company homepage http://www.aliaswavefront.com/en/news/home.shtml. The scene building method using a script like this allows the user to build a scene as if the user wrote a sentence but requires the user to describe a script using an editor. This prevents the user from interacting directly with the three-dimensional space. In addition, because the user must memorize the operation/behavior of the syntax rules and functions for describing a script in order to acquire an intended scene or object, many users cannot perform the operation easily. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the above-described issues relating to the related art, an embodiment of the present invention provides a user interface method that is intuitive and easy to operate and that allows the user to easily acquire an object with higher fidelity to a design image. According to another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a user interface method that allows the user to easily generate an object with fidelity to a design image when the user interacts in a three-dimensional space through a two-dimensional operation. According to still another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a user interface method that uses text-based symbols, such as characters, character strings, and sentences, but allows the user to perform intuitive interactions in the three-dimensional space using the meaning of the symbols. Still other objects of the present invention will become apparent by the drawings and the description given below. A user interface method and apparatus and a computer program according to an embodiment of the present invention use the configurations described below. According to the invention, a shape of an object arrangement area entered by a user's sketch operation is acquired, and an object conversion parameter is acquired based on the acquired shape of the object arrangement area. In addition, a symbol entered by a user's sketch operation is acquired, and registered objects for a display object associated with the acquired symbol are searched. The initial data of the display object is converted to form a converted display object based on the object conversion parameter, and the converted display object is displayed in the object arrangement area. In such configurations, the user can specify an object arrangement area through an intuitive operation, called a sketch operation, to perform various operations on a display object. In addition, in such configurations, the user can specify a symbol through an intuitive operation, called a sketch operation, to easily call a registered display object related to the symbol. The designation of an object arrangement area can be performed by a simple operation, for example, by drawing a closed curve, and the designation of a symbol through sketching can be performed based on a user-familiar operation in which the user writes a character on a paper. Therefore, the configurations described above can provide a design tool that does not depend largely on the user's design skill and that is easy and intuitive. The sketch operation may be performed by various pointing means such as a mouse, a track ball, a tablet device, a gesture input system, or an optical pointing system. During the sketch operation, the system can help the user through appropriate processing such as point interpolation and smoothing. The registered objects may be updated by an appropriate method. This update may be performed, for example, by newly acquiring an object as necessary from a picture or a user sketch, assigning an appropriate symbol to the object, and registering it with a predetermined resource, such as a database, or by rewriting initial data on an object associated with a symbol or rewriting pointer information pointing to the initial data. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the initial data can include initial shape data of the display object, and the conversion can include changing the shape of the display object from the initial shape. The conversion of the initial data on the display object may include not only changing the shape, but also various visual conversions such as converting the brightness, converting the colors, converting the shading in color, or changing the patterns. In addition, if conversion parameters are set so that other modules in the same application or other applications can reference them, not only can a visual effect be added to the display object, but also other various applications can be made. For example, a visual effect (for example, the conversion of peripheral objects, etc) in an area outside the object arrangement area or an audio effect (for example, the generation of a sound effect) associated with the display object can be generated. In addition, according to an embodiment of the present invention, it is possible to use a configuration in which the object arrangement area has an initial set shape, and the object conversion parameter is acquired based on a comparison between the initial set shape and the acquired shape of the object arrangement area. According to an embodiment of the present invention, it is possible to use a configuration in which the initial set shape of the object arrangement area is three-dimensional and the acquired shape of the object arrangement area is two-dimensional. In one variant, the initial set shape is converted into a two-dimensional projection, and the object conversion parameter is acquired based on a comparison between the two-dimensional projection of the initial set shape and the acquired shape of the object arrangement area. In another variant, the acquired shape of the object arrangement area is extended into three dimensions, and the object conversion parameter is acquired based on a comparison between the acquired shape of the object arrangement area extended into three dimensions and the initial set shape of the object arrangement area. This configuration provides the user with the ability to specify the object arrangement area through a two-dimensional operation and to perform an intuitive interaction with a three-dimensional space. Furthermore, according to an embodiment of the present invention, it is also possible to use a configuration in which the symbol is a character, a character string, or a sentence and the display object associated with the symbol is an image object related to a meaning of the symbol. Such a configuration enables the user to acquire an image object easily through a character even if the user is not familiar with the syntax or the semantics of the script language. In other words, it can be said that the meaning of the character is presented to the user through the display object. In this case, when the user enters as a symbol a character, a word, or a phrase, etc. whose meaning is unknown, the user can recognize its meaning as an image that is adapted to the user-specified arrangement area shape. According to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a user interface method that allows the user to perform operations intuitively and easily and to acquire an object which is close to a design image relatively easily. In addition, according to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a user interface method that allows the user to generate an object which is close to a design image when the user performs interactions for a three-dimensional space via two-dimensional operations. In addition, according to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a user interface method in which the user, who uses a text-based symbol such as a character, a character string, or a sentence, can interact with the three-dimensional space intuitively through the meaning of the symbol. In addition, according to an embodiment of the present invention, it is possible to provide a very useful education tool, especially a tool for character education or word education. For example, the shape of a kanji character is derived, in many cases, from the shape associated with a behavior in the real world and therefore the direct association between a kanji character and an object such as an image helps us understand the meaning and the shape. Therefore, this method in which kanji characters are directly associated with objects, is considered efficient in kanji character education for children and in Japanese education for foreigners. When teaching words to infants or non-native learners, the ability to show a word as well as its corresponding image would attract the learner's interest and achieve a high learning effect. In addition, the acquisition of a display object according to an embodiment of the present invention can be used not only for conversion, but also as a trigger for drawing. Painting an object, with a converted object as the base, has the function of a trigger for creation. A display object according to an embodiment of the present invention, which can be created based on a simple data configuration, can be used as a new communication tool attached to e-mail, etc. That is, because data can be a drawing in a bit map, the drawing can be sent via e-mail. A display object is also useful when a handwritten character is input to a computer, such as a PDA, that supports pen input. In addition, because an object can be generated by drawing a kanji character in a shared virtual space communication and its size is small, a display object is useful in communications via a network. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following description of the presently preferred exemplary embodiment of the invention taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a general block diagram showing one embodiment of functional modules of a user interface apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a flowchart showing the typical processing flow of a user interface method according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a flowchart showing the user interface method according to an embodiment of the present invention with the focus on a user input event; FIG. 4 is a flowchart showing the adaptation of a display object to an object arrangement area; FIG. 5 is a display image in a system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a display image of basic conversion in the system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a display image of applied conversion in the system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is an example of an overview of pseudo code; FIG. 9 is an example of definition of drawing object data; FIG. 10 is an example of an application main method 1; FIG. 11 is an example of an application main method 2; FIG. 12 is an example of an application main method 3; FIG. 13 is an example of an application main method 4; FIG. 14 is an example of an application main method 5; FIG. 15 is an example of other methods 1; FIG. 16 is an example of other methods 2; and FIG. 17 is an example of other methods 3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION System Overview First, an overview of an example of a system in accordance with the present invention will be described briefly. This system example allows the user to acquire an image object through handwriting input. In this example, the user basically draws a silhouette (contour/line/outline/silhouette) and draws a kanji character in an appropriate area to generate an object related to the character in the silhouette. The basic processing flow of this example is as follows: 1. A user draws a silhouette (for example, a closed curve). 2. The system displays the silhouette. 3. The user enters a kanji character in an appropriate drawing area (for example, inside the closed curve). 4. The system holds the size/shape data of the silhouette (usable for conversion parameters based on a comparison with a template) and the recognition result of the character. 5. The system references the database based on the recognition result of the character and selects a display object corresponding to the character. 6. The system shapes the display object in accordance with the shape of the silhouette. 7. The system displays the display object within the silhouette. EXAMPLE OF SCREEN IMAGE Using FIG. 5 to FIG. 7, an example of a display image in this system will be shown. In the example in FIG. 5, the input side interaction from the user to the system is performed basically by the selection of a GUI and the drawing of a silhouette and a kanji character. Therefore, the interaction is performed based on the operation of a mouse, for example, in a hardware configuration in which a standard PC (Personal Computer) and a monitor are combined. By combining the system with a system that supports pen input or finger input, such as a tablet PC, a PDA, or a wall-type real-world-oriented interface, the system can provide the user with a more natural operation. In the example in FIG. 5, the user performs operations for the system through GUI (Graphical User Interface) component selection and stroke drawing. In this example, the display area is divided roughly into a GUI component part and a drawing part. An example of the GUI component part, shown at the bottom of FIG. 5, includes GUI components for mode selection and so on. The GUI components for mode selection include, for example, a silhouette input GUI component, a symbol input GUI component, a change GUI component, a pen GUI component, a text GUI component, an erasure GUI component, or a selection object change GUI component. Those GUI components either may be displayed in the format shown in FIG. 5 or prepared in the system as other selection-type GUI objects such as a radio button, a checkbox, or a pull-down menu. Today, a user or a system developer can easily change the correspondence between the GUI components and the corresponding functions. Therefore, the correspondence between the GUI components and the related functions is not described in FIG. 5. It should be understood that a necessary function that will be used can be related to a GUI component. An example of the drawing part is shown in the center of FIG. 5. The system proceeds to the silhouette drawing mode, for example, when the user selects the silhouette GUI component in the example in FIG. 5. In this mode, the user can draw a silhouette in the workspace. This drawing result is held in the system as a list of three-dimensional position information. The list information should be treated as a storage object (an object to be held by the system) only when a closed curve is drawn. In addition, the system enters the kanji character drawing mode, for example, when the user selects the kanji GUI component after drawing a silhouette. In this mode, the user can directly or indirectly draw (handwrite) a kanji character, for example, within a silhouette. The drawn kanji character is held by the system as image data on the screen. After that, when the user presses the set GUI component, processing is performed for two types of data: the list data holding the position information and the image data holding the kanji character drawing information. For example, a stroke list, which is a data set that allows the application drawing module to draw a closed curve, is passed to the Triangular function to segment the inside of the closed curve into pieces based on a plurality of triangles. The image data is passed to the OCR (Optical Character Recognition) library for character recognition. The database is referenced based on the result of character recognition to determine the object, and this object is applied to the silhouette to complete the conversion from the kanji character to the object. In this system example, conversion to an object is also possible in some cases, not via a silhouette, but from a drawn kanji character only. Conversion is also possible from only a drawn kanji character by treating the outline of a kanji character in the same manner a silhouette is processed. In addition, instead of providing selection GUI components, a system may also be built in which the mode can be changed by some other methods, for example, by acquiring an object from a drawn stroke only. In this system example, if the user selects the kanji character GUI component and then draws “”, the model of a tree appears in the silhouette as shown in FIG. 6. For example, by building the system so that another object candidate can be applied to the character by performing a selection operation (for example, press) for the change GUI, the user can easily acquire an object that suits the user's application more precisely. It is also possible to directly convert the shape of an object by changing the way the character is drawn. Because a plurality of objects are stored for the same kanji character in the database in advance, the user can select from those candidates through the GUI operation. As a result, the user can acquire an object in three processes: silhouette drawing, kanji character drawing, and selection. Therefore, this system is characterized in that the user can use the system without special training because the system is based on kanji characters and so on with which the user is already familiar and which are used in writing sentences in daily life. With this system example, the user can generate a more complex object by using a combination as shown in FIG. 7. Drawing a kanji character on an object, which is acquired from a silhouette and a drawn kanji character, generates a complex object. For example, writing “” in the silhouette to acquire a tree object and then writing “” on the tree object generates a red tree object. Also possible is an interaction method that enables the objects to have a relationship between them. Setting a clock object, which is acquired from a silhouette and the drawn kanji character “”, next to the tree object can change the status of the tree by operating the clock. This system is designed for various materials. For example, conversion not only to a model but also to a sound (laugh, anger, cry), as well as application to various contents such as an animation character (fly, run, walk), is also possible. Objects can be easily added to this system by updating the database of the templates. Functional Modules FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an embodiment of the functional modules of a user interface apparatus in the embodiment. For convenience, FIG. 1 shows only a very simplified image. In the actual implementation of this embodiment, the functions of these functional modules are allocated as necessary to hardware components and software components. Consequently, it is highly possible that the overview of an actual implementation will not be the same as that shown in FIG. 1. Also, modifications, corrections, additions, functional extensions and so on may be added to the functional modules. An input user interface 1 in FIG. 1, composed of user input devices such as a keyboard, a mouse, or a tablet input unit, has an IF function that transfers data from the user input devices to a user input processing module 3. In this embodiment, it is preferable that the input user interface 1 be equipped at least with a user input device which allows the user to perform a sketch operation. Of course, a variety of input modes are also possible by using a configuration, for example, a multi-modal input mode configuration, in which multiple input means or multiple types of input means are provided. The user input processing module 3 interprets a user operation entered via the input user interface 1 and sends commands and data to a symbol recognition module 5, a silhouette recognition module 7, or other internal input processing module 21 in the subsequent stage so that processing for the user operation is performed. In this embodiment, it is preferable that the user input processing module 3 be capable of recognizing at least a silhouette input and a symbol input from a user's sketch operation. Such a configuration can be implemented by making a conditional judgment using GUI component selection information or user input stroke information as the key. In this case, a symbol may take various forms, for example, characters such as a kana character, a katakana character, a kanji character, a hangul character, an Arabic alphabet, and an alphabet character; symbol characters such as a space, a comma, a period, an at mark, and a face mark; graphics; illustrations; and a combination of those characters such as a character string. When a character is used as the symbol, any character code such as ASCII and Unicode may be used. A silhouette is an object that is the base of a model that is displayed in such a way that the model graphic corresponding to a symbol is displayed with some relation to the symbol. For example, a silhouette is a display area in which the model graphic corresponding to a symbol is displayed. In this embodiment, it is preferable that both a symbol and a silhouette can be input by the user easily through a switch operation rather than require the user to have a sophisticated design skill. The symbol recognition module 5 recognizes a symbol sketch-entered by the user based on data on the input symbol received from the user input processing module 3. This module is implemented by using, for example, the character recognition function of an OCR or Graffiti of Palm OS® (Palm, Inc.). The silhouette recognition module 7 recognizes the shape and other features of a silhouette sketch-entered by the user based on data on the silhouette entered from the user input processing module 3. It is desirable that the accuracy of symbol recognition and silhouette recognition be maintained by using appropriate processing such as data integration, calibration, and interpolation. A template search module 11 searches a template database 13 for a corresponding template in response to the recognition result from the symbol recognition module 5 or the silhouette recognition module 7 (hereinafter, the database is abbreviated “DB”). The search result is sent to a model generation module 15. A DB update module 9 adds, changes, deletes, or rewrites template data or the correspondence between a symbol and a silhouette and updates the registration information in the template DB 13. To update the DB by the DB update module 9, a configuration created automatically based on a predetermined rule, a configuration created manually based on a user's predetermined instruction, or a configuration created by appropriately combining those configurations may be used. Although FIG. 1 shows that the DB is updated by the DB update module 9 based on data from the symbol recognition module 5 or the silhouette recognition module 7, this embodiment is not limited to this configuration. It is, of course, possible to update the DB based on data input from the other input processing module 21. The template database 13, in which template data on display objects is stored, has a configuration in which symbol data, such as a recognized character, can at least be used to search for the template of a corresponding display object via the template search module 11. In some cases, the template database 13 may be configured in such a way that the template data on a silhouette is stored. The template database 13 can be implemented easily by configuring it so that symbol data and a corresponding template are included in the same entry or by configuring it so that a corresponding template can be searched for from symbol data via one or more identification information units (ID number, pointer, URL, etc.). Data in the database can be recorded in a non-distributed manner in the local resource of an apparatus connected to a network or a standalone apparatus or in a distributed manner in a network including a plurality of apparatuses. Templates registered with the template database 13 may be three-dimensional data. Using this configuration allows a three-dimensional model to be generated easily from a two-dimensional sketch input by the user. That is, in such a configuration a sketch interface can be provided that makes it easy to interact with three-dimensional space. In addition, the user input processing module 3, the symbol recognition module 5, and the silhouette recognition module 7 can have a function of extending two-dimensional data into three dimensions. For the function of extending two-dimensional data into three dimensions, the invention described in Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. 2002-024860, Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. 2002-074399, Japanese Patent Application No. 2002-000945, or Japanese Patent Application No. 2002-363493, naming the inventor of the present invention and his colleagues as inventors, may be used. The contents of those patent documents are incorporated herein by reference. In response to template data from the template search module 11, the model generation module 15 converts the acquired template appropriately and generates a model of a display object corresponding to the silhouette or the input symbol. This system is configured such that a conversion result created for at least one silhouette is reflected on the corresponding display object of an input symbol displayed in connection with the silhouette. A display processing module 17 creates data, displayable on a display and so on included in an output user interface 19, from a model and so on generated by the model generation module 15. When three-dimensional data is used for a template as described above, the display processing module 17 converts three-dimensional data to two-dimensional data, for example, through rendering processing. The output user interface 19 includes output devices, such as a display unit, an audio output unit, and a tactile output unit. The configuration of the output user interface 19 is well known and its description is omitted. In FIG. 1, the other input processing module 21 and an other output processing module 25 are functional modules that perform processing other than the processing described above. For example, the other output processing module 25 can generate voice output data corresponding to a generated model, and the other input processing module 21 can process a user input other than a symbol input or a silhouette input and execute appropriate internal processing. EXAMPLE OF PROCESSING FLOW FIG. 2-FIG. 4 are flowcharts showing an example of the user interface method in this embodiment. More specifically, FIG. 2 shows a flowchart indicating a typical process flow, and FIG. 3 shows a flowchart which focuses on the user input events. In addition, FIG. 4 shows a more detailed flowchart for some steps in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3. First, in step S1, whether the user has drawn a silhouette is detected. This step is executed, for example, by detecting whether the user has selected the silhouette drawing mode and has performed a predetermined drawing operation, such as an operation for drawing a closed curve. If the result is positive, control is passed to step S2; if the result is negative, step S1 is repeated as long as the silhouette drawing mode is selected. In step S2, the silhouette area entered by the user is identified and the silhouette model is acquired. For a silhouette model that is a very simple model, such as a circle or a ball, the silhouette model itself need not be registered with the database but can also be acquired through calculation each time the silhouette is entered. On the other hand, for a complex model to be converted into a silhouette, it is possible to use a configuration in which the template data is registered with the database and, based on the recognition result of the user input, the silhouette template is searched for from the database. In step S3, the stroke information is stored in a predetermined resource. The stroke information includes drawing data on the silhouette corresponding to the stroke as well as the parameters that will be used in the subsequent steps for conversion to a display object corresponding to the symbol. In step S4, the silhouette object is displayed. Next, in step S5, whether the user has drawn a kanji character is detected. This step can be executed, for example, by detecting whether appropriate stroke information stored in step S3 exists, whether the kanji character drawing mode has been selected by the user, and whether a recognizable kanji character has been input into an appropriate input area through handwriting. The appropriate input area is an area within the displayed silhouette, an area prepared exclusively for symbol recognition, or a recognizable area on an input device such as a tablet. If the result is positive in step S5, control is passed to step S6; if the result is negative, control is passed to exception processing (this will be described later). In step S6, a user-entered handwritten character is recognized by the system. Handwritten data entered by the user can be recognized through pattern matching using an existing OCR library and so on. In step S7, the template database is searched based on the recognized character information. If an appropriate display object can be acquired from the database, it is determined that there is a display object in step S8 and the display object is acquired in step S9. If an appropriate display object cannot be acquired from the database, it is determined that there is no display object in step S8 and control is passed to exception processing (this will be described later). In step S13, exception processing is performed. For example, a check is made if the system is waiting for a kanji character to be drawn. If the result is positive, control is returned to step S5 to allow the system to wait for the user to draw a kanji character. If the result is negative, control is passed to the start of the process. In step S10, the display object is adapted to the shape of the silhouette. This adaptation is made in various ways, for example, by changing the shape of the display object, by changing the expression of a living thing display object, by adding shading to a texture display object, or by generating an appropriate audio effect, based on parameters such as vertical and horizontal scales, an area change rate, or an inclination determined by the comparison between the assumed silhouette shape and the actual silhouette stroke. In step S11, information on the display object converted in step S10 is stored in the system and, in step S12, the display object is presented to the user at a right time in the system. Although the flow shown in FIG. 2 is terminated in any of several steps, this is the path to which control is passed, for example, when the application is terminated. A detailed description of this configuration is omitted because this is related to a change in the design. FIG. 3 is a flowchart generated by rewriting the flowchart in FIG. 2 with the focus on the user input and, therefore, the same reference numerals are attached to the corresponding steps in FIG. 2 and the description is omitted. FIG. 4 is a more detailed flowchart showing primarily the part S9-S11 in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3. In a configuration in which generation is performed based on the templates in a template database with which not only display objects but also silhouette data are registered, the processing in FIG. 4 can be applied similarly to the part S2-S3 in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3. In step S101, template data is retrieved from the database. In step S102, the number of template data units and the ratio calculated with the full length as 1 are stored. In step S103, the circumscribed quadrangle of the template is calculated. In step S104, the input stroke is normalized based on the ratio of the template data. In step S105, the circumscribed quadrangle of the stroke is calculated. In step S106, the aspect ratio is calculated. In step S107, the stroke is changed to a circle. In step S108, the circle data and the template data are substituted into Triangler to fill the stroke with patches. In step S109, the patch data is held as an object. Pseudo Code FIG. 8-FIG. 17 show an example of a computer program in this embodiment in the form of pseudo source code. The contents are included herein. Although the embodiments of the present invention have been described above using preferred examples, the present invention is not limited to these configuration examples. For example, although a symbol and a silhouette are sketch-entered by a user in the example of the embodiment described above, the present invention is not limited to this configuration. For example, it is also possible to use a configuration in which a symbol and/or a silhouette is entered in a non-sketch way, for example, by reading a bar code or selecting from image data and only its editing (addition, correction, etc.) is done through sketch entry. In this case, the present invention allows the results of editing performed for a silhouette to be reflected on the behavior of a displayed symbol. Although the invention herein has been described with reference to particular embodiments, it is to be understood that these embodiments are merely illustrative of the principles and applications of the present invention. It is therefore to be understood that numerous modifications may be made to the illustrative embodiments and that other arrangements may be devised without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a user interface method and device, and a computer program. Many sketch interfaces are available that allow the user to perform interaction in the three-dimensional space through a two-dimensional operation. For example, see Teddy in Igarashi, T., Satoshi, M., Hidehiko, T., “Teddy: A Sketching Interface for 3D Freeform Design”, in Proc. of SIGGRAPH 99, 409-416, 1999, and Flat3D in Hiroaki Tobita, Junichi Rekimoto, “Flat3D: A Shared Virtual 3D World System for Creative Activities and Communication”, IPSJ JOURNAL, Vol. 44, No. 02, 2003. The operation of such sketch interface systems is simple because the user can perform all operations in three dimensions in exactly the same manner as the user performs operations in two dimensions. On the other hand, it is sometimes difficult to simply acquire an object with exact fidelity to the design image because the result of drawing work depends largely on the user's design skill. Another method for building a scene is by describing the parameters (shape, position, size, color, etc.) of an object in the two- or three-dimensional space as a script. For example, see the Maya(™) Mel script in Aliasiwavefront company homepage http://www.aliaswavefront.com/en/news/home.shtml. The scene building method using a script like this allows the user to build a scene as if the user wrote a sentence but requires the user to describe a script using an editor. This prevents the user from interacting directly with the three-dimensional space. In addition, because the user must memorize the operation/behavior of the syntax rules and functions for describing a script in order to acquire an intended scene or object, many users cannot perform the operation easily. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In view of the above-described issues relating to the related art, an embodiment of the present invention provides a user interface method that is intuitive and easy to operate and that allows the user to easily acquire an object with higher fidelity to a design image. According to another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a user interface method that allows the user to easily generate an object with fidelity to a design image when the user interacts in a three-dimensional space through a two-dimensional operation. According to still another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a user interface method that uses text-based symbols, such as characters, character strings, and sentences, but allows the user to perform intuitive interactions in the three-dimensional space using the meaning of the symbols. Still other objects of the present invention will become apparent by the drawings and the description given below. A user interface method and apparatus and a computer program according to an embodiment of the present invention use the configurations described below. According to the invention, a shape of an object arrangement area entered by a user's sketch operation is acquired, and an object conversion parameter is acquired based on the acquired shape of the object arrangement area. In addition, a symbol entered by a user's sketch operation is acquired, and registered objects for a display object associated with the acquired symbol are searched. The initial data of the display object is converted to form a converted display object based on the object conversion parameter, and the converted display object is displayed in the object arrangement area. In such configurations, the user can specify an object arrangement area through an intuitive operation, called a sketch operation, to perform various operations on a display object. In addition, in such configurations, the user can specify a symbol through an intuitive operation, called a sketch operation, to easily call a registered display object related to the symbol. The designation of an object arrangement area can be performed by a simple operation, for example, by drawing a closed curve, and the designation of a symbol through sketching can be performed based on a user-familiar operation in which the user writes a character on a paper. Therefore, the configurations described above can provide a design tool that does not depend largely on the user's design skill and that is easy and intuitive. The sketch operation may be performed by various pointing means such as a mouse, a track ball, a tablet device, a gesture input system, or an optical pointing system. During the sketch operation, the system can help the user through appropriate processing such as point interpolation and smoothing. The registered objects may be updated by an appropriate method. This update may be performed, for example, by newly acquiring an object as necessary from a picture or a user sketch, assigning an appropriate symbol to the object, and registering it with a predetermined resource, such as a database, or by rewriting initial data on an object associated with a symbol or rewriting pointer information pointing to the initial data. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the initial data can include initial shape data of the display object, and the conversion can include changing the shape of the display object from the initial shape. The conversion of the initial data on the display object may include not only changing the shape, but also various visual conversions such as converting the brightness, converting the colors, converting the shading in color, or changing the patterns. In addition, if conversion parameters are set so that other modules in the same application or other applications can reference them, not only can a visual effect be added to the display object, but also other various applications can be made. For example, a visual effect (for example, the conversion of peripheral objects, etc) in an area outside the object arrangement area or an audio effect (for example, the generation of a sound effect) associated with the display object can be generated. In addition, according to an embodiment of the present invention, it is possible to use a configuration in which the object arrangement area has an initial set shape, and the object conversion parameter is acquired based on a comparison between the initial set shape and the acquired shape of the object arrangement area. According to an embodiment of the present invention, it is possible to use a configuration in which the initial set shape of the object arrangement area is three-dimensional and the acquired shape of the object arrangement area is two-dimensional. In one variant, the initial set shape is converted into a two-dimensional projection, and the object conversion parameter is acquired based on a comparison between the two-dimensional projection of the initial set shape and the acquired shape of the object arrangement area. In another variant, the acquired shape of the object arrangement area is extended into three dimensions, and the object conversion parameter is acquired based on a comparison between the acquired shape of the object arrangement area extended into three dimensions and the initial set shape of the object arrangement area. This configuration provides the user with the ability to specify the object arrangement area through a two-dimensional operation and to perform an intuitive interaction with a three-dimensional space. Furthermore, according to an embodiment of the present invention, it is also possible to use a configuration in which the symbol is a character, a character string, or a sentence and the display object associated with the symbol is an image object related to a meaning of the symbol. Such a configuration enables the user to acquire an image object easily through a character even if the user is not familiar with the syntax or the semantics of the script language. In other words, it can be said that the meaning of the character is presented to the user through the display object. In this case, when the user enters as a symbol a character, a word, or a phrase, etc. whose meaning is unknown, the user can recognize its meaning as an image that is adapted to the user-specified arrangement area shape. According to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a user interface method that allows the user to perform operations intuitively and easily and to acquire an object which is close to a design image relatively easily. In addition, according to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a user interface method that allows the user to generate an object which is close to a design image when the user performs interactions for a three-dimensional space via two-dimensional operations. In addition, according to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a user interface method in which the user, who uses a text-based symbol such as a character, a character string, or a sentence, can interact with the three-dimensional space intuitively through the meaning of the symbol. In addition, according to an embodiment of the present invention, it is possible to provide a very useful education tool, especially a tool for character education or word education. For example, the shape of a kanji character is derived, in many cases, from the shape associated with a behavior in the real world and therefore the direct association between a kanji character and an object such as an image helps us understand the meaning and the shape. Therefore, this method in which kanji characters are directly associated with objects, is considered efficient in kanji character education for children and in Japanese education for foreigners. When teaching words to infants or non-native learners, the ability to show a word as well as its corresponding image would attract the learner's interest and achieve a high learning effect. In addition, the acquisition of a display object according to an embodiment of the present invention can be used not only for conversion, but also as a trigger for drawing. Painting an object, with a converted object as the base, has the function of a trigger for creation. A display object according to an embodiment of the present invention, which can be created based on a simple data configuration, can be used as a new communication tool attached to e-mail, etc. That is, because data can be a drawing in a bit map, the drawing can be sent via e-mail. A display object is also useful when a handwritten character is input to a computer, such as a PDA, that supports pen input. In addition, because an object can be generated by drawing a kanji character in a shared virtual space communication and its size is small, a display object is useful in communications via a network. | 20040608 | 20090825 | 20050324 | 92239.0 | 0 | CARTER, AARON W | USER INTERFACE METHOD AND APPARATUS, AND COMPUTER PROGRAM | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,863,167 | ACCEPTED | System and method for playing a table and electronic card game | The present invention is directed to a card game in which at least five cards are dealt to at least one player position in which the player may have made a wager. The player must make at least one wager corresponding to one or more of the player positions. To initiate a round of play, a number of cards are dealt face down to each of the player positions and one card is dealt to a dealer position. All the cards are turned face up and each player position card is individually compared to the dealer's card. A winning status occurs for each wagered player position in which the player's upturned card has a higher ranking than the dealer's assigned card. The player is awarded a bonus payout according to a predetermined payout table if the player's cards form at least one of a plurality of predetermined combinations and the player has made a corresponding wager prior to any cards being dealt. In another embodiment, five additional cards are dealt to corresponding dealer positions for determining, as part of a bonus bet, if the player's five cards provide a higher-ranking poker hand than the five-card poker hand formed by the five additional cards dealt to the corresponding dealer positions. | 1. A method for playing a game wherein said game includes a plurality of game positions having at least one player position and at least one dealer position, the method comprising the steps of: a) identifying each of said at least one player position and said at least one dealer position to a player; b) accepting a wager corresponding to at least one of said at least one player position from the player; c) dealing at least one card to each of said wagered and non-wagered player positions and said at least one dealer position from at least one deck of cards; d) comparing an upturned card at said dealer position from among said at least one card dealt to said at least one dealer position with an upturned card from among said at least one card dealt to at least one wagered position; and e) determining a winning or loss status for the at least one wagered position, wherein a winning status is determined for the at least one wagered position when said upturned card dealt to said at least one wagered position has a higher ranking than said upturned card at said at least one dealer position. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein when said upturned card dealt to said wagered position has a ranking equal to said upturned card at said at least one dealer position, said player loses half of the wager waged for that wagered position. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein there are five player positions and wherein one card is dealt to each player position, such that the step of dealing comprises the step of dealing a card to each of said player positions to provide the player with five dealt cards. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of dealing comprises the step of dealing one card to said at least one dealer position. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of dealing comprises the step of dealing the at least one card to each of said wagered and non-wagered player positions and said at least one dealer position from said at least one deck of cards face down. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of comparing comprises the step of turning over said at least one card dealt to each of said wagered and non-wagered player positions and said at least one dealer position from said at least one deck of cards. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein said method is playing via an electronic gaming device. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the method is played using a gaming table. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein said method is played over the Internet. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of comparing an upturned card at said at least one dealer position with an upturned card from each of said at least one wagered position comprises the step of comparing a ranking value of said upturned card from each of the at least one wagered position with a ranking value of said upturned card at said at least one dealer position. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the step of determining the player's winning or loss status further comprises the step of determining if said ranking value from each of said at least one wagered position is greater than or less than said ranking value, respectively, of said upturned card at said at least one dealer position. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein a bonus round is initiated if said determining step determines a winning status for at least one of said at least one wagered position. 13. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of accepting another wager from the player on whether at least one of a plurality of predetermined combinations will be formed with said at least one card dealt to each of said wagered and non-wagered player positions. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the step of accepting another wager is performed prior to said dealing step. 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the at least one of the plurality of predetermined combinations is selected from the group consisting of poker hands. 16. The method of claim 13, further comprising the step of referring to a payout table to determine an award won by the player for forming at least one of the plurality of predetermined combinations. 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of dealing comprises the step of dealing six cards, and wherein each card of the six cards is dealt to a respective dealer position of said at least one dealer position. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein five cards of said six cards form a five-card dealer poker hand. 19. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of accepting another wager from the player on whether said at least one card dealt to each of said wagered and non-wagered player positions will form at least one of a plurality of predetermined combinations having a higher ranking than at least one of a plurality of predetermined combinations, if any, formed by one or more of the at least one card dealt to said at least one dealer position. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the step of accepting another wager is performed prior to said dealing step. 21. The method of claim 19, wherein the at least one of the plurality of predetermined combinations is selected from the group consisting of poker hands. 22. The method of claim 19, further comprising the step of referring to a payout table to determine an award won by the player for forming at least one of the plurality of predetermined combinations having a higher ranking than said at least one of the plurality of predetermined combinations, if any, formed by one or more of the at least one card dealt to said at least one dealer position. | PRIORITY The present application is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/458,485 filed on Jun. 9, 2003 which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/838,897 filed on Apr. 20, 2001 which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/507,657 filed on Feb. 22, 2000 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,220,597 on Apr. 24, 2001, the entire contents of the afore-mentioned U.S. patent applications and U.S. patent are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to wagering games, and more particularly, but not by way of limitation, to a card game. 2. Description of the Prior Art Games of chance employing a deck of 52 cards are as old as the invention of cards themselves. The concept of using high cards in which to play and wager in card games is also old. Even so, the prior art discloses many novel patented card gaming tables and many novel patented card games to be played on them. Card games generally employ one or more cards which, when dealt upon a horizontal surface, determine a score based upon indicia displayed by the upwardly facing sides or faces of the resting cards when the cards are turned face up. Feola in U.S. Pat. No. 5,839,731 issued on Nov. 24, 1998, describes a novel casino game based on a selected card game in which a player wagers on one or more of a group of dealt hands, i.e. a random grouping or pot of cards and where the chances of winning are not enhanced by the skills of the player and no discretion in the selection is vested in either the player or dealer. A relatively complex card game, such as blackjack, baccarat, or stud poker is selected. A number of hands are dealt as lines or arrays on a playing surface and players wager as to which hand will win. The playing surface has a dealer position including a line or array for each hand dealt to the dealer. Player positions are located in a semicircle around the dealer position, each including a location at which wagers are placed. Winning wagers are paid a multiple of the wager. Optionally, the multiple is based on the odds of obtaining the particular winning combination. Somma et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 5,690,337 issued on Nov. 25, 1997, disclose a relatively complex casino card game. Utilized is a single, 41-card deck of playing cards consisting of a standard, 4-suit playing card deck from which all “face” cards have been removed and a single “Joker” card has been added. Play of the game starts with a first player selecting a card value, termed the “dealer number”. No bets can be placed on the dealer number. Players may then place their wager(s) on any of the remaining “live” numbers, and the dealer deals a first playing card, face up. If the identified “dealer number” card value is turned over, all players having placed a bet on any of the “live” numbers win, and are paid off even money. If the card has a value other than the “dealer number”, the house wins all bets placed on the “value” number of the card that was turned over, and that value number is thereafter considered “dead”. Play continues, with the players given an opportunity to place additional bets on the remaining, “live” card values prior to turning over the next card. If the “joker” card is dealt by the dealer at any time before the “dealer number” has been dealt, the house wins all remaining bets, and the game is over. Boylan et al., in U.S. Pat. No. 5,607,162 issued on Mar. 4, 1997 disclose a method of playing another relatively complex matching wagering game between players and a dealer whose outcome is determined by randomly generated playing cards. After an ante bet is wagered, the dealer deals five cards to each player and deals seven cards to himself. A round of play is then commenced where the dealer plays a card from his hand to present the rank and suit thereof. Next, each player plays a “matching” card from his respective hand which is either the same suit or the same rank. In this manner, each player reduces the number of cards in his hand where a matching card is played during the round. The conducting of a round of play is then repeated until each card in the hand of the dealer has been played. Seven rounds are thus played each game, so that ultimately there are no cards left in the hand of the dealer. The ante bet of each respective player is consequently paid off as follows: (a) To each player if each player has no card remaining; or (b) to the dealer if each player has one or more cards remaining. Preferably, prior to the round of play, each player determines whether his respective hand has a winning hand or position and pays each player who selected the winning hand or position according to the odds and their wager or collects each player'wager who did not select the winning hand or position. Additionally, a jackpot wheel may be included to pennit an added possibility of winning a larger payout. U.S. Pat. No. 5,395,120 was granted to Malek in March of 1995 for another relatively complex poker-like card game, in particular, a card game suitable for use in casinos, and for a specifically designed table for playing the game. Specifically, this invention relates to a method and apparatus for playing a casino game simultaneously against a dealer and against other players. More specifically, this invention relates to a method of and an apparatus for playing a mixture of draw poker and one off twenty-one and baccarat wherein a player can simultaneously play Draw Poker against a dealer and one of Twenty-one and Baccarat against other players. Virtually all casinos, especially those in the gaming capitals of the world have board games that are played for gambling purposes. Due to the complexity involved in playing the popular wagering games employing cards such as poker, blackjack, and baccarat, for example, as exemplified by the brief summaries given above, there is a need for a simpler game of chance that will appease all strata of expertise in the art of card gambling, yet remain challenging and enjoyable. As evinced above, the game of poker is an extremely popular game currently found in most Las Vegas casinos, the rules of which are widely published and have numerous variations. This game provides numerous betting options, but the game involves complicated increasing or decreasing odds depending on the number of decks of cards used. Winning hands may include two pairs, three of a kind, four of a kind, and straights. Although there have been attempts to improve upon existing card games and to develop new games of chance, none of the prior art card games have been able to overcome the complexity disadvantages described herein. Thus, a need exists for a card game that is simple to learn and play and that results in simpler, more expedient wagering decisions per hour. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One embodiment of the present invention is directed to a card game to be played by at least one player and a dealer or croupier using at least one standard deck of 52 cards. Also used by the croupier is a shuffling machine for cards, a dealing machine for cards and a catch bin for discarded or played cards. The order of play and payoffs for each bet are set by the house or the croupier. The card game of the present invention is played by a player first placing a bet, preferably in a betting spot using chips, for example. Next, the dealer deals a predetermined number of cards to each player face down onto an area on the table—called a pot—designated for that player and afterwards, deals the same number of cards to another area on the table, called a dealer'pot. One play in a series includes the dealer turning up a player'top card and turning up the dealer's top card: High wins at even odds of 1 to 1; equal cards are a draw or push and neither wins except if a player has a deuce in which case the player's deuce loses 1 to 1 odds; a player's ace wins at odds of 3 to 2. After one play, a player may place a new bet before cards are next turned over. As an example, in a typical round involving the dealer and a player playing one hand, assume the dealer turns over a eight of spades as his upturned card and that the player turns over a Queen of hearts as his upturned card. In this case, the player wins the round and is paid off at 1 to 1 odds. It is to be understood that the odds described above are merely exemplary and may be different depending upon the pay out rules associated with each gaming establishment in which the inventive game is played. The inventive card game, while exhibiting many valuable gaming features, as explained below in more detail, also can be inexpensively manufactured and incurs minimal operational overhead expenses. While the present invention may, in one embodiment, includes a separate, approximately five-foot semi-circular table, the present playing surface may be formed as a thin overlay to be placed atop existing casino game table equipment such as blackjack tables. In addition, if there are an insufficient number of players to warrant operating a full table, the table may be split in half, with one half of the table unoccupied, and the other half utilized for playing the game. Advantageously, the operational expenses associated with the present game are low. To operate the present game, the casino need only employ one dealer. While the method of the present invention has been described in connection with a live gaming table format using a live dealer to deal the cards and handle the wagering, the method of play may also be practiced in a non-wagering (amusement) format in which points, chips, artificial money, and so on are used instead of items of monetary value. The amusement format can be a live table game or a hand-held computer game similar to the electronic amusement game. Moreover, a personal computer or a small hand-held device can be programmed or to designed to play the game. It is also contemplated that the game can be played via a terminal connected to an on-line network, such as the Internet. In the on-line network form, it is possible that a plurality of players may participate in a single game. The game of the present invention can also be embodied in an electronic apparatus for use on an airplane for those airlines provide gambling opportunities when flying over international waters or nations that allow it. The card game has a minimal number of rules, and the rules are readily apparent to the novice gambler after very little observation. In an embodiment of the inventive card game, every wager is effective until some predetermined number of cards are compared. Therefore, in contrast to the prior art card games, such as blackjack, the present game produces simpler wagering decisions. Thus, the present invention represents a substantial improvement over casino games of the prior art because it simplifies play and encourages wagering which in turn leads to increased entertainment for the player. In another embodiment of the present invention, a player is provided the option of playing the novel game against on a computer over the internet or using a gaming device including a video display and means for interacting with the video display in a casino-style game environment. In accordance with one aspect of the above embodiment, the inventive card game is played as a secondary game in the gaming device wherein the gaming device includes a primary game and a secondary game where the secondary inventive card game is only invoked when a particular sequence or outcome is achieved in the primary game, as will be described below. An advantage of the card game of the present invention over prior art card games is that it is substantially less complex thereby enabling the game to move quickly which decreases the associated operational overhead. A further advantage of the card game of the present invention is its simplicity and accessibility to the ever-increasing numbers of novice gamblers. Therefore, despite the popularity of both craps and roulette, the inventive card game presents several advantages to the casinos and players alike. A still further advantage of the card game of the present invention is the simplicity of betting wherein a winning bet is easily recognized. Players advantageously compete against the house with virtually even odds based on a variation of high card wins, like cards draw or push, and players' aces provide an advantage to the player. It is further noted that the pay out tables may vary in accordance with house rules as determined by each gaming establishment. Moreover, with respect to the slot machine version of the inventive game, the payouts will be more streamline from gaming establishment to gaming establishment, in that each gaming establishment is subject to certain payout guidelines as determined by an overseer gaming commission. A gaming method disclosed is designed to quickly build excitement and anticipation by turning over a predetermined number of cards from a dealt hand per game, and as such is intended as a quick paced and an unusually exciting game to play and/or observe. Even more particularly, the instant invention is intended to give a novel and new look and feel to the currently popular card games yet have simplified rules and procedures designed both to encourage use by novice gamblers. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other features, aspects, and advantages of the present invention will become better understood with regard to the following description, appended claims, and accompanying drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a top plan view of a table or board layout of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a computer video machine embodying the present invention; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the computer video machine shown by FIG. 2; FIGS. 4-8 illustrate views of a display screen of the computer video machine of FIG. 2 illustrating various aspects of playing the inventive game; FIG. 9 is a perspective view of the computer video machine of FIG. 2 according to a another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a perspective view of the computer video machine of FIG. 2 which illustrates an exemplary round of play in which the secondary game is activated; and FIGS. 11a-11g illustrate views of a display screen of an additional embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present invention will be described hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings and the rules of the card game provided herein which illustrate an embodiment of the invention. The table card game and method of playing the same of the present invention incorporates the following rules when playing the table version and for the electronic version of the game: Exemplary Rules Of The Table Card Game 1. The improved game is played on a casino-type card table. There are eight spaces for the pots to be placed on the table (see FIG. 1). A circular space isolated near each pot except to pot designated for the banker, dealer, croupier, or house. A pot is defined herein as a pile of cards initially placed face down. The circular space is adapted to receive bets or wagers via chips or tokens. In the inventive novel card game there are a maximum of eight pots inclusive of a pot for the banker or dealer of cards during the play of the game. The last pot shall always be assigned to the banker or dealer. 2. To play the game, all initial bets are made before the cards are dealt. All of the dealt cards are dealt face down into the eight pots after the initial bets or wagers are placed in the circular spaces. The cards or pots (piles of cards) are dealt only to those spots where bets have been put down on the table. However, the dealer always receives a pot. The dealer may be either a person or a mechanized card dealer operated by a croupier. 3. Next, the dealer or croupier shall count out six cards (or any number of cards) for each pot sequentially, first with six cards face down for the first pot, etc. If seven bets have been placed at each of the seven spots then eight piles of six cards each are dealt onto the table for each of the seven pots plus one for the dealer or banker. The only pots are those dealt to players. The pots are located in front of players who have placed wagers. 4. After the wagers are placed on the table by the players (the game is preferably limited to up to seven players and one dealer or banker) and the pots are in place on the table, the dealer turns over the top card from each pot or pile of cards. In the novel game, all deuces are nullities and players with deuces lose the respective round. 5. The dealer or banker pot card at the top is turned up last. All pot cards are turned up from the dealers left to the dealer's right. If a dealer's card matches a players upturned card these rules designate this event as a push or draw and neither the player nor the dealer wins or loses except if the players upturned card is either an ace or a deuce and the dealer's upturned card is also an ace or a deuce, respectively. The player's ace wins his wager at odds of 3 to 2; the player's deuce loses. Otherwise, when a player's upturned card matches a dealer's upturned card the player wins at even odds of 1 to 1. As an example, in a typical round involving the dealer and a player playing one hand, assume the dealer turns over a eight of spades as his upturned card and that the player turns over a Queen of hearts as his upturned card. In this case, the player wins the round and is paid at 1 to 1 odds. It is to be appreciated that the 1 to 1 odds are merely exemplary and may be different depending upon the pay out rules associated with each gaming establishment in which the inventive game is played. 6. The dealer or house shall be able to set limits on wagers at all times during the game and before a play. A play is defined the act of upturning the top card of each pot. After a play resulting in win or a lost a new wager can be placed by the player. 7. The cards shall only be handled and touched by the dealer. At the option of the dealer or house if a player touches a pot, that pot may be discarded. 8. At the option of a dealer announces “no more bets”, new bets cannot be added to the table or removed from the table. The dealer shall announce end declare that wagering is closed before the first pot is dealt and for each player before a next card is upturned. 9. At the option of the dealer, a plurality of card decks may be used to play the game. These rules define a game that is virtually a head to head play against the dealer or house with almost even odds. The house or dealer can change and/or set the minimum and maximum wagering limits at any time during play. The inventive method specified by the above rules is best described by referring again to FIG. 1. There is shown a top of a table 10 with a specific and preferred layout on the surface 12. In the novel game, a combination card deck 14 and shuffling machine 16 is used to deal cards from the card deck 14 onto the surface 12 by a dealer or croupier 18. A receptacle means 19 or space is designated on the table 10 for receiving cards discarded during play of the game. Shown in FIG. 1 are seven playing areas or pots 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, and 34. Also shown is an eighth pot 40, designated as a “dealer's pot”. It should be appreciated that the number of playing areas is not restricted to seven, but can be a greater or lesser number depending upon the preference of the house conducting the game. Seven positions will be used to describe one embodiment for ease of explanation. In front of each of the pots 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32 and 34 are betting spots 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 52 and 54, respectively, where players (not shown) located about an edge 56 of the table 10 make bets either with money or chips, for example. The seven playing areas or pots 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32 and 34 are visibly and distinguishably marked with a designation such as a different numeral proximate to each of same, i.e., Arabic numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 as shown in FIG. 1. The dealer's pot 40 is similarly distinguished and marked with an Arabic numeral 8 proximate thereto, for example. It should be appreciated that while seven player positions are shown, a single player could control one or more of the seven player positions in any round of play. A third area wherein the dealer's pot 40, rectangular in configuration, for example, is shown is near a straight edge 58 of the table 10. Any odds may be assigned or established by the house for payout of winning bets placed in any of the aforesaid seven separately delineated areas, playing areas or pots 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, and 34, for example. Payout ratios may be from 2 to 1 for the most likely to win a bet in integer increments up to 10 to 1, for example, for the least likely to win a bet and depend upon the number of decks used for example. The house may establish an initial order of play including which players are designated as first player, second player, and so on to a last player. While the card game has been described, in accordance with one embodiment, as a table game to be played in a casino gaming environment, it should be appreciated that the card game can be played in a wide variety of formats including, for example, on a computer video machine game, on a large screen or television monitor, as a home television/computer video game, a video arcade game apparatus, a personal computer system (desktop or portable), a “network computer”, a television including or connected to a microprocessor (e.g., a set top box) for Internet or other information access, incorporated into an Internet or intranet environment, or other apparatus. The following is a description of a method of playing the inventive card game adapted for machine play on a video machine in a casino gaming environment. In this regard, the present invention also relates to apparatus for performing these operations. This apparatus may be specifically constructed for the required purpose or it may comprise a general purpose computer as selectively activated or reconfigured by a computer program stored in the computer. The procedures presented herein are not inherently related to a particular computer or other apparatus. Various general purpose machines may be used with programs written in accordance with the teachings herein, or it may prove more convenient to construct more specialized apparatus to perform the required method steps. The required structure for a variety of these machines will appear from the description given. Referring now to FIG. 2, a video gaming machine 200 is illustrated. The gaming machine 200 includes a housing 120 of conventional design having a touch screen video display terminal 140 predominantly located on the front face 12a of the housing which displays the various presentations during the play of the game. The machine 200 includes means for enabling the player to make a wager. These means, where the game is played for purely enjoyment, may simply be means for the player to wager fictitious credits. Alternatively, as shown in the drawings, where the machine 200 is used in a gaming establishment, such as a casino, the machine 200 may include a coin slot 53 and a bill acceptor 55 so that credits to play the machine 200 can be purchased. Additionally, means may be provided for the player to wager from finds on a debit card or the like as known in the art. A dispensing slot 57 allows receipts to be dispensed from the housing 120. Credits accumulated in the machine 200 are printed on the receipts before they are dispensed so that a player may redeem purchased and/or accumulated credits for negotiable currency. Although not shown, the machine 200 also includes a sound board and outputs audio information in the form of “tunes”, “bells” etc. during game play. The machine 200 further includes a video display terminal 140 which illustrates a top view of an image of a game table having a number of player positions such as seven player positions shown as P1 through P7, and a banker position, shown as B. It is to be understood that the number of player positions is not restricted to seven. A lesser or greater number of positions 110 is within the scope of the invention. Further, it is to be understood that the game can be played with a different layout or without the use of a game layout and still be within the scope of the invention. With continuing reference to FIG. 2 and also to FIG. 3, means are provided for the player to control the play of the game and make various selections as hereinafter described. These means may be preferably embodied by providing the described video display terminal 140 with touch screen capability, well known in the art, or, alternatively, by providing a plurality of push buttons or some combination thereof. With reference to the touch screen display implementation of the present invention, also displayed at the display 140 are a number of touch screen regions or “soft buttons” such as deal 20a, bet one 20b, bet max 20c, cash-out 20d, and pay-table 20e which are activated by touching the display 140 over the respective touch screen region. Display terminal 140 also includes a credit total window 160 and a credits wagered window 180. The credit total widow 160 shows credits accumulated in the machine 200 and the credits wagered window 180 shows the total number of credits wagered 180 for each round of play. As payouts are made, credits are added to the tally as shown in the credit window 160, in a known manner. Display terminal 140 also optionally includes a game logo, i.e., “Bankers Broker” 46. It is also possible to use other input devices for playing the game such as a button panel, keyboard, mouse, joystick, trackballs or other pointing and GUI devices and the like, and the machine 200 may include LED or LCD displays, which may be fixed in the housing, but these are not shown or described herein. Within the housing 120 of the machine 200 is located a microprocessor-based circuit (not shown) which includes appropriate ROM, RAM, a video controller and a microprocessor together with other circuitry and components necessary to operate the machine 200. Circuits of this type are well known to those of skill in the machine art and therefore will not be discussed herein. The microprocessor-based circuit performs a variety of functions necessary to control the operation of the machine 200. In particular, the microprocessor-based circuit monitors the money receptacles 53, 55 to determine the amount of money inserted into machine 200 to purchase credits and adjusts the credit total accordingly. A bin (not shown) is located below the money receptacles 53, 55 to collect money deposited in the housing 120. A printing and dispensing mechanism is in communication with the microprocessor-based circuit and prints the accumulated credits on a receipt and dispenses the receipt when the cash-out button 20d associated with terminating game play is pressed by a player. The machine 200 also includes a cash out button 20d to enable the player to prompt the processor to distribute to the player in a known fashion accumulated credits in the form of coins or tokens. The player has the option of cashing out the accumulated credit total and redeeming the credit total for negotiable currency. If this option is selected, the machine 200 prints the credit total on a receipt and dispenses the receipt through the slot 57. The microprocessor-based circuit then clears the credit total window 160 to zero. The microprocessor-based circuit also prints and dispenses a receipt and clears the credit total window 160 when the credit total exceeds a predetermined value Rather than dispensing printed receipts in the event of a win, the machine 200 can include a coin bin (not shown) instead of receipt dispensing slot 57 and dispense coins in the event of a win. The machine can also incorporate both the coin bin and the dispensing slot 57 allowing a player to select the form in which accumulated credits in the machine are to be redeemed. If the cash-out button 20d is pushed by a player, the microprocessor-based circuit requests the player to confirm that it is the player's intent to terminate game play via information displayed on the display terminal 140 so that accidental use of the cash-out button 20d does not automatically result in the termination of the game. When game play is terminated and the receipt has been dispensed, the microprocessor-based circuit zeros the credit total window 60. As long as the credit total widow 160 in the machine 200 is above zero, a player can continue to play. When a positive credit total is shown in the credit total window 160, the microprocessor-based circuit monitors the soft-touch buttons 20a to 20e and alters the screen display 140 depending on the soft-touch buttons pushed. After one game play, if the player does not enter new bets for the following game play, the microprocessor-based circuit uses the wager made during the previous game. The player can play until the credit total window 160 goes to zero in which case more money needs to be deposited into the machine 200 to continue play. When this occurs, the machine 200 notifies the player and gives the player a predetermined amount of time to deposit more money. If the player fails to deposit more money, the microprocessor-based circuit goes into an attract mode and conditions the screen output in accordance with preprogrammed information therein. In the attract mode the microprocessor-based circuit controls the output of the display screen 140 in accordance with pre-programmed information stored in the microprocessor-based circuit's memory. The output of the screen display simulates game play and in this mode is designed to attract players to the machine 200. A bet one credit button 20b is provided to enable the player to wager credits from a minimum wager up to the maximum available for wagering at the machine 200. A max wager button 20c enables the player to make a maximum wager to play the game and simultaneously initiate play of the game. This is conventional with present day gaming machines. The deal button 20a enables the player to prompt the processor to initiate play where a maximum wager is not made The payoff amounts in the basic game are predetermined according to a pay table stored in system memory. The payoff amounts corresponding to the game played as a secondary game are also stored in system memory. Winning basic game outcomes are identifiable to the player by a pay table. In one embodiment, the pay table is affixed to the machine 10 and/or displayed by the video display 140 in response to a command by the player (e.g., by pressing the Pay Table button 20e. The method of the present invention adapted for play on a gaming machine 200 in a casino style format will now be described with reference to FIGS. 3-8 which are screen displays utilized to play the inventive card game in a casino like environment. A player indicates a desire to play a round by depositing money in the machine 200 via the coin slot 53 or bill acceptor 55, as illustrated in FIG. 2. Alternatively, if there is an existing credit line displayed in the credit total window 160, the player may make a wager from the existing credit line. In the case where the player elects to deposit money into the machine 200, via the coin slot 53 or bill acceptor 55, the microprocessor-based circuit detects this and increments the credit total window 160 to a value dependant on the total amount of money deposited into the gaming machine 200 plus any pre-existing credits. Irrespective of whether a player deposits additional funds in the machine 200, or instead use the existing credit line, to initiate play, a player is required to press the deal button 20a causing the microprocessor-based circuit to display the next screen. In response to the player pressing the deal button 20a, FIG. 4 illustrates an optional screen which may be displayed in accordance one embodiment of the present invention in which eight hands are dealt to eight player positions from which the player is required to choose the banker (i.e., B position). This embodiment is differentiated from a preferred embodiment in which the banker position is predetermined. In the present embodiment, recognizing that all dealt cards are face down at the point of making a banker selection, no advantage may be realized by the player. However, this embodiment affords an opportunity for the player to participate further in the processes of the game. The decision to incorporate this optional screen will be made at a manufacturing stage. FIG. 5 illustrates a next screen shown to the player in two situations. First, FIG. 5 is displayed in response to the player pressing the deal button 20a at the screen displayed to the player in FIG. 2. Second, FIG. 5 is shown to the player as a next screen subsequent to the player selecting a banker position from among the eight displayed positions from the optional screen displayed in FIG. 4. FIG. 5 illustrates a grouping of cards dealt face down to seven player positions and a banker position. Preferably, six cards are dealt face down to each of the eight positions. It is noted that a lesser or greater number of cards than six could be dealt to each position. Six cards constitute a preferred number of dealt cards in the case where a single deck of 52 cards is used whereby 48 of the 52 cards would be dealt in each round of play. It should be appreciated, however, that dealing more or less than six cards in a round will not affect the statistical outcome of the game. Conventionally, the microprocessor-based circuit simulates the dealing of cards in a rotation to each player and to the banker until each player as well as the banker has been dealt six cards face down. Of course, if desired, the requisite number of cards could be consecutively dealt to each player and the banker. FIG. 5 also includes a prompt 43 requesting that the player select one or more of the seven player positions, P1-P7 to be played (i.e., wagered on) in that round. The player may elect to wager on any combination of player positions, or a single player position, from among the seven eligible positions, P1-P7 in each round of play. For example, a player can choose to play positions P1 and P4, P2 through P7, P3 alone, or P1-P7. The selection is made via the touch-screen by touching the screen at the site of each desired player position. Upon touching a player position site, the site will be highlighted in some manner and the player can confirm or cancel the selection by pressing the confirm-selection 41a button or the cancel 41c button, respectively. Further, the player can elect to start-over and erase all previously made selections by pressing the start-over 41b button. Once the player is satisfied with all of his/her selections, the player would then press the finish 41d button to lock in the selections and advance to the next screen. FIG. 6 illustrates a screen display of a player selection of two hands (i.e., P1 and P5) to be wagered upon in a round of play. As shown, the unselected player positions (P2, P3, P4, P6 and P7) are removed from the display 140 leaving only the cards associated with the selected player positions P1, P5 and the banker position, B. FIGS. 7a and 7b are illustrations of how the player makes a wager on each of the selected hands (e.g., P1 and P5). In FIG. 7a, the player is prompted 81 to make a wager on the first elected position, P1. The display 140 illustrates player position P1 encapsulated. A player position is wagered upon by depressing one of the two touch screen buttons associated with making a wager, bet-one 20b and bet-max 20c. By touching the screen over the bet-one button 20b, the player can wager in increments of a single unit. In this case, a player must indicate that he/she is finished wagering on the highlighted position by pressing the finish button 20e causing the microprocessor-based circuit to highlight the next elected position (e.g., P5). An alternative to pressing the bet-one 20b button is the bet max 20c button which records a maximum wager by depressing the screen over this area. In the present example, FIG. 7b highlights the next position, P5, to be wagered on by the player. The steps for making a wager are identical for each player position wagered on. Once the wagering is completed in the current round, the rules for playing the card game are identical to that described above with reference to the casino table embodiment (See: Rules of the Game). Briefly restated, all deuces are nullities and players with deuces lose the respective round. In accordance with the rules of the inventive card game, if a dealer's upturned card matches a players upturned card the rules designate this event as a push or draw and neither the player nor the dealer wins or loses except if the players upturned card is either an ace or a deuce and the dealer's upturned card is also an ace or a deuce, respectively, the players ace wins his wager at odds of 3 to 2; the players deuce loses. Otherwise, when a player's upturned card matches a dealer's upturned card the player wins at even odds of 1 to 1. In the event a player's card is greater than the banker's upturned card, the player wins the wagered amount. Otherwise, the player loses the wagered amount in the event the player's card is of a lower denomination than the banker's card. It should be appreciated that the payouts described herein are merely exemplary. In actual operation, the payouts will be determined, in large part, subject to predetermined casino rules and/or government regulations. FIG. 8 illustrates an exemplary result for the exemplary round in which two player positions are elected, P1 and P5. In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, a bottom card is turned over for each of the elected player positions P1 and P5 and for the banker position. The bottom card upturned for player position P1 is the Jack of hearts, a bottom card upturned for position P5 is the four of hearts and the banker's bottom upturned card is a ten of spades. In accordance with the rules of the game, the upturned card for each elected player position is evaluated against the banker's upturned card to determine a winning or losing status. Specifically, for the exemplary round illustrated in FIG. 8, the player has a winning status for position P1 and a losing status for position P5. To illustrate the wagering aspect of the game, assuming the player had an existing credit line of 500 units, for example, prior to the exemplary round of play and had wagered 10 units on player position P1 and 5 units on player position P5. The player would have a net effective credit line of 505 units at the end of the exemplary round. The player wins 10 units on winning position P1 and loses 5 units on losing position P5. Upon paying the player, either in the form of credit for a next round of play or by returning an appropriate credit amount, the exemplary round is said to be terminated. At this point, the player may elect to play another round or redeem any existing credit which may have been previously accumulated. In an additional embodiment of the inventive game, the inventive game is adapted for being played on a gaming table (table version) by one or more players. The rules of the inventive game according to this embodiment will now be described. The rules are as follows: 1. All bets by the one or more players are made prior to the cards being dealt by the banker or dealer to the one or more players. Each player places an individual bet on at least one of five card positions that the player deems will be dealt a card having a higher value than a card dealt by the banker to himself. Each player also has the option of placing a Bonus Bet. The Bonus Bet allows the player to wager on the possibility of attaining a poker hand with his five dealt cards as predefined in a PayOut table (for example, a PayOut table similar to the PayOut table shown in FIG. 11g for an embodiment described below). 2. Each player is dealt five cards face down from a standard deck of playing cards. 3. The banker deals himself one card face down from the standard deck of playing cards to a respective dealer position for subsequently comparing its value to the values corresponding to each of the five cards dealt to each player. 4. All the cards are then turned over by the banker one at a time, beginning with the banker's card, to reveal each card's value. 5. After each player's card is turned over, the card(s) for which the player has placed a bet for its corresponding card position is compared to the banker's card. The card with the higher value wins; however, if both cards are of equal value (tie), the player loses half of his bet. This process continues until all of the players' cards that have associated bets have been turned over and compared to the banker's card. 6. After all cards having associated bets have been compared to the banker's card, the Bonus Bets (if any) are then evaluated. The highest ranking five-card poker hand (if any) is determined for each player who has placed a Bonus Bet. For each player who has a poker hand as defined by a PayOut table (for example, a Payout table similar to the PayOut table shown in FIG. 11g for an embodiment described below), that player is awarded a bonus payout in accordance with the PayOut table. In an additional embodiment of the inventive game which is also adapted for being played on a gaming table (table version) by one or more players, the rules are as follows: 1. All bets by the one or more players are made prior to the cards being dealt by the banker or dealer to the one or more players. Each player places an individual bet on at least one of five card positions that the player deems will be dealt a card having a higher value than a card dealt by the banker to himself. Each player also has the option of placing a Bonus Bet. The Bonus Bet allows the player to wager on the possibility of attaining a better or higher-ranking poker hand with his five dealt cards than five additional cards dealt by the banker to himself. Standard or traditional poker rules are used to determine if the player has attained a higher-ranking poker hand than the banker. 2. Each player is dealt five cards face down from a standard deck of playing cards. 3. The banker deals himself one card face down (comparison card) from the standard deck of playing cards to a respective dealer position for subsequently comparing its value to the values corresponding to each of the five cards dealt to each player. The banker also deals himself five additional cards (poker hand cards) to respective dealer positions for determining if the player has attained a higher-ranking poker hand than the banker, if the player has made a Bonus Bet wager. 4. All the cards are then turned over by the banker one at a time, beginning with the banker's cards, to reveal the comparison card's value and the banker's poker hand (if any). 5. After each player's card is turned over, the card(s) for which the player has placed a bet for its corresponding card position is compared to the banker's card. The card with the higher value wins; however, if both cards are of equal value (tie), the player loses half of his bet. This process continues until all of the players' cards that have associated bets have been turned over and compared to the banker's card. 6. After all cards having associated bets have been compared to the banker's comparison card, the Bonus Bets (if any) are then evaluated. The highest ranking five-card poker hand (if any) is determined for each player who has placed a Bonus Bet and for the banker using the banker's poker hand cards. For each player who has a poker hand which ranks higher than the banker poker hand (if any) using traditional or standard poker rules, is awarded a bonus payout in accordance with a predefined PayOut table. Even though the last two described embodiments of the inventive game were described with respect to being adapted for play on a gaming table, it is contemplated that these embodiments can also be configured and adapted for play electronically via an electronic gaming device, such as a casino-type gaming machine and a personal computing device, such as a personal computer, PDA, cellular telephone, etc. As such, a set of programmable instructions are executed by at least one processor of the gaming device, where the set of programmable instructions upon being executed enable one to play the inventive game via the gaming device as known in the art and described herein and/or contemplated with respect to other embodiments of the inventive game. These two embodiments can also be configured and adapted for play by a single or multiple players over a network, such as the Internet, by accessing a particular website and initiating play of the inventive game. In an additional embodiment of the inventive game in a gaming device as described previously, the game is played as a single player game and as such the rules are slightly modified to enhance game play by only one player. The modified rules are as follows: 1. Upon initiation of game play by selecting Deal 1014 (FIG. 11a), a plurality of cards is dealt face down on to position 1001 (FIG. 11a). 2. The player selects one card from the plurality of cards dealt 1002 (FIG. 11b). This selected card becomes known as the Banker's Card and is removed to position 1003 (FIG. 11c) on the screen. The remaining cards dealt 1002 become the Player's Cards 1004 (FIG. 11c). All cards on screen up to this point are still face down. 3. Betting now commences. The player places an individual bet on each card the player deems will be of higher value than the Banker's Card 1003. Bets may be placed on one or more of the Player's Cards 1004 at the player's discretion by selecting the Bet button 1005 one or more times or Max Bet button 1006 to immediately bet the maximum allowable amount directly below the card to be bet on. If the player places bets on 5 or more of the Players Cards 1004, an additional Bonus Bet option 1007 (FIG. 11d) is made available. The Bonus Bet 1007 allows the player to wager on the possibility of attaining a poker hand as predefined in the PayOut table shown in FIG. 11g. All bets already made can be canceled by selecting Cancel 1015. It is contemplated that all betting occurs prior to the cards being dealt. 4. Upon completion all betting, indicated by the player selecting the Play button 1008 in FIG. 11d, the cards are turned over one at a time, beginning with the Banker's Card 1003, to reveal each card's value (see FIG. 11e). Only the cards that have not been bet on nor selected as the Banker's Card 1003 are left unturned. 5. After each Player's Card 1004 is turned, it is compared to the Banker's Card 1003. The card with the higher value wins, however if both cards are of equal value, the Banker wins. Credits for a player win are applied to Winnings 1009. This process continues until all of the Player's Cards 1004 that have associated bets have been turned over and compared to the Banker's Card 1003. 6. If the player placed a Bonus Bet, it is evaluated now. The highest ranking 5 card poker hand is determined from among the turned over Player's Cards 1004. As shown in FIG. 11f, a winning poker hand 1010 as defined by the PayOut chart shown by FIG. 11g will be indicated and the appropriate credits applied to the Bonus Win 1011. 7. The player can end further game play by selecting Cash Out 1013 or can proceed to play again by selecting Deal 1014. In an alternate embodiment, the inventive card game can be played as a secondary game in a gaming device constructed to play a primary game and a secondary game when certain conditions or outcomes are satisfied in the primary game. In other words, the secondary game may or may not be activated dependent upon the outcome achieved in the primary game. Referring first to FIG. 9, which is an illustration of an exemplary primary game (i.e., a simulated slot game) having a plurality of possible outcomes (slot combinations) where particular outcomes trigger or activate the secondary card game. It should be appreciated that the primary game could, for example, be any video game currently played in a casino gaming environment. The only restriction on the selection of the primary game is that it should have multiple outcomes from which a certain select subset of those outcomes will trigger the play of the secondary game. With continued reference to FIG. 9, a display screen 140 illustrates a simulated slot machine as the primary game. The slot machine includes three vertical simulated slot machine reels 25a-25c. In a typical round of play, there is a winning outcome if the reels 25a-25c display three of a kind of any game symbol. Further, if reels 25a and 25b display two of a kind of any game symbol and reel 25e displays one of two special symbols (i.e., the “banker” symbol and the “player” symbol), a winning- outcome occurs which also activates the secondary card game. While the primary slot game is not the focus of the present invention, it is described in some detail to more fully illustrate the dual game embodiment and how the inventive card game may be activated. With reference to the primary slot game, in each round of play, in response to a player pressing the spin button 20a, each slot machine reel 25a-25c displays one game symbol selected randomly from an associated look-up table stored in the microprocessor-based circuit's ROM. In FIG. 9, reel 25a illustrates a King of diamonds, reel 25b illustrates the eight of clubs, and reel 25c illustrates the ten of clubs. Each symbol is randomly selected from the look-up table 34 holds integer values in a prescribed range, where each integer value corresponds, for example, to each of the playing cards in a typical 52 card deck. Assigned to each integer value RN is a game element selected from a group of 13 pre-determined game symbols representing standard playing card symbols (e.g., Ace, King, Queen and so on). In addition, integer values 14 and 15 represent the two special symbols, i.e., “banker” and “player”. In alternate embodiments, the pre-determined game symbols may resemble typical slot machine objects such as “bars”, “oranges”, “cherries” etc. Similar to that described above, display 140 includes a bet one credit button 20b, and a max wager button 20c. Once the player has completed his wagering for the current round, the player is prompted to press the “Spin” button 20a, or alternatively pull a conventional pull handle. Once this is done, the microprocessor-based circuit conditions the display screen 140 to simulate the spinning wheels of a slot machine. The spinning wheel simulation appears in each of the three reels 25a, 25b and 25c of the main game. Each reel eventually comes to a stop and symbols are displayed in each of the reels. Certain symbol combinations have been pre-selected as winning combinations and are shown to the player in the pay table. If the player achieves a winning combination of symbols then the player wins. Any suitable pay table can be used. An example of a representative pay table is shown in Table I. With regard to Table I, the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L and M represent suitable symbols that can be used on the reels 25a-25c. For example, in the preferred embodiment, the symbols associated with a standard deck of cards are used, as illustrated in FIG. 1. For example, the letter A could represent an “Ace” and the letter “B” could represent a “King” and so on. Alternatively, the letters could represent a group of symbols such as the fruit symbols, which are well known, or a common theme could be used. With reference to the last two rows of TABLE I WINNING COMBINATIONS PAYOUT Row 1 A A A 2000 Row 2 B B B 1750 Row 3 C C C 1500 Row 4 D D D 1250 Row 5 E E E 1000 Row 6 F F F 750 Row 7 G G G 500 Row 8 H H H 250 Row 9 I I I 150 Row 10 J J J 75 Row 11 K K K 50 Row 12 L L L 20 Row 13 M M M 10 Row 14 XX XX “Player” Activates secondary game Row 15 XX XX “Banker” Activates secondary game Table I above, the letters XX represent any of the symbols A-M with the understanding that the symbols represented by XX must be identical in each of the first two reels 25a, 25b of rows 14 and 15 for a payout to occur. If a winning combination of game symbols occurs, as described in Table I, the microprocessor-based circuit determines whether the secondary card game is activated. In the present example, activation of the secondary game occurs only for those winning combinations defined by rows 14 and 15 of Table I. Otherwise, those winning combinations defined by rows 1-13 will pay out according to the table and will not activate the secondary game. In this case, the microprocessor-based circuit calculates the credits won from the payout Table I. The microprocessor-based circuit then conditions the screen to show the total credits won and advances the credit total accordingly for pay outs from payout Table I. In the case where the winning combination is defined by either row 14 or 15 of Table I, the secondary game is activated. The winning combinations defined by rows 14 and 15 uniquely determine how the secondary game will be played. As such, the winning combinations defined by rows 14 and 15 will be discussed separately. Referring first to the winning combination defined by row 14 of Table I in which the first two reels 25a, 25b define any matching pair and the third reel 25c shows the “player” symbol. The “Player” symbol represents one of the two trigger symbols for activating the secondary game. The other trigger symbol is the “Dealer” symbol. The particular steps for playing the secondary game are discussed further below. Referring now to the winning combination defined by row 15 in which in which the first two reels 25a, 25b define any matching pair and the third reel 25c shows the “Banker” symbol. The “Banker” symbol represents a second trigger symbol for activating the secondary game. In this case, in the secondary card game, the player plays the role of the “dealer”. As the dealer, the player has an opportunity to win against each player position in the secondary game. In the present example, the banker position may win up to seven times, once for each of player positions P1-P7. FIG. 10 is an illustration of an exemplary round of play in which the secondary game is activated from row 15 of the pay table of Table I. FIG. 10 illustrates the state of the game subsequent to six cards being dealt to each player and the banker and a bottom card being turned over at each of the respective eight table positions. In the example, the banker turns over a ten of clubs, player P1 turns over a nine of diamonds, player P2 turns over a six of hearts, player P3 turns over a four of clubs, player P4 turns over an ace of spades, player P5 turns over a six of diamonds, player P6 turns over a jack of diamonds and player P7 turns over a king of spades. The banker's turned over card, i.e., ten of clubs, is compared against each player's card in accordance with the rules of the game. The result is shown in Table II. As shown in Table II, the rank of the banker's dealt card is sufficient to obtain a win over only players P1, P2, P3 and P5. In this example, the wagered amount won by the player in the primary slots game is multiplied by four, i.e., the number of wins in the secondary game. As TABLE II Banker's Card Player Player's Card Result 10 of Clubs P1 9 of Diamonds Banker Wins 10 of Clubs P2 6 of Hearts Banker Wins 10 of Clubs P3 4 of Clubs Banker Wins 10 of Clubs P4 Ace of Spades Banker Loses 10 of Clubs P5 6 of Diamonds Banker Wins 10 of Clubs P6 Jack of Diamonds Banker Loses 10 of Clubs P7 King of Spades Banker Loses shown, the number of wins in the secondary game becomes the multiplier of the wagered amount in the primary game winnings corresponds to the number of wins accrued in the secondary game. Upon determining a payout amount and appropriately crediting the player, the current round of the secondary game is considered complete. As described above, at the end of a round of play of the combined primary/secondary games, the player can cashout or build credits. It should be appreciated that alternative methods may be used in the primary game to activate the secondary card game. It should be appreciated that the rules of the secondary card game may be modified when it is incorporated as a secondary game. It is to be understood that the present invention is not limited to the embodiments described herein, but in accordance with the doctrine of equivalents, encompasses any and all embodiments within the scope of the claims. Additional embodiments are described below in the context of playing the inventive card game adapted for machine play on a video machine in a casino gaming environment for ease of explanation, however, it should be appreciated that the following embodiments are equally applicable to the table versions described above. In one embodiment, it is contemplated that once a predetermined number of cards (i.e., pot) is dealt to each elected player position and the dealer, each card from the respective pots will be played in a separate round. As an illustration, consider that a player elects to play a single position (e.g., P3), the player and the dealer will each be dealt a single pot (e.g., six cards). The number of cards dealt may be any number of cards. The player makes a wager on the single elected position (e.g., P3). Once a wager has been made, cards are dealt to the player position (i.e., the player's pot) and a single card, preferably a top card, is upturned from the player's pot. The upturned card is compared with an upturned card from the dealer's pot. The upturned cards are compared as described in accordance with previous embodiments to determine a player's winning or losing status. At this point, a round of play is concluded and the respective upturned cards are discarded. In a previously described embodiment, at the conclusion of a round of play, any remaining cards in the player's and dealer's “pot” are discarded. By contrast, in the present embodiment, at the conclusion of a round of play, only the single upturned card from each player position (e.g., P3) and dealer position is discarded. That is, the remaining cards from the respective “pots” are retained for use in future rounds. Specifically,-subsequent to concluding a round of play (i.e., discarding the upturned cards from the respective “pots”), a player makes a new wager to initiate a next round of play. Once the new wager is made, a next card from the respective player positions and dealer position is upturned and compared in the manner described above. This constitutes a next round of play. This process is again repeated for each card from the respective player's and dealer's pots. For example, in the case where a pot constitutes six cards, six individual rounds of play will be conducted wherein in each round a separate wager is made to determine a winning or losing status for the player. It is further noted that in each round, the card to be played (upturned) may be the current top card, bottom card, or any intervening card from the pot. The present embodiment affords advantages, for both the electronic versions of the game and especially for the live table version, in that a greater number of rounds of play may be conducted over a prescribed time interval. That is, the frequency of dealing, discarding, and re-shuffling is significantly reduced. In another embodiment, it is contemplated to allow the player/dealer to randomly select any one of his dealt cards to be turned over. In another embodiment, it is further contemplated to allow the player/dealer to discard his upturned card and turn over a next card when the upturned card's rank is above or below a certain rank value. For example, if the upturned card is a five or below, the card may be discarded and the next card in the pot may be upturned. This practice can be continued for each upturned card or may be made applicable for one substitution. In another embodiment, it is further contemplated to allow a player/dealer to turn over one or more additional cards if a presently upturned card equals a predetermined rank. That is, a player may turn over the next card in the pot only if the upturned card is a ten or an eight, for example. It is also contemplated to allow a player/dealer to discard one or more dealt cards before/after upturning the dealt cards to receive replacements cards in their place. In this embodiment, a player may, without looking at his pot of cards, discard, none, one, or more cards from his pot and receive substitute cards. It is yet further contemplated to allow the player/dealer to turn over a number of cards corresponding to the number of positions wagered on. In other words, if a player elects to play three positions, the player may elect to discard a first upturned card, a second upturned card, and a third upturned card corresponding to the three hands played. In this case, the player is given four opportunities to upturn a card having a favorable rank. It is to be understood that each of the aforementioned alternatives are not to be construed as limiting, but rather as being exemplary of alternative methods for revealing a player's/dealer's upturned card. As such, variations on the above methods and other methods not explicitly recited herein are within the scope of the present invention. While the invention has been illustrated with respect to several specific embodiments thereof, these embodiments should be considered as illustrative rather than limiting. Various modifications and additions may be made and will be apparent to those skilled in the art. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to wagering games, and more particularly, but not by way of limitation, to a card game. 2. Description of the Prior Art Games of chance employing a deck of 52 cards are as old as the invention of cards themselves. The concept of using high cards in which to play and wager in card games is also old. Even so, the prior art discloses many novel patented card gaming tables and many novel patented card games to be played on them. Card games generally employ one or more cards which, when dealt upon a horizontal surface, determine a score based upon indicia displayed by the upwardly facing sides or faces of the resting cards when the cards are turned face up. Feola in U.S. Pat. No. 5,839,731 issued on Nov. 24, 1998, describes a novel casino game based on a selected card game in which a player wagers on one or more of a group of dealt hands, i.e. a random grouping or pot of cards and where the chances of winning are not enhanced by the skills of the player and no discretion in the selection is vested in either the player or dealer. A relatively complex card game, such as blackjack, baccarat, or stud poker is selected. A number of hands are dealt as lines or arrays on a playing surface and players wager as to which hand will win. The playing surface has a dealer position including a line or array for each hand dealt to the dealer. Player positions are located in a semicircle around the dealer position, each including a location at which wagers are placed. Winning wagers are paid a multiple of the wager. Optionally, the multiple is based on the odds of obtaining the particular winning combination. Somma et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 5,690,337 issued on Nov. 25, 1997, disclose a relatively complex casino card game. Utilized is a single, 41-card deck of playing cards consisting of a standard, 4-suit playing card deck from which all “face” cards have been removed and a single “Joker” card has been added. Play of the game starts with a first player selecting a card value, termed the “dealer number”. No bets can be placed on the dealer number. Players may then place their wager(s) on any of the remaining “live” numbers, and the dealer deals a first playing card, face up. If the identified “dealer number” card value is turned over, all players having placed a bet on any of the “live” numbers win, and are paid off even money. If the card has a value other than the “dealer number”, the house wins all bets placed on the “value” number of the card that was turned over, and that value number is thereafter considered “dead”. Play continues, with the players given an opportunity to place additional bets on the remaining, “live” card values prior to turning over the next card. If the “joker” card is dealt by the dealer at any time before the “dealer number” has been dealt, the house wins all remaining bets, and the game is over. Boylan et al., in U.S. Pat. No. 5,607,162 issued on Mar. 4, 1997 disclose a method of playing another relatively complex matching wagering game between players and a dealer whose outcome is determined by randomly generated playing cards. After an ante bet is wagered, the dealer deals five cards to each player and deals seven cards to himself. A round of play is then commenced where the dealer plays a card from his hand to present the rank and suit thereof. Next, each player plays a “matching” card from his respective hand which is either the same suit or the same rank. In this manner, each player reduces the number of cards in his hand where a matching card is played during the round. The conducting of a round of play is then repeated until each card in the hand of the dealer has been played. Seven rounds are thus played each game, so that ultimately there are no cards left in the hand of the dealer. The ante bet of each respective player is consequently paid off as follows: (a) To each player if each player has no card remaining; or (b) to the dealer if each player has one or more cards remaining. Preferably, prior to the round of play, each player determines whether his respective hand has a winning hand or position and pays each player who selected the winning hand or position according to the odds and their wager or collects each player'wager who did not select the winning hand or position. Additionally, a jackpot wheel may be included to pennit an added possibility of winning a larger payout. U.S. Pat. No. 5,395,120 was granted to Malek in March of 1995 for another relatively complex poker-like card game, in particular, a card game suitable for use in casinos, and for a specifically designed table for playing the game. Specifically, this invention relates to a method and apparatus for playing a casino game simultaneously against a dealer and against other players. More specifically, this invention relates to a method of and an apparatus for playing a mixture of draw poker and one off twenty-one and baccarat wherein a player can simultaneously play Draw Poker against a dealer and one of Twenty-one and Baccarat against other players. Virtually all casinos, especially those in the gaming capitals of the world have board games that are played for gambling purposes. Due to the complexity involved in playing the popular wagering games employing cards such as poker, blackjack, and baccarat, for example, as exemplified by the brief summaries given above, there is a need for a simpler game of chance that will appease all strata of expertise in the art of card gambling, yet remain challenging and enjoyable. As evinced above, the game of poker is an extremely popular game currently found in most Las Vegas casinos, the rules of which are widely published and have numerous variations. This game provides numerous betting options, but the game involves complicated increasing or decreasing odds depending on the number of decks of cards used. Winning hands may include two pairs, three of a kind, four of a kind, and straights. Although there have been attempts to improve upon existing card games and to develop new games of chance, none of the prior art card games have been able to overcome the complexity disadvantages described herein. Thus, a need exists for a card game that is simple to learn and play and that results in simpler, more expedient wagering decisions per hour. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>One embodiment of the present invention is directed to a card game to be played by at least one player and a dealer or croupier using at least one standard deck of 52 cards. Also used by the croupier is a shuffling machine for cards, a dealing machine for cards and a catch bin for discarded or played cards. The order of play and payoffs for each bet are set by the house or the croupier. The card game of the present invention is played by a player first placing a bet, preferably in a betting spot using chips, for example. Next, the dealer deals a predetermined number of cards to each player face down onto an area on the table—called a pot—designated for that player and afterwards, deals the same number of cards to another area on the table, called a dealer'pot. One play in a series includes the dealer turning up a player'top card and turning up the dealer's top card: High wins at even odds of 1 to 1; equal cards are a draw or push and neither wins except if a player has a deuce in which case the player's deuce loses 1 to 1 odds; a player's ace wins at odds of 3 to 2. After one play, a player may place a new bet before cards are next turned over. As an example, in a typical round involving the dealer and a player playing one hand, assume the dealer turns over a eight of spades as his upturned card and that the player turns over a Queen of hearts as his upturned card. In this case, the player wins the round and is paid off at 1 to 1 odds. It is to be understood that the odds described above are merely exemplary and may be different depending upon the pay out rules associated with each gaming establishment in which the inventive game is played. The inventive card game, while exhibiting many valuable gaming features, as explained below in more detail, also can be inexpensively manufactured and incurs minimal operational overhead expenses. While the present invention may, in one embodiment, includes a separate, approximately five-foot semi-circular table, the present playing surface may be formed as a thin overlay to be placed atop existing casino game table equipment such as blackjack tables. In addition, if there are an insufficient number of players to warrant operating a full table, the table may be split in half, with one half of the table unoccupied, and the other half utilized for playing the game. Advantageously, the operational expenses associated with the present game are low. To operate the present game, the casino need only employ one dealer. While the method of the present invention has been described in connection with a live gaming table format using a live dealer to deal the cards and handle the wagering, the method of play may also be practiced in a non-wagering (amusement) format in which points, chips, artificial money, and so on are used instead of items of monetary value. The amusement format can be a live table game or a hand-held computer game similar to the electronic amusement game. Moreover, a personal computer or a small hand-held device can be programmed or to designed to play the game. It is also contemplated that the game can be played via a terminal connected to an on-line network, such as the Internet. In the on-line network form, it is possible that a plurality of players may participate in a single game. The game of the present invention can also be embodied in an electronic apparatus for use on an airplane for those airlines provide gambling opportunities when flying over international waters or nations that allow it. The card game has a minimal number of rules, and the rules are readily apparent to the novice gambler after very little observation. In an embodiment of the inventive card game, every wager is effective until some predetermined number of cards are compared. Therefore, in contrast to the prior art card games, such as blackjack, the present game produces simpler wagering decisions. Thus, the present invention represents a substantial improvement over casino games of the prior art because it simplifies play and encourages wagering which in turn leads to increased entertainment for the player. In another embodiment of the present invention, a player is provided the option of playing the novel game against on a computer over the internet or using a gaming device including a video display and means for interacting with the video display in a casino-style game environment. In accordance with one aspect of the above embodiment, the inventive card game is played as a secondary game in the gaming device wherein the gaming device includes a primary game and a secondary game where the secondary inventive card game is only invoked when a particular sequence or outcome is achieved in the primary game, as will be described below. An advantage of the card game of the present invention over prior art card games is that it is substantially less complex thereby enabling the game to move quickly which decreases the associated operational overhead. A further advantage of the card game of the present invention is its simplicity and accessibility to the ever-increasing numbers of novice gamblers. Therefore, despite the popularity of both craps and roulette, the inventive card game presents several advantages to the casinos and players alike. A still further advantage of the card game of the present invention is the simplicity of betting wherein a winning bet is easily recognized. Players advantageously compete against the house with virtually even odds based on a variation of high card wins, like cards draw or push, and players' aces provide an advantage to the player. It is further noted that the pay out tables may vary in accordance with house rules as determined by each gaming establishment. Moreover, with respect to the slot machine version of the inventive game, the payouts will be more streamline from gaming establishment to gaming establishment, in that each gaming establishment is subject to certain payout guidelines as determined by an overseer gaming commission. A gaming method disclosed is designed to quickly build excitement and anticipation by turning over a predetermined number of cards from a dealt hand per game, and as such is intended as a quick paced and an unusually exciting game to play and/or observe. Even more particularly, the instant invention is intended to give a novel and new look and feel to the currently popular card games yet have simplified rules and procedures designed both to encourage use by novice gamblers. | 20040608 | 20080219 | 20050127 | 62380.0 | 1 | COLLINS, DOLORES R | SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR PLAYING A TABLE AND ELECTRONIC CARD GAME | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,863,275 | ACCEPTED | Router to route packets | A router for routing packets in a telecommunication network is claimed. The router comprises a plurality of inputs for receiving packets and a common processor coupled to the inputs for processing at least part of the packets i.e. the control packets according to one or more routing protocols such as BGP, PIM, OSPF, LDP, . . . The router comprises at least one packet marker that is coupled between a first plurality of inputs of said plurality of inputs and the common processor. The marker is included for marking incoming control packets of the at least part of the packets. The marking is provided according to a receiving rate of control packets that are received at the first plurality of inputs and that are to be processed according to a first routing protocol e.g. BGP. The incoming control packets are received at one of the first plurality of inputs and are to be processed according to this first routing protocol e.g. BGP. The marker provides thereby marked control packets. Furthermore, the common processor comprises a discarder for discarding or dropping, before the processing of the control packets, one or more of the marked control packets. The discarding is based upon the kind of marking of the marked control packets and is provided according to predefined rules and conditions. (FIG. 1). | 1. A router for routing packets in a telecommunication network, said router comprises a plurality of inputs for receiving said packets and a common processor (CP) coupled to said plurality of inputs for processing at least part of said packets according to one or more routing protocols (BGP, PIM, OSPF, LDP, . . . , PROTn), characterized in that said router comprises at least one packet marker (M11(M_BGP)), coupled between a first plurality of inputs (IN11, IN12, IN13) of said plurality of inputs and said common processor (CP), for marking incoming control packets of said at least part of said packets, according to a receiving rate of control packets received at said first plurality of inputs (IN11, IN12, IN13) and to be processed according to a first routing protocol (BGP), said incoming control packets being received at one of said first plurality of inputs (IN11, IN12, IN13) and to be processed according to said first routing protocol (BGP), said marker (M11(MBGP)) provides thereby marked control packets; and said common processor (CP) comprises a discarder (DIS) for discarding, before said processing, one or more of said marked control packets according to said marking and according to predefined rules and conditions. 2. A routing method to route packets in a telecommunication network, comprising the steps of: receiving said packets by a plurality of inputs of said router; and processing at least part of said packets according to one or more routing protocols (BGP, PIM, OSPF, LDP, . . . , PROTn) by a common processor (CP) coupled to said plurality of inputs, characterized in that said routing method further comprises a step of marking incoming control packets of said at least part of said packets by a packet marker (M11(M_BGP)) according to a receiving rate of control packets received at a first plurality of inputs (IN11, IN12, IN13) of said plurality of inputs and to be processed according to a first routing protocol (BGP) and providing thereby marked control packets, said incoming control packets being received at one (IN12) of a first plurality (IN11, IN12, IN13) of said plurality of inputs and are to be processed according to said first routing protocol (BGP); and said routing method further comprises, before said step of processing, a step of discarding by a discarder (DIS) associated to said common processor (CP) one or more of said marked control packets according to said marking and according to predefined rules and conditions. 3. A telecommunication network that comprises a router for routing packets, characterized in that said router is a router according to claim 1. | The present invention relates to a router to route packets, and to a telecommunication network that comprises such a router and to a method to route packets to be executed by such a router. Such a router is already known in the art. Indeed, a router for routing packets in a telecommunication network usually comprises a plurality of inputs for receiving the packets. It has to be explained that the received packets in a telecommunication network are two kinds of packets. The first kind is called the transit traffic. These are data packets that are not leaving the forwarding path. The second kind of packet is called the control traffic. These packets comprise the required control data to create the required forwarding path and might possibly be adapted. The control packets are routed to a processor called hereafter, common processor. It has to be clear that the present invention is dealing with this second kind of control packets that are called hereafter shortly ‘packets’ since only these packets are to be routed from the different inputs to the common processor in order to be processed by this common processor. In the event when this application describes a data packet that only has to follow the forwarding data-path, it will be mentioned explicitly. The control packets received by the common processor are processed by the common processor according to its specific routing protocol such as e.g. the Border Gateway Protocol or shortly BGP protocol, the Protocol Independent Multicast or shortly the PIM protocol, the Open Short Path First protocol or shortly OSPF protocol, the Label Distribution Protocol or shortly the LDP protocol or in order to be general a protocol called shortly PROTn. It has to be explained that the control packets are received at the different inputs with a certain receiving rate. In the event when this receiving rate exceeds a predefined receiving rate, the processing capacity of the common processor might as well be exceeded. In such a case, the common processor is not able to process all received packets anymore. According to prior art solutions, received control packets needs to be dropped in order to relieve the common processor. Such a dropping of received control packets is provided by prior art solutions at the different inputs. According to this prior art solution, a buffer that is coupled to the different inputs is used to buffer the received packets. It has to be remarked that, the part of the data-path that comprises the common processor and its associated buffer is called hereafter the common control-point. In the event when the filling level of the buffer exceeds a predefined buffer threshold the different inputs of the router will drop e.g. according to a random sequence or according to a one-by-one sequence, the next received control packets. It has to be explained that the predefined threshold of the buffer is defined at design time of the router based on the known processing capacity of the common processor. This dropping step is executed during a predefined period or until the filling level is again below the threshold. Another way of dropping control packets in order to relieve the common processor is dropping packets or also called hereafter discarding packets at the common control point itself. At the common control point the received control packets coming from the different inputs are dropped until the common processor is able to follow the receiving rate again. It has to be explained that the packets are dropped regardless of the content of the different packets. Such a straightforward discarding of excess traffic at the common control point protects the common processor from a too high load but doesn't guarantee that only packets from the violating stream are throttled. Indeed, dropping packets randomly impacts streams running at a very low rate such as keep-alive traffic, too. In this way, the minimum number of packets that is needed to keep these other services running doesn't reach the application and are interpreted as a timeout from the remote peers. The remote peers are closed and the services are stopped. An object of the present invention is to provide a router to execute a routing method, of the above known type, to relieve the common processor of the common control point in the event of an excess of incoming control packets to be processed by the common processor. According to the invention, this object is achieved with the router of claim 1 and the routing method of claim 2. Indeed, in order to realize this object, the router comprises at least one control packet marker that is coupled to a first subset of inputs and the common processor. The marker is comprised for marking incoming control packets according to a receiving rate of control packets that are received at this subset of inputs and that are moreover to be processed according to a first routing protocol e.g. the BGP protocol. The incoming control packets that are to be marked are received at one of this subset of inputs and are also to be processed according to this first routing protocol. The marker provides hereby marked control packets. Furthermore, at the common control point, the common processor comprises a discarder for discarding control packets before the control packets are to be processed by the common processor. The discarding of the control packets is based on the kind of marking of the marked control packets and on predefined rules and conditions. So, due to the marking of the incoming control packets based on the stream it belongs to, in times of high load, only those control packets are dropped by the discarder at the common processor which are marked as excess traffic and which have to be dropped according to the predefined rules and conditions such as e.g. an implementation of RED. This doesn't imply that all packets being marked as excess traffic needs to be dropped. Indeed, only those packets which are marked and wherefore the implemented algorithm generates a drop decision, needs to be discarded. The marking of packets is also called coloring of packets. This means that the packets are marked according to a predefined color code e.g. green in the event of no excess traffic, yellow in the event of minor excess traffic and red in the event of highly excess traffic. The marking is defined in function of the receiving rate of control packets being received at an identical subset of inputs and being to be processed by the common processor according to an identical protocol. This means that when e.g. two control packets, which are received at one of the inputs of a same subset but which ought to be processed by the common processor according to different protocols, are taking part in the determination of different receiving rates of control packets. Although that both packets are received at one of the inputs of a same subset of inputs, one control packet is counted for keeping track of the receiving rate for the first protocol and the other control packet is counted for keeping track of the receiving rate for the second protocol. On the other hand, when two control packets are to be processed by the common processor under the same protocol rules e.g. OSPF protocol, but both packets are received at one of an input of different subsets of inputs, both packets are counted for keeping track of different receiving rate of packets. So, a stream of control packets which are taken into account for keeping track of the same receiving rate of control packets, is defined as a packet flow belonging to the same protocol and the same subset of incoming interfaces i.e. inputs. The aim of the present invention is the co-operation between the ingress i.e. the different subsets of inputs and the common control point i.e. the discarding at the common processor. It is to be noticed that the term ‘comprising’, used in the claims, should not be interpreted as being limitative to the means listed thereafter. Thus, the scope of the expression ‘a device comprising means A and B’ should not be limited to devices consisting only of components A and B. It means that with respect to the present invention, the only relevant components of the device are A and B. Similarly, it is to be noticed that the term ‘coupled’, also used in the claims, should not be interpreted as being limitative to direct connections only. Thus, the scope of the expression ‘a device A coupled to a device B’ should not be limited to devices or systems wherein an output of device A is directly connected to an input of device B. It means that there exists a path between an output of A and an input of B which may be a path including other devices or means. The above and other objects and features of the invention will become more apparent and the invention itself will be best understood by referring to the following description of an embodiment taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein FIG. 1 represents a router according to the present invention. The working of the device according to the present invention in accordance with its telecommunication environment that is shown in FIG. 1 will be explained by means of a functional description of the different blocks shown therein. Based on this description, the practical implementation of the blocks will be obvious to a person skilled in the art and will therefor not be described in details. In addition, the principle working of the routing method according to the present invention will be described in further detail. FIG. 1 describes a router ROUT for routing packets in a telecommunication network. The router ROUT comprises a plurality of inputs IN11, IN12, IN13, . . . , IN1p, IN21, IN22, IN23, IN2p, INq, INq2, INq3, . . . , INqp. Furthermore the router ROUT comprises a plurality of network processors NP1, NP2, . . . , NPm each coupled to a subset of inputs and to a common processor CP of the router ROUT. The common processor CP comprises a Central Processing Unit CPU and a discarder DIS(RED). The discarder DIS is coupled to an input of the common processor CP that is coupled to the different network processors NPqp and the Central Processing Unit is coupled to the discarder DIS. It has to be remarked that once the packets are processed by the central processor, the network processors are eventual receiving internal for e.g. its forwarding data-path and the control packets are eventual resulting in new control packets. However this goes beyond the aim of the present invention. Hereby it becomes clear that FIG. 1 shows only the traffic in the router ROUT of the control packets towards the common control point. It is to be noticed that the traffic of the data packets i.e. first kind of packets explained above, is not shown in order not to overload the Figure. The network processors NP1, NP2, . . . , NPm each comprises a plurality of marking-sets such as M11, M12, . . . , M1q on the network processor NP1. Each marking-set such as M11, M12, . . . and M1Q comprises a marker such as M_BGP, M_PIM, . . . and M_PROTn for each protocol that can be handled by the common processor CP. In this way comprises each marking-set e.g. M12 a plurality of markers M12(M_BGP), M12(M_PIM), and M12(M_PROTn). The inputs are physical sorted in different kind of subsets. A first division is the division of the plurality of inputs according to the different network processors NP1, NP2, . . . , NPm. Each input of the plurality of inputs of the router ROUT is an interface to one of the network processors. In this way one or more inputs IN11, IN12, IN13, . . . , IN1p of the plurality of inputs IN11, IN12, IN13, . . . , IN1p, IN21, IN22, IN23, . . . , IN2p, INq1, INq2, INq3, . . . , INqp, are coupled to the first network processor NP1; and one or more inputs of the plurality of inputs are coupled to the second network processor NP2; . . . A second division of inputs is the division of all inputs coupled to a same network processor into subsets of inputs according to a set of markers e.g. M11. In this way a first subset of inputs or also called a first plurality of inputs is IN11, IN12 and IN13. This first subset of inputs IN11, IN12 and IN13 is associated to a first set of markers M11(M_BGP), M11(M_PIM), . . . , M11(M_PROTn) being comprised in the marking-set M11. Hereby is a stream of packets defined as all packets received by the router ROUT a) via one subset or called a first plurality of inputs e.g. subset IN14, IN15, IN16 and IN17 which are associated to one marking-set e.g. M12; and b) wherefore a same routing protocol e.g. PIM is to be used by the common processor CP. In this way is the marker M12(M_PIM) uniquely associated to the stream of packets of the above example i.e. the stream of packets received via one of the inputs IN14, IN15, IN16 and IN17; and wherefore the PIM protocol is to be used by the common processor CP. Upon reception of an incoming packet at one of the inputs of the router ROUT, and during the determination of the required service related to the packet also the target common processor CP is determined. It has to be remarked here that although the description of this embodiment describes the presence of only one common processor CP in the router ROUT, the present invention is not limited to application with only one common processor CP in a router ROUT. According to such an implementation, the router ROUT comprises a determining functional block in order to determine upon reception of an incoming packet at one of the inputs of the router ROUT the associated common processor to process this control packet. It has to be understood that in the event of such an implementation excess traffic for one common processor is handled according to an application of the present invention and excess traffic for a second common processor is handled according to a second time the application of the present invention. The protocol to be used for the processing of the control packet is determined upon reception of the control packet at the input of the router ROUT. Based on this kind of protocol the stream of packets whereto the received control packet belongs to is also determined. Furthermore, the uniquely associated marker of this stream of packets is also determined. The control packet is forwarded from the input of the router ROUT to the uniquely associated marker of the control packet. It has to be explained that it is preferred for this particular description of an embodiment to encode the receiving rate in a color field. Every marker e.g. M11(M_BGP) comprises a color-blind two-rate three-color marker. It has to be remarked that other kind of markers might be implemented in the different functional block markers of the present invention. The kind of marker used to mark the incoming control packets goes beyond the aim of the present invention. The aim of the present invention is the fact that the control packets are marked in function of a receiving rate of the control packet stream whereto this control packet belongs. It is preferred for this particular embodiment to execute a periodic sampling of the marker in a period of one second. The first number of received control packet bytes is marked green, the next up to a second number are marked yellow and the remainder re marked red. A preferred embodiment of the present application comprises also a dropper (not shown in the FIG. 1) at the ingress level. Any colored red packet is immediately discarded at the ingress. Such a functional block that drops excess control packets at the ingress of the router ROUT is already known in the art. Indeed, as described above, received control packets needs to be dropped in order to relieve the common processor. However, according to the implementation of this preferred embodiment the control packets are first colored at the ingress level of the router ROUT. Hereafter the colored packets are forwarded to a dropper or also called a discarder. This dropper is enabled to drop the colored control packets being colored with the color red immediately. The green and yellow packets from every network processor are further forwarded to the common control point i.e. to the common processor CP. The discarder DIS of the common processor CP first receives the green and yellow packets. This discarder DIS drains the packets to the central processing unit CPU at a predefined draining rate. This predefined draining right can be implemented as a constant value or can as well be defined as a variable parameter. The installed discarding algorithm i.e. discarding according to the marking and according to predefined rules and conditions will now be explained. This will be explained by means of an example. Presume an actual situation whereby the above mentioned predefined draining rate is lower as the actual arrival rate at the discarder DIS of the green and yellow control packets. In such an event the buffer i.e. the queue of the common control point starts filling. From a certain filling level of the buffer a discarding algorithm is applied. For this particular embodiment it is preferred to use the known Random Early Detection mechanism or shortly called RED. The RED algorithm is applied to the yellow marked packets. The 100% drop rate for the yellow packets occurs when the filling level keeps on increasing. Green packets are not to be discarded. No packets are dropped during normal operation although some traffic might be colored yellow during reception of some bursty traffic. So, at the time when the common control point gets overwhelmed by an excess of control traffic i.e. reception of too much control packets during a same period, the common processor CP has still enough information based upon the different colors of the control packets to discard/drop only violating packet streams. The other services i.e. the other control packet streams will keep on receiving a guaranteed minimum flow. The present invention provides due to the presence of the marking step at the ingress of the router ROUT and due to the step of discarding based upon this marking at the common control point of the router ROUT an improved behavior during e.g. Denial of Service attacks or shortly DoS attacks and a guaranteed performance of the central processing unit CPU of the common processor CP at the common control point. It has to be remarked that the mentioned protocols such as BGP, PIM, OSPF and LDP are only mentioned as a matter of example. It is clear to a person skilled in the art that other protocols might be used by the processor to process the control packets and that, with minor changes, the above description of an embodiment might be adapted to a router ROUT for routing control packets which is enabled to receive control packets and to process with its common processor CP these control packets that belong to a stream of control packets that applies another routing protocol. A final remark is that embodiments of the present invention are described above in terms of functional blocks. From the functional description of these blocks, given above, it will be apparent for a person skilled in the art of designing electronic devices how embodiments of these blocks can be manufactured with well-known electronic components. A detailed architecture of the contents of the functional blocks hence is not given. While the principles of the invention have been described above in connection with specific apparatus, it is to be clearly understood that this description is made only by way of example and not as a limitation on the scope of the invention, as defined in the appended claims. | 20040609 | 20090623 | 20050106 | 64220.0 | 2 | PHAM, BRENDA H | ROUTER TO ROUTE PACKETS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||||
10,863,491 | ACCEPTED | Water-in-oil emulsified composition | The present invention relates to a water-in-oil emulsified composition containing a sphingosine represented by the following formula (1): (R1 represents a hydrocarbon group optionally having a substituent; Y represents methylene, methine or O; X1, X2 and X3 each represent H, OH or acetoxy group; X4 represents H, acetyl group or the like; R2, R3 each represents H, OH or the like; R represents H, amidino group or the like; and a stands for 2 or 3), (B) a C6-30 fatty acid, and (C) an oil component. This water-in-oil emulsified composition has excellent stability and provides a good feeling to skin upon use. | 1. A water-in-oil emulsified composition comprising the following components (A), (B) and (C): (A) a sphingosine represented by the following formula (1): wherein, R1 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C4-30 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl, carbonyl or amino group; Y represents a methylene group, a methine group or an oxygen atom; X1, X2 and X3 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group or acetoxy group, X4 represents a hydrogen atom, an acetyl group or glyceryl group, or forms an oxo group together with the adjacent oxygen atom wherein, when Y represents a methine group, either X1 or X2 represents a hydrogen atom and the other one does not exist, and when X4 forms an oxo group, X3 does not exist; R2 and R3 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group, a hydroxymethyl group or an acetoxymethyl group; R each independently represents a hydrogen atom or an amidino group, or a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total and optionally having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy and acetoxy groups; a stands for 2 or 3; and a dashed line indicates a saturated bond or unsaturated bond, (B) a C6-30 fatty acid; and (C) an oil component. 2. The water-in-oil emulsified composition of claim 1, wherein Component (A) is a natural type sphingosine represented by formula (3): wherein, R12 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C7-19 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group; Y1 represents a methylene or methine group; X8, X9 and X10 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group or an acetoxy group, X11 represents a hydrogen atom or forms an oxo group together with the adjacent oxygen atom, wherein when Y1 represents a methine group, either X8 or X9 represents a hydrogen atom and the other one does not exist, and when X11 forms an oxo group, X10 does not exist; R13 represents a hydroxymethyl or acetoxymethyl group; R1 each independently represents a hydrogen atom or an amidino group, or a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon group having 1 to 4 carbon atoms in total and optionally having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy and acetoxy groups; a stands for 2 or 3; and a dashed line indicates a saturated bond or unsaturated bond; or a pseudo type sphingosine represented by the following formula (4): wherein, R17 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C10-22 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group; X4 represents a hydrogen atom, an acetyl group or a glyceryl group; R2 each independently represents a hydrogen atom or an amidino group, or a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total and optionally having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy and acetoxy groups, and a stands for 2 or 3. 3. The water-in-oil emulsified composition of claim 1, wherein the oil component contains an oil component in a solid or semi-solid form. 4. The water-in-oil emulsified composition of claim 1, wherein the oil component contains a ceramide represented by the following formula (2): wherein, R7 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C4-30 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl, carbonyl or amino group, or a hydrogen atom; Z represents a methylene group, a methine group or an oxygen atom; X5, X6 and X7 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group or acetoxy group, X4 represents a hydrogen atom, an acetyl group or a glyceryl group or forms an oxo group together with the adjacent oxygen atom, wherein when Z represents a methine group, either X5 or x6 represents a hydrogen atom and the other one does not exist, and when X4 forms an oxo group, X7 does not exist; R8 and R9 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group, a hydroxymethyl group or an acetoxymethyl group; R10 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C5-60 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl, carbonyl or amino group and may have an ether bond, ester bond or amide bond in the main chain; R11 represents a hydrogen atom, or a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon group having 1 to 30 carbon atoms in total and optionally having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy and acetoxy groups, wherein when R7 represents a hydrogen atom and Z represents an oxygen atom, R11 represents a hydrocarbon group having 10 to 30 carbon atoms in total, and when R7 represents a hydrocarbon group, R11 represents a hydrocarbon group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total; and a dashed line indicates a saturated bond or unsaturated bond. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a water-in-oil emulsified composition. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Water-in-oil emulsified compositions have good affinity with the skin. In addition, they prevent moisture loss from the skin by forming a film on the skin surface, so that they can protect the skin from drying or give treatment effects to the skin. Owing to such characteristics, they are used extensively for cosmetic compositions. In particular, incorporation of a highly viscous oil agent or a solid one as an oil component in the compositions heightens their skin protecting effects, but is accompanied with a defect such as a sticky feeling upon use. It is a common practice to increase the water content, use a silicone oil as an oil agent or use powder capable of giving a refreshing feeling upon use in order to provide a refreshing sensation without losing the properties of water-in-oil emulsified compositions. When an oil component containing a solid lipid or an oil agent having a particularly high viscosity is emulsified, however, such a measure is not preferred, because it limits the kinds of surfactants to be used as an emulsifier, or requires a large amount of a surfactant, leading to impairment of the affinity with the skin or sometimes causing irritation to the skin. Moreover, such a highly viscous oil agent becomes a cause for disturbing emulsification in a mixture system intended to give a refreshing feeling by increasing the water content or adding a silicone oil. Various investigations have been made to obtain a water-in-oil emulsified composition providing a good feeling to skin and having high stability in a water-rich system. For example, in Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. Hei 10-139651, described is a water-in-oil emulsified cosmetic composition obtained by emulsifying an amide compound having a melting point of from 0 to 50° C. with a nonionic surfactant having an HLB less than 8. It however cannot attain both a good feeling to skin and a stable emulsion. In Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2000-191496, described is a cosmetic composition having a salt made of a sphingosine and a C1-17 organic acid and having a melting point not greater than that of the sphingosine. Here, in order to improve the miscibility with a highly crystallizable sphingosine, a C1-17 organic acid is added to covert the sphingosine into the corresponding cationic salt. This lowers its melting point and facilitates the incorporation of the sphingosine in cosmetic compositions. When the sphingosine salt thus having a reduced melting point is incorporated as a component of an emulsified composition, however, a surfactant must be added to emulsify the salt, so that the resulting composition is not satisfactory from the viewpoint of attaining both good feeling to skin upon use and stability. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In the present invention, there is provided a water-in-oil emulsified composition containing the following components (A), (B) and (C): (A) a sphingosine represented by formula (1): (wherein, R1 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C4-30 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl, carbonyl or amino group; Y represents a methylene group, a methine group or an oxygen atom; X1, X2 and X3 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group or an acetoxy group, X4 represents a hydrogen atom, an acetyl group or a glyceryl group or forms an oxo group together with the adjacent oxygen atom (with the proviso that when Y represents a methine group, either one of X1 and X2 represents a hydrogen atom and the other one does not exist and when X4 forms an oxo group, X3 does not exist); R2 and R3 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group, a hydroxymethyl group or an acetoxymethyl group; R each independently represents a hydrogen atom or an amidino group, or a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total and optionally having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy and acetoxy groups; a stands for 2 or 3; and a dashed line indicates a saturated bond or unsaturated bond), (B) a C6-30 fatty acid; and (C) an oil component. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a water-in-oil emulsified composition having excellent stability and a good feeling to skin upon use. The present inventors have found that a water-in-oil emulsified composition having an excellent temporal stability, giving less stickiness and unpleasant feeling to the skin, and providing a good feeling to skin upon use can be obtained by employing a sphingosine, which is a substance inherently existing in the skin, and a fatty acid upon emulsification of an oil component. Although not wanting to be limited by theory, in the water-in-oil emulsified composition of the present invention, the amine group of a sphingosine represented by formula (1) and a C6-30 fatty acid form a salt by acid-base neutralization and the sphingosine thus cationized gains a favorable surface activating capacity, making it possible to create a stable emulsified state. In addition, the sphingosine represented by formula (1) and medium-chain fatty acid function as an activator, so that addition of a surfactant which substantially acts as an emulsifier is not required. The sphingosine to be used as Component (A) in the present invention is represented by the above-described formula (1). In the formula, R1 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C4-30 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl, carbonyl or amino group, preferably a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C7-22 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group. More preferably, R1 is a linear or branched C10-20 alkyl group or a linear or branched C10-20 alkyl group having, at a terminal thereof on the Y side, a hydroxyl group. When it is a branched alkyl group, it preferably has a methyl branched alkyl chain. More specifically, preferred examples include tridecyl, tetradecyl, pentadecyl, hexadecyl, 1-hydroxytridecyl, 1-hydroxypentadecyl, isohexadecyl and isostearyl groups. Y represents any one of a methylene group (CH2), a methine group (CH) and an oxygen atom. X1, X2 and X3 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group or an acetoxy group, X4 represents a hydrogen atom, an acetyl group, a glyceryl group or a substituent forming an oxo group together with the adjacent oxygen atom. Of these, preferred is the case where at most one of X1, X2 and X3 represents a hydroxyl group, the remaining ones represents a hydrogen atom, and X4 represents a hydrogen atom. When Y represents a methine group, either X1 or x2 represents a hydrogen atom and the other one does not exist. When X4 forms an oxo group, X3 does not exist. R2 and R3 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group, a hydroxymethyl group or an acetoxymethyl group. R3 is preferably a hydrogen atom. The letter “a” stands for 2 or 3. When a stands for 2, R means R4 or R5 and when a stands for 3, R means R4, R5 or R6. R4, R5 and R6 each independently represents a hydrogen atom or an amidino group, or a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total and optionally having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy and acetoxy groups. As the hydroxyalkoxy group which may be a substituent for the hydrocarbon group, linear or branched C1-7 hydrocarbon groups are preferred. As the alkoxy group, linear or branched C1-7 alkoxy groups are preferred. Examples of R4, R5 or R6 include a hydrogen atom; linear or branched alkyl groups such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, 2-ethylhexyl and isopropyl; alkenyl groups such as vinyl and allyl; amidino groups; and hydrocarbon groups having 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total and having 1 to 6 substituents selected from hydroxyl group, hydroxyalkoxy groups and alkoxy groups, such as hydroxymethyl, 2-hydroxyethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2-hydroxyethyl, 2-hydroxypropyl, 2,3-dihydroxypropyl, 2-hydroxy-3-methoxypropyl, 2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexyl, 1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl, 2-(2-hydroxyethoxy)ethyl, 2-methoxyethyl, 1-methyl-2-hydroxyethyl, 3-hydroxypropyl, 3-methoxypropyl, and 1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)-2-hydroxyethyl. Of these, a hydrogen atom, a methyl group, and an alkyl group which may be substituted by 1 to 3 substituents selected from hydroxyl group and hydroxyalkoxy groups, such as 2-hydroxyethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2-hydroxyethyl, 1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl, 2-(2-hydroxyethoxy)ethyl are more preferred. As the sphingosine represented by formula (1), a natural or natural type sphingosine, or derivative thereof represented by the below-described formula (3) (which will hereinafter be described as “natural type sphingosine”, collectively), or a pseudo type sphingosine having a sphingosine structure represented by formula (4) (which will hereinafter be described as “pseudo type sphingosine”) is preferred. (I) Natural type sphingosine represented by formula (3): (wherein, R12 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C7-19 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group; Y1 represents a methylene or methine group; X8, X9 and X10 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxy group or an acetoxy group, X11 represents a hydrogen atom or forms an oxo group together with the adjacent oxygen atom (with the proviso that when Y1 represents a methine group, either X8 or X9 represents a hydrogen atom and the other one does not exist, and when X11 forms an oxo group, X10 does not exist); R13 represents a hydroxymethyl or acetoxymethyl group; R1 each independently represents a hydrogen atom or an amidino group, or a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon group having 1 to 4 carbon atoms in total and optionally having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy and acetoxy groups; a stands for 2 or 3; and a dashed line indicates a saturated bond or unsaturated bond). As R12, linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C7-19 hydrocarbon groups are preferred, with linear, saturated or unsaturated C13-15 hydrocarbon groups being more preferred. It is preferred that a stands for 2 and R1s each independently represents a hydrogen atom or a linear or branched C1-4 alkyl group. Specific examples of the natural type sphingosine represented by formula (3) include natural sphingosine, dihydrosphingosine, phytosphingosine, sphingadienine, dehydrosphingosine, and dehydrophytosphingosine and N-alkyl derivatives (N-methyl derivatives) thereof. As these sphingosines, natural (D(+) form) optically active derivatives, unnatural (L(−) form) optically active derivatives or a mixture thereof may be used. The relative configuration of these compounds may be any one of the configuration of a natural form, that of an unnatural form and that of their mixture. Moreover, PHYTOSPHINGOSINE (listed in INCI; 8th Edition) and those represented by the below-described formulas are preferred. They may be an extract from natural sphingosine or a synthesized product thereof. A commercially available one can also be used. Examples of the commercially available natural type sphingosine include D-Sphingosine (4-Sphingenine) (product of SIGMA-ALDRICH), DS-phytosphingosine (product of DOOSAN) and phytosphingosine (product of Cosmo Ferm). (II) Pseudo type sphingosines represented by the following formula (4) (wherein, R17 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C10-22 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group; X4 represents a hydrogen atom, an acetyl group or a glyceryl group; R2 each independently represents a hydrogen atom or an amidino group, or a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total and optionally having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy and acetoxy groups, and a stands for 2 or 3). As R17, iso-branched alkyl groups having 14 to 20 carbon atoms are preferred, with an isostearyl group being more preferred. Still more preferred is an isostearyl group available by using as a raw material oil an isostearyl alcohol derived from a by-product of a dimer acid preparation using a fatty acid derived from an animal or plant oil. When a stands for 2, R2 means R18 or R19, while when a stands for 3, R2 means R18, R19 or R20. Examples of R18, R19 or R20 include a hydrogen atom; linear or branched alkyl groups such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, 2-ethylhexyl and isopropyl; alkenyl groups such as vinyl and allyl; an amidino group; and alkyl groups having 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total and having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy and alkoxy groups, such as hydroxymethyl, 2-hydroxyethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2-hydroxyethyl, 2-hydroxypropyl, 2,3-dihydroxypropyl, 2-hydroxy-3-methoxypropyl, 2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexyl, 1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl, 2-(2-hydroxyethoxy)ethyl, 2-methoxyethyl, 1-methyl-2-hydroxyethyl, 3-hydroxypropyl, 3-methoxypropyl, and 1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)-2-hydroxyethyl. A secondary amine having as either R18 or R19 a hydrogen atom and as the other one a 2-hydroxyethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2-hydroxyethyl, 1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl or 2-(2-hydroxyethoxy)ethyl group is still more preferred. As the pseudo type sphingosine, that having as R17 an isostearyl group, as X4 a hydrogen atom, R18 a hydrogen atom, and as R19 an alkyl group having 1 to 3 substituents selected from hydroxyl and hydroxyalkoxy groups, such as 2-hydroxyethyl, 1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2-hydroxyethyl or 2-(2-hydroxyethoxy)ethyl group is preferred. The following pseudo type sphingosines (i) to (iv) are specific examples of the pseudo type sphingosine. As Component (A), two or more compounds may be used in combination. The content of Component (A) in the composition of the present invention is preferably from 0.001 to 10 weight %, more preferably from 0.005 to 3 weight %, still more preferably from 0.01 to 3 weight %. The fatty acid as Component (B) to be used in the present invention forms its salt with the amine group of the sphingosine by acid-base neutralization and the sphingosine cationized by this reaction acquires a function as an activator. The salt of the sphingosine can be determined by infrared absorption spectroscopy or proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy which has conventionally been used for identification of the structure of a compound. The chain length of the fatty acid is selected, based on the kind of oil components to be emulsified, and viscosity of the emulsified composition. For example, a stable emulsion state can be attained by using a short chain fatty acid when a relatively low viscous emulsified composition in the milky liquid form is prepared; and by using a long chain fatty acid when a highly viscous emulsified composition in the cream form is prepared. The fatty acid as Component (B) has from 6 to 30 carbon atoms. In view of the stability and feeling upon use of the emulsified composition, saturated or unsaturated C8-22 fatty acids are more preferred. When a C6-30 fatty acid is used, a stable water-in-oil emulsified composition is available even if the oil component is composed of plural ones. Specific examples include saturated fatty acids such as caproic acid, caprylic acid, capric acid, lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, eicosanoic acid and docosanoic acid, and unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, ricinoleic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexanoeic acid. Of these, saturated C12-18 fatty acids are preferred from the viewpoint of good feeling to skin upon use, with myristic acid and palmitic acid being more preferred. As Component (B), two or more fatty acids may be used in combination. The content of Component (B) in the composition of the present invention preferably ranges from 0.001 to 10 weight %, more preferably from 0.005 to 6 weight %, still more preferably from 0.01 to 3 weight %. Component (B) is added to cationize the amine group of the sphingosine preferably (A) in an amount of at least 0.3 mole per mole of Component (A). For improvement of the emulsifying property, addition of from 0.3 to 5 moles is more preferred, with addition of from 0.5 to 3 moles being still more preferred. As the oil component (C) to be used in the present invention, a synthetic or natural oil component which is ordinarily employed for cosmetics, and preferably is in the solid, semi-solid or liquid form at 25° C. can be added. The oil component forms a continuous phase in the emulsified composition. From the viewpoint of emulsion stability with the passage of time, an oil component composed mainly of a nonpolar liquid oil is preferred. Examples of the non-polar liquid oil (25° C.) include plant oils such as jojoba oil; animal oils such as liquid lanolin; hydrocarbon oils such as liquid paraffin and squalane; silicone oils such as dimethylpolysiloxane, dimethylcyclopolysiloxane, methylphenylpolysiloxane, methylhydrogenpolysiloxane, and higher alcohol modified organopolysiloxane; and fluorine oils such as fluoropolyether and perfluoroalkyl ether silicone. The content of the nonpolar oil is preferably 50 weight % or more, more preferably 70 weight % or more, still more preferably 90 weight % or more in the whole oil component. Examples of the liquid oil component other than the nonpolar oil include fatty acid esters such as diisostearyl malate, octyldodecyl lactate, isotridecyl isononanoate, isopropyl isostearate and octyldodecyl myristate; ester oils made of a fatty acid and an alcohol such as neopentyl glycol dicaprate; and ester oils such as amino acid derivatives. Examples of the solid or semi-solid oil component include plant oils such as jojoba wax; alkyl glyceryl ethers such as glycerin monostearyl ether and glycerin monocetyl ether; waxes such as petrolatum, lanolin, ceresin, microcrystalline wax, carnauba wax and candelilla wax; and intercellular lipids such as ceramides or derivatives thereof, cholesterol or derivatives thereof, and C12-18 fatty acids. In the present invention, addition of an intercellular lipid such as a ceramide or derivative thereof, cholesterol or derivative thereof, or C12-18 fatty acid as the oil component is preferred in consideration of the feeling when the emulsified composition is applied to the skin. As the ceramide or derivative thereof, the addition of a ceramide represented by the following formula (2) is preferred. (wherein, R7 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C4-30 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl, carbonyl or amino group, or a hydrogen atom; Z represents a methylene group, a methine group or an oxygen atom; X5, X6 and X7 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group or an acetoxy group, X4 represents a hydrogen atom, an acetyl group or a glyceryl group, or forms an oxo group together with the adjacent oxygen atom (with the proviso that when Z represents a methine group, either one of X5 and X6 represents a hydrogen atom and the other one does not exist and when X4 forms an oxo group, X7 does not exist); R8 and R9 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group, a hydroxymethyl group or an acetoxymethyl group; R10 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C5-60 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl, carbonyl or amino group and may have an ether bond, ester bond or amide bond in the main chain; R11 represents a hydrogen atom, or a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon group having 1 to 30 carbon atoms in total and optionally having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy and acetoxy groups (with the proviso that when R7 represents a hydrogen atom and Z represents an oxygen atom, R11 represents a hydrocarbon group having 10 to 30 carbon atoms in total and when R7 represents a hydrocarbon group, R11 represents a hydrocarbon group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total); and a dashed line indicates a saturated bond or unsaturated bond). In the formula, R7 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C4-30 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl, carbonyl or amino group, preferably a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C7-22 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group, or a hydrogen atom. Z represents a methylene group, a methine group or an oxygen atom. X5, X6 and X7 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group or an acetoxy group. It is preferred that at most one of X5, X6 and X7 represents a hydroxyl group and the remaining two represents a hydrogen atom. When Z represents a methine group, either X5 or X6 represents a hydrogen atom and the other one does not exist. X4 is preferably a hydrogen atom or a glyceryl group. R8 and R9 each represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group, a hydroxymethyl group or an acetoxymethyl group. R8 preferably represents a hydrogen atom or a hydroxymethyl group, while R9 preferably represents a hydrogen atom. R10 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C5-60 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl, carboxy or amino group and may have an ether bond, ester bond or amide bond in its main chain. R10 preferably represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C5-35 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl or amino group, or the above-described hydrocarbon group having, to the ω position thereof, a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C8-22 fatty acid, which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group, ester-bound or amide-bound. As the fatty acid to be bound, isostearic acid, 12-hydroxystearic acid or linoleic acid is preferred. R11 represents a hydrogen atom, or a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon group having 1 to 30 carbon atoms in total and optionally having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy and acetoxy groups. When R7 represents a hydrogen atom and Z represents an oxygen atom, R11 is a hydrocarbon group having 10 to 30 carbon atoms in total. When R7 represents a hydrocarbon group, R11 represents a hydrocarbon group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total. Of these, a hydrogen atom and hydrocarbon groups which have 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total and may have 1 to 3 substituents selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy and alkoxy groups are preferred. As the hydroxyalkoxy and alkoxy groups, those having 1 to 7 carbon atoms are preferred. As the ceramide represented by formula (2), those represented by the following formula (5) or (6) are preferred. (I) Natural or natural type ceramide, or derivative thereof represented by formula (5) (which will hereinafter be called “natural type ceramide”) (wherein, R21 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C7-19 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group; Z1 represents a methylene or methine group; X12, X13 and X14 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group or an acetoxy group; X15 represents a hydrogen atom or forms an oxo group together with the adjacent oxygen atom (with the proviso that when Z1 represents a methine group, either X12 or X13 represents a hydrogen atom and the other one does not exist, and when X15 represents an oxo group, X14 does not exist); R22 represents a hydroxymethyl or acetoxymethyl group; R represents a hydrogen atom or a C1-4 alkyl group; R24 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C5-30 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group, or the above-described hydrocarbon group having, to the ω position thereof, a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated C8-22 fatty acid, which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group, ester-bound; and a dashed line indicates a possible unsaturated bond). Preferred are compounds having as R21 a linear C7-19, more preferably C13-15 alkyl group, and as R24 a linear C9-27 alkyl group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group or a linear C9-27 alkyl group having linoleic acid ester-bound thereto. X15 preferably represents, a hydrogen atom or forms an oxo group, together with an oxygen atom. As R24, a tricosyl group, a 1-hydroxypentadecyl group, a 1-hydroxytricosyl group, a heptadecyl group, a 1-hydroxyundecyl group or a nonacosyl group having linoleic acid ester-bound to the ω position thereof is preferred. Specific examples of the natural type ceramides include Ceramide Types 1 to 7 obtained by amidation of sphingosine, dihydrosphingosine, phytosphingosine or sphingadienine (for example, FIG. 2 of J. Lipid Res., 24: 759 (1983), and pig and human ceramides as described in FIG. 4 of J. Lipid Res., 35: 2069 (1994)). The N-alkyl derivatives (for example, N-methyl derivative) of these ceramides are also included. As these ceramides, natural (D(−) form) optically active derivatives, unnatural (L(+) form) optically active derivatives or a mixture thereof may be used. The relative configuration of these compounds may be any one of the configuration of a natural form, that of an unnatural form and that of their mixture. More preferred ones are compounds such as CERAMIDE 1, CERAMIDE 2, CERAMIDE 3, CERMIDE 5, and CERAMIDE 6II (listed in INCI, 8th Edition) and those represented by the following formulas. They may be either compounds extracted from natural ceramides or synthesized ones thereof. Commercially available ones are also usable. Examples of the commercially available natural type ceramides include Ceramide I, Ceramide III, Ceramide IIIA, Ceramide IIIB, Ceramide IIIC, and Ceramide VI (each, product of Cosmo Ferm), Ceramide TIC-001 (product of Takasago International Corp.), CERAMIDE II (product of Quest International), DS-Ceramide VI, DS-CLA-Phytoceramide, C6-Phytoceramide and DS-ceramide Y3S (product of DOOSAN), and CERAMIDE 2 (product of Sederma). (II) Pseudo type ceramides represented by the following formula (6) (wherein, R25 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C10-22 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group, or a hydrogen atom; X16 represents a hydrogen atom, an acetyl group or a glyceryl group; R26 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C5-22 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl or amino group, or the above-described hydrocarbon group having, to the ω position thereof, a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated C8-22 fatty acid, which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group, ester-bound; and R27 represents a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group which has 1 to 30 carbon atoms in total and may have been substituted by a hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy or acetoxy group). Preferred as R26 are a nonyl group, a tridecyl group, a pentadecyl group, an undecyl group having linoleic acid ester-bound to the ω position thereof, a pentadecyl group having linoleic acid ester-bound to the ω position thereof, a pentadecyl group having 12-hydroxystearic acid ester-bound to the ω position thereof, and an undecyl group having methyl-branched isostearic acid amide-bound to the ω position thereof. R27 is preferably an alkyl group which has 10 to 30, preferably 12 to 20 carbon atoms in total, and may be substituted by a hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy or acetoxy group when R25 represents a hydrogen atom; or a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group which has 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total and may be substituted by a hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy or acetoxy group when R25 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C10-22 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl group. The hydroxyalkoxy or alkoxy group as R27 preferably has 1 to 7 carbon atoms. As the pseudo type ceramide of formula (6), those having as R25 a hexadecyl group, as X16 a hydrogen atom, as R26 a pentadecyl group, and as R27 a hydroxyethyl group; those having as R25 a hexadecyl group, as X16 a hydrogen atom, as R26 a nonyl group, and as R27 a hydroxyethyl group; or those having as R25 a hexadecyl group, as X16 a glyceryl group, as R26 a tridecyl group, and as R27 a 3-methoxypropyl group are preferred, with those of formula (6) having as R25 a hexadecyl group, as X16 a hydrogen atom, as R26 a pentadecyl group, and as R27 a hydroxyethyl group being more preferred. The ceramide is added preferably in an amount of from 0.0001 to 50 weight %, preferably from 0.01 to 20 weight %, more preferably from 0.01 to 15 weight % in the oil component. As Component (C), two or more of these ceramides may be used in combination. The content of Component (C) in the composition of the present invention is preferably from 20 to 99 weight %, more preferably from 30 to 93 weight %, still more preferably from 40 to 85 weight %. The amount of water contained in the water-in-oil emulsified composition of the present invention is preferably from 1 to 80 weight %, more preferably from 7 to 70 weight %, still more preferably from 15 to 60 weight %, in the whole composition. In the water-in-oil emulsified cosmetic composition of the present invention, it is possible to incorporate other components ordinarily employed for cosmetic compositions, for example, a humectant such as 1,3-butylene glycol, propylene glycol, dipropylene glycol, glycerin, diglycerin, sorbitol, maltitol, polyethylene glycol, glycine betaine, xylitol, trehalose, urea or amino acid; a water soluble thickener such as xanthan gum, hydroxyethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose or hydroxypropyl guar gum; a medicinal component such as allantoin or tocopherol acetate; an organic powder such as cellulose powder, nylon powder, crosslinked silicone powder, crosslinked methylpolysiloxane, porous cellulose powder, or porous nylon powder; an inorganic powder such as silica anhydride, zinc oxide or titanium oxide; cool-feel imparting agent such as menthol or camphor; pH buffer, antioxidant, ultraviolet absorber, antiseptic, perfume, bactericide or colorant. The water-in-oil emulsified composition can be prepared by dissolving Components (A) to (C) under heat, adding water to the resulting solution and then, emulsifying the mixture. The water-in-oil emulsified composition of the present invention can be used as a cosmetic or pharmaceutical. Upon use as a cosmetic, cosmetic emulsion, cream, foundation or hair cream is preferred, with a cosmetic cream being more preferred. EXAMPLES Examples 1 to 8, Comparative Examples 1 to 4 The water-in-oil emulsified compositions having the composition as shown in Tables 1 and 2 were prepared by the below-described process. The resulting emulsified compositions were evaluated for stability and feeling upon use (ease of spreading, non-stickiness). The results are shown collectively in Tables 1 and 2. (Preparation Process) Oil phase components (Components (A) to (C), etc.) were stirred under heat at 80 to 90° C. to dissolve. An aqueous phase component was then added to the resulting solution while stirring the mixture uniformly. After further stirring, the reaction mixture was cooled to obtain a water-in-oil emulsified composition. (Evaluation Method) (1) Stability: Each emulsified composition was allowed to stand for 1 week under three conditions, that is, 50° C., room temperature (25° C.) and −5° C. and evaluated visually for its appearance in accordance with the below-described criteria. A: Neither emulsion separation nor change in appearance is recognized. B: Emulsion separation is not recognized, but there is a little change in appearance. C: Both emulsion separation and a great change in appearance are recognized. 2) Feeling Upon Use “Ease of spreading” and “non-stickiness” of each emulsified composition upon use were organoleptically evaluated by a panel of 10 experts and rated in accordance with the following criteria. A: At least nine experts rated it as favorable (good). B: Seven to Eight experts rated it as favorable (good). C: Six or less experts rated it as favorable (good). TABLE 1 Example Comp. Ex. Component (weight %) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 A (1) Pseudo type sphingosine (ii) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 (2) Sphingosine 0.2 B (3) Lauric acid 0.3 (4) Myristic acid 0.3 0.3 (5) Palmitic acid 0.25 (6) Stearic acid 0.3 (7) Butyric acid 0.3 C (8) Pseudo type ceramide *1 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 (9) Squalane 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 (10) Dimethylpolysiloxane (6cs) 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 (11) Dimethylcyclopolysiloxane 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 (D5) (12) Isostearyl glyceryl ether 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 (13) Triisostearic acid 1..5 polyoxyethylene hydrogenated castor oil (15 E.O.) Aqueous (14) Glycerin 17.0 17.0 17.0 17.0 17.0 17.0 phase (15) 1,3-Butylene glycol 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 (16) Purified water Balance Balance Balance Balance Balance Balance Balance Evaluation Stability: 50° C. A A A A A C B : 25° C. A A A A A C B : −5° C. A A A A A C B Feeling upon use: ease of spreading A A A A A B C Non-stickiness A A A A A B C *1: Pseudo type ceramide of formula (6) in which R25 represents a hexadecyl group, X16 represents a hydrogen atom, R26 represents a pentadecyl group and R27 represents a hydroxyethyl group. TABLE 2 Example Comp. Ex. Component (weight %) 6 7 8 3 4 A (1) Pseudo sphingosine (ii) 2.0 1.0 1.0 (2) Sphingosine 1.0 B (3) Myristic acid 1.5 1.5 (4) Palmitic acid 3.0 1.5 C (5) Pseudo type ceramide *1 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 (6) Squalane 33.0 33.0 33.0 33.0 33.0 (7) Dimethylpolysiloxane (6cs) 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 (8) Dimethylcyclopolysiloxane (D5) 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 (9) Dextrin palmitate 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 (10) Paraffin 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Aqueous (11) Glycerin 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 phase (12) 1,3-Butylene glycol 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 (13) Purified water Balance Balance Balance Balance Balance Evaluation Stability: 50° C. B A A C C : 25° C. B A A C C : −5° C. B A A C C Feeling upon use: Ease of spreading B B B B C Non-stickiness B B B B C Example 9 Cream The cream having the composition as shown in Table 3 was prepared in the below-described process. The resulting cream had good stability and a good feeling to the skin upon use (ease of spreading, nonstickiness). (Preparation Process) Components (1) to (7) are dissolved at 80° C., followed by stirring uniformly to prepare an oil phase. Components (8) to (11) are dissolved at 80° C., followed by stirring uniformly to prepare an aqueous phase. The aqueous phase is added to the oil phase and the mixture is stirred uniformly at 80° C. The reaction mixture is then cooled to room temperature, whereby a cream is obtained. TABLE 3 (Component) (weight %) (1) Pseudo type ceramide *1 7.0 (2) Pseudo type sphingosine 0.2 (3) Myristic acid 0.3 (4) Dextrin palmitate 1.0 (5) Squalane 9.0 (6) Dimethylpolysiloxane (6 cs) 10.0 (7) Dimethylcyclopolysiloxane (D5) 10.0 (8) Methylparaben 0.2 (9) Glycerin 16.0 (10) 1,3-Butylene glycol 3.0 (11) Purified water Balance Total 100 Example 10 Cream The cream having the composition as shown in Table 4 was prepared in the below-described process. The cream thus obtained had good stability and a good feeling to the skin upon use (ease of spreading, nonstickiness). (Preparation Process) Components (1) to (9) are dissolved at 80° C., followed by stirring uniformly to prepare an oil phase. Components (10) to (13) are dissolved at 80° C., followed by stirring uniformly to prepare an aqueous phase. The aqueous phase is added to the oil phase and the mixture is stirred uniformly at 80° C. Components (14) to (16) are added while cooling the reaction mixture to room temperature, whereby a cream is obtained. TABLE 4 (Component) (weight %) (1) Pseudo type ceramide *1 7.0 (2) Pseudo type sphingosine 0.2 (3) Myristic acid 0.25 (4) Dextrin palmitate 2.0 (5) Squalane 13.0 (6) Dimethylpolysiloxane (6 cs) 14.0 (7) Dimethylpolysiloxane (10 cs) 5.0 (8) Methylpolysiloxane.crosslinked 1.25 Methylpolysiloxane mixture (9) Paraffin 0.5 (10) Extract of Thujopsis dolabrata 1.0 (11) Eucalyptus extract 1.0 (12) Extract of Fucales fucus 1.0 (13) Methylparaben 0.2 (9) Glycerin 16.0 (10) 1,3-Butylene glycol 3.0 (11) Purified water Balance Total 100 Example 11 Cream The cream having the composition as shown in Table 5 was prepared in the below-described process. The resulting cream had good stability and a good feeling to the skin upon use (ease of spreading, nonstickiness). (Preparation Process) Components (1) to (9) are dissolved at 80° C., followed by stirring uniformly to prepare an oil phase. Components (10) to (13) are dissolved at 80° C., followed by stirring uniformly to prepare an aqueous phase. The aqueous phase is added to the oil phase and the mixture is stirred uniformly at 80° C. The reaction mixture is then cooled to room temperature, whereby a cream is obtained. TABLE 5 (Component) (weight %) (1) Ceramide 2 5.0 (2) Ceramide 3 0.5 (3) Ceramide 6 0.5 (4) Phytosphingosine 0.2 (5) Myristic acid 0.3 (6) Dextrin palmitate 2.0 (7) Squalane 9.0 (8) Dimethylpolysiloxane (6cs) 10.0 (9) Dimethylcyclopolysiloxane (D5) 10.0 (10) Methylparaben 0.2 (11) Glycerin 16.0 (12) 1,3-Butylene glycol 3.0 (13) Purified water Balance Total 100 The water-in-oil emulsified composition of the present invention has excellent stability and provides a good feeling to the skin upon use. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Water-in-oil emulsified compositions have good affinity with the skin. In addition, they prevent moisture loss from the skin by forming a film on the skin surface, so that they can protect the skin from drying or give treatment effects to the skin. Owing to such characteristics, they are used extensively for cosmetic compositions. In particular, incorporation of a highly viscous oil agent or a solid one as an oil component in the compositions heightens their skin protecting effects, but is accompanied with a defect such as a sticky feeling upon use. It is a common practice to increase the water content, use a silicone oil as an oil agent or use powder capable of giving a refreshing feeling upon use in order to provide a refreshing sensation without losing the properties of water-in-oil emulsified compositions. When an oil component containing a solid lipid or an oil agent having a particularly high viscosity is emulsified, however, such a measure is not preferred, because it limits the kinds of surfactants to be used as an emulsifier, or requires a large amount of a surfactant, leading to impairment of the affinity with the skin or sometimes causing irritation to the skin. Moreover, such a highly viscous oil agent becomes a cause for disturbing emulsification in a mixture system intended to give a refreshing feeling by increasing the water content or adding a silicone oil. Various investigations have been made to obtain a water-in-oil emulsified composition providing a good feeling to skin and having high stability in a water-rich system. For example, in Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. Hei 10-139651, described is a water-in-oil emulsified cosmetic composition obtained by emulsifying an amide compound having a melting point of from 0 to 50° C. with a nonionic surfactant having an HLB less than 8. It however cannot attain both a good feeling to skin and a stable emulsion. In Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2000-191496, described is a cosmetic composition having a salt made of a sphingosine and a C 1-17 organic acid and having a melting point not greater than that of the sphingosine. Here, in order to improve the miscibility with a highly crystallizable sphingosine, a C 1-17 organic acid is added to covert the sphingosine into the corresponding cationic salt. This lowers its melting point and facilitates the incorporation of the sphingosine in cosmetic compositions. When the sphingosine salt thus having a reduced melting point is incorporated as a component of an emulsified composition, however, a surfactant must be added to emulsify the salt, so that the resulting composition is not satisfactory from the viewpoint of attaining both good feeling to skin upon use and stability. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In the present invention, there is provided a water-in-oil emulsified composition containing the following components (A), (B) and (C): (A) a sphingosine represented by formula (1): (wherein, R 1 represents a linear, branched or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated C 4-30 hydrocarbon group which may be substituted by a hydroxyl, carbonyl or amino group; Y represents a methylene group, a methine group or an oxygen atom; X 1 , X 2 and X 3 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group or an acetoxy group, X 4 represents a hydrogen atom, an acetyl group or a glyceryl group or forms an oxo group together with the adjacent oxygen atom (with the proviso that when Y represents a methine group, either one of X 1 and X 2 represents a hydrogen atom and the other one does not exist and when X 4 forms an oxo group, X 3 does not exist); R 2 and R 3 each independently represents a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group, a hydroxymethyl group or an acetoxymethyl group; R each independently represents a hydrogen atom or an amidino group, or a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms in total and optionally having a substituent selected from hydroxyl, hydroxyalkoxy, alkoxy and acetoxy groups; a stands for 2 or 3; and a dashed line indicates a saturated bond or unsaturated bond), (B) a C 6-30 fatty acid; and (C) an oil component. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20040609 | 20120515 | 20050728 | 73902.0 | 0 | CHUI, MEI PING | WATER-IN-OIL EMULSIFIED COMPOSITION | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,863,523 | ACCEPTED | Steerable telescoping conveyor for loading parcels | An extendable and retractable telescoping conveyor conveys parcels from a supply source to the interior of a freight trailer or other load body. The conveyor includes a pair of elongated conveyor sections which are oriented in overlying relation when in retracted position. The lower conveyor section is extended longitudinally in relation to the upper conveyor section when in an extended position. Each conveyor section includes a declining conveyor structure extending from an elevated infeed end to a lower discharge end with each conveyor structure including a plurality of closely spaced, transversely extending parallel undriven rollers for movement of parcels or other items or materials by gravity throughout the length of the conveyor sections when the conveyor sections are in extended on partially extended relation. | 1. A conveyor for transferring movable items from a supply source into a load carrying body, said conveyor comprising an upper longitudinally elongated conveyor section and a lower longitudinally elongated conveyor section, each of said conveyor sections including a conveying surface from an infeed end to a discharge end, said conveying surface on said upper conveyor section being disposed at an elevation higher than the conveying surface on said lower conveyor surface, said lower conveyor section underlying said upper conveyor section when said conveyor sections are in retracted position, said conveyor sections being movable longitudinally in relation to each other to extend and retract said conveyor sections in relation to each other, a guide structure interconnecting said conveyor sections to retain said conveyor sections generally in alignment during longitudinal movement thereof, at least one of said conveyor sections including a powered supporting structure to move said conveyor sections longitudinally between an extended position to form a continuous conveying surface and a retracted position with the lower conveyor section underlying said upper conveyor section to reduce the length of said conveyor when retracted to about one half of the length of the conveyor when in extended position. 2. The conveyor as claimed in claim 1 wherein said conveyor includes a transition conveyor section extending between a discharge and of said upper conveyor section and an infeed end of said lower conveyor section to provide a continuous conveying surface from an infeed end of said upper conveyor section to a discharge end of said lower conveyor section when said conveyor sections are in extended position. 3. The conveyor as claimed in claim 1 wherein said lower conveyor section includes a steerable support structure at a discharge end thereof to enable the discharge end of said lower conveyor section to be selectively oriented with respect to a load body to facilitate loading items into selected position in a load body. 4. The conveyor as claimed in claim 1 wherein each of said conveyor sections include a declining conveying surface having a higher infeed end and a lower discharge end with the discharge end of the conveying surface on said upper conveyor section overlying an infeed end of said lower conveyor section. 5. The conveyor as claimed in claim 1 wherein said powered supporting structure is a wheeled structure underlying and supporting an infeed end of said lower conveyor section, a motor driving said wheeled structure to extend and retract said lower conveyor section in relation to said upper conveyor section. 6. The conveyor as claimed in claim 1 wherein said upper conveyor section includes a wheeled supporting structure supporting an infeed end thereof to enable movement of said conveyor when in retracted and extended positions. 7. The conveyor as claimed in claim 1 wherein said conveying surface on each of said conveyor sections includes a plurality of transversely extending closely spaced rollers forming said conveying surfaces. 8. The conveyor as claimed in claim 2 wherein said lower conveyor section includes a steerable support structure at a discharge end thereof to enable the discharge end of said lower conveyor section to be selectively oriented with respect to a load body to facilitate loading items into selected position in a load body. 9. The conveyor as claimed in claim 3 where each of said conveyor sections includes a declining conveying surface having a higher infeed end and a lower discharge end with the discharge end of the conveying surface on said upper conveyor section overlying an infeed end of said lower conveyor section. 10. The conveyor as claimed in claim 4 wherein said powered supporting structure is a wheeled structure underlying and supporting an infeed end of said lower conveyor section, a motor driving said wheeled structure to extend and retract said lower conveyor section in relation to said upper conveyor section. 11. The conveyor as claimed in claim 5 wherein said upper conveyor section includes a wheeled supporting structure supporting an infeed end thereof to enable movement of said conveyor when in retracted and extended positions. 12. The conveyor as claimed in claim 6 wherein said conveying surface on each of said conveyor sections includes a plurality of transversely extending closely spaced rollers forming said conveying surfaces. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims priority from and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/505,727, filed on Sep. 24, 2003 for: TL230 Extendible Telescoping Conveyor For Loading Parcels Onto Freight Trailer. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to an extendable and retractable telescoping conveyor especially useful in, but not limited to, the conveying of parcels from a supply source, such as a storage or distribution facility, into the interior of a freight trailer or other load body, such as a semi-trailer forming part of an over the road delivery system. More specifically, the present invention relates to a telescoping conveyor in which a pair of elongated conveyor sections are oriented in overlying relation when in retracted position, and the lower conveyor section extends longitudinally in relation to the upper conveyor section when in an extended position. Each conveyor section includes a declining conveyor structure extending from an elevated infeed end to a discharge end with each conveyor structure including a plurality of closely spaced, transversely extending parallel undriven rollers for movement of parcels or other items or materials by gravity throughout the length of the conveyor sections when the conveyor sections are in extended or retracted position. 2. Description of the Prior Art Conveyors of various types are well known for conveying articles or materials from a supply point to a discharge point with such conveyors including declining roller conveyor assemblies which utilize the force of gravity to move parcels or other items from an elevated supply source to a lower delivery point. Such conveyors frequently are used to convey parcels or other items to a mobile load body that is backed up to a loading dock with the conveyor structures delivering the parcels to the open rearward end of the load body. Thus, the parcels have to be manually moved or otherwise carried to the front end of the load body which may be as long as 50 feet. In addition, the loading dock associated with conveyor systems in a warehouse, storage facility or distribution center also may be of considerable width. Accordingly, fixed length conveyor structures do not function effectively to deliver parcels or other items into the front area of a load body. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The conveyor of the present invention includes a first upper and a second lower conveyor section which are elongated longitudinally and are telescopically extendable and retractable longitudinally with respect to each other. The upper conveyor section is configured to enable the lower conveyor section to be positioned in underlying relation to the upper conveyor section when the conveyor sections are in retracted position. The lower conveyor section can be longitudinally extended to a position forming a longitudinal extension of the upper conveyor section when the conveyor sections are in extended position. Each conveyor section includes a conveying surface defined by a plurality of transversely extending rotatable rollers oriented in adjacent relation to form a conveying surface for parcels or the like. Movement of the lower conveyor section between retracted and extended positions is provided by a motor driven wheeled support structure at the infeed end of the lower conveyor section which will move the lower conveyor section longitudinally in relation to the upper conveyor section to provide a continuation of the upper conveyor section. A relatively short transition roller conveyor connects the discharge end of the conveying surface of the conveyor section to the infeed end of the conveying surface of the lower conveyor section to guide parcels or other items from the upper conveyor section to the lower conveyor section. The transition roller conveyor section also includes side guide members supporting a plurality of narrow rollers which rotate about generally vertical axes to assure movement of parcels or other items from the upper conveyor section onto the lower conveyor section. The rollers forming the conveying surfaces are undriven and the conveying sections are oriented in a manner to provide a continuous declining conveying surface from the infeed end of the upper conveyor section to the discharge end of the lower conveyor section. To provide gravity flow of parcels or other articles along the conveying surfaces. The discharge end of the lower conveyor section includes a steering assembly to enable the discharge end of the conveyor to be located within a load body even though the load body may be slightly misaligned in relation to the conveyor. This steering capability enables parcels or other items to be discharged within the load body and adjacent a forward end thereof to facilitate discharge of parcels adjacent a forward end of the load body to reduce handling of parcels or other items being placed in the load body. The discharge end of the lower conveyor section also preferably includes a safety disabling assembly to stop the drive motor on the lower conveyor section when contact is made with an obstruction in the load body to eliminate the possibility of injury to personnel that may be located in the load body as well as damage to parcels or other items already stored in the load body. Typically, the conveyor sections of the present invention may have a length of approximately 30 feet. Hence, the overall length of the conveyor when in retracted position is approximately 30 feet, and the overall length of the conveyor surface when the conveyor is in the extended position is approximately 60 feet. This extension enables the discharge end of the lower conveyor section and in some instances, the upper conveyor section to be extended substantially into the load body toward the forward end of the load body to facilitate loading parcels into the load body starting at the forward end thereof. The discharge end of the lower conveyor section includes a steering assembly which enables the discharge end of the conveyor to be guided into alignment with a load body which is not in alignment with the conveyor which may occur when the load body is positioned adjacent a loading dock. Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide a telescoping conveyor including telescopic conveyor sections which can be extended into a load body and retracted with the conveyor sections being withdrawn from the load body. Another object of the present invention is to provide a conveyor in accordance with the preceding object in which each conveyor section includes a declining conveyor surface formed by undriven rollers for gravity movement of parcels or the like along the conveying surface of each of the conveying sections. A further object of the present invention is to provide a conveyor structure in which the conveyor sections are oriented in vertically nested relation when in retracted position and in end to end longitudinal relation when in fully extended position. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a sectional conveyor in which a lower conveyor section is provided with a driven support structure to extend the lower conveyor section and, in some instances, part of the upper conveyor section longitudinally into a load body to facilitate discharge of parcels or other items into a forward end portion of the load body. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a conveyor structure in accordance with the preceding objects in which the discharge end of the conveyor section that is extended into the load body is provided with a disabling safety structure to terminate extension of the conveyor sections in the event the discharge end of the conveyor section extended into a load body comes into contact with an obstruction. These together with other objects and advantages that will become subsequently apparent reside in the details of construction and operation as more fully hereinafter described and claimed, reference being had to the accompanying drawings forming a part hereof, wherein like numerals refer to like parts throughout. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The drawings serve to illustrate the present invention but are not intended to be drawn to scale. FIG. 1 is a schematic side elevational view of a conveyor in accordance with the present invention illustrating the conveyor in an operative, in-use, extended position in which the longitudinal conveyor sections are substantially in end to end alignment. FIG. 2 is a schematic side elevational view of the conveyor of FIG. 1 shown in retracted position in which the lower conveyor section is located in underlying relation to the upper conveyor section. FIG. 3 is an end elevational view of the infeed end of the conveyor of FIG. 1. FIG. 4 is an end elevational view illustrating the drive supporting unit for the lower conveyor section of the conveyor of FIG. 1. FIG. 5 is an end elevation view of the discharge end of the lower conveyor section of the conveyor of FIG. 1. FIG. 6 is a schematic top plan view of the discharge end of the lower conveyor section illustrating positions of the steering assembly in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 7 is a schematic side elevational view of the discharge end of the lower conveyor section illustrating specific details of the steering assembly in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 8 is a schematic side elevational view of the supporting wheel and wheel mounting bracket for the steering assembly illustrated in FIGS. 6 and 7. FIG. 9 is an end view of the wheel mounting structure illustrated in FIG. 8. FIG. 10 is an elevational view of the latch device associated with the steering control member at the forward end of the lower conveyor section in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 11 is an elevational view of the driven wheel support for the infeed end of the lower conveyor section in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 12 is a side elevational view of the structure illustrated in FIG. 11. FIG. 13 is a schematic detail view of the association of the discharge end of the upper conveyor section, the infeed end of the lower conveyor section and the transition conveyor section interconnecting the upper and lower conveyor sections of the conveyor of FIG. 1. FIG. 14 is a perspective view of the transition conveyor section illustrated in FIG. 13, but without the conveying rollers in place. FIG. 15 is a close-up perspective view of the transition conveyor section of FIG. 13, illustrating the guide rollers along each side of the transition conveyor section. FIG. 16 is a perspective view of the discharge end of the lower conveyor section of the conveyor of FIG. 1, illustrating the control handle for the steering assembly and a safety device limiting the forward movement of the conveyor sections. FIG. 17 is a side elevational view of the discharge end of the lower conveyor section of FIG. 16, illustrating further structural details of the safety device which limits forward movement of the conveyor sections. FIG. 18 is a detailed bottom view of the support structure for the limiting switch structure actuated by the movement limiting device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 19 is a detailed view illustrating the location of the limiting switch of the present invention, which is activated when the operating member for the limiting device engages an obstruction. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Although only one preferred embodiment of the invention is explained in detail, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its scope to the details of construction and arrangement of components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced or carried out in various ways. Also, in describing the preferred embodiment, specific terminology will be resorted to for the sake of clarity. It is to be understood that each specific term includes all technical equivalents which operate in a similar manner to accomplish a similar purpose. The extendable and retractable conveyor of the present invention is generally designated by reference numeral 30 and is illustrated in its entirety in FIGS. 1 and 2. FIG. 1 illustrates the conveyor 30 in an extended position, and FIG. 2 illustrates the conveyor 30 in a retracted position. The conveyor 30 includes an upper conveyor section, generally designated by reference numeral 32, and a lower conveyor section, generally designated by reference numeral 34, which extends longitudinally from the upper conveyor section 32 when extended, as illustrated in FIG. 1, and is oriented in generally underlying relation to the conveyor section 32 when retracted, as illustrated in FIG. 2. The upper conveyor section 32 includes a wheeled supporting structure, generally designated by reference numeral 36, at the upper or infeed end thereof. The lower conveyor section 34 includes a motor driven wheeled supporting structure, generally designated by reference numeral 38, at its upper or infeed end and a steerable wheeled supporting structure, generally designated by reference numeral 40, at its discharge end. The discharge end of the upper conveyor section 32 includes a transition conveyor section generally designated by reference numeral 42, connected to the upper conveyor section 32 at one end with the other end in overlying engagement with the infeed end of the lower conveyor section 34 to enable parcels or other items, articles, material being conveyed to move smoothly from the upper conveyor section 32 onto the lower conveyor section 34. The conveyor 30 constructed in accordance with the present invention is typically supported on a loading dock. The infeed end of the upper conveyor section 32 is then aligned with a conveyor system incorporated into a warehouse, distribution center or the like from which parcels are to be loaded into a load body, such as a box type truck body, a semi-trailer load body or the like, which is backed up to the loading dock. When the conveyor 30 is not in use and in a retracted position, as illustrated in FIG. 2, the discharge end of the lower conveyor section 34 does not extend beyond the loading dock and may be spaced inwardly from the edge of the loading dock to enable access doors which may be on the load body to be opened. When the load body doors are opened and the load body ready to be loaded, the conveyor 30 is extended so that a major portion of the length of the lower conveyor section 34 and possibly some or all of the upper conveyor section 32 extends into the load body. Thus, parcels being conveyed can be delivered to a point close to the forward end of the load body. As loading progresses, the lower conveyor section 34 may be telescoped under the upper conveyor section 32 thereby being moved rearwardly in the load body to continually deliver parcels or other articles to a position adjacent the loading area in the load body to reduce the time and effort normally used in loading parcels into a load body. A longitudinally elongated guide track, generally designated by reference numeral 44, of an upwardly open channel shaped configuration extends substantially throughout the length of the upper conveyor section 32. The track 44 is attached to the loading dock or floor by bolts 45 or the like and guides movement of the wheeled supporting structures 36 and 38. This arrangement maintains the infeed end of the upper conveyor section 32 in alignment with a point of delivery of parcels or other items to the conveyor 30 and the infeed end of the lower conveyor section 34 in alignment with the discharge end of the upper conveyor section 32 (see FIG. 1). As illustrated in FIGS. 3, 4 and 5, each of the wheeled supporting structures 36, 38 and 40 includes a depending guide pin or roller 46 affixed to the conveyor sections for guiding longitudinal movement of the conveyor sections. As illustrated in FIG. 2, the supporting structure 40 engages the guide channel 44 when the lower conveyor section 34 is in a retracted position. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the steerable wheeled supporting structure 40 exits from the guide track 44 when the lower conveyor section 34 is extended to enable an operator to manually adjust the steerable wheeled assembly 40 in order to adjust for misalignments of the load body with the discharge end of lower conveyor section 34. As illustrated in FIG. 3, the supporting structure 36 includes a pair of supporting wheels 48 oriented in transverse alignment and supported from the infeed end of the upper conveyor section 32 by a bracket structure 50. As illustrated in FIG. 4, the driven wheeled supporting structure 38 also includes a pair of supporting wheels 52 supported by bracket structures 54. The wheels 52 are driven by a reversible electric motor 56 through a gear box and axle assembly 58 to drive both wheels 52 at the same speed. The driven supporting structure 38 forms a structure for extending and retracting the conveyor section 34. The electric motor 56 is supplied electrical energy through a cable 61 with one end connected to a source of electrical energy and the other end connected to the motor 56 through a junction box 62. The cable 61 is suspended from a tensioned support cable 63 attached at its ends to the upper conveyor section 32 by movable slide rings 65 to allow cable 61 to extend and retract during extension and retraction of the lower conveyor section 34 from a retracted position shown in FIG. 2 to an extended condition shown in FIG. 1. When lower conveyor section 34 retracts, the cable 61 folds into a plurality of vertical folds or loops 60 (see FIG. 2). As illustrated in FIG. 5, the steerable supporting structure 40 also includes a pair of wheels 64 supported by bracket structures 66 and further includes a supporting plate 68 connected to the discharge end of the lower conveyor section 34 through a fifth wheel steerable assembly, generally designated by reference numeral 70. Each of the conveyor sections 32 and 34 include rigid, longitudinally extending frames 72 and 74 as indicated in FIGS. 1 and 2. Each of the frames includes a pair of side rails 76, such as channel shaped members with outwardly extending top and bottom flanges as illustrated in FIG. 5 with the rails 76 being rigidly interconnected by transverse frame members 78. The frame rails 76 also rotatably journal a plurality of cylindrical rollers 80 which are oriented in spaced parallel relation with the spatial relationship between adjacent rollers being relatively small so that the upper surfaces of the rollers define a conveying surface. As illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2, the rollers 80 in upper and lower conveying sections 32 and 34 define a declining conveying surface for gravity flow of parcels along the conveying surfaces by the force of gravity and the weight of the parcels being conveyed causing rotation of the rollers 80 in a well known manner. The transition conveyor section 42 functions to form a continuous conveying surface between the upper conveyor section 32 and the lower conveyor section 34 regardless of the extended or retracted position of the conveyor section 34. FIGS. 6-10 illustrate additional details of construction of the steerable supporting structure 40 at the discharge end of lower conveyor section 34. The plate 68 forms part of the fifth wheel assembly 70 and includes an extension plate 82 on plate 68 to which a forwardly extending steering tongue 84 is connected by a transverse pivot bolt 86. The forward end of the tongue 84 includes a steering control member 88 in the form of a cylindrical rod or tube that is slidably supported in the end of the tongue 84 by a sleeve type guide 90 attached to the forward end of the tongue 84. The control member 88 includes stop members 92 and 93 which limit the longitudinal movement of the control member 88. The forward end of the control member 88 extends through a latch plate 94 and support member 96 attached to the underside of a transverse plate 98 attached to side frame rails 76. FIG. 7 illustrates the control member 88 in its retracted position with the outer end generally aligned with the end of the side frame rails 76. The guide 90 permits the control member 88 to be extended beyond the frame rails 76 so that it forms a handle that can be manually grasped for pivoting steerable support structure including wheels 64 about the vertical axis formed by the fifth wheel assembly 70. The plate 94 or the support member 96 includes a transversely extending slot 99 as illustrated in FIG. 10 with three notches 100 formed in the bottom of the slot 99 for receiving the control member 88 in a selected notch to position the tongue 84 and control member 88 either in a central position or in one of two angular positions, one on each side of the central position. As illustrated in FIG. 6 and designated by reference numerals 88′ and 88″, an operator may grasp the control member 88 which forms a handle for the tongue 84 and pivot the supporting wheel structure to either of the angular positions by pivoting the support plate 82 and the wheels mounted thereon about a vertical axis defined by pivot 102 of the fifth wheel assembly 70. The horizontal pivot axis 86 enables the handle end of control member 88 to be elevated and moved into a selected notch 100 in the plate 96 mounted on the depending support plate 94. This allows an operator at the discharge end of the conveyor to adjust the conveyor section 34 and lock the fifth wheel steering assembly 70 either in a straight condition or angled to either side to adjust the discharge point of the lower conveyor section 34 in relation to a vehicle load body by adjusting for minor misalignment of the vehicle body with the conveyor when the vehicle load body is being backed into position against or adjacent the loading dock. As the lower conveyor section 34 is driven forward, it will either pull the upper conveyor section 32 with it or slide beneath the discharge end of the upper conveyor section 32. The pivotal movement of the steerable supporting structure 40, although limited in nature, is permitted because the pin or wheel 46 in the guide track 44 has exited the guide track 44 when the lower conveyor section 34 is extended. The fifth wheel steering assembly 70 for the wheel structure 40 includes a vertical shaft 103 interconnecting the support plate 68 (for the wheels 64 and wheel support brackets 66) and a plate 104 rigid with the forwardly extending plate 82 to which the forwardly extending tongue 84 is attached. The weight on the discharge end of the conveyor section 34 is supported by a plurality of rollers 106 each of which engages pathway 108 of limited extent in plate 68. This structure allows manual control of the angular position of the wheels structure 40 to enable limited steering movement for the discharge end of the conveyor section 34. FIGS. 8 and 9 illustrate details of construction of the support brackets 66 for the wheels 64. Brackets 66 include side plates 110 and forward and rear end plates 112 all of which are interconnected by a top plate 114 to support the wheels for rotation about a central axle 116. This structure substantially encloses the wheels 64 except for a lower portion thereof to reduce the possibility of the wheels 64 coming into contact with an operator steering the discharge end of the conveyor section 34. FIGS. 11 and 12 illustrate additional detail of the drive wheel supporting structure 34 in which a transverse frame member 55 interconnects the wheels 52, axle 53, drive motor 56 and gear box or transmission 58 to form a single rigid unit. The frame member 55 includes a pair of side support brackets 57 which extend upwardly for connection with the frame rails 76 in lower conveyor section 34. The brackets 57 include a series of vertically spaced apertures 59 which adjustably connect the wheel drive unit 58 to the frame 74 of the lower conveyor section 34. This unit forms the driving mechanism for extending and retracting the lower conveyor section 34 in relation to the upper conveyor section 32 and extends the discharge end of the conveyor section 34 into a load body, such as a truck or semi trailer body. FIGS. 13, 14 and 15 illustrate specific structural details of the transition conveyor section 42 which extends between the conveyor sections 32 and 34. The transition conveyor section 42 includes a pair of side members 117 attached to side edges of a transverse plate 118 which is inclined and provided with side frame members 119 which support undriven conveying rollers 120 therebetween. The transition conveyor section 42 declines downwardly from the conveyor section 32 and includes a pair of plates 121 at the end thereof to which the frame 119 is pivotally attached by a shaft 122. Shaft 122 also supports rollers 123 at each end which engage a top flange 124 on both of the frame rails 76 of the lower conveyor section 34. The two rollers 123 are mounted on shaft 122 and rest on upper flange 124 of frame rails 76 of frame 74. The transition conveyor section also includes a tapered ramp 123 at its exit end to provide a smooth transition onto the lower conveyor section 34. The plate 118 of the transition conveyor section 42 also pivots about the pivot shaft 122 to varying heights of the lower conveyor section as it extends and retracts. The two frames 72 and 74 which form the upper and lower conveyor sections are guided during relative longitudinal movement by two longitudinally extending guide strips 126 of suitable material, such as ultra high molecular weight plastic. The strips 126 are bolted to the outer surfaces of side members 117 of the transition plate 118 as illustrated in FIGS. 13-15. The guides strips 126 are sandwiched between the upper flange of the lower frame 74 and the outer side flanges on frame 72 of the upper conveyor section 32. This sandwich engagement of the flanges on the frame rails of the conveyor sections and the plastic guide strips 126 bolted onto the sides of the transition conveyor plate maintain alignment of the conveyor sections 32 and 34 when they are extended and retracted between the positions illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2. FIGS. 16, 17, 18 and 19 illustrate a safety device at the discharge end of the lower conveyor section 34 which disables forward movement of the lower conveyor section 34 when an obstruction is engaged while the conveyor section 34 is being extended. The safety device includes a transverse bumper stop 130 in the form of a transverse bar, pipe or the like positioned in generally parallel relation to an end frame member 79 on lower conveyor section 34. The stop member 130 being welded to a pair of upwardly extending brackets 132 pivotally supported at their upper ends to frame member 79 at 134. The bumper stop 130 includes actuator bars 136 which are pivotally connected to stop 130 and extend through frame 79 to connect with and move a limit switch 138 supported by a slotted guide 140 attached to the inner surface of frame 79. The switch 138 includes an actuator 142 extending between the rollers 80 so that when the actuator 142 engages a roller 80 as the limit switch 138 is moved towards the roller 80, the power to the motor 56 and the drive unit 38 will be terminated thereby preventing injury to personnel that may be positioned between the advancing discharge end of the conveyor section 34. Also, if the bumper bar 130 strikes an obstruction when advancing in the load body, such as previously loaded parcels, the advance of the conveyor section 34 will be stopped thereby preventing damage to a loaded parcel. FIG. 13 illustrates a hook shaped stop flange 33 on lower conveyor section 34 which engages a reduced area extension 35 on side members 117 on transition conveyor section 42 to prevent the lower conveyor 34 from exiting from the discharge end of conveyor section 32. Also, to prevent the wheeled structure 38 from engaging wheeled structure 36, a limit switch 63 mounted on junction box 62 is activated by the end of lower conveyor section 34 to limit retraction of the lower conveyor section 34. The motor 56 can be controlled by conventional switch structures either on the conveyor or controlled by a remote control unit. The foregoing is considered as illustrative only of the principles of the invention. Further, since numerous modifications and changes will readily occur to those skilled in the art, it is not desired to limit the invention to the exact construction and operation shown and described, and, accordingly, all suitable modifications and equivalents may be resorted to, falling within the scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to an extendable and retractable telescoping conveyor especially useful in, but not limited to, the conveying of parcels from a supply source, such as a storage or distribution facility, into the interior of a freight trailer or other load body, such as a semi-trailer forming part of an over the road delivery system. More specifically, the present invention relates to a telescoping conveyor in which a pair of elongated conveyor sections are oriented in overlying relation when in retracted position, and the lower conveyor section extends longitudinally in relation to the upper conveyor section when in an extended position. Each conveyor section includes a declining conveyor structure extending from an elevated infeed end to a discharge end with each conveyor structure including a plurality of closely spaced, transversely extending parallel undriven rollers for movement of parcels or other items or materials by gravity throughout the length of the conveyor sections when the conveyor sections are in extended or retracted position. 2. Description of the Prior Art Conveyors of various types are well known for conveying articles or materials from a supply point to a discharge point with such conveyors including declining roller conveyor assemblies which utilize the force of gravity to move parcels or other items from an elevated supply source to a lower delivery point. Such conveyors frequently are used to convey parcels or other items to a mobile load body that is backed up to a loading dock with the conveyor structures delivering the parcels to the open rearward end of the load body. Thus, the parcels have to be manually moved or otherwise carried to the front end of the load body which may be as long as 50 feet. In addition, the loading dock associated with conveyor systems in a warehouse, storage facility or distribution center also may be of considerable width. Accordingly, fixed length conveyor structures do not function effectively to deliver parcels or other items into the front area of a load body. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The conveyor of the present invention includes a first upper and a second lower conveyor section which are elongated longitudinally and are telescopically extendable and retractable longitudinally with respect to each other. The upper conveyor section is configured to enable the lower conveyor section to be positioned in underlying relation to the upper conveyor section when the conveyor sections are in retracted position. The lower conveyor section can be longitudinally extended to a position forming a longitudinal extension of the upper conveyor section when the conveyor sections are in extended position. Each conveyor section includes a conveying surface defined by a plurality of transversely extending rotatable rollers oriented in adjacent relation to form a conveying surface for parcels or the like. Movement of the lower conveyor section between retracted and extended positions is provided by a motor driven wheeled support structure at the infeed end of the lower conveyor section which will move the lower conveyor section longitudinally in relation to the upper conveyor section to provide a continuation of the upper conveyor section. A relatively short transition roller conveyor connects the discharge end of the conveying surface of the conveyor section to the infeed end of the conveying surface of the lower conveyor section to guide parcels or other items from the upper conveyor section to the lower conveyor section. The transition roller conveyor section also includes side guide members supporting a plurality of narrow rollers which rotate about generally vertical axes to assure movement of parcels or other items from the upper conveyor section onto the lower conveyor section. The rollers forming the conveying surfaces are undriven and the conveying sections are oriented in a manner to provide a continuous declining conveying surface from the infeed end of the upper conveyor section to the discharge end of the lower conveyor section. To provide gravity flow of parcels or other articles along the conveying surfaces. The discharge end of the lower conveyor section includes a steering assembly to enable the discharge end of the conveyor to be located within a load body even though the load body may be slightly misaligned in relation to the conveyor. This steering capability enables parcels or other items to be discharged within the load body and adjacent a forward end thereof to facilitate discharge of parcels adjacent a forward end of the load body to reduce handling of parcels or other items being placed in the load body. The discharge end of the lower conveyor section also preferably includes a safety disabling assembly to stop the drive motor on the lower conveyor section when contact is made with an obstruction in the load body to eliminate the possibility of injury to personnel that may be located in the load body as well as damage to parcels or other items already stored in the load body. Typically, the conveyor sections of the present invention may have a length of approximately 30 feet. Hence, the overall length of the conveyor when in retracted position is approximately 30 feet, and the overall length of the conveyor surface when the conveyor is in the extended position is approximately 60 feet. This extension enables the discharge end of the lower conveyor section and in some instances, the upper conveyor section to be extended substantially into the load body toward the forward end of the load body to facilitate loading parcels into the load body starting at the forward end thereof. The discharge end of the lower conveyor section includes a steering assembly which enables the discharge end of the conveyor to be guided into alignment with a load body which is not in alignment with the conveyor which may occur when the load body is positioned adjacent a loading dock. Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide a telescoping conveyor including telescopic conveyor sections which can be extended into a load body and retracted with the conveyor sections being withdrawn from the load body. Another object of the present invention is to provide a conveyor in accordance with the preceding object in which each conveyor section includes a declining conveyor surface formed by undriven rollers for gravity movement of parcels or the like along the conveying surface of each of the conveying sections. A further object of the present invention is to provide a conveyor structure in which the conveyor sections are oriented in vertically nested relation when in retracted position and in end to end longitudinal relation when in fully extended position. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a sectional conveyor in which a lower conveyor section is provided with a driven support structure to extend the lower conveyor section and, in some instances, part of the upper conveyor section longitudinally into a load body to facilitate discharge of parcels or other items into a forward end portion of the load body. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a conveyor structure in accordance with the preceding objects in which the discharge end of the conveyor section that is extended into the load body is provided with a disabling safety structure to terminate extension of the conveyor sections in the event the discharge end of the conveyor section extended into a load body comes into contact with an obstruction. These together with other objects and advantages that will become subsequently apparent reside in the details of construction and operation as more fully hereinafter described and claimed, reference being had to the accompanying drawings forming a part hereof, wherein like numerals refer to like parts throughout. | 20040609 | 20060228 | 20050324 | 67679.0 | 1 | BIDWELL, JAMES R | STEERABLE TELESCOPING CONVEYOR FOR LOADING PARCELS | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,863,848 | ACCEPTED | Waterborn coating containing microcylindrical conductors | A composition is provided having cylindrically shaped metal or metal-coated particles and a polymer latex dispersion. A coating is provided having cylindrically shaped metal or metal-coated particles and a polymer matrix formed from a latex dispersion. The particles form a continuous, conductive network. A method of electromagnetic shielding is provided having the steps of providing the above composition, applying the composition to a surface, and drying the applied composition. | 1. A composition comprising: cylindrically shaped metal or metal-coated particles; and a polymer latex dispersion. 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the particles are hollow. 3. The composition of claim 1, wherein the particles comprise one or more metals selected from the group consisting of copper, iron, nickel, permalloy, silver, gold, and cobalt. 4. The composition of claim 1, wherein the particles are metal-coated membrane-forming biomaterials. 5. The composition of claim 1, wherein the particles are at most about 200 μm in length and from about 0.005 to about 1 μm in diameter. 6. The composition of claim 1, wherein the particles have an aspect ratio of from about 10 to about 100. 7. The composition of claim 1, wherein the polymer latex dispersion comprises an acrylic, a polyurethane polymer, a chitothane polymer, or a combination thereof. 8. The composition of claim 1, wherein the polymer latex dispersion comprises a biodegradable urethane polymer derived from a naturally occurring polysaccharide. 9. The composition of claim 8, wherein said polymer latex dispersion is degradable by enzymatic means. 10. The composition of claim 1, wherein the polymer latex dispersion comprises water, one or more alcohols, glycol, or a combination thereof. 11. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition comprises nonvolatile components being up to about 60% by weight of the composition. 12. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition comprises nonvolatile components including the particles; and wherein the particles are at most about 25% by weight of the nonvolatile components of the composition. 13. The composition of claim 1, further comprising a surfactant. 14. A coating comprising; cylindrically shaped metal or metal-coated particles; and a polymer matrix formed from a latex dispersion; wherein the particles form a continuous, conductive network. 15. The coating of claim 14, wherein the particles are hollow. 16. The coating of claim 14, wherein the particles comprise one or more metals selected from the group consisting of copper, iron, nickel, permalloy, silver, gold, and cobalt. 17. The coating of claim 14, wherein the particles are metal-coated membrane-forming biomaterials. 18. The coating of claim 14, wherein the particles are at most 200 μm in length and from about 0.005 to about 1 μm in diameter. 19. The coating of claim 14, wherein the particles have an aspect ratio of from about 10 to about 100. 20. The coating of claim 14, wherein the polymer matrix comprises an acrylic polymer. 21. The coating of claim 14, wherein the polymer matrix comprises a polyurethane polymer. 22. The coating of claim 14, wherein the polymer matrix comprises a biodegradable urethane polymer derived from a naturally occurring polysaccharide. 23. The coating of claim 22, wherein said polymer matrix is degradable by enzymatic means. 24. The coating of claim 14, wherein the particles are at most about 25% by weight of the coating. 25. The coating of claim 14, wherein the coating provides broadband electromagnetic attenuation of at least about 40 dB. 26. A method of electromagnetic shielding comprising the steps of: providing a composition comprising: cylindrically shaped metal or metal-coated particles; and a polymer latex dispersion. applying the composition to a surface; and drying the applied composition. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the particles are hollow. 28. The method of claim 26, wherein the particles comprise one or more metals selected from the group consisting of copper, iron, nickel, permalloy, silver, gold, and cobalt. 29. The method of claim 26, wherein the particles are metal-coated membrane-forming biomaterials. 30. The method of claim 26, wherein the particles are at most 200 μm in length and from about 0.005 to about 1 μm in diameter. 31. The method of claim 26, wherein the particles have an aspect ratio of from about 10 to about 100. 32. The method of claim 26, wherein the latex comprises an acrylic latex. 33. The method of claim 26, wherein the latex comprises a polyurethane latex. 34. The method of claim 26, wherein the polymer latex dispersion comprises a biodegradable urethane polymer derived from a naturally occurring polysaccharide. 35. The method of claim 34, wherein said polymer latex dispersion is degradable by enzymatic means. 36. The method of claim 26, wherein the solvent comprises water, one or more alcohols, glycol, or a combination thereof. 37. The method of claim 26, wherein the composition comprises up to about 60% by weight of nonvolatile components. 38. The method of claim 26, wherein the composition comprises nonvolatile components including the particles; and wherein the particles are at most about 25% by weight of the nonvolatile components of the composition. 39. The method of claim 26, wherein the applying step comprises spraying the composition onto the surface. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention is a coating that can be used for electromagnetic shielding. 2. Description of the Prior Art Current methodologies for the prevention of electronic eavesdropping consist of the use of metal sheeting, metallic screening, vapor deposited metallic films, and the use of very high loadings of metallic particulates for the attenuation of signals from structures. Such methods provide for the blockage of electromagnetic radiation but most often do not offer the ease of installation or a reasonable cost structure to permit retrofitting to a wide range of existing facilities without extensive physical modification of the structure. Due to increased risks from electronic sensing and eavesdropping in times of heightened security and increased incidence of industrial espionage it is desirable to protect commercial, governmental and military data from eavesdropping. Currently with the increased use of office automation that radiates electromagnetic energy, it is possible to intercept confidential or secret information by passive or active electronic means. To this end, the exterior and interior walls of a facility may be rendered opaque to the radiated energy in a manner sufficient to provide for the security of data produced on devices in the facility. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION There is provided a composition comprising cylindrically shaped metal or metal-coated particles and a polymer latex dispersion. There is also provided a coating comprising cylindrically shaped metal or metal-coated particles and a polymer matrix formed from a latex dispersion; wherein the particles form a continuous, conductive network. There is further provided a method of electromagnetic shielding comprising the steps of: providing a composition comprising cylindrically shaped metal or metal-coated particles and a polymer latex dispersion; applying the composition to a surface; and drying the applied composition. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A more complete appreciation of the invention will be readily obtained by reference to the following Description of the Example Embodiments and the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 schematically illustrates the arrangement of latex particles and metal particles in wet form. FIG. 2 schematically illustrates the arrangement of latex particles and metal particles in dry form. FIG. 3 shows an absorbance test of a latex/metal coating. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS The composition of the present invention may be a water based coating that is VOC free and which may be applied to a range of surfaces such as wallboard, wood, plywood, previously painted or plastered surfaces, masonry surfaces, glass, and plastic surfaces in such a manner that it would not be obvious that such surface contained a coating designed to protect electronic contents. A coating made from drying the composition can have the ability to interact with electromagnetic radiation and to either transmit that radiation or to attenuate the radiation in such a manner that it provides anti-eavesdropping protection to structures in which it is utilized as a coating. The frequency range of the coating may be rather broadband as the coating by design may develop a random trabecular network of electronically conducting paths of assorted orientation and path lengths. Two features of the coating permit it to function at low metallic loadings. The first feature is that a conductive network can be formed from hollow metallic cylinders, which may be microscopic, have a high aspect ratio, and a surface texture that will allow contact between cylinders. The second feature is the use of a diluted polymer latex matrix that can physically restrict the microcylinders to the fraction of the coating containing the solvent matrix, as shown in FIG. 1. As the coating dries it tends to segregate the metallic microcylinders to a restricted area between the latex particles and thus concentrates the microcylinders into a restricted space that tends to force contact and locally increase their concentration, as shown in FIG. 2. By concentrating the microcylinders within the coating, the amount of microcylinders required to form conductive networks can be reduced when compared to very small metallic particulates. This is possible due to the fact that a majority of the initial coating may be solvent which as it evaporates causes a loss of volume which forces the tubules and polymer latex into contact, with the coalescence of the coating. The microcylinders may be compressed in the former solvent filled space and are then held in that orientation in the finished polymer coating. This tends to reduce both the weight and the bulk of the coating. In addition, the coating may provide shielding for personnel within such a facility from the use of electronic personnel location devices such that the number or location of persons within the facility could not be determined from external detectors. The metallic microcylinders may comprise, but is not limited to, any of iron, nickel, copper, and permalloy and may be over coated with silver, gold, or cobalt in order to provide for a reduction in oxidation. The size of the particles may be, but is not limited to, at most about 200 μm in length and from about 0.005 to about 1 μm in diameter. The aspect ratio of the particles may be, but is not limited to, from about 10 to about 100. The coating also may consist of conductive metallic cylinders or cylinders that are made from magnetic materials or a combination. The microtubules can be made from membrane-forming biomaterials, such as lipids. These microtubules are biologically derived, hollow organic cylinders of about half-micron diameter and lengths of tens to hundreds of microns. The cylinders are coated with metal to render them conductive by an electroless process. Once metallized, the microtubules can be dried to a powder and dispersed into polymer matrices at varying loading densities to form the composition. In addition, the base lipid cylinders may be filled electrophoretically with magnetic iron nanoparticulates and then subsequently coated with a conductive species. The tubules may also be made from cotton linters, which are cellulose fibers with diameters of about 20 micrometers and lengths of 100 to 500 micrometers. A further embodiment is that the tubes may be filled with antioxidant material to inhibit oxidation of the metal, or with a range of materials to inhibit bacterial growth, or may contain fungicides or mildewcides to enhance the performance of the interior coating and to aid in the control of fungus or mold that may be toxic to occupants. The coating may be formed from either an acrylic or urethane polymer latex or combinations thereof. Other suitable latex polymers include, but are not limited to, chitothane polymers (a urethane made in water with a blocked isocyanate) and biodegradable urethane polymers derived from a naturally occurring polysaccharide. The polymer may be degradable by enzymatic means. Suitable solvents include, but are not limited to, water, one or more alcohols, and glycol. A surfactant may also be present. The composition may be formulated so that the percentage of the conductive material ranges between 0.5 and 25% by weight of the nonvolatile components of the latex paint base. The composition solids may be in the range of 25-60%, prior to dilution for spraying. The coating may have the advantage that the metallic microcylinders are lighter than solid metallic powders and may form an electoconductive matrix at a lower percent of loading than that required for powders. The resulting matrix may exhibit a bulk resistively between 0.5 Ohms and 20,000 Ohms per centimeter as measured 48 hours after reaching a final dry weight. The emulsion may be applied by spraying utilizing conventional high pressure spraying, low-pressure high volume spray equipment, or airless spray equipment. Once sprayed on a surface the coating may be over coated with a further layer of the latex emulsion to act as a moisture/chemical barrier to increase the resistance to chemical or oxidative degradation. In addition, the coating may be over coated with conventional interior or exterior surface coating to hide the active coating and for decorative purposes. The ability to apply the coating as a spray makes this means of attenuation easier to retrofit to existing structures than metallic sheeting or screening. The latex, if chosen correctly, along with the use of a water or alcohol diluents may not cause a strong objectionable odor and thus may be applied in a closed space without undue disruption to the occupants. Because the material may be applied by spray it may be applied to flat planar surfaces or surfaces of complex shapes easily. Thus, it may be adapted to application in a wide range of conditions. A further application would allow the coating to be easily tailored by orientation of the tubules in a strong magnetic field during application. When sprayed to a thickness between 100 microns and 1 mm the coating can yield a broadband attenuation of electromagnetic radiation of at least 40 dB. FIG. 3 is an absorbance test that was done on an actual coating sample that was sprayed on a Mylar sheet and tested in a laboratory setting. Having described the invention, the following examples are given to illustrate specific applications of the invention. These specific examples are not intended to limit the scope of the invention described in this application. EXAMPLE 1 Formation of microcylinders—Microtubules were formed from diacetylenic lipid (1,2 bis(tricosa-10, 12-diynoyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine), or DC8,9PC. The lipid was dissolved in alcohol at 50° C., water was added, and the temperature was lowered to room temperature. The lipid self-assembled itself into microtubules and subsequently precipitated. The particles were rinsed and coated with a palladium catalyst and mixed with metal ions and reductants. In contact with the catalyst, the metal ions were reduced to neutral metal on the surface of the microtubules and coated the structure with a conductive layer of metal of several tenths of a micron thickness. Several other metal species are available for use in this process, including nickel and copper. EXAMPLE 2 Formation of paint—The paint was formed from a mixture of the following ingredients: 5.25 grams of copper microcylinders made by the method of Example 1, 100 mL of 36% solids acrylic-urethane latex copolymer, 200 mL of 2-propanol or water as a diluent, and 1% (w/w) Tween 20 surfactant. EXAMPLE 3 Formation of paint—The paint was formed from a mixture of the following ingredients: 3.31 grams of copper microcylinders made by the method of Example 1, 100 mL of 40% solids urethane latex polymeric solution, and 1% BYK surfactant. EXAMPLE 4 Shielding properties—FIG. 3 shows the results of an absorbance test of a latex/metal coating. Obviously, many modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that the claimed invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The invention is a coating that can be used for electromagnetic shielding. 2. Description of the Prior Art Current methodologies for the prevention of electronic eavesdropping consist of the use of metal sheeting, metallic screening, vapor deposited metallic films, and the use of very high loadings of metallic particulates for the attenuation of signals from structures. Such methods provide for the blockage of electromagnetic radiation but most often do not offer the ease of installation or a reasonable cost structure to permit retrofitting to a wide range of existing facilities without extensive physical modification of the structure. Due to increased risks from electronic sensing and eavesdropping in times of heightened security and increased incidence of industrial espionage it is desirable to protect commercial, governmental and military data from eavesdropping. Currently with the increased use of office automation that radiates electromagnetic energy, it is possible to intercept confidential or secret information by passive or active electronic means. To this end, the exterior and interior walls of a facility may be rendered opaque to the radiated energy in a manner sufficient to provide for the security of data produced on devices in the facility. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>There is provided a composition comprising cylindrically shaped metal or metal-coated particles and a polymer latex dispersion. There is also provided a coating comprising cylindrically shaped metal or metal-coated particles and a polymer matrix formed from a latex dispersion; wherein the particles form a continuous, conductive network. There is further provided a method of electromagnetic shielding comprising the steps of: providing a composition comprising cylindrically shaped metal or metal-coated particles and a polymer latex dispersion; applying the composition to a surface; and drying the applied composition. | 20040604 | 20100302 | 20051208 | 93549.0 | 0 | LEONG, NATHAN T | WATERBORN COATING CONTAINING MICROCYLINDRICAL CONDUCTORS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,863,883 | ACCEPTED | Apparatus and method for measuring characteristics of iptical fibers | An apparatus and method for measuring characteristics of optical fibers that enable accurate measurement of characteristics of optical fibers (distribution of polarization mode dispersion and distribution of magnitude of birefringence) are to be realized. This invention is an improvement of an optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus in which pulse light is inputted to a subject optical fiber, back scattered light of the pulse light from the subject optical fiber is detected by a photodetector to find a Stokes vector, and polarization mode dispersion in a longitudinal direction is measured. The apparatus comprises a light source unit for outputting the pulse light having at least three different angular frequencies, and an arithmetic operation unit for calculating the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a polarization dispersion vector on the basis of the Stokes vector and thus calculating polarization mode dispersion. | 1. An optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus in which pulse light is inputted to a subject optical fiber, back scattered light of the pulse light from the subject optical fiber is detected by a photodetector to find a Stokes vector, and polarization mode dispersion in a longitudinal direction is measured, the apparatus comprising: a light source unit for outputting the pulse light having at least three different angular frequencies; and an arithmetic operation unit for calculating the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a polarization dispersion vector on the basis of the Stokes vector and thus calculating polarization mode dispersion. 2. The optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the photodetector detects the light intensity from at least three positions in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber and finds a normalized Stokes vector for each position, the apparatus comprising a birefringence calculating unit for calculating the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a birefringence vector on the basis of the Stokes vector for each position found by the photodetector and thus calculating the magnitude of birefringence in the subject optical fiber. 3. An optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus for measuring polarization mode dispersion in a longitudinal direction of a subject optical fiber, the apparatus comprising: a light source unit for outputting pulse light having at least three different angular frequencies; a polarization controller for polarizing each pulse light outputted from the light source unit into at least two different polarization states and outputting the polarized pulse light; a directional coupler for outputting the pulse light polarized by the polarization controller to the subject optical fiber and having back scattered light of the outputted pulse light inputted thereto; a photodetector for splitting the back scattered light from the directional coupler into polarization states of at least four directions and detecting the light intensity of the back scattered light synchronously with the pulse light outputted from the light source unit, and finding a normalized Stokes vector; and an arithmetic operation unit for calculating the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a polarization dispersion vector on the basis of the Stokes vector found by the photodetector and calculating polarization mode dispersion. 4. The optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus as claimed in claim 1 or 3, wherein the light source unit has: a continuous light output unit for outputting continuous light having different angular frequencies; and a pulse generator for converting the continuous light from the continuous light output unit to a desired pulse width and outputting the converted light. 5. The optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus as claimed in claim 1 or 3, wherein the arithmetic operation unit comprises: a matrix calculating unit for calculating a Mueller matrix from the normalized Stokes vector for each angular frequency; a polarization dispersion vector calculating unit for calculating polarization dispersion vectors of back scattered light in accordance with the angular frequencies from the Mueller matrix calculated by the matrix calculating unit; a linear polarization calculating unit for calculating the magnitude of linear polarization components of a polarization dispersion vector from the polarization dispersion vectors of back scattered light calculated by the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit; a circular polarization calculating unit for calculating the magnitude of a circular polarization component of the polarization dispersion vector from the difference between the polarization dispersion vectors of back scattered light calculated by the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit; and a dispersion value calculating unit for calculating a value of polarization mode dispersion from the magnitude of the circular polarization component from the circular polarization calculating unit and the magnitude of the linear polarization components from the linear polarization calculating unit. 6. The optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus as claimed in claim 3, wherein the photodetector detects the light intensity from at least three positions in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber and finds a normalized Stokes vector for each position, the apparatus comprising a birefringence calculating unit for calculating the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a birefringence vector on the basis of the Stokes vector for each position found by the photodetector and thus calculating the magnitude of birefringence in the subject optical fiber. 7. An optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus in which pulse light is inputted to a subject optical fiber, back scattered light of the pulse light from the subject optical fiber is detected by a photodetector to find a Stokes vector, and birefringence in a longitudinal direction is measured, the apparatus comprising: a light source unit for outputting the pulse light; and a birefringence calculating unit for calculating the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a birefringence vector on the basis of the Stokes vectors of at least three positions and thus calculating the magnitude of birefringence. 8. An optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus for measuring the magnitude of birefringence in a longitudinal direction of a subject optical fiber, the apparatus comprising: a light source unit for outputting pulse light; a polarization controller for polarizing each pulse light outputted from the light source unit into at least two different polarization states and outputting the polarized pulse light; a directional coupler for outputting the pulse light polarized by the polarization controller to the subject optical fiber and having back scattered light of the outputted pulse light inputted thereto; a photodetector for detecting the light intensity of the back scattered light from the directional coupler at least at three positions in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber, then detecting the light intensity at least in four directions of different polarization states synchronously with the pulse light, and finding a normalized Stokes vector; and a birefringence calculating unit for calculating the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a birefringence vector on the basis of the Stokes vector found by the photodetector and calculating the magnitude of birefringence. 9. The optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus as claimed in claim 7 or 8, wherein the light source unit has: a continuous light output unit for outputting continuous light; and a pulse generator for converting the continuous light from the continuous light output unit to a desired pulse width. 10. An optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus as claimed in one of claims 2 and 6 to 8, wherein the birefringence calculating unit comprises: a matrix calculating unit for calculating a Mueller matrix from the normalized Stokes vector for each position; a birefringence vector calculating unit for calculating birefringence vectors of back scattered light in accordance with the positions from the Mueller matrix calculated by the matrix calculating unit; a linear polarization calculating unit for calculating the magnitude of linear polarization components of a birefringence vector from the birefringence vectors of back scattered light calculated by the birefringence vector calculating unit; a circular polarization calculating unit for calculating the magnitude of a circular polarization component of the birefringence vector from the difference between the birefringence vectors of back scattered light calculated by the birefringence vector calculating unit; and a birefringence value calculating unit for calculating the magnitude of birefringence from the magnitude of the circular polarization component from the circular polarization calculating unit and the magnitude of the linear polarization components from the linear polarization calculating unit. 11. An optical fiber characteristics measuring method for measuring polarization mode dispersion in a longitudinal direction of a subject optical fiber, the method comprising: a step of outputting pulse light having at least three different angular frequencies from a light source unit; a step of polarizing each pulse light outputted from the light source unit into at least two different polarization states and inputting the polarized pulse light to the subject optical fiber; a step of splitting back scattered light of the pulse light inputted to the optical fiber into polarization states of at least four directions and detecting the light intensity of the back scattered light synchronously with the pulse light outputted from the light source unit, and finding a normalized Stokes vector for each angular frequency; a step of calculating the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular light component of a polarization dispersion vector on the basis of the Stokes vector thus found; and a step of calculating polarization mode dispersion from the magnitude of the linear polarization components and the magnitude of the circular polarization component of the polarization dispersion vector. 12. The optical fiber characteristics measuring method as claimed in claim 11, further comprising: a step of detecting the light intensity of the back scattered light from at least three positions in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber synchronously with the pulse light outputted from the light source unit, and finding a normalized Stokes vector for each position; a step of calculating linear polarization components and a circular polarization component of a birefringence vector on the basis of the Stokes vector for each position thus found, and calculating the magnitude of birefringence in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber; and a step of calculating birefringence in the subject optical fiber from the magnitude of the linear polarization components and the magnitude of the circular polarization component of the birefringence vector. 13. An optical fiber characteristics measuring method for measuring birefringence in a longitudinal direction of a subject optical fiber, the method comprising: a step of outputting pulse light from a light source unit; a step of polarizing each pulse light outputted from the light source unit into at least two different polarization states and inputting the polarized pulse light to the subject optical fiber; a step of splitting back scattered light of the pulse light inputted to the optical fiber into polarization states of at least four directions and detecting the light intensity of the back scattered light synchronously with the pulse light outputted from the light source unit, and finding a normalized Stokes vector at least at three positions in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber; a step of calculating linear polarization components and a circular polarization component of a birefringence vector on the basis of the Stokes vector for each position thus found; and a step of calculating birefringence from the magnitude of the linear polarization components and the magnitude of the circular polarization component of the birefringence vector. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to an apparatus and method for measuring characteristics of optical fibers in which characteristics in the longitudinal direction (distribution of polarization mode dispersion and distribution of magnitude of birefringence) of subject optical fibers are measured, and particularly to an apparatus and method for measuring characteristics of optical fibers that enable accurate measurement of characteristics of optical fibers. 2. Description of the Related Art Recently, as higher transmission rates are increasingly demanded in the optical communication, transmission rates of 10 Gbps and 40 Gbps are getting realized. However, since dispersions such as material dispersion, waveguide dispersion, multimode dispersion and polarization mode dispersion exist in optical fibers as transmission media, waveform deterioration due to these dispersions is particularly considered to cause troubles. In the case where single-mode optical fibers are used, chromatic dispersion (sum of material dispersion and waveguide dispersion) and polarization mode dispersion are problems. Of these, chromatic dispersion can be compensated relatively easily by dispersion compensating fibers (DCF), reverse dispersion fibers (RDF) having the reverse characteristic of the chromatic dispersion of the single-mode optical fibers, a chromatic dispersion compensator or the like. Many solutions using these fibers or compensator are proposed and generally used. On the other hand, polarization mode dispersion is caused by various elements such as structural defects of the optical fibers themselves, and elliptic deformation of the core, flexure, stress, and twisting due to manufacturing conditions, construction conditions, use environment and the like. These elements cause birefringence and polarization mode dispersion in the optical fibers. Polarization mode dispersion exists randomly in the optical fibers and changes largely. Therefore, it is difficult to compensate polarization mode dispersion using passive components. Since compensation by passive components is difficult as described above, it is demanded that seriously defective parts of the already constructed optical fibers should be detected and removed and that defective parts should be detected in the manufacturing process to prevent entry into the markets or the results of measurement of polarization mode dispersion should be fed back to the manufacturing process to lower the proportion of defective parts when manufacturing optical fibers. To realize detection of defective parts and the like, it is important to measure characteristics in the longitudinal direction of optical fibers and an optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus is used. Particularly, an optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus for measuring characteristics of polarization mode dispersion values is called polarization mode dispersion measuring apparatus. To measure this polarization mode dispersion, for example, optical components where polarization modes (polarization states) are orthogonal to each other can be transmitted by a predetermined distance and the time difference Δτ between the optical components generated by the transmission can be found. A technique of measuring polarization mode dispersion will now be described with reference to FIG. 1. FIG. 1 shows the principle of the conventional measurement of polarization mode dispersion. In FIG. 1, an optical fiber 100 is, for example, a single-mode optical fiber and it is a subject optical fiber. Pulse light having angular frequencies ω1, ω2 (ω1≠ω2; these angular frequencies are slightly different) is inputted from one end (input side) of the optical fiber 100 and the pulse light transmitted through the optical fiber 100 is received at the other end (output side). On the input side, the pulse light is polarized in different polarization states (for example, 0° and 45° to a reference axis) and thus inputted to the optical fiber 100. On the output side, the polarization state of the pulse light from the optical fiber 100 is divided into four directions (for example, 0°, 45°, 90°, and circular polarization) and the light intensity in each direction is detected. Stokes vector components (S0, S1, S2, and S3) are found from the light intensity in each direction. Generally, the transmission on the optical fiber 100 is expressed in the form of a Mueller matrix R (orthogonal matrix consisting of three row by three columns). Stokes vectors and Mueller matrix are expressed by the following equations. Ŝ=RŜ0 Ŝ,Ŝ0 represent Stokes vectors S,S0 Since the light intensity of light inputted to the optical fiber 100 is already known, the Mueller matrix R can be found from the Stokes vector S0 of input light on the input side and the Stokes vector S of output light acquired on the output side. The Mueller matrix R is found for each of the angular frequencies ω1, ω2. The Stokes vector S of the output light transmitted through the optical fiber 100 having birefringence is changed by the influence of polarization mode dispersion with respect to changes of the angular frequencies ω1, ω2 of the input light. This change is generally expressed by using a vector called polarization dispersion vector Ω within a polarization state space. The magnitude of the polarization dispersion vector Ω is equal to polarization mode dispersion. Therefore, the change in the polarization state of the output light based on the changes of the angular frequencies ω1, ω2 is expressed by the following known equation (1) using the polarization dispersion vector Ω and the Mueller matrix R. (See, for example, G. J. Foschini, C. D. Poole, “Statistical theory of polarization dispersion in single mode fibers,” JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY, (U.S.), Laser & Electro-Optics Society (LEOS), November 1991, vol. 9, (No. 11), pp. 1439-1456.) ⅆ S ^ ⅆ ω = ⅆ R ⅆ ω S ^ 0 = ⅆ R ⅆ ω R - 1 S ^ = Ω S ^ = Ω ^ × S ^ wherein Ω ^ = [ Ω 1 Ω 2 Ω 3 ] T Ω = ( 0 - Ω 3 Ω 2 Ω 3 0 - Ω 1 - Ω 2 Ω 1 0 ) Ω ^ represents polarizati on dispersion vector Ω and Ω represents polarizati on dispersion matrix Ω . ( 1 ) Ω1, Ω2 are linear polarization components that are different from each other. Ω3 is a circular polarization component. The Stokes vector S of the output light is a vector including four components (S0, S1, S2, S3) and the corresponding Mueller matrix R consists of four rows by four columns. However, the S0 component has all the power of the light including non-polarization components. For polarization mode dispersion, changes of light power can be ignored and changes of polarization components alone can be handled. Therefore, the Mueller matrix R is a matrix representing conversion of Stokes vectors in the case where polarization components are normalized and expressed in the form of Poincare' sphere. The Mueller matrix R thus consists of three rows by three columns, omitting the S0 component. Polarization mode dispersion is measured in the polarization state in independent four directions and the S0 component is deducted. However, in the structure shown in FIG. 1, only polarization mode dispersion on the output end of the optical fiber 100 can be measured. Thus, unidirectional measurement using optical time domain reflectometry (hereinafter referred to as OTDR), which is a known technique, is used to measure the distribution in the longitudinal direction. (See, for example, JP-A-2003-106942, paragraphs No. 0024 to No. 0066 and FIGS. 1 to 9; JP-T-2000-510246 (the term “JP-T” as used herein means a published Japanese translation of a PCT application) and A. J. Rogers, “Polarization optical time domain reflectometry,” Electronics letters (U.K.), the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE), 1980, Vol. 16, No. 13, pp. 489-490.) In this OTDR technique, short pulse light is inputted and back scattered light of this pulse light is measured, thereby measuring the characteristics of the optical fiber and also measuring the reflection position from the time taken for the back scattered light to return. FIGS. 2 and 3 show structural views of a conventional optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus. The same elements as those in FIG. 1 are denoted by the same symbols and numerals and will not be described further in detail. In FIGS. 2, and 3, a light source unit 10 has a tunable light source 11 and a pulse generator 12 and outputs pulse light with angular frequencies of ω1, ω2. The tunable light source 11 is a continuous light output unit. It variably controls the angular frequencies ω1, ω2 and outputs continuous light having the desired angular frequencies ω1, ω2. The pulse generator 12 converts the continuous light from the tunable light source 11 to pulse light having a desired pulse width and then outputs the pulse light. A polarization controller 20 arbitrarily polarizes each pulse light from the light source unit 10 in a variable manner (into at least two different polarization states) and outputs the polarized light. A directional coupler 30 outputs the pulse light polarized by the polarization controller 20 to the optical fiber 100, and return light from the optical fiber 100, that is, back scattered light, is inputted to the directional coupler 30. A photodetector 40 detects the light intensity of the back scattered light from the directional coupler 30 in the polarization states of at least four directions synchronously with the pulse light outputted from the light source unit 10, and finds a normalized Stokes vector for each of the angular frequencies ω1, ω2. An arithmetic operation unit 50 has a matrix calculating unit 51, a polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 52, a linear polarization calculating unit 53, and a dispersion value calculating unit 54. The arithmetic operation unit 50 calculates polarization dispersion vectors ΩB of the back scattered light on the basis of the Stokes vectors found by the photodetector 40, then calculates linear polarization components of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in a single direction by using the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB, and calculates polarization mode dispersion. The matrix calculating unit 51 calculates a Mueller matrix from the normalized Stokes vector for each of the angular frequencies ω1, ω2. The polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 52 calculates the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB of the back scattered light at the angular frequencies from the Mueller matrix calculated by the matrix calculating unit 51. The linear polarization calculating unit 53 calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components (Ω1, Ω2) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in a single direction from the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB of the back scattered light calculated by the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 52. The dispersion value calculating unit 53 calculates a polarization mode dispersion value from the magnitude of the linear polarization components. A control unit 60 designates the angular frequencies ω1, ω2, pulse width and pulse interval to the light source unit 10 and designates the polarization state to the polarization controller 20. The control unit 60 also designates the polarization state to be detected to the photodetector 40 and synchronizes the detection with the pulse light, and designates the calculation to the arithmetic operation unit 50. The operation of this apparatus will now be described. The control unit 60 causes the tunable light source 11 to output continuous light at the angular frequency ω1 and causes the pulse generator 12 to output pulse light with a desired pulse width at a desired pulse interval. Moreover, the control unit 60 causes the polarization controller 20 to output the pulse light with a polarization state of, for example, 0°, to the subject optical fiber 100 via the directional coupler 30. Then, back scattered light, which is return light from the subject optical fiber 100, is inputted to the photodetector 40 via the directional coupler 30. The photodetector 40 detects the light intensity in four directions (for example, 0°, 45°, 90°, and circular polarization) in accordance with the designation from the control unit 60. Similarly, the light intensities in four directions are detected with respect to the light at the angular frequency ω1 and in the polarization state of 45°, the light at the angular, frequency ω2 and in the polarization state of 0°, and the light at the angular frequency ω2 and in the polarization state of 45° in accordance with the designation from the control unit 60. The photodetector 40 then calculates a Stokes vector SB for each of the angular frequencies ω1, ω2. As the Stokes vector SB is calculated, the control unit 60 instructs the arithmetic operation unit 50 to calculate polarization mode dispersion. In accordance with this instruction, the arithmetic operation unit 50 reads out the Stokes vector SB from the photodetector 40 and the matrix calculating unit 51 calculates a Mueller matrix RB of the back scattered light from the Stokes vector SB. The polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 52 calculates polarization dispersion vectors ΩB of the back scattered light from the Mueller matrix RB. That is, when the light intensity of the back scattered light from the subject optical fiber 100 is measured, the relation of the following equation (2) based on the Mueller matrix RB and Stokes vector SB holds, similarly to the equation (1). ⅆ S ^ B ⅆ ω = ⅆ R B ⅆ ω R B - 1 S ^ B S ^ B represents Stokes vector S B of back scattered light , and R B represents Mueller matrix R B of back scattered light . ( 2 ) As the polarization dispersion matrix ΩB representing the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB of the back scattered light, the following equation (3) can be acquired from the equations (1) and (2). Ω ^ B = ⅆ R B ⅆ ω R B - 1 Ω ^ B represents polarizati on dispersion vector Ω B . ( 3 ) In this manner, the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 52 calculates the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB. Moreover, the linear polarization calculating unit 53 calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in a single direction. That is, it is generally known that the relation between the Mueller matrix R and the Mueller matrix RB of the back scattered light is expressed by the following equation (4) using a matrix M. R B = MR T MR ( M = ( 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 - 1 ) ) ( 4 ) Therefore, as the equation (4) is substituted into the equation (3), the polarization dispersion vector ΩB of the back scattered light, the Mueller matrix R in the single direction, and the linear polarization component ΩL of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in the single direction are in the relation of the following equation (5) {circumflex over (Ω)}B=2MRT{circumflex over (Ω)}L ({circumflex over (Ω)}L=[Ω1 Ω2 0 ]T) (5) {circumflex over (Ω)}L represents linear polarization component vector ΩL. In the case of calculating the magnitude (ΔτB) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω8 of the back scattered light, the magnitude of the vector converted by MR (transported matrix) on the right side of the equation (5) is not changed because the matrix M and the Mueller matrix R are orthogonal matrices. Therefore, the following equation holds. ΔτB=|{circumflex over (Ω)}B|=2{square root}{square root over (Ω12+Ω22)} In this manner, the linear polarization calculating unit 53 calculates the magnitude of the linear polarization components (Ω1, Ω2) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in the single direction. On the statistical assumption of Gaussian distribution as the distribution of the components Ω1 to Ω3 of the polarization dispersion vector Ω, the relation between the magnitude (ΔτB) of the polarization dispersion vector ΩB of the back scattered light and the magnitude (Δτ) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω of polarization mode dispersion to be found is expressed by the following equation. 〈 Δ τ 〉 = 〈 Δτ B 〉 2 π <ΔτB>is a statistical average value of values that are measured many times under various conditions. Therefore, the dispersion value calculating unit 54 calculates the value of polarization mode dispersion from the polarization dispersion vector ΩB acquired from the back scattered light. (See, for example, Fabrizio Corsi, Andrea Galtarossa, Luca Palmieri, “Polarization Mode Dispersion Characterization of Single-Mode Optical Fiber Using Backscattering Technique,” JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY (U.S.), Laser & Electro-Optics Society (LEOS), October 1998, Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 1832-1843.) In this manner, the magnitude (ΔτB) of the polarization dispersion vector ΩB of pulse light of two wavelengths (angular frequencies ω1, ω2) is calculated and polarization mode dispersion (Δτ) is measured. However, the apparatus shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 has a problem that it cannot detect the circular polarization component of birefringence within the subject optical fiber 100 simply and directly, as described in J. N. Ross, “Birefringence measurement in optical fibers by polarization-optical time-domain reflectometry,” Applied Optics (U.S.), Optical Society of America (OSA), October 1982, Vol. 21, No. 19, pp. 3489-3495. As is clear from the equation (5), only the effect of the linear polarization components (Ω1, Ω2) is left and the effect of the circular polarization component Ω3 is eliminated. Therefore, when the magnitude (ΔτB) of the polarization dispersion vector ΩB of the back scattered light is compared with the polarization mode dispersion (Δτ), the following formula holds. ΔτB=2{square root}{square root over (Ω12+Ω22)}<2{square root}{square root over (Ω12+Ω22+Ω32)}=2Δτ Of course, the polarization dispersion vector ΩB acquired from the back scattered light only includes the linear polarization components (Ω1, Ω2) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in the single direction. The OTDR technique measures the light entered and returning from the subject optical fiber 100. If Δτ=ΔτB/2 is simply assumed, polarization mode dispersion Δτ cannot be calculated accurately. For example, if the circular polarization component Ω3 increases because of torsion of the subject optical fiber 100 or the like, there is a possibility that polarization mode dispersion (Δτ) takes a relatively small value. Generally, the average magnitude <ΔτB>of the polarization dispersion vectors acquired from the back scattered light is multiplied by 0.64 (which is approximately 2/π), as shown in the above-described equation. However, since this value is acquired from many numerical simulations and statistics, the value is not effective for all the subject optical fibers 100 and it is difficult to accurately find polarization mode dispersion, that is, the characteristics of the optical fibers SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of this invention to realize an apparatus and method for measuring characteristics of optical fibers that enable accurate measurement of characteristics of subject optical fibers. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a view showing a first structure of a conventional optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus. FIG. 2 is a view showing a second structure of a conventional optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus. FIG. 3 is a view showing the structure of an arithmetic operation unit 50 in the apparatus shown in FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is a structural view showing a first embodiment of this invention. FIG. 5 is a view showing the structure of an arithmetic operation unit 80 in the apparatus shown in FIG. 4. FIG. 6 is a flowchart showing the operation of the apparatus shown in FIG. 4. FIG. 7 is a structural view showing a second embodiment of this invention. FIG. 8 is a view showing the structure of a birefringence calculating unit 90 in the apparatus shown in FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Embodiments of this invention will now be described with reference to the drawings. [First Embodiment] FIGS. 4 and 5 are structural views showing a first embodiment of this invention. The same elements as those shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 are denoted by the same numerals and will not be described further in detail. In FIG. 4, a light source unit 70 is provided instead of the light source unit 10. An arithmetic operation unit 80 is provided instead of the arithmetic operation unit 50. The light source unit 70 has a tunable light source 71 and a pulse generator 72, and outputs at least three kinds of pulse light having different angular frequencies, for example, three kinds of pulse light having angular frequencies ω1, ω2, ω3 (the angular frequencies (ω1, ω2, ω3 are slightly different from each other at an angular frequency spacing Δω). The tunable light source 71 is a continuous light output unit. It variably controls the angular frequencies ω1, ω2, ω3 and outputs continuous light having the desired angular frequencies ω1, ω2, ω3. The pulse generator 72 converts the continuous light from the tunable light source 71 to pulse light having a desired pulse width and outputs the pulse light to the polarization controller 20. In FIG. 5, the arithmetic operation unit 80 has a matrix calculating unit 81, a polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 82, a linear polarization calculating unit 83, a circular polarization calculating unit 84, and a dispersion value calculating unit 85. The arithmetic operation unit 80 calculates polarization dispersion vectors ΩB of back scattered light on the basis of a Stokes vector found by the photodetector 40, then calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a polarization dispersion vector Ω in a single direction by using the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB, and calculates polarization mode dispersion from these magnitudes. The matrix calculating unit 81 calculates a Mueller matrix from the normalized Stokes vector for each of the angular frequencies ω1, ω2, ω3. The polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 82 calculates the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB of the back scattered light in accordance with the angular frequency from the Mueller matrix calculated by the matrix calculating unit 81. The linear polarization calculating unit 83 calculates the magnitude of the linear polarization components (Ω1, Ω2) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in a single direction from the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB of the back scattered light calculated by the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 82. The circular polarization calculating unit 84 calculates the magnitude of the circular polarization component (Ω3) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in the single direction from the difference between the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB of the back scattered light calculated by the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 82. The dispersion value calculating unit 85 calculates the value of polarization mode dispersion from the magnitude of the circular polarization component calculated by the circular polarization calculating unit 84 and the magnitude of the linear polarization components calculated by the linear polarization calculating unit 83. The operation of this apparatus will now be described. FIG. 6 is a flowchart showing the operation of the apparatus shown in FIGS. 4 and 5. The control unit 60 causes the tunable light source 71 of the light source unit 70 to output continuous light at the angular frequency ω1 and causes the pulse generator 72 to output pulse light with a desired pulse width and at a desired pulse interval (S10). The control unit 60 also causes the polarization controller 20 to output the pulse light with a polarization state of, for example, 0°, to the subject optical fiber 100 via the directional coupler 30 (S11). Then, back scattered light, which is return light from the subject optical fiber 100, is inputted to the photodetector 40 via the directional coupler 30. The photodetector 40 detects the light intensity in four directions (for example, 0°, 45°, 90°, and circular polarization) synchronously with the pulse light from the light source unit 70 in accordance with the designation from the control unit 60. The back scattered light is split into polarization states in four directions by a combination of a polarization device, a phase device such as a 1/2 wavelength plate and a 1/4 wavelength plate, and a light receiving device, and the light intensities are detected (S12). In the case where one polarization state of 0° is measured at one angular frequency ω1 the control unit 60 causes the polarization controller 20 to change the polarization state of the pulse light to, for example, 45°, and to output the pulse light to the subject optical fiber 100 via the directional coupler 30, and then the control unit 60 causes the photodetector to detect the light intensity (S13, S11, S12). In the case where detection in the different polarization states of 0° and 45° at one angular frequency ω1 is completed, the control unit 60 similarly causes the photodetector to detect and measure the light intensity at the angular frequencies ω2 and ω3, at which the light intensity has not been detected yet (S14, S11 to S13). In short, six kinds of pulse light are inputted to the subject optical fiber 100, that is, light in the polarization states of 0° and 45° at the angular frequency ω1, light in the polarization states of 0° and 45 at the angular frequency ω2, and light in the polarization states of 0° and 45° at the angular frequency ω3. When detection of the light intensity at all the angular frequencies ω1 to ω3 is completed, a Stokes vector SB is found for each of the angular frequencies ω1, ω2, ω3 (S14, S15). As the Stokes vector SB is found, the control unit 60 instructs the arithmetic operation unit 80 to calculate polarization mode dispersion. In accordance with this instruction, the arithmetic operation unit 80 reads out the Stokes vector SB from the photodetector 40 and the matrix calculating unit 81 calculates a Mueller matrix RB of the back scattered light from the Stokes vector SB, similarly to the matrix calculating unit 51 (S16). While the matrix calculating unit 81 find each Mueller matrix RB after the photodetector 40 finds all the Stokes vectors SB for the angular frequencies ω1, ω2, ω3, the matrix calculating unit 81 may calculate the Mueller matrix RB every time the Stokes vector SB for each of the angular frequencies ω1, ω2, ω3 is found. Then, the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 82 calculates the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB of the back scattered light in accordance with the angular frequencies ω1, ω2, ω3 from the Mueller matrix RB, similarly to the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 52. For example, the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB are calculated using a combination of ω1, ω2 and a combination of ω2, ω3 (S17). Moreover, the linear polarization calculating unit 83 calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components (Ω1, Ω2) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in the single direction, similarly to the linear polarization calculating unit 53 (S18). Then, the circular polarization calculating unit 84 calculates the magnitude of a circular polarization component Ω3 of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in the single direction from the difference between the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB of the back scattered light calculated by the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 82. That is, the polarization dispersion vector ΩB of the back scattered light acquired by general measurement in a single direction using OTDR is expressed by the equation (5) as described above, and this equation (5) can be differentiated as in the following equation. ⅆ Ω ^ B ⅆ ω = 2 M ( ⅆ R T ⅆ ω Ω ^ L + R T ⅆ Ω ^ L ⅆ ω ) In the above-described equation, it can be assumed that the polarization dispersion vector Ω or linear polarization component vector ΩL in a single direction is constant with respect to the very small interval of ω. Therefore, the following equation holds. ⅆ Ω ^ L ⅆ ω = 0 Therefore, the following equation (6) is acquired. ⅆ Ω ^ B ⅆ ω = 2 M ⅆ R T ⅆ ω Ω ^ L ( 6 ) Meanwhile, since the polarization dispersion matrix Ω representing the polarization dispersion vector Ω and the Mueller matrix R are expressed by the equation (1) and the Mueller matrix R is an orthogonal matrix, the following equation holds. Ω = ⅆ R ⅆ ω R - 1 = ⅆ R ⅆ ω R T Since the polarization dispersion matrix Ω is an antisymmetric matrix, the following equation holds. Ω T = - Ω = R ⅆ R T ⅆ ω Therefore, it can be expressed as follows. ⅆ R T ⅆ ω = - R T Ω Therefore, the equation (6) can be expressed as follows, using the circular polarization component vector Ωc of the polarization dispersion vector Ω. ⅆ Ω ^ B ⅆ ω = - 2 MR T ( Ω ^ L + Ω ^ C ) × Ω ^ L = - 2 MR T Ω ^ C × Ω ^ L = - 2 Ω 3 MR T Ω ^ L ⊥ Ω ^ C represents circular polarizati on component vector Ω C . In this case, this equation holds. Ω ^ L ⊥ = ( - Ω 2 Ω 1 0 ) Therefore, in consideration of the equation (5), the following equation definitely holds. |{circumflex over (Ω)}L⊥|=|{circumflex over (Ω)}L|=|{circumflex over (Ω)}B|/2 From the above-described calculation, the following equation holds using the polarization dispersion vector ΩB. ⅆ Ω ^ B ⅆ ω = Ω 3 Ω ^ B That is, the magnitude |Ω3| of the circular polarization component is expressed by the following equation (7). Ω 3 = ⅆ Ω ^ B ⅆ ω / Ω ^ B ( 7 ) In this manner, the circular polarization calculating unit 84 further differentiates the polarization dispersion vector ΩB calculated by the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 82 and divides the magnitude of the differentiated vector by the magnitude of the polarization dispersion vector ΩB, thereby calculating the magnitude of the circular polarization component of polarization mode dispersion (S19). Then, the dispersion value calculating unit 85 calculates the value of polarization mode dispersion (Δτ) from the magnitude of the circular polarization component calculated by the circular polarization calculating unit 84 and the magnitude of the linear polarization components calculated by the linear polarization calculating unit 83 (S20) Moreover, polarization mode dispersion may be found at each position in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber 100 and the distribution of polarization mode dispersion in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber 100 may be found. In this manner, the photodetector 40 detects the back scattered light of each pulse light at the angular frequencies ω1 to ω3 outputted from the light source unit 70, separately in the polarization states in at least four directions, and thus find the normalized Stokes vector. Then, the arithmetic operation unit 80 calculates the magnitude of the linear polarization components and the magnitude of the circular polarization component of the polarization dispersion vector Ω on the basis of the Stokes vector. Therefore, it is not necessary to use the results of numerical simulations and statistics for the calculation of polarization mode dispersion. This enables accurate measurement of polarization mode dispersion. [Second Embodiment] The embodiment of measuring polarization mode dispersion by the apparatus shown in FIGS. 4 and 5 is described above. Polarization mode dispersion is generated by birefringence in the optical fiber. That is, it is also important to measure the magnitude of birefringence, which is one of the characteristics in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber 100. FIG. 7 is a structural view showing a second embodiment of this invention. In FIG. 7, the same elements as those shown in FIG. 4 are denoted by the same numerals and will not be described further in detail. In FIG. 7, a birefringence calculating unit 90 is further provided. As the photodetector 40 detects the light intensity at least at three positions z1, z2, z3 (z1, z2, z3 are slightly different from each other at a very small position spacing Δz) in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber 100, the birefringence calculating unit 90 calculates a birefringence vector of back scattered light on the basis of a normalized Stokes vector found for each of the positions, then calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of the birefringence vector, and calculates the magnitude of birefringence in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber 100 from these magnitudes. FIG. 8 shows a structural view of the birefringence calculating unit 90. In FIG. 8, the birefringence calculating unit 90 has a matrix calculating unit 91, a birefringence vector calculating unit 92, a linear polarization calculating unit 93, a circular polarization calculating unit 94, and a birefringence value calculating unit 95. The matrix calculating unit 91 calculates a Mueller matrix from the normalized Stokes vector found for each position. The birefringence vector calculating unit 92 calculates birefringence vectors of the back scattered light in accordance with the position from the Mueller matrix calculated by the matrix calculating unit 91. The linear polarization calculating unit 93 calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components of a birefringence vector in a single direction from the birefringence vectors of the back scattered light calculated by the birefringence vector calculating unit 92. The circular polarization calculating unit 94 calculates the magnitude of a circular polarization component of the birefringence vector in the single direction from the difference between the birefringence vectors of the back scattered light calculated by the birefringence vector calculating unit 92. The birefringence value calculating unit 95 calculates the magnitude of birefringence in the single direction from the magnitude of the circular polarization component calculated by the circular polarization calculating unit 94 and the magnitude of the linear polarization components calculated by the linear polarization calculating unit 93. The operation of this apparatus will now be described. The photodetector 40 detects the light intensity of back scattered light of pulse light (for example, at an angular frequency ω1, of angular frequencies ω1 to ω3) from the light source unit 70 in polarization states of at least four directions (for example, 0°, 45°, 90°, and circular polarization) synchronously with this pulse light in accordance with the designation from the control unit 60. The light intensity of back scattered light from at least three different positions z1, z2, z3 in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber 100 is detected. Then, normalized Stokes vectors at the positions z1 to z3 are found. The control unit 60 instructs the birefringence calculating unit 90 to calculate birefringence. In accordance with this instruction, the birefringence calculating unit 90 reads out a Stokes vector SB from the photodetector 40, and the matrix calculating unit 91 calculates a Mueller matrix RB of the back scattered light from the Stokes vector SB. The birefringence vector calculating unit 92 calculates birefringence vectors βB of the back scattered light from the Mueller matrix RB. That is, if a change of the Stokes vector S is considered to be a change in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber 100, it can be expressed by the following equation (8). Therefore, the birefringence vectors βB are calculated as in the case of the polarization dispersion vectors ΩB. ⅆ S ^ ⅆ z = ⅆ R ⅆ z S ^ 0 = ⅆ R ⅆ z R - 1 R S ^ 0 = ⅆ R ⅆ z R - 1 S ^ = β ^ × S ^ β ^ represents birefringence vector β ( 8 ) The linear polarization calculating unit 93 calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components of the birefringence vector β in a single direction from the birefringence vectors βB of the back scattered light calculated by the birefringence vector calculating unit 92. That is, the birefringence vector β in the equation (8) expresses local birefringence in the polarization state space. Therefore, as is clear from the comparison of the equations (1) and (8), the birefringence vector β can be handled similarly to the polarization dispersion vector Ω. As described in, for example, Fabrizio Corsi, Andrea Galtarossa, Luca Palmieri, “Beat Length Characterization Based on Backscattering Analysis in Randomly Perturbed Single-Mode Fibers,” JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY (U.S.), Laser & Electro-Optics Society (LEOS), July 1999, Vol. 17, No. 7, pp. 1172-1178, the birefringence vector βB acquired from the back scattered light and the linear polarization component vector βL of the birefringence vector β in the single direction are expressed by the following equation, similarly to the equation (5). β ^ B = 2 MR T β ^ L ( β ^ L = [ β 1 β 2 0 ] T ) β ^ B represents birefringence vector β B acquired from back scattered light , and β ^ L represents linear polarizati on component vector β L of birefringence vector β ^ . In this manner, the linear polarization calculating unit 93 calculates the magnitude of the linear polarization components (β1, β2) of the birefringence vector β in the single direction. Of course, as in the case of the polarization dispersion vector ΩB, the effect of the circular polarization component β3 has been eliminated. Thus, the circular polarization calculating unit 94 calculates the magnitude of the circular polarization component of the birefringence vector β in the single direction from the birefringence vectors βB of the back scattered light calculated by the birefringence vector calculating unit 92. That is, as in the calculation of the equation (7) for the polarization dispersion vector ΩB, the magnitude of the circular polarization component can be expressed by the following equation (9). β 3 = ⅆ β ^ B ⅆ z / β ^ B ( 9 ) The operation up to the detection of the pulse light from the light source unit 70 by the photodetector 40 and the operation of the arithmetic operation unit 80 are similar to the operations in the apparatus shown in FIG. 4 and therefore will not be described further in detail. As described above, the circular polarization calculating unit 94 further differentiates the birefringence vector βB calculated by the birefringence vector calculating unit 92 and divides the differentiated magnitude by the magnitude of the birefringence vector βB, thereby calculating the magnitude of the circular polarization component of birefringence. Then, the birefringence value calculating unit 95 calculates birefringence from the magnitude of the circular polarization component calculated by the circular polarization calculating unit 94 and the magnitude of the linear polarization components calculated by the linear polarization calculating unit 93. Birefringence at a desired position may be found from the light intensity at three points (z1, z2, z3) around the desired position in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber 100, and then distribution of birefringence in the longitudinal direction of the subject optical fiber 100 may be found. In this manner, the back scattered light from the different positions z1, z2, z3, of the pulse light having the angular frequency ω1 outputted from the light source unit 70, is split into polarization states of at least four directions and thus detected by the photodetector 40, and the normalized Stokes vectors are found. Then, the arithmetic operation unit 90 calculates the magnitude of the linear polarization components and the magnitude of the circular polarization component of the birefringence vector β on the basis of the Stokes vectors. Therefore, it is not necessary to use the results of numerical simulations and statistics for the calculation of birefringence. This enables accurate measurement of birefringence. This invention is not limited to these embodiments and the following structures may be employed. While the arithmetic operation unit 80 and the birefringence calculating unit 90 are provided in the apparatus shown in FIG. 7, the arithmetic operation unit 80 need not be provided in the case of calculating birefringence alone. In this case, the light source unit 70 may output light at one angular frequency. Although the tunable light source 71 outputs light while sequentially changing the angular frequencies ω1 to ω3 in the apparatuses shown in FIGS. 4 and 7, three tunable light sources 71 may be provided to simultaneously output light at the angular frequencies ω1 to ω3. In this case, a multiplexer can be provided between the tunable light sources 71 and the pulse generator 72, and a branching filter can be provided between the directional coupler 30 and the photodetector 40. While the tunable light source 71 outputs continuous light having different angular frequencies (at least three angular frequencies) in the above-described embodiment, at least three light sources for outputting light having a fixed wavelength may be provided instead of the tunable light source 71. Moreover, though the polarization controller 20 polarizes pulse light into two kinds of polarization states, it may polarize pulse light into plural kinds of polarization states. This invention has the following effects. The photodetector finds a normalized Stokes vector from back scattered light of each pulse light having at least three kinds of different angular frequencies. The arithmetic operation unit calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a polarization dispersion vector on the basis of the Stokes vector. Therefore, it is not necessary to use the results of numerical simulations and statistics for the calculation of polarization mode dispersion. This enables accurate measurement of polarization mode dispersion. The photodetector splits back scattered light of each pulse light having at least three kinds of different angular frequencies outputted from the light source unit into polarization states of at least four directions, detects the split back scattered light, and finds a normalized Stokes vector. The arithmetic operation unit calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a polarization dispersion vector on the basis of the Stokes vector. Therefore, it is not necessary to use the results of numerical simulations and statistics for the calculation of polarization mode dispersion. This enables accurate measurement of polarization mode dispersion. The photodetector finds a normalized Stokes vector from back scattered light from each of at least three different positions. The arithmetic operation unit calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a birefringence vector on the basis of the Stokes vector. Therefore, it is not necessary to use the results of numerical simulations and statistics for the calculation of the magnitude of birefringence. This enables accurate measurement of birefringence. The photodetector splits back scattered light from each of at least three different positions, of pulse light outputted from the light source unit, into polarization states of at least four directions, detects the split back scattered light, and finds a normalized Stokes vector. The arithmetic operation unit calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a birefringence vector on the basis of the Stokes vector. Therefore, it is not necessary to use the results of numerical simulations and statistics for the calculation of birefringence. This enables accurate measurement of birefringence. Back scattered light of each pulse light having at least three different angular frequencies outputted from the light source unit is split into polarization states of at least four directions and thus detected, and a normalized Stokes vector is found. On the basis of the Stokes vector, the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a polarization dispersion vector are calculated. Therefore, it is not necessary to use the results of numerical simulations and statistics for the calculation of polarization mode dispersion. This enables accurate measurement of polarization mode dispersion. Back scattered light from each of at least three different positions, of pulse light outputted from the light source unit, is split into polarization states of at least four directions and thus detected, and a normalized Stokes vector is found. On the basis of the Stokes vector, the magnitude of linear polarization components and the magnitude of a circular polarization component of a birefringence vector are calculated. Therefore, it is not necessary to use the results of numerical simulations and statistics for the calculation of birefringence. This enables accurate measurement of birefringence. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to an apparatus and method for measuring characteristics of optical fibers in which characteristics in the longitudinal direction (distribution of polarization mode dispersion and distribution of magnitude of birefringence) of subject optical fibers are measured, and particularly to an apparatus and method for measuring characteristics of optical fibers that enable accurate measurement of characteristics of optical fibers. 2. Description of the Related Art Recently, as higher transmission rates are increasingly demanded in the optical communication, transmission rates of 10 Gbps and 40 Gbps are getting realized. However, since dispersions such as material dispersion, waveguide dispersion, multimode dispersion and polarization mode dispersion exist in optical fibers as transmission media, waveform deterioration due to these dispersions is particularly considered to cause troubles. In the case where single-mode optical fibers are used, chromatic dispersion (sum of material dispersion and waveguide dispersion) and polarization mode dispersion are problems. Of these, chromatic dispersion can be compensated relatively easily by dispersion compensating fibers (DCF), reverse dispersion fibers (RDF) having the reverse characteristic of the chromatic dispersion of the single-mode optical fibers, a chromatic dispersion compensator or the like. Many solutions using these fibers or compensator are proposed and generally used. On the other hand, polarization mode dispersion is caused by various elements such as structural defects of the optical fibers themselves, and elliptic deformation of the core, flexure, stress, and twisting due to manufacturing conditions, construction conditions, use environment and the like. These elements cause birefringence and polarization mode dispersion in the optical fibers. Polarization mode dispersion exists randomly in the optical fibers and changes largely. Therefore, it is difficult to compensate polarization mode dispersion using passive components. Since compensation by passive components is difficult as described above, it is demanded that seriously defective parts of the already constructed optical fibers should be detected and removed and that defective parts should be detected in the manufacturing process to prevent entry into the markets or the results of measurement of polarization mode dispersion should be fed back to the manufacturing process to lower the proportion of defective parts when manufacturing optical fibers. To realize detection of defective parts and the like, it is important to measure characteristics in the longitudinal direction of optical fibers and an optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus is used. Particularly, an optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus for measuring characteristics of polarization mode dispersion values is called polarization mode dispersion measuring apparatus. To measure this polarization mode dispersion, for example, optical components where polarization modes (polarization states) are orthogonal to each other can be transmitted by a predetermined distance and the time difference Δτ between the optical components generated by the transmission can be found. A technique of measuring polarization mode dispersion will now be described with reference to FIG. 1 . FIG. 1 shows the principle of the conventional measurement of polarization mode dispersion. In FIG. 1 , an optical fiber 100 is, for example, a single-mode optical fiber and it is a subject optical fiber. Pulse light having angular frequencies ω 1 , ω 2 (ω 1 ≠ω 2 ; these angular frequencies are slightly different) is inputted from one end (input side) of the optical fiber 100 and the pulse light transmitted through the optical fiber 100 is received at the other end (output side). On the input side, the pulse light is polarized in different polarization states (for example, 0° and 45° to a reference axis) and thus inputted to the optical fiber 100 . On the output side, the polarization state of the pulse light from the optical fiber 100 is divided into four directions (for example, 0°, 45°, 90°, and circular polarization) and the light intensity in each direction is detected. Stokes vector components (S 0 , S 1 , S 2 , and S 3 ) are found from the light intensity in each direction. Generally, the transmission on the optical fiber 100 is expressed in the form of a Mueller matrix R (orthogonal matrix consisting of three row by three columns). Stokes vectors and Mueller matrix are expressed by the following equations. in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? Ŝ=RŜ 0 in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? Ŝ,Ŝ 0 represent Stokes vectors S,S 0 in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? Since the light intensity of light inputted to the optical fiber 100 is already known, the Mueller matrix R can be found from the Stokes vector S 0 of input light on the input side and the Stokes vector S of output light acquired on the output side. The Mueller matrix R is found for each of the angular frequencies ω 1 , ω 2 . The Stokes vector S of the output light transmitted through the optical fiber 100 having birefringence is changed by the influence of polarization mode dispersion with respect to changes of the angular frequencies ω 1 , ω 2 of the input light. This change is generally expressed by using a vector called polarization dispersion vector Ω within a polarization state space. The magnitude of the polarization dispersion vector Ω is equal to polarization mode dispersion. Therefore, the change in the polarization state of the output light based on the changes of the angular frequencies ω 1 , ω 2 is expressed by the following known equation (1) using the polarization dispersion vector Ω and the Mueller matrix R. (See, for example, G. J. Foschini, C. D. Poole, “Statistical theory of polarization dispersion in single mode fibers,” JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY, (U.S.), Laser & Electro-Optics Society (LEOS), November 1991, vol. 9, (No. 11), pp. 1439-1456.) ⅆ S ^ ⅆ ω = ⅆ R ⅆ ω S ^ 0 = ⅆ R ⅆ ω R - 1 S ^ = Ω S ^ = Ω ^ × S ^ wherein Ω ^ = [ Ω 1 Ω 2 Ω 3 ] T Ω = ( 0 - Ω 3 Ω 2 Ω 3 0 - Ω 1 - Ω 2 Ω 1 0 ) Ω ^ represents polarizati on dispersion vector Ω and Ω represents polarizati on dispersion matrix Ω . ( 1 ) Ω 1 , Ω 2 are linear polarization components that are different from each other. Ω 3 is a circular polarization component. The Stokes vector S of the output light is a vector including four components (S 0 , S 1 , S 2 , S 3 ) and the corresponding Mueller matrix R consists of four rows by four columns. However, the S 0 component has all the power of the light including non-polarization components. For polarization mode dispersion, changes of light power can be ignored and changes of polarization components alone can be handled. Therefore, the Mueller matrix R is a matrix representing conversion of Stokes vectors in the case where polarization components are normalized and expressed in the form of Poincare' sphere. The Mueller matrix R thus consists of three rows by three columns, omitting the S 0 component. Polarization mode dispersion is measured in the polarization state in independent four directions and the S 0 component is deducted. However, in the structure shown in FIG. 1 , only polarization mode dispersion on the output end of the optical fiber 100 can be measured. Thus, unidirectional measurement using optical time domain reflectometry (hereinafter referred to as OTDR), which is a known technique, is used to measure the distribution in the longitudinal direction. (See, for example, JP-A-2003-106942, paragraphs No. 0024 to No. 0066 and FIGS. 1 to 9 ; JP-T-2000-510246 (the term “JP-T” as used herein means a published Japanese translation of a PCT application) and A. J. Rogers, “Polarization optical time domain reflectometry,” Electronics letters (U.K.), the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE), 1980, Vol. 16, No. 13, pp. 489-490.) In this OTDR technique, short pulse light is inputted and back scattered light of this pulse light is measured, thereby measuring the characteristics of the optical fiber and also measuring the reflection position from the time taken for the back scattered light to return. FIGS. 2 and 3 show structural views of a conventional optical fiber characteristics measuring apparatus. The same elements as those in FIG. 1 are denoted by the same symbols and numerals and will not be described further in detail. In FIGS. 2 , and 3 , a light source unit 10 has a tunable light source 11 and a pulse generator 12 and outputs pulse light with angular frequencies of ω 1 , ω 2 . The tunable light source 11 is a continuous light output unit. It variably controls the angular frequencies ω 1 , ω 2 and outputs continuous light having the desired angular frequencies ω 1 , ω 2 . The pulse generator 12 converts the continuous light from the tunable light source 11 to pulse light having a desired pulse width and then outputs the pulse light. A polarization controller 20 arbitrarily polarizes each pulse light from the light source unit 10 in a variable manner (into at least two different polarization states) and outputs the polarized light. A directional coupler 30 outputs the pulse light polarized by the polarization controller 20 to the optical fiber 100 , and return light from the optical fiber 100 , that is, back scattered light, is inputted to the directional coupler 30 . A photodetector 40 detects the light intensity of the back scattered light from the directional coupler 30 in the polarization states of at least four directions synchronously with the pulse light outputted from the light source unit 10 , and finds a normalized Stokes vector for each of the angular frequencies ω 1 , ω 2 . An arithmetic operation unit 50 has a matrix calculating unit 51 , a polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 52 , a linear polarization calculating unit 53 , and a dispersion value calculating unit 54 . The arithmetic operation unit 50 calculates polarization dispersion vectors Ω B of the back scattered light on the basis of the Stokes vectors found by the photodetector 40 , then calculates linear polarization components of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in a single direction by using the polarization dispersion vectors Ω B , and calculates polarization mode dispersion. The matrix calculating unit 51 calculates a Mueller matrix from the normalized Stokes vector for each of the angular frequencies ω 1 , ω 2 . The polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 52 calculates the polarization dispersion vectors Ω B of the back scattered light at the angular frequencies from the Mueller matrix calculated by the matrix calculating unit 51 . The linear polarization calculating unit 53 calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components (Ω 1 , Ω 2 ) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in a single direction from the polarization dispersion vectors Ω B of the back scattered light calculated by the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 52 . The dispersion value calculating unit 53 calculates a polarization mode dispersion value from the magnitude of the linear polarization components. A control unit 60 designates the angular frequencies ω 1 , ω 2 , pulse width and pulse interval to the light source unit 10 and designates the polarization state to the polarization controller 20 . The control unit 60 also designates the polarization state to be detected to the photodetector 40 and synchronizes the detection with the pulse light, and designates the calculation to the arithmetic operation unit 50 . The operation of this apparatus will now be described. The control unit 60 causes the tunable light source 11 to output continuous light at the angular frequency ω 1 and causes the pulse generator 12 to output pulse light with a desired pulse width at a desired pulse interval. Moreover, the control unit 60 causes the polarization controller 20 to output the pulse light with a polarization state of, for example, 0°, to the subject optical fiber 100 via the directional coupler 30 . Then, back scattered light, which is return light from the subject optical fiber 100 , is inputted to the photodetector 40 via the directional coupler 30 . The photodetector 40 detects the light intensity in four directions (for example, 0°, 45°, 90°, and circular polarization) in accordance with the designation from the control unit 60 . Similarly, the light intensities in four directions are detected with respect to the light at the angular frequency ω 1 and in the polarization state of 45°, the light at the angular, frequency ω 2 and in the polarization state of 0°, and the light at the angular frequency ω 2 and in the polarization state of 45° in accordance with the designation from the control unit 60 . The photodetector 40 then calculates a Stokes vector S B for each of the angular frequencies ω 1 , ω 2 . As the Stokes vector S B is calculated, the control unit 60 instructs the arithmetic operation unit 50 to calculate polarization mode dispersion. In accordance with this instruction, the arithmetic operation unit 50 reads out the Stokes vector S B from the photodetector 40 and the matrix calculating unit 51 calculates a Mueller matrix R B of the back scattered light from the Stokes vector S B . The polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 52 calculates polarization dispersion vectors Ω B of the back scattered light from the Mueller matrix R B . That is, when the light intensity of the back scattered light from the subject optical fiber 100 is measured, the relation of the following equation (2) based on the Mueller matrix R B and Stokes vector S B holds, similarly to the equation (1). ⅆ S ^ B ⅆ ω = ⅆ R B ⅆ ω R B - 1 S ^ B S ^ B represents Stokes vector S B of back scattered light , and R B represents Mueller matrix R B of back scattered light . ( 2 ) As the polarization dispersion matrix Ω B representing the polarization dispersion vectors Ω B of the back scattered light, the following equation (3) can be acquired from the equations (1) and (2). Ω ^ B = ⅆ R B ⅆ ω R B - 1 Ω ^ B represents polarizati on dispersion vector Ω B . ( 3 ) In this manner, the polarization dispersion vector calculating unit 52 calculates the polarization dispersion vectors Ω B . Moreover, the linear polarization calculating unit 53 calculates the magnitude of linear polarization components of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in a single direction. That is, it is generally known that the relation between the Mueller matrix R and the Mueller matrix R B of the back scattered light is expressed by the following equation (4) using a matrix M. R B = MR T MR ( M = ( 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 - 1 ) ) ( 4 ) Therefore, as the equation (4) is substituted into the equation (3), the polarization dispersion vector Ω B of the back scattered light, the Mueller matrix R in the single direction, and the linear polarization component Ω L of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in the single direction are in the relation of the following equation (5) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? {circumflex over (Ω)} B =2MR T {circumflex over (Ω)} L in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? ({circumflex over (Ω)} L =[Ω 1 Ω 2 0 ] T ) (5) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? {circumflex over (Ω)} L represents linear polarization component vector Ω L . In the case of calculating the magnitude (Δτ B ) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω 8 of the back scattered light, the magnitude of the vector converted by MR (transported matrix) on the right side of the equation (5) is not changed because the matrix M and the Mueller matrix R are orthogonal matrices. Therefore, the following equation holds. in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? Δτ B =|{circumflex over (Ω)} B |=2{square root}{square root over (Ω 1 2 +Ω 2 2 )} in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? In this manner, the linear polarization calculating unit 53 calculates the magnitude of the linear polarization components (Ω 1 , Ω 2 ) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in the single direction. On the statistical assumption of Gaussian distribution as the distribution of the components Ω 1 to Ω 3 of the polarization dispersion vector Ω, the relation between the magnitude (Δτ B ) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω B of the back scattered light and the magnitude (Δτ) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω of polarization mode dispersion to be found is expressed by the following equation. 〈 Δ τ 〉 = 〈 Δτ B 〉 2 π <Δτ B >is a statistical average value of values that are measured many times under various conditions. Therefore, the dispersion value calculating unit 54 calculates the value of polarization mode dispersion from the polarization dispersion vector Ω B acquired from the back scattered light. (See, for example, Fabrizio Corsi, Andrea Galtarossa, Luca Palmieri, “Polarization Mode Dispersion Characterization of Single-Mode Optical Fiber Using Backscattering Technique,” JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY (U.S.), Laser & Electro-Optics Society (LEOS), October 1998, Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 1832-1843.) In this manner, the magnitude (Δτ B ) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω B of pulse light of two wavelengths (angular frequencies ω 1 , ω 2 ) is calculated and polarization mode dispersion (Δτ) is measured. However, the apparatus shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 has a problem that it cannot detect the circular polarization component of birefringence within the subject optical fiber 100 simply and directly, as described in J. N. Ross, “Birefringence measurement in optical fibers by polarization-optical time-domain reflectometry,” Applied Optics (U.S.), Optical Society of America (OSA), October 1982, Vol. 21, No. 19, pp. 3489-3495. As is clear from the equation (5), only the effect of the linear polarization components (Ω 1 , Ω 2 ) is left and the effect of the circular polarization component Ω 3 is eliminated. Therefore, when the magnitude (Δτ B ) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω B of the back scattered light is compared with the polarization mode dispersion (Δτ), the following formula holds. in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? Δτ B =2{square root}{square root over (Ω 1 2 +Ω 2 2 )}<2{square root}{square root over (Ω 1 2 +Ω 2 2 +Ω 3 2 )}=2Δτ in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? Of course, the polarization dispersion vector Ω B acquired from the back scattered light only includes the linear polarization components (Ω 1 , Ω 2 ) of the polarization dispersion vector Ω in the single direction. The OTDR technique measures the light entered and returning from the subject optical fiber 100 . If Δτ=Δτ B /2 is simply assumed, polarization mode dispersion Δτ cannot be calculated accurately. For example, if the circular polarization component Ω 3 increases because of torsion of the subject optical fiber 100 or the like, there is a possibility that polarization mode dispersion (Δτ) takes a relatively small value. Generally, the average magnitude <Δτ B >of the polarization dispersion vectors acquired from the back scattered light is multiplied by 0.64 (which is approximately 2/π), as shown in the above-described equation. However, since this value is acquired from many numerical simulations and statistics, the value is not effective for all the subject optical fibers 100 and it is difficult to accurately find polarization mode dispersion, that is, the characteristics of the optical fibers | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of this invention to realize an apparatus and method for measuring characteristics of optical fibers that enable accurate measurement of characteristics of subject optical fibers. | 20040608 | 20070220 | 20050127 | 84356.0 | 0 | NGUYEN, TU T | APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR MEASURING CHARACTERISTICS OF IPTICAL FIBERS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,863,951 | ACCEPTED | Method and apparatus for associating on demand certain selected media and value-adding elements | A a thermal transfer media printer is disclosed. In one embodiment, the printer selectively programs RFID transponders, and then embeds them into conventional on-demand printed media between the adhesive layer and the release liner. Selective configuration of each printed media sample by addition of value-adding elements may be performed independently for each media sample, under software control during processing of each media sample format print control program. An add-on mechanism is disclosed that can be operatively attached to a conventional media printer. This allows RFID transponder labels to be selectively applied at precise locations on the printed surface of on-demand printed media in connection with existing printers. | 1-172. (cancelled) 173. A media processing system for use in an environment in which selected objects require a “smart” media sample having printed material and an RFID transponder with an electronic circuit, memory, and antenna capable of responding to an RF interrogation signal, and in which environment other objects require only a conventional (“dumb”) media sample having printed material but lacking an RFID transponder, the media processing system creating on demand both smart and conventional dumb media samples in response to programmed instructions from a host processor, the system comprising: an on-demand print device configured to receive a series of labels, tickets, tags, cards, or other media samples, said print device printing on media samples in response to programmed instructions individualized for each media sample in the series of media samples which instruct the print device to print or not to print a conductive antenna on said media sample; and an on-demand value adding mechanism configured to receive said series of media samples and a series of RFID system components in the form of RFID circuitry or antenna mounting pad components, said value adding mechanism in response to programmed instructions individualized for each media sample, either applying to the media sample an RFID circuitry or antenna mounting pad component if a conductive antenna has been printed, or not applying an RFID circuitry or mounting pad component to the media sample, said RFID circuitry or antenna mounting pad component being operatively coupled to a conductive antenna printed on the media sample by the print device. 174. A media processing system for use in an environment in which selected objects require a “smart” media sample having printed material and an RFID transponder with an electronic circuit, memory, and antenna capable of responding to an RF interrogation signal, and in which environment other objects require only a conventional (“dumb”) media sample having printed material but lacking an RFID transponder, the media processing system creating on demand both smart and conventional dumb media samples in response to programmed instructions from a host processor, the system comprising: an on-demand print device configured to receive a series of labels, tickets, tags, cards, or other media samples, said print device printing on media samples in response to programmed instructions individualized for each media sample which instruct the print device to print or not to print a conductive antenna on said media sample; and an on-demand value adding mechanism configured to receive said series of media samples and a series of RFID system components, said value adding mechanism in response to programmed instructions individualized for each media sample, either applying to the media sample an RFID system component in association with the printed conductive antenna, or not applying an RFID system component to the media sample. 175. The media processing system of claim 174 wherein said print device is a thermal transfer printer and wherein said conductive antenna comprises a conductive ink or carbon formation transferred from a thermal transfer ribbon. 176. A media processing system for use in an environment in which selected objects require a “smart” media sample having printed material and an RFID transponder with an electronic circuit, memory, and antenna capable of responding to an RF interrogation signal, and in which environment other objects require only a conventional (“dumb”) media sample having printed material but lacking an RFID transponder, the media processing system creating on demand both smart and conventional dumb media samples in response to programmed instructions from a host processor, the system comprising: an on-demand print device configured to receive a series of labels, tickets, tags, cards, or other media samples, said print device printing on media samples in response to programmed format and content print instructions individualized for each media sample in the series of media samples which instruct the print device regarding what and where to print on the media sample; and an on-demand value adding mechanism configured to receive said series of media samples and a series of RFID system components in the form of RFID circuitry or antenna mounting pad components, said value adding mechanism in response to programmed instructions individualized for each media sample, either applying to the media sample an RFID circuitry or antenna mounting pad component, or not applying an RFID circuitry or mounting pad component to the media sample. 177. The media processing system of claim 176 wherein said value adding mechanism includes a moveable structure which has a first position in which an RFID system component is adapted to be peeled from a liner and applied to a media sample, and a second position in which an RFID system component is adapted to not be peeled from a liner and not be applied to the media sample. 178. The media processing system of claim 177 wherein said moveable structure includes an electromechanical actuator. 179. The media processing system of claim 178 wherein said electromechanical actuator comprises a linear actuator which is adapted to move an RFID system component toward or away from a media sample to which the component is to be applied. 180. The media processing system of claim 176 wherein said value adding mechanism includes a pressure-applying structure configured to press together an RFID system component, an associated media sample, and an adhesive layer located at an interface between the RFID system component and the associated media sample. 181. The media processing system of claim 180 wherein said pressure-applying structure includes a tamper. 182. The media processing system of claim 181 wherein said tamper comprises: a fast-acting solenoid; a gas spring driven by said solenoid; and a surface configured to press together the RFID system component and the associated media sample, said gas spring damping the fast action of said solenoid. 183. The media processing system of claim 176 wherein said value adding mechanism includes a vacuum device for holding a media sample as an RFID system component is applied to the media sample. 184. The media processing system of claim 183 wherein said vacuum device comprises a vacuum conveyor. 185. The media processing system of claim 180 including a vacuum device for holding the media sample as an RFID system component is applied to the media sample. 186. The media processing system of claim 176 configured to create a gas flow directed to assist in effectuating application of the RFID system component to a media sample. 187. The media processing system of claim 176 wherein said RFID circuitry has a memory storing a software program. 188. A method comprising: receiving a series of labels, tickets, tags, cards, or other media samples, and on demand printing on said media samples in response to programmed print instructions individualized for each media sample in the series of media samples which instruct a print device to print or not to print a conductive antenna on the media sample; and on demand in response to programmed instructions individualized for each media sample, either applying to the media sample an RFID system component in the form of RFID circuitry or mounting pad components, or not applying such an RFID system component to the media sample, the RFID circuitry or antenna mounting pad component being operatively coupled to a conductive antenna printed on the media sample. 189. The media processing system of claim 188 wherein a media sample has an adhesive backing, said method including adhering an RFID system component to said adhesive backing. 190. The method of claim 188 wherein a media sample does not have an adhesive backing, said method including adhering an adhesive-backed RFID system component to a non-adhesive surface of said media sample. 191. The method of claim 188 wherein a value adding mechanism receives a series of RFID components on a liner, the method including selectively retaining certain components on said liner. 192. The method of claim 188 including selectively either moving an RFID system component into a first position and applying the component to a media sample, or moving an RFID system component into a second position and refraining from applying the component to the media sample. 193. The method of claim 188 including holding a media sample with a vacuum as an RFID system component is applied to the media sample. 194. The method of claim 188 including applying a plurality of RFID system components to a selected media sample. 195. The method of claim 188 including creating a gas flow directed to assist in effectuating application of the RFID system component to a media sample. 196. The method of claim 188 wherein a media sample in said series of media samples has an adhesive backing and is carried on a liner, said method including peeling the media sample from said liner, applying an RFID system component to said adhesive backing of the media sample, and relaminating the media sample on a liner. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention concerns, in a general sense, a method and apparatus by which, both selectively and on-demand, individual labels, tickets, tags, cards, and the like (hereinafter collectively and in individual units referred to as “media”, or individually as “media samples”) having selected characteristics may be custom configured by causing one or more value-adding elements that have chosen characteristics to be associated with said media. More particularly, the invention is directed to method and apparatus for selectively incorporating a value-adding element such as, for example, a radio frequency identification (hereinafter called RFID) transponder with individual media samples on a programmed, on-demand basis. Other types of value-adding elements that could be incorporated into media samples include, for example, shipping documents; parts to be inventoried, stored or shipped; promotional devices such as coupons, tokens, currency or other objects having a value to the recipient; integrated circuits on labels with leads to be connected to printed antennas; and attached or embedded attached objects that have associated information on the printed media relating to their identification or use. A thermal transfer printer is typically used to print individual media samples. Referring to FIG. 1, a side view of a standard thermal transfer printer mechanism 10 is illustrated. A label carrier 12 (also generally referred to as a release liner) carries adhesive-backed, (typically unprinted) diecut labels 14 through the mechanism. Typically, the top surface of each label is printed with a pattern of ink dots from a thermal transfer ribbon 16 melted onto the label surface as the ribbon and label pass under a computer-controlled thermal printhead 18. An elastomer-coated platen roller 20 typically is driven by a stepping motor (not shown) to provide both the movement force for the ribbon and label by means of a friction drive action on the label carrier 12, as well as acting as the receiver for the required pressure of the printhead on the ribbon-label sandwich. This pressure assists in transferring the molten ink dots under printhead 18 from the thermal transfer ribbon 16 onto the diecut label 14 surface. The thermal transfer ribbon 16 is unwound from a printer ribbon supply 22, and is guided under the thermal printhead 18 by idler rollers 24. After the ink is melted from the ribbon 16 onto the printed diecut label 26, the spent ribbon is wound on a printer ribbon take-up spindle 28. Typically, a media exit 30 is located immediately after the printhead 18. The now-printed diecut label 26 is often dispensed on its label carrier 12. If a user desires that the printed diecut labels be automatically stripped from label carrier, then an optional peeler bar 32 is utilized. As the label carrier 12 passes over the sharp radius of peeler bar 32, the adhesive bond is broken, thereby releasing the printed diecut label 26 from its label carrier 12. The peeled, printed diecut label 26 is dispensed at media exit 30. The excess label carrier 12 is both tensioned for peeling and rewound using optional label carrier take-up mechanism 34. As will be described in detail hereinafter, an exemplary embodiment of the present invention involves selectively and on demand associating, in the environment of a thermal or thermal transfer printer, an RFID transponder with a label, e.g., to create a “smart” label. Although “chipless” RFID transponders exist and may be utilized as one example of a value-added element with certain aspects of this invention, the most common form of an RFID transponder used in smart labels comprises an antenna and an RFID integrated circuit. Such RFID transponders include both DC powered active transponders and batteryless passive transponders, and are available in a variety of form factors. Commonly used passive inlay transponders 36 shown in FIG. 2 have a substantially thin, flat shape. For automatic insertion into labels, the inlay transponders 36 typically are prepared with a pressure-sensitive adhesive backing, and are delivered individually diecut and mounted with a uniform spacing on an inlay carrier. Inlay transponders have been used as layers of identification tags and labels to carry encoded data, stored in a non-volatile memory area data, that may be read wirelessly at a distance. For example, a camera having a radio-frequency identification transponder that can be accessed for writing and reading at a distance is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,173,119. The antenna 38 for an inlay transponder 36 is in the form of a conductive trace deposited on a non-conductive support 40, and has the shape of a flat coil or the like. Antenna leads 42 are also deposited, with non-conductive layers interposed as necessary. The RFID integrated circuit 44 of the inlay transponder 36 includes a non-volatile memory, such as an EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory); a subsystem for power generation from the RF field generated by the reader; RF communications capability; and internal control functions. The RFID integrated circuit 44 is mounted on the non-conductive support 40 and operatively connected through the antenna leads 42. The inlays are typically packaged singulated or on a Z-form or roll inlay carrier 46 as shown in FIG. 2. It is known how to utilize on-press equipment for insertion of transponders into media to form “smart labels,” and then to print information on a surface of the smart labels. See, for example, a publication entitled “RFID Technology & Smart Labels,” dated Sep. 14, 1999, P/N 11315L Rev. 1 of Zebra Technologies Corporation. See also, for example, a publication entitled “A White Paper On The Development Of AIM Industry Standards For 13.56 MHz RFID Smart Labels And RFID Printer/Encoders” by Clive P. Hohberger, PhD, that is dated May 24, 2000. Both of these publications are incorporated by reference into this application as if fully set forth herein. It also is known how to utilize label applicator equipment to attach pressure-sensitive labels to business forms. Such equipment has been commercially available on the U.S. market from several companies for more than one year prior to the filing of this application. Zebra Technologies Corporation is a leading manufacture of a number of printer related products, including a number of on-demand thermal transfer printers that incorporate a number of the aspects of the technology that is disclosed in the two above-referenced publications. An example of such a “smart label” printer commercially available for more than a year prior to the filing of this application includes Zebra model number R-140. Such products are satisfactory for their intended uses. However, further improvements are desired. Certain features and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the description that follows. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The objects and advantages of the present invention will become more readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the relevant art after reviewing the following detailed description and accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a side, schematic view of a standard thermal transfer label printer mechanism; FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a plurality of passive inlay-type RFID transponders as delivered with an adhesive backing on an inlay carrier; FIG. 3 is a side, schematic view of a thermal transfer printer that incorporates a number of aspects of an exemplary embodiment of the present invention disclosed in this application; FIG. 4 is a front, sectional view of a portion of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 3 detailing a tamping applicator mechanism; FIG. 5 is a front, sectional, schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 3, wherein a transponder dispensing mechanism is disposed in a fully retracted initial position; FIG. 6 is a schematic, block diagram of some of the key electronic subsystems and components of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 7 is a program flow-chart that illustrates certain key program steps that are executed by the processor unit shown in FIG. 6 for each print job that is performed by the thermal transfer label printer shown in FIGS. 3-6; FIG. 8 is a front, sectional, schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 3, wherein the transponder dispensing mechanism shown in FIG. 5 is disposed in an extended position so that an RFID transponder is positioned in a desired position and orientation with respect to a delaminated diecut label printed by the thermal transfer printer; FIG. 9 is a front, sectional, schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 5, wherein the tamping applicator mechanism detailed in FIG. 4 is utilized to permanently affix a programmed RFID transponder to a media sample that is to be printed by the thermal transfer printer mechanism and wherein a linear actuator is used to retract the dispensing mechanism to peel the inlay carrier from the back of the programmed transponder thereby exposing its adhesive layer; FIG. 10 is a side, sectional, schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 3, wherein a diecut label/programmed transponder sandwich is formed and relaminated to the diecut label carrier; FIG. 11 is a side schematic view of a thermal transfer printer mechanism, similar to that disclosed in FIG. 3, that incorporates a number of aspects of a further exemplary embodiment of the present invention disclosed in this application, and that allows adhesive-backed value-adding devices such as RFID transponders to be affixed to stiff media that does not include its own adhesive layer; FIG. 12 is a side schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 11, wherein an adhesive-backed, programmed RFID transponder is disposed in a dispensing position with respect to the value-adding mechanism; FIG. 13 is a side schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 11, wherein an adhesive-backed, programmed RFID transponder is affixed to a stiff media; FIG. 14 is a side schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 11, wherein the stiff media, upon which an adhesive-backed, programmed RFID transponder is affixed, is advanced to a dispensing position; FIG. 15 is a flow-chart that illustrates certain key program steps that are executed by the processor unit shown in FIG. 6 for each print job that is performed by the thermal transfer printer shown in FIGS. 11-14; FIGS. 16A though 16D are schematic views of two types of RFID integrated circuit labels and their attachment to two corresponding types of printed antennae in order to form actual RFID transponders in a process using an exemplary variation of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIGS. 11-15; FIGS. 17A and 17B are schematic views of the front and reverse sides postcard set media that is on-demand printed and to which various value-added elements are added in a production process according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 18 is a representation of the four value-added elements which are added in certain combinations to the postcard set media of FIG. 17 by the exemplary production process that is shown in FIG. 19; FIG. 19 is an overhead schematic view of an exemplary production process incorporating forms of two exemplary invention embodiments that are used for selectively and on-demand configuring the postcard media of FIG. 17 by addition of one or more value-added elements of FIG. 18; FIGS. 20-23 are side, schematic views of a thermal transfer printer mechanism that incorporates a number of aspects of the present invention disclosed in this application, showing an RFID transponder to be selectively and on demand, under program control, said RFID transponder to be encoded, and attached to an adhesive backed previously printed diecut label; and FIG. 24 is a side, schematic view of a thermal transfer printer mechanism, similar to FIGS. 20-23, that allows an RFID transponder to be selectively and on demand, under program control, encoded and attached to a linerless media. DETAILED DESCRIPTION While the present invention is susceptible of embodiment in various forms, there are shown in the drawings a number of presently preferred embodiments that are discussed in greater detail hereafter. It should be understood that the present disclosure is to be considered as an exemplification of the present invention, and is not intended to limit the invention to the specific embodiments illustrated. It should be further understood that the title of this section of this application (“Detailed Description of Illustrative Embodiments”) relates to a requirement of the United States Patent Office, and should not be found to limit the subject matter disclosed herein. Referring to FIG. 3, a side, schematic view of a thermal transfer printer 48 that incorporates a number of aspects of the present invention disclosed in this application is shown. In the embodiment of the present invention illustrated in FIG. 3, the thermal transfer printer 48 comprises a standard thermal transfer printer mechanism that includes all of the components illustrated in FIG. 1. Printer 48 also includes a value-adding mechanism 50 comprising the identified objects 54-70 that cause a value-adding device such as, for example, a programmed RFID transponder 52 to be affixed to a media sample after it is printed as discussed in greater detail hereinafter. It should be understood that value-adding mechanism 50 can be manufactured and sold apart from the thermal transfer printing mechanism 10 to allow existing thermal transfer printers to be retrofitted and, therefore, operate in accordance with a number of aspects of the invention disclosed in this application. It also should be understood that, while the illustrated embodiments of the present invention are disclosed in connection with thermal transfer printing, the present invention is applicable to other printing technologies. Referring back to FIG. 3, the thermal transfer printer 48 allows an adhesive-backed, preprogrammed RFID transponder 52 to be selectively bonded to a printed diecut media sample (such as, for example, a printed diecut label 26) by the value-adding mechanism 50 under program control as discussed in greater detail hereinafter. The finished printed diecut label/programmed transponder sandwich (26/52) is presented at media exit 30 with the label carrier 12 optionally stripped. Immediately after printing, the printed diecut label 26 is released from its label carrier 12 by passing over the sharp radius of the peeler bar 32. The delaminating process performed by peeler bar 32 exposes the adhesive on the bottom (unprinted) surface of the printed diecut label 26. The printed diecut label 26 then continues in a straight line as it passes over a smooth, perforated vacuum guide plate 54 of a tamping applicator mechanism 56. A centrifugal fan 58 extracts air 60 to create a slight vacuum in the plenum 62. This causes a slight upward force to be maintained on the printed diecut label 26 that keeps it disposed against the smooth perforated vacuum guide plate 54. The magnitude of the vacuum force is at such a level that does not impede the forward motion of the printed diecut label 26. Plenum 60 is extensible along a central axis that is generally perpendicular to the path of movement of the label. The delaminated label carrier 12 passes around a buffer loop roller 64 used to control the flow of the label carrier 12 around a transponder dispensing mechanism 66 (FIG. 6). The buffer loop roller 64 is free to float up and down, taking up and returning excess label carrier 12 at different times in the process. In an exemplary embodiment, one function of the dispensing mechanism 66 is to position an adhesive-backed RFID transponder 52 underneath and in operative relation to the printed diecut label 26. RFID transponder 52 is transported on the inlay carrier 46 as shown. The tamping applicator mechanism 56 (FIG. 3) then extends the plenum 60 downwardly through the use of flexible bellows 70 so that the rigid, perforated vacuum guide plate 54 lightly tamps the printed side of printed diecut label 26. This causes the exposed adhesive surface of the printed diecut label 26 to be adhered to the top surface of the RFID transponder 52. The label-transponder sandwich (26/52) is now advanced forwardly, and is passed through a nip 72 that is formed by upper nip roller 74 and lower nip roller 76. The nip compression both bonds the adhesive of the printed diecut label 26 to the RFID transponder 52, and relaminates label-transponder sandwich (26/52) to the label carrier 12. The formed diecut label-transponder-label carrier sandwich (26/52/12) then exits the value-adding mechanism 50. As is well known, the label carrier 12 may be optionally stripped from the diecut label/transponder sandwich (26/52) by the use of an exit peeler bar 78 and optional label carrier take-up mechanism 34. Typically, only the lower nip roller 72 is driven, this roller being driven at the same surface speed as the platen roller 20. This allows, for example, printed diecut labels 26 that are longer than the gap between platen roller 20 and nip 72 to be accommodated in printer 48 without deforming the printed diecut label 26. FIG. 4 is a detailed sectional view of a portion of the tamping applicator mechanism 56 shown in FIG. 3. A sealed case 80 and sealed flexible bellows 70 form a closed plenum 62 that contains a partial vacuum to be applied to the printed media as it passes through the thermal transfer printer 48. The atmospheric pressure on the underside of the printed diecut label 26 thus causes the label to be temporarily adhered to the perforated vacuum guide plate 54. The vacuum in plenum 62 is generated by a centrifugal fan 58 expelling air 60 sucked in through the holes 82 in the perforated vacuum guide plate 54, passing through internal vents 84 and 86 into blower inlet 88. The flexible bellows 70, attached both via a drive bracket 104 to the perforated vacuum guide plate 54 and a baseplate 90, allows the perforated vacuum guide plate 54 to move up and down while maintaining a sealed vacuum in plenum 62. Baseplate 90 forms a part of the housing of the thermal transfer printer 48 and on which is mounted case 80. The tamping applicator mechanism 56 is mounted on a case bracket 92, and includes a two-part solenoid with fixed solenoid coil 94 attached to a case bracket 92, and solenoid plunger 68 that is attached to the gas spring plunger 97 via coupler 100. The body of gas spring 98 slides freely within a linear bearing 102 that is affixed to the perforated vacuum guideplate 54 indirectly through drive bracket 104 as shown. A return spring 106 between the movable coupler 100 and the fixed baseplate 90 provides a force to return the solenoid plunger 68 and iron disc 96 to their rest position when the solenoid coil 94 is de-energized. One function of the gas spring 98 is to transfer a constant force to the vacuum guide plate 54 independently of the degree of plenum extension. The gas spring 98, acting together with return spring 106 and the driven mass, also provides viscous damping of the motion of the perforated vacuum guide plate 54, decoupling it from the snap action of the solenoid plunger 68 when the solenoid coil 94 is energized, pulling down iron disc 96. A gas damper or other viscous damper may alternatively be used in place of gas spring 98 to perform the same function. Alternative design concepts are available for the tamping applicator mechanism if a compressed air source is available. The partial vacuum in plenum 62 may be generated by passing compressed air through a venturi. The tamping actuator may be an air cylinder, with a controlled airflow in said air cylinder replacing the function of the gas spring 98 in extending downward the perforated vacuum guide plate 54. Alternatively, tamping may be performed through use of an air blast through the perforated vacuum guide plate 54 onto the label in an alternate tamping applicator mechanism 56 with an non-extensible plenum 62. Referring to FIG. 5, a sectional, schematic view of the thermal transfer printer 48 shown in FIG. 3 is illustrated, wherein dispensing mechanism 66 is disposed in a fully retracted initial position. In the embodiment of the invention shown in FIG. 5, printer 48 includes utilizes an RF signal 108 that is emitted by transponder programmer antenna 110 to program the memory in RFID integrated circuit 44. In the fully retracted position shown in FIG. 5, the now-programmed RFID transponder 52 is positioned directly under the transponder programmer antenna 110. The dispensing mechanism 66 comprises, in the illustrated embodiment of the present invention, among other things, transponder carrier rollers 112, 113, 115 a rigid guide plate 114, and a linear actuator 116. Linear actuator 116 extends and retracts the rigid guide plate 114 so that the now-programmed RFID transponder 52 is placed under the diecut label 26 in the desired insertion position. To position the programmed transponder 52 properly under printed diecut label 26, a rolamite drive mechanism 118, that is turned by rolamite stepping motor 120, is synchronized with the motion of linear actuator 116 to adjust the movement of transponder inlay carrier 46. This motion is also synchronized with the motion of a transponder supply roll spindle 122 and an inlay carrier take-up spindle 124 of inlay carrier take-up spool 132. The supply roll drive 126 supplies both a computer-controlled unwind resistance and a braking function on transponder supply roll 128. The take-up roll drive 130, acting on the inlay carrier take-up spindle 124, maintains appropriate tension on inlay carrier 46 to prevent web slippage in the rolamite drive mechanism 118 that provides peeling tension for stripping the inlay carrier 46 from the programmed RFID transponder 52 at inlay carrier peeler bar 134. A transponder position sensor 136 detects when a transponder 52 is appropriately placed under the transponder programmer antenna 110. The transponder position sensor 136 is part of the control electronics shown in FIG. 6, and is used to control the motion of the inlay carrier 46. FIG. 6 is a schematic, block diagram of principal electronic components of the thermal transfer printer 48 that is shown in FIG. 3. In the illustrated embodiment of the invention, printer 48 includes a processor unit 138 with devices attached to a processor bus 140. The processor unit 138 executes a set of program instructions that are received from a user via printer I/O port 142 and that are stored in memory 144. As shown in FIG. 6, processor unit 138 is operatively electrically coupled through processor bus 140 to, among other things, platen roller drive 146 which drives platen roller 20; thermal printhead 18; transponder programmer 148 which is in turn connected to transponder programmer antenna 110; transponder position sensor 136; linear actuator 116; supply roll drive 126; rolamite stepping motor 120 which operate rolamite drive mechanism 118; inlay carrier take-up roll drive 130; and tamping solenoid 94. FIG. 7 is a flow-chart that illustrates program steps that are executed by the processor unit 138 shown in FIG. 6 for each print job performed by the thermal transfer printer 48. Programming languages that are suitable for use in programming print jobs in connection with the present invention disclosed in this application include, for example, ZPL II® that is the universal language for printers that are manufactured by Zebra Technologies Corporation. Processor 138 (FIG. 6) first retrieves the parameters of a print job that a user desires to have done on an on-demand or selective basis from memory 144 in process 150. For example, a user may store a set of instructions in the memory 144 that will cause printer 48 to print a batch of 100 diecut labels, wherein every other diecut label is to be a “smart label” provided with a programmed RFID transponder 52. It should be understood that all “on-demand” printing jobs are intended to be covered in connection with the present invention to the extent that such printing jobs include (in the presently discussed preferred execution of the invention) at least one smart label. Referring back to FIG. 7, in program step 152, processor unit 138 (FIG. 6) determines whether or not a diecut label 14 that is to be printed is to have a programmed RFID transponder 52 attached to it. If not, then the printed diecut label 26 is formed in process 154. If the entire print job is determined to be completed in program step 156, then the program sequence is ended. If the print job is not done, then in process 158 both a new diecut label 14 is properly positioned under printhead 18 for the next printing cycle, and the label format is indexed. Then the processor unit 138 executes instructions to loop to program step 152. If processor unit 138 determines in program step 152 that an RFID transponder is to be attached to a diecut label 14 that is to be printed, then an RFID transponder 52 is programmed in process 160, and then is verified as being operable and correctly programmed in process 162. If the programmed RFID transponder 52 is correctly verified, then the diecut label 14 is printed in process 163 to form printed diecut label 26, and then the programmed RFID transponder 52 is attached to the printed diecut label 26 in process 164 by operation of the value-adding mechanism 50. The processor unit 138 then executes program step 156 to see if the print job is performed as above. If the print job is not performed, then the media and label format are indexed in process 158, and the processor unit 138 then loops to program step 152. Transponder programming and verification typically occurs prior to printing the media, so that a smart media with a defective transponder 52 can be identified by printing “void” on it, for example, rather than the normal label format as, for example, discussed above. The printer 48 then typically ejects the defective smart label, and automatically repeats the process until a fully functional smart label with a properly encoded transponder and the correct label format is produced. This ensures that the integrity of the batch of labels that a user desires to manufacture in connection with a particular on-demand print job is accurately made. To wit, if in verification process 162 the processor unit 138 determines that the programmed RFID transponder 52 is not operable, then it may be disposed of directly. Alternatively, a suitable indicia such as, for example, “VOID” is printed in process 163 on the diecut label 26, and the inoperable RFID transponder 52 is attached to the “VOID” printed label in process 164 in order to expel the properly-identified defective transponder 52 from the printer 48. The processor unit 138 loops in processes 160 and 162, etc., to program and verify a new RFID transponder 52, printing an appropriate diecut label 26 and attaching them together in process 164 continues until a correctly printed diecut label 26 with an embedded, verified, programmed RFID transponder 52 is completed. Then the program continues by testing if the print job is complete in program step 156. FIGS. 8-10 illustrate one example of a process for attaching a programmed RFID transponder 52, or any other suitable value-adding element, to printed diecut label 26 (step 164 in FIG. 7). The processor unit 138 (FIG. 6) causes the linear actuator 116 to extend and causes the supply roll drive 126 to unwind the transponder supply spool 128, while rolamite stepping motor 120 and take-up roll drive 130 also unwind an approximately equal amount of inlay carrier 46. This continues until a new, unprogrammed RFID transponder 166 is positioned properly within transponder position sensor 136. In FIG. 9, the processor unit 138 (FIG. 6) now activates the tamping applicator mechanism 56. By applying an electric current to solenoid coil 94, the magnetic force on iron disc 96 actuates solenoid plunger 68, which, acting through coupler 104, and gas spring plunger 97, thus compresses gas spring 98. A nearly constant tamping force independent of extension is transmitted by the body of gas spring 98 onto drive bracket 104 that extends the flexible bellows 70 and thus plenum 62. This causes the rigid perforated vacuum guide plate 54 to press the adhesive side of printed diecut label 26 against the programmed transponder 52, using the rigid guide plate 114 as an anvil. This adheres the programmed RFID transponder 52 to the printed diecut label 26. Once tamping takes place as, for example, described above, the processing unit 138 now causes the linear actuator 116 to retract, while keeping the supply roll drive 126 braked so that the new unprogrammed RFID transponder 166 remains fixed under transponder position sensor 136. The processor unit 138 activates rolamite stepping motor 120 in coordination with the motion of the linear actuator 116, so that rolamite stepping motor 120 acts through rolamite drive mechanism 118 to takes up and maintains tension on the excess inlay carrier 46. Tension on the rolamite drive mechanism is maintained by energizing the take-up roll drive 130, which also causes the excess inlay carrier 46 to wind onto the take-up roll spindle 124. The retracting motion of the linear actuator 116 on the guide plate 114 together with the tension on inlay carrier 46, aids in peeling the inlay carrier 46 at the inlay carrier peeler bar 134 from the adhesive layer on the bottom of programmed RFID transponder 52, which is now adhered to the printed diecut label 26. This peeling process continues until the guide plate 114 plate is completely retracted to the position shown in FIG. 5. The new, unprogrammed RFID transponder 166 is now properly positioned under transponder programmed antenna 110 for immediate programming. Now that the programmed RFID transponder 52 has been bonded to the printed diecut label 26, the processor unit 138 deactivates tamping applicator mechanism 56, which retracts under the force of return spring 106. In FIG. 10, the diecut label/transponder smart label sandwich (26/52) is advanced by the platen roller 20, slides across the smooth perforated vacuum plate 54 until the next, unprinted diecut label 14 is positioned under printhead 18 for the next printing cycle. Driving of the sandwich (26/52) continues by the driven nip roller 76, and relamination with the label carrier 12 occurs in nip 72. The production of the printed and programmed RFID smart labels with embedded programmed RFID transponder 52 is now finished, and the laminated smart label (26/52/12) is delivered at label exit 30. As shown, label carrier 12 may also be optionally peeled away from the printed smart label (26/52) in a manner similar to that described in FIG. 1. Alternatively, the label carrier 12 delaminated at 32 (FIG. 3) may be removed from the system by, for example, utilization of a take-up mechanism that is similar to 34. In this example, a second supply roll of label carrier 12 may be used for relamination of the label sandwich (26/25/12) at nip 72, and the buffer loop roller 64 eliminated. FIGS. 11-15 illustrate an exemplary modification of the thermal transfer printer 48 (as shown FIG. 3) that is designed for use with tickets, tags, plastics cards, and other stiff media that does not contain an adhesive layer. This ticket and tag printer 168 comprises thermal transfer printing mechanism 10; tamping applicator mechanism 56; dispensing mechanism 66 and cutter mechanism 170. The embodiment shown in FIGS. 11-15 also is useful for applying a self-adhesive transponder to a surface of a printed self-adhesive label Note that the items that are illustrated in the FIG. 3-10 embodiment but are not specifically shown in FIGS. 11-13 may be present in an actual product that incorporates all or some of the inventions disclosed in the totality of FIGS. 3-14. However, since said unshown components do not have a role in the further exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 11-14, they are, therefore, are not shown in FIGS. 11-14 for purposes of simplicity. Referring to FIG. 11, the programmed RFID transponder 52 is itself formed as a transponder label 172 by adhering a diecut transponder facestock 174 to the top surface of the adhesive-backed, programmed RFID transponder 52 on inlay carrier 46. As stiff media 176 often is supplied in continuous form, it may be optionally cut to length after printing. An optional cutter 170, including cutter blades 178, is shown in FIG. 11 between the nip rollers 74, 76 and media exit 30. The electrically-operated cutter mechanism 170 is additionally connected through the processor bus 140 (FIG. 6) to processor unit 138 (FIG. 6) as part of thermal transfer ticket and tag printer 138. In FIG. 12, the tamping applicator mechanism 56 is extended in a manner similar to the description for FIG. 9. The processing unit 138 (FIG. 6) energizes the solenoid coil 94 of the tamping applicator mechanism 56, which extends the flexible bellows 70 and presses the perforated vacuum guide plate 54 against the transponder label 172. In a manner similar to FIG. 9, a guide plate (not shown) of the dispensing mechanism 66 then is retracted, peeling the inlay carrier 46 away from the transponder label 172 at inlay carrier peeler bar 134 (see FIG. 9), thereby leaving the lower adhesive surface of transponder label 172 exposed. In FIG. 13, when solenoid coil 94 is deenergized, the tamping applicator mechanism 56 is then fully retracted by spring 106, with transponder label 172 remaining held against the perforated vacuum guide plate 54 by the vacuum force generated by centrifugal fan 58. The exposed lower adhesive surface of the transponder label 172 is now positioned above the path of stiff media 176. The stiff media 176 (which can be a ticket, tag, plastic card, laminated label stock, or the like) is now printed and dispensed forward by platen roller 20 to the point where the transponder label 170 is to be placed on it. See FIG. 14. When the printed stiff media 176 is in the correct position, tamping applicator mechanism 56 presses the transponder label 172 onto the printed stiff media 176. Note that the during the tamping process, the guide plate of dispensing mechanism 66 may be optionally extended under the printed stiff media 176 so that rigid guide plate 114 acts as an anvil for the tamping applicator mechanism 56. In FIG. 14, the transponder label/printed stiff media sandwich (172/176) now continues forward through the nip rollers 74 and 76, where the transponder label 172 is permanently bonded to the printed stiff media 176 by the compression provided by nip rollers 74 and 76. Then, if discrete stiff media 176 are used in forming the transponder/media sandwich (172/176), the sandwich is ejected through media exit 30. In the case of continuous stiff media 176, the stiff media trailing the transponder media sandwich (172/176) may be optionally cut to length using the cutter mechanism 170. This is accomplished under control of the print job software, as shown in FIG. 15, by, for example, processor unit 138 activating electrically-controlled cutter blades 178. In that case, the cutoff length of smart ticket or tag exits at 30, and remaining the stiff media 16 is retracted by platen roller 20 to its position it under the printhead 18 for the start of the next printing cycle. FIG. 15 is a flow-chart that illustrates program steps that are executed by the processor unit 138 shown in FIG. 6 for each print job performed by the thermal transfer printer 48. Note that many of the program steps and processes in FIG. 15 are the same as or similar to those in the flow chart of FIG. 7. The processor unit 138 first retrieves the parameters of a print job that a user desires to have performed on an on-demand basis from memory 144 in process step 150. For example, a user may store a set of instructions in the memory 144 (FIG. 6) that will cause ticket and tag printer 168 to print a batch of 21 tickets from a roll of continuous stiff media 176, wherein only the first ticket is to be a “smart ticket” provided with a programmed RFID transponder label 172. It should be understood that all “on-demand” printing jobs are intended to be covered in connection with the present invention to the extent that such printing jobs include (in the described preferred execution of the invention) at least one smart ticket or tag. Referring to FIG. 15, processor unit 138 (FIG. 6) determines in program step 180 whether or not a stiff media sample that is to be printed is to have a programmed RFID transponder label 172 attached to it. If not, then the printed ticket is just formed in process 181. In program step 182, it is determined if the media sample is to be cut. When discrete media such as plastic cards are used, then in process 183 the finished media sample is simply ejected at the media exit 30, and a new media sample is positioned under the printhead 18 for the next printing cycle. When printed continuous stiff media is to be cut, then in process 184 the continuous stiff media 176 is positioned to the cut-off point between cutter blades 178 of cutter mechanism 170. The processor unit 138 then activates the electrically-operated cutter mechanism 170 to cut off the printed ticket, tag, smart ticket or smart tag for the stiff media supply and deliver it at media exit 30. The continuous stiff media is then backfed using the platen roller 20 to the start of print position under printhead 18 for the next print cycle. If the entire print job is determined to be completed in step 156, then the program sequence is ended. If the print job is not done, then the media print format is indexed in step 185, and then the processor unit 138 loops to program step 180. If processor unit 138 determines in program step 180 that an RFID transponder is to be attached to the next ticket or tag that is to be printed, then an RFID transponder label 172 is programmed in process 160, and then is verified as being operable and correctly programmed in process 162. If the programmed RFID transponder label 172 is correctly verified, then the ticket or tag is printed in process 181, and then the programmed RFID transponder label is attached to the printed media sample by operation of the value-adding mechanism 50 in process 186. The processor unit 138 then executes program step 182 to see if the media is to be cut, taking the appropriate action as described above; then program step 156 to print job is done, also as described above. Transponder programming and verification typically occurs prior to printing the media, so that a smart media with a defective transponder label 170 can be identified by printing “void” on it in step 187 rather than the normal media format 181. The ticket or tag printer 168 then typically ejects the defective smart ticket or tag at media exit 30, and automatically repeats processes 160 and 162, etc., until a fully-functional smart ticket or tag with a properly encoded transponder and the correct printed media format is produced, in a manner similar to that as described in FIG. 7. Additionally, a variation of the embodiment shown in FIGS. 11-15 may be used to actually form transponders by printing a conductive antenna on the media sample and then attaching labels comprised of RFID integrated circuits with electrical contacts to that antenna (for example the Motorola BiStatix™ “interposer”; and those made by Marconi using an Intermec Intellitag® 900 MHz or 2.45 GHz RFID integrated circuit). For example, in FIG. 16A a BiStatix label 190 based on Motorola BiStatix™ integrated circuit 191 is formed on transparent nonconductive label stock 192 by first forming two conductive mounting pads 193 and bonding them to two antenna contacts on Motorola BiStatix™ integrated circuit 191. These BiStatix labels 190 in roll form are used as transponder supply roll 128 in ticket and tag printer 168. During the printing process, by proper choice of thermal transfer ribbon 16 and nonconductive media 194, two printed conductive carbon antenna panels 195 can be formed on the ticket or tag. The value-adding mechanism 50 can be used to attach the conductive mounting pads 193 of each BiStatix label 190 to the two printed conductive carbon antenna panels 195 to form a complete RFID transponder, as shown in FIG. 16B. By proper placement of the transponder programmer antenna 110, the electrostatic-coupled RFID transponder so formed then may be programmed. More conventional magnetically- or electromagnetically-coupled transponders also may be formed this way. In FIG. 16C, a 2.45 GHz RFID Intellitag label 196 based on an Intermec Intellitag® integrated circuit 197 is formed on transparent nonconductive label stock 192 by with two metal contacts 198 bonded to the two antenna contacts on an Intermec Intellitag® integrated circuit 197. A rolls of these Intellitag labels 196 is used as transponder supply roll 128 in ticket and tag printer 168. During the printing process, by proper choice of thermal transfer ribbon 16 and nonconductive media 194, a 2.45 GHz conductive silver ink folded dipole antenna 199 can be formed. The value-adding mechanism 50 can be used to attach the two metal contacts 198 of the Intellitag label 196 to the ends of the conductive silver ink folded dipole antenna panels 199 to form a complete RFID transponder, as shown in FIG. 16D. By proper placement of the transponder programmer antenna 110, the electromagnetically-coupled transponder so formed then may be programmed. The present invention provides a number of distinct advantages, either individually and/or collectively. Such advantages include, for example, the following. 1. The ability to selectively add an RFID transponder to a conventional on-demand printed media sample under program control, thereby converting a conventional label into a “smart” RFID enhanced media sample; 2. The ability to selectively create an RFID transponder using a printed antenna and applied RFID integrated circuit on a conventional on-demand printed media sample under program control, thereby converting a conventional label into a “smart” RFID enhanced media sample; 3. The ability to provide a single label, ticket tag or plastic card printer that can produce, on-demand, either conventional or “smart” RFID media using the same conventional label, ticket, tag stock or cards; and 4. The elimination of the need for pre-converted RFID smart media, thereby removing the attendant cost of these items being specially produced by a label converter and inventoried by the user. Additional advantages of the present invention include the following. 5. The impact of the “lumpy” transponder on print quality in producing a smart media sample is eliminated because printing of the media is done before the RFID transponder is embedded in or adhered onto the final media sample; 6. The ability to design an add-on option to a conventional label, ticket, tag or plastic card printer to enhance it to produce smart labels, tickets, tags or plastic cards on an as-needed basis; 7. The ability to cause a single printer to produce either conventional or smart media using conventional media supplies as a basis (as the smart media can be produced only when needed using the on-demand basis label format software control); 8. The removal of the need for a label converter to provide special rolls of smart labels for on-demand printers, with the attendant extra costs of making and inventorying special smart label stock. 9. The removal of the need for the user to have a separate thermal transfer printer to produce smart labels; 10. The elimination of user dependence on smart label converters, thereby allowing the user to use their existing converter; 11. The allowance of designs that permit all printers in a product line to do, on an on-demand, programmed-controlled basis, both conventional labels, tickets, tags and cards, and also smart labels, tickets, tags and cards; and 12. The reduction of the cost overhead and complexity barriers of adding smart label capability to an existing conventional labeling process. Still further advantages and benefits follow. As described above in the list of advantages, the invention makes possible a truly on demand, custom configuration of any selected one, or all, of the media to have an RFID transponder of a particular type or capability, programmed with particular data, and preprinted or post-printed or otherwise processed. This implies that end users do not have to install a variety of printers or other systems in order to take care of the requirements of various customers or applications. Since entire rolls of unprinted smart labels (each possibly having a different material, adhesive, label form factor or type of transponder) do not have to be stocked, the cost savings are significant. The capital and maintenance costs of single purpose lines or machines is avoided. Since the entire process is under computer program control, errors which inevitably result in manual changeover from plain labels to RFID labels, for example, is eliminated. One machine or system can now handle all needs. In a more general sense, the present invention concerns a method of configuring on demand a series of labels, tickets, tags, cards or other media. The method comprises feeding a series of media which may be alike or different, and, on demand, selectively applying, inserting, or otherwise associating with certain media but not with other media in the series one or more discrete, value-adding elements. In the described preferred embodiment the elements are RFID transponders, however, as will be described, other value-adding elements may be associated with the selected media. A third embodiment illustrating the more general nature of the on-demand configuration process for media is the application shown in FIGS. 17-19. With the advent of “mass customization” marketing, and the developments in prospect-specific data resources available today, it is possible to narrowly target a very specific group of prospects, about which much is known concerning their identification, attributes, predilections, purchasing habits and other personal characteristics. The present invention gives total flexibility in appealing to particular purchasing interests and other characteristics of a particular set of prospects or past customers. In this illustrative hypothetical application, Travel Card Company wishes to send custom configured promotional media to a selected customer base. Its customers consist of three classes: Green, Gold and Platinum card members. Green Members are occasional travelers, mostly for vacations, and comprise the lowest category of card usage. Gold Members use the card frequently, primarily for business, but often take vacations abroad, and represent a smaller population with much higher usage than Green Members, and as a class represent most of the travel dollars spent with Travel Card Company. Platinum Members are a much smaller class, with an average annual card usage five times that of Gold Members, mostly spent on international travel, using first class airfare and luxury hotels and restaurants; they often mix business and pleasure travel, and they often travel with spouses or “significant others.” They are highly desirable customers for the luxury class travel and merchandise companies. The promotional media is here a custom postcard set 200 as shown in postcard set front 202 and postcard set reverse side 204 in FIGS. 17A and 17B, comprised of customer addressed postcard with detachable return postcard. The postcard set front side 202 is intended to be on-demand printed with customer-specific mailing address 206 and selected promotional travel offerings incorporating value-adding elements. The reverse side 204 of postcard set 200 is entirely preprinted with fixed information: The postcard set reverse side 204 of the customer addressed post card is printed with pictorial information 208 about luxury cruise A and pictorial information 210 about luxury cruise B; the postcard set reverse side 204 of customer return post card is printed with Travel Card Company return address 212 and business reply postage 214. Post card set 200 is intended to be machine folded and sealed so that the customer address 206 and business postage franking 216 is visible on initial mailing. The postcard set front side 202 of is on-demand printed with customer specific information and promotional offers, including certain value-adding elements from FIG. 18 that are placed in areas 218 and 220 depending on the promotional offer being made to the specific customer identified in customer address 206. The postcard set front side 202 of return postcard has luxury cruise A description 222 with associated information request area 224; also luxury cruise B description 226 with associated information request area 228. In addition, for Gold and Platinum Members, there are special on-demand printed promotional areas that are not printed unless special offers are being made; this includes promotional area 230 with customer-markable response areas 232 and 234, associated information request area 236, and a reserved area 238. In FIG. 18, four value-adding elements 240 through 246 are shown. Repositionable 2-class cruise upgrade coupon 240 intended to be offered to Green Members only; repositionable 3-class cruise upgrade coupon 242 is intended to be offered only to Gold and Platinum Members; the appropriate coupon is to be placed on customer address postcard in cruise upgrade offer area 218. Permanently attached RFID transponder label 244 is to be placed in Platinum Member promotional reserved area 238 on postcard set reverse side 204 (see FIG. 17B) of all mailings to Platinum Members. It carries in the transponder memory the Platinum Member-specific address, travel history and card usage information 248. It is preprinted with an offer of free global Internet E-mail service by an Internet Service Provider associated with Travel Card Company which also advertises on-line only luxury merchandise. When a Platinum Member accepts the free E-mail offer, the return postcard is given to the Internet Service Provider and the information stored in the memory of the RFID transponder label 244 is read wirelessly and used to automatically set up the Platinum Member's global E-mail account. In case of transponder failure, the key customer information, namely name and card number, are also on-demand printed in customer name and card number field 250. Repositionable free flight coupon 246 contains an offer from Urban Legends Helicopter Service for a free helicopter flight form the main airport to a downtown heliport in New York City, Chicago, Paris or Tokyo. It is intended to be offered only to those Gold and Platinum Members which also stay more than a total of fifteen nights each year in the luxury downtown hotels in any or all of those four cities. When appropriate for use with a given card member, it is placed in special offer area 220 on customer address postcard. In accordance with certain aspects of the production process to be described in detail below, an on-demand printed postcard set is produced for each Green, Gold or Platinum Member with selected value-adding elements from FIG. 18 to be placed as described above depending on the member's card color and travel history. When received by each member, if so interested, the member takes specific actions with respect to the repositioning any value-added coupons present and marking the customer response areas 232 and 234 (if present) to accept or reject the associated promotional offers. The interested member then mails the postage-paid return card to Travel Services Company to implement the requested promotional offers. Returning to FIG. 17, if the member is interested in receiving the information about luxury cruise A, then the offered value-adding coupon (either 240 or 242) in cruise upgrade offer area 218 is removed and placed in information request area 224. Similarly, information about luxury cruise B may be requested by removing said repositionable cruise upgrade coupon from offer area 218 and placing it in information request area 228. Should a Platinum Member decide to accepted the free global E-mail service offered by the preprint on RFID transponder label 244, he checks the “Yes” box in custom-printed response area 232 (printed only when RFID transponder label 244 is also attached in reserved are 238). Should the selected Gold and Platinum Members receiving the special free flight offer coupon 248 from Urban Legend Helicopters decide to accept it, said member removes the coupon from special area 220 and places it in special area 238, and checks the box in custom printed area 236 for the city in which the member would like the free flight. FIG. 19 is a top schematic view of one example of a three-stage production process embodying exemplary aspects of the invention in three different forms that may be used to prepare the finished postcard sets. A supply of postcard stock 300 which is preprinted on the reverse side of each postcard set 200 with fields 208, 210, 212, 214 and 214 (see FIG. 17), and possibly preprinted only on the front side with business postage franking 216 (all though forms of this may also be on-demand printed). Postcard stock 300 passes through postcard printer 302, which contains a variation of the second invention embodiment 168 using externally preprogrammed transponder labels. This postcard printer 302 is driven through connection 304 to factory controller 306, which in turn is connected through local area network 308 to main computer 310 which includes processing program 312 and card member database 314. Certain file information from each entry in card member database 314 is selected by processing program 312 and is transferred over local area network 308 to factory controller 306 for use by factory control program 316 to direct the production operations in the preparation of each corresponding postcard set 200. Typically, the member files in card member data base 314 are in sequential order with respect to card number, but random by membership color as this may change during the life of a card member account. For each Platinum Member file encountered, transponder label printer 318, which contains the first invention embodiment described above, is directed by factory controller 306 over connection 320 to prepare an RFID transponder label 244. Using diecut label supply 322 and self-adhesive RFID transponder supply 324, the transponder label printer 318 produces a sequential transponder label strip 326 of programmed RFID transponder labels 244, each of which has been preprinted with the Platinum Member's name and card number, and embeds an RFID transponder encoded with relevant card member information from database 314. This sequential transponder label strip 326 of RFID transponder labels 244 is used as the RFID transponder label supply for postcard printer 302. The Stage 1 production operation is performed by postcard printer 302, and includes all the on-demand printing operations. As postcard printer 302 is directed to initiate preparation of a postcard set 200 for each card member, the required card member information is transferred to it over connection 304. If information for a Green or Gold Member is found, then just the appropriate on-demand printed customer mailing address 206 on the front side of card, and luxury A and B cruise information 222 and 226, respectively, are printed on the postcard set front side 202 of return mail card (see FIG. 17). If a Gold or Platinum Member is found to qualify for the free flight coupon, then offer customer-markable response area 232 is also printed. For all Platinum Members fields 206, 222, and 226 are printed the same as for a Gold Member, and the customer-markable response area 234 to special lifetime E-mail offer is also printed. It is first verified that the corresponding RFID transponder label 244 is in position for placement; then said RFID transponder label 244 is placed in reserved field 238. A schematic example of first Green Member postcard set 328 and first Platinum Member postcard set 330 as outputs of Stage 1 production are shown in FIG. 19. In Stage 2 of the production process, additional value-adding processes incorporating the invention are used to complete the custom configuration of the postcard set media by the addition of one or more of selected value-added elements shown in FIG. 18. First additional value-adding process 332 selectively adds 2-class cruise upgrade coupon 240 from first coupon supply 334 to postcard set 200 when so directed by production controller 306 over connection 336. Second additional value-adding process 338 selectively adds 3-class cruise upgrade coupon 242 from second coupon supply 340 to postcard set 200 when so directed by production controller 306 over connection 342. Third additional value-adding process 344 selectively adds free flight coupon 246 from third coupon supply 346 to postcard set 200 when so directed by production controller 306 over connection 348. Exemplary output from the Stage 2 are shown as custom configured postcard media 350, 352, 354 and 356. Second Platinum Member postcard set 350 was custom configured with free flight coupon 246 using third additional value-adding process 344; 3-class cruise upgrade coupon 242 added by second additional value-adding process 338; and RFID transponder label 244 as configured by the first invention embodiment in transponder label printer 320 and placed by second invention embodiment in postcard printer 302. First Gold Member postcard set 352 was custom configured with only 3-class cruise upgrade coupon 242 added in second additional value-adding process 338. Second Green Member postcard set 354 was configured for a Green Member receiving only 3-class cruise upgrade coupon 240 added in first additional value-adding process 332. Second Gold member postcard set 356 is custom configured with cruise upgrade coupon 242 from second additional value-added process 338 and free flight coupon 246 from third additional value-adding process 344. In Stage 3 of the production process of FIG. 19, sheeter-folder-sealer process 358 is used to prepare the custom configured postcard media for mailing, under control of production controller 306 using connection 360. The continuous postcard media is cut part into individual postcard sets 200, folded and sealed to expose the front of the customer address postcard set front side 202. An example of Stage 3 output, namely a finished postcard set 362 is shown being ejected from sheeter-folder-sealer 358 on to the stack of completed custom-configured postcard media 364. A number of alternatives of the FIGS. 17-19 method and system are contemplated by the present invention. For example, in one variant coupons 240, 242, and/or 246 also have RFID transponders. The transponders in these value-adding elements may be programmed with the same data as described above with respect to transponder 244. What is unique in this variant is that the element which is peeled off and transferred to another part of the media (which could also be to another separate media) is or has embodied therein a memory containing useful information which can be accessed wirelessly by the organizer of the promotion or another involved party. Alternatively, rather than an RFID transponder of the type having a memory, a chipless RFID transponder may be substituted. For example, rather than a transponder such as shown at 244, in space 238 on card set 200 a resonant series of conductive lines may be printed on the card. Or a variety of other chipless RFID technologies may be employed. Integrated circuit labels, of a type similar to those shown in FIG. 16, may also be used with printed antennae to form RFID transponders in situ. In accordance with exemplary aspects of the present invention, as described in FIGS. 17-19, on demand a mailer is being sent which has the following attributes: 1) various personalized on demand printings on the media directed to appeal to known interests of the target prospect; 2) various targeted coupons or other value-adding elements placed on demand on the media; 3) RFID transponders containing target specific data which will be used in after processing the card when returned; 4) on demand printing on the transponders which is tied to the target and the stored information; 5) plural value-adding elements which not only relate to the target prospect, but to each other as well, to form a coordinated, prospect-specific appeal; 6) an action response item (the transferred coupons) prompting the prospect to take action which is not just a generic “YES I WANT TO BUY” token, but a response item which is personalized for the particular prospect. In short, the card may have as many as half dozen or more on demand printings or value-adding elements which are coordinated to develop a powerful personalized and integrated sales appeal. In yet another execution of certain exemplary aspects of the principles of the invention, a transponder 52 may be programmed with instructions which control subsequent processes such as the application of another value-adding element on the same media. For example, in a variant of the FIGS. 17-19 embodiment wherein the value-adding processes 332, 338 and/or 344 are distributed and not under the control of controller 306, RFID transponder label 244 could be programmed with instructions which would be read as part of the value-adding processes to determine the type, content, or other characteristic of a value-adding element to be added to the media containing the transponder label 244. Alternatively, for example, address data stored in the label 244 could be read at a postage metering station to determine the correct postage. Thus, the embodiment of FIGS. 17-19 illustrates certain exemplary features of the present invention as a method of configuring on demand a series of labels, tickets, tags, plastic cards, postcards or other media by selectively applying, inserting, or otherwise associating with certain media—but not with other media—in the series one or more discrete, value-adding elements. And, preferably, in a coordinated integration therewith, the application of one or more printings on the media and/or the value-adding elements to provide further flexibility in the presentation of information to end users and other. Referring to FIG. 20, one embodiment of a transponder applicator mechanism 300 is illustrated that selectively and on demand, under program control, encodes an RFID transponder, and attaches the same to an adhesive backed previously printed diecut label 26. The transponder applicator mechanism 300 may be integrated with existing thermal transfer printing mechanism 10, or it may be attached to a thermal printer as an optional accessory. In the embodiment of the invention illustrated in FIG. 20, the printed diecut label 26 is removed from its label carrier 12 by the action of peeler bar 32 and label carrier take-up mechanism 34. During its forward motion that is driven by platen roller 20, the printed surface of the printed diecut label 26 maintains a substantially straight path towards media exit 30 along a perforated vacuum guide plate 302. The light vacuum force 304, that is generated by a centrifugal blower 306 that expels air 308 from a closed plenum 310, controls the path of, but does not impede the motion of, diecut label 26. When formation and encoding of a smart label is desired, then, prior to printing the diecut label 26, an RFID transponder 312 is in a position under antenna 314. Antenna 314 encodes the RFID transponder 312, and verifies the same using radio signal 316 in the manner described in this application. In the illustrated embodiment, the transponders are adhesive backed, and are supplied diecut from an inlay carrier 318 by inlay supply mechanism 320. Referring to FIG. 21, when the leading edge of the next diecut label 14 is in position under the printhead 18, the motion of the platen roller 20 and label carrier take-up mechanism 34 stops. Also, forward motion of the printed diecut label 26 continues now to be driven by the siliconized drive roller 322, which is typically operationally coupled to the drive of platen roller 20, but runs at a slightly faster surface speed. It presses lightly against the adhesive side of printed diecut label 26 and against spring loaded nip roller 324. Assuming that correct encoding and verification has taken place, when the printed diecut label 26 is at the correct position in its forward travel, the encoded RFID transponder 312 is now moved in forward by the action of inlay carrier take-up mechanism 326 on inlay carrier 318. As the transponder 312 reaches the top of its path over roller 328, the linear actuator 330 now advances small roller 328, which presses the leading edge of encoded transponder 312 against the adhesive side of printed diecut 26. Both the inlay carrier 318 and the printed diecut label 26 are now driven forward at the same surface speed, so that the encoded RFID transponder 312 is peeled from the inlay carrier 318 as it passes over the small roller 328, as shown in FIG. 22. Once the encoded RFID transponder 312 is completely peeled from the inlay carrier 318, then the linear actuator 330 retracts, and the next unencoded transponder 332 is now in position under antenna 314 for use in the next smart label dispensing cycle. Referring to FIG. 23, forward motion continues until the peeled printed diecut label and encoded RFID transponder sandwich (26/312) in delivered at media exit 30. The pressure of the nip formed by siliconized drive roller 322 acting on the sandwich against spring loaded nip roller 324 permanently bonds the peeled printed diecut label-encoded RFID transponder sandwich (26/312). Transponders which fail to verify may be either (1) attached to “void” printed labels as described above, (2) recaptured while still on the inlay carrier 318 by the inlay carrier take-up mechanism 326, or (3) dispensed internally into a waste bin. The latter 2 methods avoid wasting a label to eliminate a bad transponder. A still further embodiment for continuous linerless media using active adhesives (i.e., where there is no diecut label carrier 12) is shown in FIG. 24. Here, platen roller 20 and drive roller 322 are both siliconized to prevent adherence of the label and transponder adhesive to these rollers. The continuous linerless label stock 350 is printed and an encode RFID transponder 312 attached in a manner similar to the above embodiment. However, once a completed label is dispensed to media exit 30, as shown, then an optional electrically activated cutter assembly 352 is used to shear the finished linerless label 354 with or without attached encoded RFID transponder 312. The continuous linerless label stock 350 is then retracted to its initial printing position under printhead 18. When an inactivated adhesive is used (such as an Appleton Actifuse liner material), then an optional retractable activating mechanism 356 may be used to activate the adhesive along the length of the finished linerless label 354 retracted for the length of the excess media, which must be dispensed to bring the finished linerless label 354 to the cut off point. Otherwise, the embodiment functions as with standard linerless material as described above. From the foregoing, it will also be observed that numerous modifications and variations can be effectuated by those skilled in the art without departing from the true spirit and scope of the novel concepts of the present invention. It is to be understood that no limitation with respect to the specific embodiments illustrated is intended or should be inferred. The disclosure is intended to cover by the appended claims all such modifications as fall within the scope of the claims when the claims are properly interpreted. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention concerns, in a general sense, a method and apparatus by which, both selectively and on-demand, individual labels, tickets, tags, cards, and the like (hereinafter collectively and in individual units referred to as “media”, or individually as “media samples”) having selected characteristics may be custom configured by causing one or more value-adding elements that have chosen characteristics to be associated with said media. More particularly, the invention is directed to method and apparatus for selectively incorporating a value-adding element such as, for example, a radio frequency identification (hereinafter called RFID) transponder with individual media samples on a programmed, on-demand basis. Other types of value-adding elements that could be incorporated into media samples include, for example, shipping documents; parts to be inventoried, stored or shipped; promotional devices such as coupons, tokens, currency or other objects having a value to the recipient; integrated circuits on labels with leads to be connected to printed antennas; and attached or embedded attached objects that have associated information on the printed media relating to their identification or use. A thermal transfer printer is typically used to print individual media samples. Referring to FIG. 1 , a side view of a standard thermal transfer printer mechanism 10 is illustrated. A label carrier 12 (also generally referred to as a release liner) carries adhesive-backed, (typically unprinted) diecut labels 14 through the mechanism. Typically, the top surface of each label is printed with a pattern of ink dots from a thermal transfer ribbon 16 melted onto the label surface as the ribbon and label pass under a computer-controlled thermal printhead 18 . An elastomer-coated platen roller 20 typically is driven by a stepping motor (not shown) to provide both the movement force for the ribbon and label by means of a friction drive action on the label carrier 12 , as well as acting as the receiver for the required pressure of the printhead on the ribbon-label sandwich. This pressure assists in transferring the molten ink dots under printhead 18 from the thermal transfer ribbon 16 onto the diecut label 14 surface. The thermal transfer ribbon 16 is unwound from a printer ribbon supply 22 , and is guided under the thermal printhead 18 by idler rollers 24 . After the ink is melted from the ribbon 16 onto the printed diecut label 26 , the spent ribbon is wound on a printer ribbon take-up spindle 28 . Typically, a media exit 30 is located immediately after the printhead 18 . The now-printed diecut label 26 is often dispensed on its label carrier 12 . If a user desires that the printed diecut labels be automatically stripped from label carrier, then an optional peeler bar 32 is utilized. As the label carrier 12 passes over the sharp radius of peeler bar 32 , the adhesive bond is broken, thereby releasing the printed diecut label 26 from its label carrier 12 . The peeled, printed diecut label 26 is dispensed at media exit 30 . The excess label carrier 12 is both tensioned for peeling and rewound using optional label carrier take-up mechanism 34 . As will be described in detail hereinafter, an exemplary embodiment of the present invention involves selectively and on demand associating, in the environment of a thermal or thermal transfer printer, an RFID transponder with a label, e.g., to create a “smart” label. Although “chipless” RFID transponders exist and may be utilized as one example of a value-added element with certain aspects of this invention, the most common form of an RFID transponder used in smart labels comprises an antenna and an RFID integrated circuit. Such RFID transponders include both DC powered active transponders and batteryless passive transponders, and are available in a variety of form factors. Commonly used passive inlay transponders 36 shown in FIG. 2 have a substantially thin, flat shape. For automatic insertion into labels, the inlay transponders 36 typically are prepared with a pressure-sensitive adhesive backing, and are delivered individually diecut and mounted with a uniform spacing on an inlay carrier. Inlay transponders have been used as layers of identification tags and labels to carry encoded data, stored in a non-volatile memory area data, that may be read wirelessly at a distance. For example, a camera having a radio-frequency identification transponder that can be accessed for writing and reading at a distance is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,173,119. The antenna 38 for an inlay transponder 36 is in the form of a conductive trace deposited on a non-conductive support 40 , and has the shape of a flat coil or the like. Antenna leads 42 are also deposited, with non-conductive layers interposed as necessary. The RFID integrated circuit 44 of the inlay transponder 36 includes a non-volatile memory, such as an EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory); a subsystem for power generation from the RF field generated by the reader; RF communications capability; and internal control functions. The RFID integrated circuit 44 is mounted on the non-conductive support 40 and operatively connected through the antenna leads 42 . The inlays are typically packaged singulated or on a Z-form or roll inlay carrier 46 as shown in FIG. 2 . It is known how to utilize on-press equipment for insertion of transponders into media to form “smart labels,” and then to print information on a surface of the smart labels. See, for example, a publication entitled “RFID Technology & Smart Labels,” dated Sep. 14, 1999, P/N 11315L Rev. 1 of Zebra Technologies Corporation. See also, for example, a publication entitled “A White Paper On The Development Of AIM Industry Standards For 13.56 MHz RFID Smart Labels And RFID Printer/Encoders” by Clive P. Hohberger, PhD, that is dated May 24, 2000. Both of these publications are incorporated by reference into this application as if fully set forth herein. It also is known how to utilize label applicator equipment to attach pressure-sensitive labels to business forms. Such equipment has been commercially available on the U.S. market from several companies for more than one year prior to the filing of this application. Zebra Technologies Corporation is a leading manufacture of a number of printer related products, including a number of on-demand thermal transfer printers that incorporate a number of the aspects of the technology that is disclosed in the two above-referenced publications. An example of such a “smart label” printer commercially available for more than a year prior to the filing of this application includes Zebra model number R-140. Such products are satisfactory for their intended uses. However, further improvements are desired. Certain features and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the description that follows. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The objects and advantages of the present invention will become more readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the relevant art after reviewing the following detailed description and accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a side, schematic view of a standard thermal transfer label printer mechanism; FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a plurality of passive inlay-type RFID transponders as delivered with an adhesive backing on an inlay carrier; FIG. 3 is a side, schematic view of a thermal transfer printer that incorporates a number of aspects of an exemplary embodiment of the present invention disclosed in this application; FIG. 4 is a front, sectional view of a portion of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 3 detailing a tamping applicator mechanism; FIG. 5 is a front, sectional, schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 3 , wherein a transponder dispensing mechanism is disposed in a fully retracted initial position; FIG. 6 is a schematic, block diagram of some of the key electronic subsystems and components of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 3 ; FIG. 7 is a program flow-chart that illustrates certain key program steps that are executed by the processor unit shown in FIG. 6 for each print job that is performed by the thermal transfer label printer shown in FIGS. 3-6 ; FIG. 8 is a front, sectional, schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 3 , wherein the transponder dispensing mechanism shown in FIG. 5 is disposed in an extended position so that an RFID transponder is positioned in a desired position and orientation with respect to a delaminated diecut label printed by the thermal transfer printer; FIG. 9 is a front, sectional, schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 5 , wherein the tamping applicator mechanism detailed in FIG. 4 is utilized to permanently affix a programmed RFID transponder to a media sample that is to be printed by the thermal transfer printer mechanism and wherein a linear actuator is used to retract the dispensing mechanism to peel the inlay carrier from the back of the programmed transponder thereby exposing its adhesive layer; FIG. 10 is a side, sectional, schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 3 , wherein a diecut label/programmed transponder sandwich is formed and relaminated to the diecut label carrier; FIG. 11 is a side schematic view of a thermal transfer printer mechanism, similar to that disclosed in FIG. 3 , that incorporates a number of aspects of a further exemplary embodiment of the present invention disclosed in this application, and that allows adhesive-backed value-adding devices such as RFID transponders to be affixed to stiff media that does not include its own adhesive layer; FIG. 12 is a side schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 11 , wherein an adhesive-backed, programmed RFID transponder is disposed in a dispensing position with respect to the value-adding mechanism; FIG. 13 is a side schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 11 , wherein an adhesive-backed, programmed RFID transponder is affixed to a stiff media; FIG. 14 is a side schematic view of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIG. 11 , wherein the stiff media, upon which an adhesive-backed, programmed RFID transponder is affixed, is advanced to a dispensing position; FIG. 15 is a flow-chart that illustrates certain key program steps that are executed by the processor unit shown in FIG. 6 for each print job that is performed by the thermal transfer printer shown in FIGS. 11-14 ; FIGS. 16A though 16 D are schematic views of two types of RFID integrated circuit labels and their attachment to two corresponding types of printed antennae in order to form actual RFID transponders in a process using an exemplary variation of the thermal transfer printer shown in FIGS. 11-15 ; FIGS. 17A and 17B are schematic views of the front and reverse sides postcard set media that is on-demand printed and to which various value-added elements are added in a production process according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 18 is a representation of the four value-added elements which are added in certain combinations to the postcard set media of FIG. 17 by the exemplary production process that is shown in FIG. 19 ; FIG. 19 is an overhead schematic view of an exemplary production process incorporating forms of two exemplary invention embodiments that are used for selectively and on-demand configuring the postcard media of FIG. 17 by addition of one or more value-added elements of FIG. 18 ; FIGS. 20-23 are side, schematic views of a thermal transfer printer mechanism that incorporates a number of aspects of the present invention disclosed in this application, showing an RFID transponder to be selectively and on demand, under program control, said RFID transponder to be encoded, and attached to an adhesive backed previously printed diecut label; and FIG. 24 is a side, schematic view of a thermal transfer printer mechanism, similar to FIGS. 20-23 , that allows an RFID transponder to be selectively and on demand, under program control, encoded and attached to a linerless media. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20040609 | 20050913 | 20050106 | 99524.0 | 0 | COLILLA, DANIEL JAMES | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR ASSOCIATING ON DEMAND CERTAIN SELECTED MEDIA AND VALUE-ADDING ELEMENTS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,864,140 | ACCEPTED | Wireless LAN receiver with I and Q RF and baseband AGC loops and DC offset cancellation | A wireless local area network receiver having separate automatic gain control (AGC) loops for providing a radio frequency AGC and a baseband frequency AGC, as well as a DC offset cancellation circuit. The AGC loops control a low noise amplifier amplifying the received RF signal, and the baseband signal or signals from a mixer of I and Q mixers. The DC offset compensation loop is also responsive to the baseband AGC signal to maintain a substantially fixed gain in the DC offset compensation feedback. Details of various embodiments are disclosed, including embodiments for orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) that provide the AGC operation and the DC offset cancellation to the desired levels within the relatively short period of a preamble that precedes the data transmission. | 1. A wireless receiver having a two-stage automatic gain control (AGC) comprising: a low-noise amplifier (LNA) capable of receiving a wireless signal from an antenna, and further having a controllable amplification; a first mixer connected to an output of said LNA coupled to receive a first local oscillator (LO) signal and output a first baseband signal; a second mixer connected to the output of said LNA, coupled to receive a second LO signal and output a second baseband signal; a first baseband filter (BBF) connected to the output of said first mixer; a second baseband filter (BBF) connected to the output of said second mixer; a radio frequency AGC (RFAGC) circuit receiving as inputs at least an output signal of said first BBF and an output signal of said second BBF, said RFACG having an output coupled in a first closed loop to control the amplification of said LNA; a first baseband amplifier (BBA) coupled to receive the output of said first BBF; a second baseband amplifier (BBA) coupled to receive the output of said second BBF; a baseband AGC (BBAGC) circuit receiving as inputs at least an output signal of said first BBA and an output of said second BBA, said BBAGC being coupled in a second closed loop to control the amplifications of at least said first BBA and said second BBA. 2. The wireless receiver of claim 1, wherein said first and second closed loops of said AGC circuits are active during at least part of the preamble period of an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) transmission, said closed loops being opened thereafter, and further comprising AGC signal storage devices to retain the inputs to said AGC circuits after said closed loops are opened. 3. The wireless receiver of claim 1, wherein said RFAGC and said BBAGC each further comprise: a first power detector receiving a first input signal and having a current output; a second power detector receiving a second input signal and having a current output; circuitry providing a reference current output; current summing means for combining a current output of said first power detector, a current output of said second power detector and said reference current output to provide a summing means current output responsive to the sum of said current output of said first power detector and said current output of said second power detector, minus the magnitude of the reference current output; a unit gain limiting amplifier (UGLA); and, a capacitor connected to the input of said UGLA, capable of receiving the output current from said current summing means. 4. The wireless receiver of claim 3, wherein said first input signal of said RFAGC is connected to the output of said first BBF and said second input signal of said RFAGC is connected to the output of said second BBF. 5. The wireless receiver of claim 3, wherein said first input signal of said BBAGC is connected to the output of said first BBA and said second input signal of said BBAGC is connected to the output of said second BBA. 6. The wireless receiver of claim 3, wherein said reference current for said RFAGC corresponds to twice the current output of each of the first and second power detectors for said RFAGC for a predetermined radio frequency root mean square voltage output of each of the first and second BBFs. 7. The wireless receiver of claim 6, wherein said UGLA is capable of maintaining the output of said UGLA at a predetermined minimum voltage if the sum of the current outputs of the first and second power detectors exceeds the reference current for said RFAGC. 8. The wireless receiver of claim 7 wherein said predetermined minimum voltage is one volt. 9. The wireless receiver of claim 3, wherein said reference current for said BBAGC corresponds to twice the current output of each of the first and second power detectors for said BBAGC for a predetermined radio frequency root mean square voltage output of each of the first and second BBAs. 10. The wireless receiver of claim 9, wherein said UGLA maintains the output of said UGLA at a predetermined minimum voltage if the sum of the current outputs of the first and second power detectors for said BBAGC exceeds said reference current for said BBAGC. 11. The wireless receiver of claim 10 wherein said predetermined minimum voltage is one volt. 12. The wireless receiver of claim 3, wherein each said power detector further comprises: a transconductor amplifier; and, means for performing a squaring function on an input current, said means for performing said squaring function being coupled to the output of said transconductor amplifier. 13. The wireless receiver of claim 12 wherein said circuitry providing a reference current output comprises a third power detector receiving a reference voltage input and having a current output, each power detector having a dividing means dividing the respective input voltage to the power detector by two, the input to the third power detector being 2 Vrms. 14. The wireless receiver of claim 13, wherein each said dividing means comprises an attenuator. 15. The wireless receiver of claim 3, wherein at least one of said RFAGC and said BBAGC further comprises: switching means connected between said current summing means and said capacitor. 16. The wireless receiver of claim 15, wherein said switching means enable said capacitor charging during at least a portion of the preamble of an OFDM transmission. 17. The wireless receiver of claim 3, wherein at least one of said RFAGC and said BBAGC further comprises high pass filter means connected at the input of said at least one of said RFAGC and said BBAGC. 18. The wireless receiver of claim 17, wherein said high pass filter operates at a first corner frequency during a first period and at a second lower corner frequency during a second period of operation. 19. The wireless receiver of claim 18, wherein said first corner frequency is 1,826 kilohertz. 20. The wireless receiver of claim 18, wherein said second corner frequency is 266 kilohertz. 21. The wireless receiver of claim 18, wherein said first period is an initial period of a preamble period of an OFDM transmission. 22. The wireless receiver of claim 21, wherein said second period is subsequent to said initial period within said preamble period of an OFDM transmission. 23. The wireless receiver of claim 1, wherein said wireless receiver further comprises: a first DC offset cancellation circuit connected between the output of said first BBA and the input of said first BBF; and, a second DC offset cancellation circuit connected between the output of said second BBA and the input of said second BBF. 24. The wireless receiver of claim 23, wherein said first and second DC offset cancellation circuits further comprise: a transconductor amplifier receiving an input signal; a resistor connected to the output of said transconductor amplifier; an inverting transconductor amplifier connected to the output of said transconductor amplifier providing an output current; and, a capacitor connected to the input of said inverting transconductor amplifier. 25. The wireless receiver of claim 24, wherein said DC offset cancellation circuits further comprises switching means connected between the output of said transconductor amplifier and the input of said inverting transconductor amplifier. 26. The wireless receiver of claim 25, wherein each said switching means enables a DC servo loop during at least a portion of the preamble period of an OFDM transmission. 27. The wireless receiver of claim 24, wherein the amplification of said transconductor amplifier is controlled by said BBAGC. 28. A two-stage automatic gain control (AGC) for an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) receiver, comprising: means for determining the average power of received preamble symbols in order to set an appropriate baseband AGC (BBAGC) level for a “Q” channel baseband amplifier (BBA) and an “I” channel BBA of said OFDM receiver; and, means for determining the average power of received preamble symbols in order to set an appropriate radio frequency AGC (RFAGC) level of a low-noise amplifier of said OFDM receiver. 29. The two-stage AGC of claim 28, wherein said means for determining the average power are coupled to receive inputs from an “I” channel and a “Q” channel of said OFDM receiver. 30. The two-stage AGC of claim 29, wherein said means for determining the average power further comprise: a first power detector receiving a first input signal from said “I” channel; a second power detector receiving a second input signal from said “Q” channel; a current source providing a reference current; current summing means for adding the current output of said first power detector and the current output of said second power detector and further subtracting the reference current; a unit gain limiting amplifier (UGLA); and, a capacitor connected to the input of said UGLA, capable of receiving the output current from said current summing means. 31. The two-stage AGC of claim 30, wherein said first input signal for the “I” channel for said BBAGC is provided from the output of said “I” channel BBA and said second input signal for the “Q” channel for said BBAGC is provided from the output of said “Q” channel BBA. 32. The two-stage AGC of claim 30, wherein said first input signal for the “I” channel for said RFAGC is provided from the output of an “I” channel baseband filter (BBF) and said second input signal for the “Q” channel for said RFAGC is provided from the output of a “Q” channel BBF. 33. The wireless receiver of claim 30, wherein each said power detector further comprises: a transconductor amplifier; and, means for performing a squaring function on an input current, said means for performing said squaring function being coupled to the output of said transconductor amplifier. 34. The wireless receiver of claim 33 wherein said circuitry providing a reference current output comprises a third power detector receiving a reference voltage input and having a current output, each power detector having a dividing means dividing the respective input voltage to the power detector by two, the input to the third power detector being 2 Vrms. 35. The wireless receiver of claim 34, wherein each said dividing means comprises an attenuator. 36. The two-stage AGC of claim 28, wherein said BBAGC level further controls the amplification of a transconductor amplifier of a DC offset cancellation circuit of said OFDM receiver. 37. The two-stage AGC of claim 30, wherein said means for determining the average power further comprises switching means connecting between said current summing means and said capacitor. 38. The two-stage AGC of claim 37, wherein said switching means enables charging of each capacitor during at least a portion of the preamble of an OFDM transmission. 39. The two-stage AGC of claim 30, wherein said reference current for said BBAGC corresponds to twice the current output of each of the first and second power detectors for said BBAGC for a predetermined radio frequency root mean square voltage output of each of the first and second BBAs. 40. The two-stage AGC of claim 39, wherein said UGLA maintains the output of said UGLA at a predetermined minimum voltage if the sum of the current outputs of the first and second power detectors for said BBAGC exceeds said reference current for said BBAGC. 41. The two-stage AGC of claim 40 wherein said predetermined minimum voltage is one volt. 42. A method for the determination of AGC levels of an OFDM receiver, the method comprising: generating a first AGC control signal to at least a baseband amplifier (BBA) based at least on determining the average power of received preamble symbols in order to set an appropriate baseband AGC (BBAGC) level for at least a BBA; and, generating a second AGC control signal based at least on determining the average power of received preamble symbols in order to set an appropriate radio frequency AGC (RFAGC) level of a low-noise amplifier of said OFDM receiver. 43. The method of claim 42, wherein the step of generating a first AGC control signal further comprises: determining a first current value corresponding to the average root mean square power of an “I” channel signal provided from the output of a first baseband amplifier (BBA) of said OFDM receiver; determining a second current value corresponding to the average root mean square power of a “Q” channel signal provided from the output of a second BBA of said OFDM receiver; determining a third current value corresponding to the average root mean square power of twice the baseband root mean square power; determining an output current by adding said first current value and said second current value and subtracting from the result said third current value; integrating the current over a predetermined period of time; and, maintaining said first AGC control signal at a minimum value if the composite root mean square value of said first BBA and said second BBA is larger than twice the baseband root mean square voltage. 44. The method of claim 43, wherein said method further comprises: providing said AGC control signal to at least a transconducting amplifier for the purpose of controlling the gain of said transconducting amplifier. 45. The method of claim 42, wherein generating a second AGC control signal further comprises: determining a first current value corresponding to the average root mean square power of an “I” channel signal provided from the output of a first baseband filter (BBF) of said OFDM receiver; determining a second current value corresponding to the average root mean square power of a “Q” channel signal provided from the output of a second BBF of said OFDM receiver; determining a third current value corresponding to the average root mean square power of twice the radio frequency root mean square power; determining an output current by adding said first current value and said second current value and subtracting from the result said third current value; integrating the current over a predetermined period of time; and, maintaining said first AGC control signal at a minimum value if the composite root mean square value of said first BBF and said second BBF is larger than twice the radio frequency root mean square voltage. 46. A wireless receiver having a two-stage automatic gain control comprising: a low-noise variable gain amplifier coupled to receive an RF signal from an antenna; first and second mixers connected to an output of the low noise amplifier; first and second baseband filters connected to the outputs of said first and second mixers, respectively; first and second baseband amplifiers coupled to receive an output of a respective baseband filter; a first AGC circuit responsive to the output of the baseband filters to control the gain of the low noise amplifier; and, a second AGC circuit responsive to the output of the baseband amplifiers to control the gain of the baseband amplifiers. 47. The wireless receiver of claim 46 wherein the first and second AGC circuits are responsive to the power level of the respective outputs to which they are responsive. 48. The wireless receiver of claim 47 wherein each AGC circuit includes a reference current source, the first and second AGC circuits including first and second power detectors providing current outputs responsive to the power level of the respective outputs to which they are responsive, the difference between the sum of the outputs of the respective power detectors and the respective reference current being coupled to a capacitor, the voltage on the capacitor being coupled to control the gain of the amplifier controlled by the respective AGC circuit. 49. The wireless receiver of claim 48 for receiving OFDM signals wherein each AGC circuit further comprises a switch, the difference between the sum of the outputs of the respective power detectors and the respective reference current being coupled through the switch to the capacitor during at least part of an OFDM preamble time, the switch otherwise being open. 50. The wireless receiver of claim 46 wherein for RF signals that are relatively stronger, the first AGC circuit will maintain the outputs of the baseband filters at a predetermined level, with the second AGC circuit holding the gain of the baseband amplifiers at a relatively constant gain, and for RF signals that are relatively weaker, the first AGC circuit will hold the gain of the low noise amplifier at a maximum gain, with the second AGC circuit varying the gain of the baseband amplifiers in response to variations in the relatively weaker RF signals. 51. The wireless receiver of claim 46 for receiving OFDM signals further comprising a pair of DC offset compensation circuits, each DC offset compensation circuit being responsive to the output of a respective baseband amplifier and adding a DC compensating signal to the output of the respective mixer. 52. The wireless receiver of claim 51 wherein the DC compensation circuits are active during at least a part of an OFDM signal preamble, and thereafter each store a signal to subsequently maintain the respective DC compensation established when active. 53. The wireless receiver of claim 52 wherein the DC compensation circuits have a frequency response providing a relatively high gain feedback of low frequency and DC compensating signals and a relatively low gain feedback for frequencies of OFDM signals. 54. The wireless receiver of claim 53 wherein the signal to subsequently maintain the respective DC compensation is stored on a capacitor, and wherein the gain of the part of each DC compensation circuit between the output of a respective baseband amplifier and the capacitor is controlled by the second AGC circuit to be inversely proportional to the gain of the respective baseband amplifier. 55. The wireless receiver of claim 54 wherein each compensation circuit further comprises a switch disconnecting the capacitor from the part of each DC compensation circuit between the output of a respective baseband amplifier and the capacitor by the end of an OFDM signal preamble. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to OFDM based wireless receivers, and more particularly to automatic gain control (AGC) and DC offset cancellation in a wireless receiver having a differential path. 2. Prior Art Receivers are necessary components of communication links, and are used, for example, in two-way cellular phone communications and wireless local area networks. A simplified block diagram of a typical prior-art wireless receiver 100 having an inphase or “I” path and a quadrature or “Q” path is shown in FIG. 1. The “I” and “Q” paths are typical of a direct-conversion receiver which employ the two channels, commonly referred to as the “I” and “Q” paths. In such a receiver, a signal from an antenna is fed to low-noise amplifier (LNA) 110. LNA 110 is capable of a low or high gain, controlled through a baseband chip (not shown). LNA 110 is needed for the purpose of amplifying weak signals without introducing much noise. Furthermore, the gain of LNA 110 is not continuous, as it has only two gain settings, being externally controlled. An AGC circuit is connected from the output of a baseband amplifier (BBA), for example BBA 140-I, and its output connected to the amplification control signal of BBA 140-I. LNA 110 feeds a mixer 120, for example mixer 120-I, which mixes down the received high-frequency signal to the baseband (including 0 Hz), by effectively multiplying the received and then amplified signal with a local-oscillator (LO) signal produced by an oscillator (not shown), for example LO “I”, in the receiver. The undesirable signals at very high frequencies produced by this process are filtered out by using a band pass filter BBF, for example BBF 130-I. The filtered signal is then amplified by a baseband amplifier (BBA), for example BBA 140-I, and is output as VI of the “I” channel. The gain of BBA 140-I is made variable through AGC action; the gain is made large when the received signal is small, and small when the received signal is large. The objective of this operation is to keep the output signal to a well-defined power so that it can be encoded by an analog-to-digital converter or otherwise used without undue distortion and noise. There is a symmetrical channel to provide the “Q” channel of the wireless receiver, the I and Q signals to the mixers being 90° out of phase. A wireless receiver, operating for example in accordance with the IEEE 802.11a standard, uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) with a preamble sequence 200 shown in FIG. 2. The preamble field is composed of ten repetitions of a “short training sequence” 210, used for AGC convergence, diversity selection, timing acquisition and DC offset cancellation in the receiver. The preamble field is further composed of two repetitions of a “long training sequence” 220, used for channel estimation and fine frequency acquisition, preceded by a guard interval 230. A short OFDM training symbol consists of 12 sub-carriers (±4, ±8, ±12, ±16, ±20 and ±24 with 312.5 KHz of spacing, for 802.11a and ±2, ±6, ±10, ±14, ±18 and ±22 with 312.5 KHz of spacing, for Hiperlan2). As there is no DC content in the spectral range but there is a DC offset error, this leads to an additional error in the AGC functionality. Specific operation of an AGC loop is well-known in the art and therefore a detailed analysis is not provided herein. Prior art solutions for AGC using frequency offset estimation methods first perform a coarse measure using the last few, usually three, short symbols of the first portion of the preamble. After that a second fine measure is performed, using the second portion of the preamble. The number of symbols used for coarse measurement is a compromise between the need to achieve maximum precision which requires a large number of symbols and the phase ambiguity where a larger estimation range must be used and therefore a small number of symbols. The resultant compromise is as described above, leading to a less accurate estimation of frequency offset, impacting the capability of the AGC. In view of the limitations of prior art solution, it would be advantageous to provide means for an effective AGC for system 100, preferably less dependent on the number of symbols. It would be further advantageous if such AGC means would further control DC offset cancellation means without interfering with the AGC operation. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary prior art wireless receiver. FIG. 2 is diagram illustrating a preamble of prior art OFDM signaling. FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a two-stage AGC for an OFDM receiver. FIG. 4 is a detailed schematic diagram of an AGC unit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a detailed schematic diagram of a two-stage AGC and DC offset cancellation for an OFDM receiver in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram similar to that of FIG. 5, but showing high pass filters at the inputs of the AGC circuits. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In order to overcome the limitations of prior art solutions, there is disclosed a receiver having separate automatic gain control (AGC) units. One AGC unit is used for controlling the low-noise amplifier (LNA) amplification. A second AGC is used to control the amplification of the baseband amplifiers (BBAs). The AGC units receive their inputs from both the “I” and “Q” channels and provide a control voltage that is designed to control the amplification of the amplification unit under control of the respective AGC. By separating the AGCs into two units, a faster control over the desired amplification range is achieved. Furthermore, in one embodiment of the disclosed invention, the corner frequency of the AGC unit is changed to allow for coarse mode AGC at the beginning of the preamble period and a fine mode AGC at the later part of the preamble period. Reference is now made to FIG. 3 where an exemplary schematic diagram of a two-stage AGC for an OFDM receiver 300 is shown. The receiver has a wireless input from an antenna and provides as an output an “I” channel VI and a “Q” channel VQ, typical of the operation of a direct-conversion differential receiver. A continuous gain controlled LNA 310 receives the signal from the antenna (not shown) and provides its output signal to two mixers, mixer 120-I and mixer 120-Q, handling the “I” channel and the “Q” channel respectively. It is possible to control the amplification of LNA 110 by the use of an AGC circuit, as explained in more detail below. Mixers 120-I and 120-Q receive as inputs local oscillator (LO) frequencies respective of the “I” channel and the “Q” channel and output an appropriate baseband frequency. The baseband frequencies from mixers 120-I and 120-Q are used as an input to baseband filters (BBF) 130-I and 130-Q respectively. The function of a BBF, for example BBF 130-I, is to allow passing of only the frequencies respective of the “I” channel and prevent the passing of other ranges of frequencies. The output of both BBF 130-I and 130-Q are fed into a radio frequency AGC (RFAGC) unit 330 which outputs a control signal which is used to control the amplification level of LNA 110. A more detailed description of the RFAGC 330 circuit is provided below. The output of each of BBF 130-I and 130-Q is fed as an input to a respective baseband amplifier (BBA) 140-I and 140-Q, the output of which provides the respective signals VI and VQ. Both BBAs 140-I and 140-Q have the ability to control their respective amplification through a control input that is used by an AGC circuit as may be necessary. The signals VI and VQ are also fed into a baseband AGC (BBAGC) unit 320 designed to handle the amplification of both BBAs, namely BBAs 140-I and 140-Q, by providing the appropriate signal to their respective amplification control signal inouts. A more detailed description of the BBAGC 320 circuit is provided below. By splitting the AGC units as disclosed above, a faster and more accurate AGC function is provided and therefore a more sensitive OFDM receiver. Reference is now made to FIG. 4 where an exemplary schematic diagram of an AGC unit, for example BBAGC 320 or RFAGC unit 330, is shown. For the purpose of the following discussion, reference is made to BBAGC 320. However this discussion is similarly valid for RFAGC 330. BBAGC unit 320 is comprised of three root mean square (rms) detectors 410, 420 and 430, the outputs of which are fed into a unity gain-limiting amplifier (UGLA) 460. Each of the rms detectors 410, 420 and 430 are further comprised of a divide-by-two attenuator (412, 422, and 432 respectively), a transconductor (414, 424 and 434 respectively), and a current squarer (418, 428, and 438 respectively). The output currents of rms detectors 410 and 430, that are connected to the signal paths “I” and “Q” respectively, are summed together, while the current of rms detector 420, connected to the reference value, is subtracted from the sum of the output currents of rms detectors 410 and 430. The resultant current is fed, through MOS switch 440, into external capacitor 450. When the AGC is enabled, MOS switch 440 is closed and an integration of the current takes place. When the AGC is disabled, capacitor 450 stores, or maintains, its previous value. Through this kind of control, it is possible to determine the level of the AGC necessary during the preamble period, and thereafter maintain the required level of AGC during the data reception period without further impact to the receiving paths. A person skilled in the art would note that during the period when the AGC is active, the voltage across of capacitor 450 is determined as follows: V AGC = G m 2 4 C ( ∫ 0 T AGC I 2 ⅆ t + ∫ 0 T AGC Q 2 ⅆ t - 2 ∫ 0 T AGC V rms ⅆ t ) ≡ G m 2 4 C T AGC ( rms ( I ) + rms ( Q ) - 2 V rms ) where TAGC is the active duration of the AGC operation, for example, a portion of the preamble period. The voltage VAGC discussed above is provided to the input of UGLA 460. If the composite rms value of the “I” and “Q” paths is smaller than 2V rms, i.e., (Rms(I)+Rms(Q)<2Vrms), the output of the limiting amplifier is maintained at 1V. Doing this forces a BBA, for example BBA 140-I, or LNA 110, as the case may be, to have its maximum gain; otherwise the gain of a BBA, for example BBA 140-I, or LNA 110 is reduced, as may be required by the specific measurements of the respective AGC unit 320 or 330, respectively. If at the input of LNA 310 the signal has a small power level, for example −90 dBm, then the result at the output of the three power detectors will be a composite rms value smaller than 2VrmsRF Consequently the output of UGLA 460 of RFAGC 320 is maintained at 1V, forcing LNA 110 to be at its maximum gain. In the case of the BBA, i.e., BBAs 140-I and 140-Q, the composite rms value between their respective outputs is initially larger than 2VrmSBB. This happens because the maximum gain of the receiver chain is designed in such a way to ensure that with an input signal of −110 dBm, the composite rms value at BBAs outputs, i.e., between the outputs of BBAs 140-I and 140-Q, is equal to 2VrmsBB. Consequently, the output of UGLA 460 of BBAGC 320 is increased to a value larger than 1V, and as a result activating the baseband AGC loop. In response to this activation, the composite rms value at the BBAs output becomes equal to 2VrmSBB. Notably, as the input signal power increases, the gain of BBAs 140-I and 140-Q decreases. The input signal to the BBAs, for example BBA 140-I, increases and the output composite rms value is locked to 2VrmSBB as a result of the activation of the AGC loop using BBAGC 320. RFAGC 330 operates in a similar way. When the composite rms output value of BBFs 130-I and 130-Q reaches the limit of 2VrmSRF, the output of UGLA 460 of RFAGC 330 is increased to a value exceeding 1V. As a result, the RF AGC loop is activated, forcing the composite rms value at the BBFs output to become equal to 2VrmSRF, while the gain of BBAs 140-I and 140-Q remains constant. A person skilled in the art would note that it is critical that the AGC loops closed by BBAGC 320 and RFAGC 330, complete the AGC cycle within the short duration of the preamble for a given wireless standard. This may be in contradiction with the need to have capacitor C 450 be sufficiently large to provide the necessary level of filtering and hold capabilities, as explained in more detail above. A typical value for capacitor C 450 is therefore set at 350 pF. It should be noted that the power detector and associated circuitry responsive to the fixed input voltage may instead simply be a fixed current source providing a current to the summing point equivalent to what the power detector and associated circuitry responsive to the fixed input voltage would have done, i.e., a reference current. In that regard, currents may be summed by merely connecting the current sources together, so that the fixed current source providing a current to the summing point equivalent to what the power detector and associated circuitry responsive to the fixed input voltage would have done may in fact be a current sink removing the equivalent current from the summing point to effect the subtraction indicated. However this current is generated, the summing point provides an output current responsive to the sum of the I and Q current components responsive to the I and Q power levels, minus the magnitude of the third current, however generated. Reference is now made to FIG. 5 where an exemplary schematic diagram of a two-stage AGC and DC offset cancellation for an OFDM receiver 500 is shown. A detailed explanation of the operation of a DC offset cancellation circuit can be found in a US patent application titled “Apparatus and Methods for Eliminating DC Offset in a Wireless Communication Device” by S. Piplos, assigned to common assignee and filed on the same day and date, and which is hereby incorporated by reference for all that it contains. In addition to the elements of the circuit described in more detail in FIG. 3 above, there are added two DC offset cancellation circuits to handle the “I” and “Q” channels of OFDM receiver 500. The analysis hereinafter in respect to the “I” channel but is equally valid to the “Q” channel of OFDM receiver 500. A feedback loop comprising transconductor amplifiers 510-I and 520-I having a gain of Gm1 and −Gm2, respectively, is connected between the output of BBA 140-I, i.e., VI, and the input of BBF 130-I. Transconductor amplifier 510-I further feeds a parallel combination of a resistor (R) 530-I and a capacitor (C) 540-I coupled to a reference voltage, typically a circuit ground. Transconductor amplifier 520-I multiples the signal developed across of the R-C combination by its gain −Gm2, and produces a current that, because of its reverse nature, is in fact equivalent to subtraction from the current output from mixer 120-I, the current differential being fed into BBF 130-I. At low frequencies, capacitor 540-I of the DC servo loop, behaves as an open circuit and therefore can be ignored. The signal that is output from transconductor amplifier 510-I is passed through resistor 530-I and develops a proportionate voltage, which is then fed into transconductor amplifier 520-I. Hence, the overall gain for DC and frequencies close to DC from the input to BBF 130-I to the output of BBA 140-I, is essentially zero. At high frequencies, capacitor 540-I behaves practically as a short circuit, effectively shorting the signal at the output of transconductor amplifier 510-I to ground. As a result, transconductor amplifier 520-I has almost no signal at its input and produces almost no signal at its output. Hence, the overall gain for relatively high frequencies from the input to BBF 130-I to the output of BBA 140-I, is essentially the gain achieved by moving the signal through BBF 130-I and BBA 140-I. The transresistance gain of the DC servo loop, comprised of transconductor amplifiers 510-I and 520-I, is significantly low at and around zero frequencies (DC) and significantly high at signal frequencies. For in-between frequencies the gain varies from the lowest gain value to the highest gain value. The “corner” frequencies fz and fp, i.e., those frequencies where the gain begins to change from the lowest frequency and the highest frequency respectively, are also known as a “zero” frequency, and a “pole” frequency, respectively. The frequency of fz for the exemplary embodiment can be shown to be: f z = 1 2 π RC and fp can be shown to be: f p = f z × H SIGNAL H DC = f z × R mFILTER × A BB × G m1 × R × G m2 Therefore, fz is, in the first instance, constant and can be set to a desired value for optimum system operation. However, fp is proportional to BBA 140-I gain that is not constant, but rather varies through the action of the AGC, depending on the amplitude of the signal received, and as explained in more detail above. This means that as the signal strength varies, so will fp. Such behavior can lead to sub-optimal operation of OFDM receiver 500. Another problem that can arise is that if fp increases too much, the associated signal path phase shift, in combination with the phase shifts in other paths of the system (e.g., BBF 130-I), can reach 180 degrees at some frequency, which is equivalent to multiplication of the signal by a minus sign; the overall feedback can then change from negative to positive, and this can lead to undesired oscillations. To eliminate this potential, transconductor amplifier 410 gain may be designed to respond to the same AGC signal as BBA 140-I, and to vary in inverse proportion to the varying gain ABB of BBA 140-I, thus maintaining the value of fp constant. Such a configuration is shown in FIG. 5, where the output of BBAGC 320 controls not only the amplification of BBA 140-I bit, but also the amplification of transconductor amplifier 510-I, in the manner explained above. In another embodiment of the disclosed invention a switch is used to activate and deactivate the DC servo function, allowing to restrict its operation to desired periods of time, for example the preamble period. In another embodiment of the disclosed invention shown in FIG. 6, the AGC circuits have at their input a high pass filter HPF, used to prevent the entry of low frequencies, and specifically DC, resulting from the output DC offset at the VI and VQ outputs. An OFDM training symbol consists of 12 sub-carriers (±4, ±8, ±12, ±16, ±20 and ±24 with 312.5 KHz of spacing for 802.11a, and ±2, ±6, ±10, ±14, ±18 and ±22 with 312.5 KHz of spacing for Hiperlan2). As there is no DC content in the spectral range but there is a DC offset error, it leads to an additional error in the AGC functionality. Hence, the high pass filter prevents this error from occurring. However, its corner frequency impacts the performance of the circuit. Therefore, in another embodiment of the disclosed invention, the corner frequency of the high pass filter is set to a first high frequency, for example 1,862 KHz, during a first period of the preamble, for example for a period of 4 microseconds, and thereafter the corner frequency is switched to a second lower frequency, for example 266 KHz. The high and low frequencies are based on simulation results and may vary depending on the specific characteristics of the circuits used. The objective though, is to obtain an initial very fast AGC loop response times, at the expense of precision. The switching to the lower frequency, for example 266 KHz, occurs once the DC servo loop has settled, or almost settled, while the AGC loops have reached a state very close to their final state. Thereafter, the AGC loops continue their operation with increased precision, as practically no filtering of the signal spectrum occurs. Thus in accordance with preferred embodiments of the present invention, the AGC loops and the DC offset compensation loops may be substantially decoupled. Also, for moderate to high received RF signal strength, the AGC loops settle with the required system gain based on the AGC loop controlling the gain of LNA 310. In this case, the gain of the baseband amplifiers will settle to a substantially fixed, low gain, independent on variations in the moderate to high received RF signal strength. However when the received RF signal strength falls below some limit, the LNA 310 will not be able to maintain the output of the baseband filters, and accordingly the input to the baseband amplifiers will decrease, and vary with the variations in the weak received RF signal strength. Now the gain of the LNA 310 will remain at its maximum, and the baseband amplifier AGC loop will control the baseband amplifier gain to at least maintain the output voltages VI and VQ. While certain preferred embodiments of the present invention have been disclosed and described herein, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and detail may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Similarly, the various aspects of the present invention may be advantageously practiced by incorporating all features or various sub-combinations of features as desired. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to OFDM based wireless receivers, and more particularly to automatic gain control (AGC) and DC offset cancellation in a wireless receiver having a differential path. 2. Prior Art Receivers are necessary components of communication links, and are used, for example, in two-way cellular phone communications and wireless local area networks. A simplified block diagram of a typical prior-art wireless receiver 100 having an inphase or “I” path and a quadrature or “Q” path is shown in FIG. 1 . The “I” and “Q” paths are typical of a direct-conversion receiver which employ the two channels, commonly referred to as the “I” and “Q” paths. In such a receiver, a signal from an antenna is fed to low-noise amplifier (LNA) 110 . LNA 110 is capable of a low or high gain, controlled through a baseband chip (not shown). LNA 110 is needed for the purpose of amplifying weak signals without introducing much noise. Furthermore, the gain of LNA 110 is not continuous, as it has only two gain settings, being externally controlled. An AGC circuit is connected from the output of a baseband amplifier (BBA), for example BBA 140 -I, and its output connected to the amplification control signal of BBA 140 -I. LNA 110 feeds a mixer 120 , for example mixer 120 -I, which mixes down the received high-frequency signal to the baseband (including 0 Hz), by effectively multiplying the received and then amplified signal with a local-oscillator (LO) signal produced by an oscillator (not shown), for example LO “I”, in the receiver. The undesirable signals at very high frequencies produced by this process are filtered out by using a band pass filter BBF, for example BBF 130 -I. The filtered signal is then amplified by a baseband amplifier (BBA), for example BBA 140 -I, and is output as V I of the “I” channel. The gain of BBA 140 -I is made variable through AGC action; the gain is made large when the received signal is small, and small when the received signal is large. The objective of this operation is to keep the output signal to a well-defined power so that it can be encoded by an analog-to-digital converter or otherwise used without undue distortion and noise. There is a symmetrical channel to provide the “Q” channel of the wireless receiver, the I and Q signals to the mixers being 90° out of phase. A wireless receiver, operating for example in accordance with the IEEE 802.11a standard, uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) with a preamble sequence 200 shown in FIG. 2 . The preamble field is composed of ten repetitions of a “short training sequence” 210 , used for AGC convergence, diversity selection, timing acquisition and DC offset cancellation in the receiver. The preamble field is further composed of two repetitions of a “long training sequence” 220 , used for channel estimation and fine frequency acquisition, preceded by a guard interval 230 . A short OFDM training symbol consists of 12 sub-carriers (±4, ±8, ±12, ±16, ±20 and ±24 with 312.5 KHz of spacing, for 802.11a and ±2, ±6, ±10, ±14, ±18 and ±22 with 312.5 KHz of spacing, for Hiperlan2). As there is no DC content in the spectral range but there is a DC offset error, this leads to an additional error in the AGC functionality. Specific operation of an AGC loop is well-known in the art and therefore a detailed analysis is not provided herein. Prior art solutions for AGC using frequency offset estimation methods first perform a coarse measure using the last few, usually three, short symbols of the first portion of the preamble. After that a second fine measure is performed, using the second portion of the preamble. The number of symbols used for coarse measurement is a compromise between the need to achieve maximum precision which requires a large number of symbols and the phase ambiguity where a larger estimation range must be used and therefore a small number of symbols. The resultant compromise is as described above, leading to a less accurate estimation of frequency offset, impacting the capability of the AGC. In view of the limitations of prior art solution, it would be advantageous to provide means for an effective AGC for system 100 , preferably less dependent on the number of symbols. It would be further advantageous if such AGC means would further control DC offset cancellation means without interfering with the AGC operation. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary prior art wireless receiver. FIG. 2 is diagram illustrating a preamble of prior art OFDM signaling. FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a two-stage AGC for an OFDM receiver. FIG. 4 is a detailed schematic diagram of an AGC unit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a detailed schematic diagram of a two-stage AGC and DC offset cancellation for an OFDM receiver in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram similar to that of FIG. 5 , but showing high pass filters at the inputs of the AGC circuits. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20040609 | 20080513 | 20051215 | 68763.0 | 0 | JOSEPH, JAISON | WIRELESS LAN RECEIVER WITH I AND Q RF AND BASEBAND AGC LOOPS AND DC OFFSET CANCELLATION | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,864,292 | ACCEPTED | Apparatus and method for applying ciphering in a universal mobile telecommunications system | Apparatus and a method for ciphering messages in mobile telecommunications system user equipment and network are disclosed. The apparatus is arranged to store a plurality of current ciphering configurations and/or a plurality of old (previously applied) ciphering configurations and/or a plurality of new (future) ciphering configurations. Thus different ciphering configuration may be applied at different times and for different radio bearers. | 1. A method for applying ciphering in a mobile telecommunications system, the system comprising a network of a plurality of cells and at least one user equipment device, the method comprising, in the user equipment: storing parameters relating to a plurality of ciphering configurations for at least one of a given type of ciphering configuration. 2. A method according to claim 1 wherein the given type of ciphering configuration being at least one of the group comprising: new ciphering configuration, old ciphering configuration and ciphering configuration. 3. A method according to claim 1 further comprising storing a maximum of 20 ciphering configurations of a given type. 4. A method according to claim 1 further comprising determining whether parameters of a ciphering configuration are required, and removing parameters that are determined to be no longer required. 5. A method according to claim 1 wherein the user equipment applies the appropriate ciphering configuration according to the stored parameters. 6. A method according to claim 1 wherein the user equipment is capable of communicating via a plurality of radio bearers, the method further comprising storing parameters relating to a plurality of ciphering configurations for a given type of ciphering configuration for each radio bearer. 7. A method according to claim 1 further comprising storing the parameters in the layer of a protocol stack which layer applies the ciphering. 8. A mobile telecommunications device for use in a mobile telecommunications system, the system comprising a network of a plurality of cells and at least one device, the device being arranged in use to store, for at least one of a given type of ciphering configuration, parameters relating to a plurality of ciphering configurations. 9. A device according to claim 8, the given type of ciphering configuration being at least one of the group comprising: new ciphering configuration, old ciphering configuration and ciphering configuration. 10. A device according to claim 8 further arranged to store a maximum of 20 ciphering configurations of a given type. 11. A device according to claim 8 further arranged to determine whether parameters of a ciphering configuration are required, and to remove parameters that are determined to be no longer required. 12. A device according to claim 8 further arranged to apply the appropriate ciphering configuration according to the stored parameters. 13. A device according to claim 8 wherein the device is capable of communicating via a plurality of radio bearers, the device further being arranged to store parameters relating to a plurality of ciphering configurations for a given type of ciphering configuration for each radio bearer. 14. A device according to claim 8 wherein the device is further arranged to store the parameters in a layer of a protocol stack which layer applies the ciphering. 15. A device according to claim 14 wherein the device is operable in a Universal Mobile Telecommunications System and the parameters are stored in at last one of the Radio Link Control Layer and the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer of the protocol stack of the device. 16. A mobile telecommunications network device for use in a mobile telecommunications system, the system comprising a network of a plurality of cells and at least one device, the device being arranged in use to store, for at least one of a given type of ciphering configuration, parameters relating to a plurality of ciphering configurations. 17. A device according to claim 16, the given type of ciphering configuration being at least one of the group comprising: new ciphering configuration, old ciphering configuration and ciphering configuration. 18. A device according to claim 16 further arranged to store a maximum of 20 ciphering configurations of a given type. 19. A device according to claim 16 further arranged to determine whether parameters of a ciphering configuration are required, and to remove parameters that are determined to be no longer required. 20. A device according to claim 16 further arranged to apply the appropriate ciphering configuration according to the stored parameters. 21. A device according to claim 16 wherein the device is capable of communicating via a plurality of radio bearers, the device further being arranged to store parameters relating to a plurality of ciphering configurations for a given type of ciphering configuration for each radio bearer. 22. A device according to claim 16 wherein the device is further arranged to store the parameters in a layer of a protocol stack which layer applies the ciphering. 23. A device according to claim 22 wherein the device is operable in a Universal Mobile Telecommunications System and the parameters are stored in at last one of the Radio Link Control Layer and the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer of the protocol stack of the device. 24. A device according to claim 16 wherein the device is a Radio Network Controller for use in a Universal Mobile Telecommunications System. | BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field This application relates to mobile telecommunications systems in general, having particular application in UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) in general, and in particular to an apparatus and method for applying ciphering in universal mobile telecommunications system user equipment and network. 2. Description of the Related Art The approaches described in this section could be pursued, but are not necessarily approaches that have been previously conceived or pursued. Therefore, unless otherwise indicated herein, the approaches described in this section are not prior art to the claims in this application and are not admitted to be prior art by inclusion in this section. In a typical cellular radio system, mobile user equipment (UE) communicates via a radio access radio network (RAN) to one or more core networks. User equipment (UE) comprises various types of equipment such as mobile telephones (also known as cellular or cell phones), lap tops with wireless communication capability, personal digital assistants (PDAs) etc. These may be portable, hand held, pocket sized, installed in a vehicle etc and communicate voice and/or data signals with the radio access network. The radio access network covers a geographical area divided into a plurality of cell areas. Each cell area is served by at least one base station, which may be referred to as a Node B. Each cell is identified by a unique identifier which is broadcast in the cell. The base stations communicate at radio frequencies over an air interface with the UEs within range of the base station. Several base stations may be connected to a radio network controller (RNC) which controls various activities of the base stations. The radio network controllers are typically connected to a core network. UMTS is a third generation public land mobile telecommunication system. Various standardization bodies are known to publish and set standards for UMTS, each in their respective areas of competence. For instance, the 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) has been known to publish and set standards for GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) based UMTS, and the 3GPP2 (Third Generation Partnership Project 2) has been known to publish and set standards for CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) based UMTS. Within the scope of a particular standardization body, specific partners publish and set standards in their respective areas. Consider a wireless mobile device, generally referred to as user equipment (UE), that complies with the 3GPP specifications for the UMTS protocol. The 3GPP 25.331 specification, v.3.15.0, referred to herein as the 25.331 specification, addresses the subject of UMTS RRC (Radio Resource Control) protocol requirements between the UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) and the UE. In UMTS each radio bearer (including signalling radio bearers) may be configured to apply ciphering to all data as part of the security features of UMTS. Both the UE and the UTRAN store ciphering configurations for applying ciphering. The 25.331 standard states in section 8.6.3.4 that, at any given time, the UE needs to store at most two different ciphering configurations (keyset and algorithm) per Core Network (CN) domain at any given time in total for all radio bearers and three configurations in total for all signalling radio bearers. The ciphering configurations which are stored are: the current ciphering configuration (the configuration which is currently being applied to the data sent or received on the radio bearer); a new ciphering configuration (if one exists); and an old configuration. As far as a new ciphering configuration is concerned, if the UTRAN has decided to change the ciphering configuration, there is a period of time after the new configuration has been sent to the UE and before the new configuration is used. This period of time allows the UTRAN and UE radio bearers to synchronise a move to the new configuration at the same time and so no loss of data is encountered. The time at which the new configuration becomes current may be different for each radio bearer as it depends on traffic flow in that radio bearer. The old configuration is also stored because Packet Data Units (PDUs) which have failed to be received correctly may be retransmitted by the UTRAN and are ciphered using the configuration which was current at the time they were first sent. It is therefore possible that some PDUs which were originally sent before the new ciphering configuration was activated are resent with the previously used (old) ciphering configuration. Parties may submit proposals to 3GPP and the agenda item TSGR2#((99)K58 submitted to the TSG-RAN working group 2 of the 3GPP (which may be found at <http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/tsg_yan/WG2_RL2/TSGR2—09/Docs/Zips/R2-99k58.doc>) relates to the activation time for new ciphering configurations in Unacknowledged Mode (UM) and Acknowledged Mode (AM). There are proposed strategies for dealing with ciphering configurations. A number of such strategies are detailed below. Other aspects and features of the present invention will become apparent to those ordinarily skilled in the art upon review of the following description of specific embodiments of an apparatus and method for applying ciphering in mobile telecommunications system user equipment. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments of the present invention will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the attached drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is an overview of a mobile telecommunications system; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of a protocol stack, apparatus provided with a cell update handling RRC block, in accordance with the present application; FIG. 3 is a flow diagram illustrating storage of cipher configurations in user equipment; FIG. 4 is a flow diagram illustrating management of cipher configurations in user equipment; FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating a mobile device, which can act as a UE and co-operate with the apparatus and methods of FIGS. 1 to 4. The same reference numerals are used in different figures to denote similar elements. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS An apparatus and method for applying ciphering in universal mobile telecommunications system user equipment is described. In the following description, for the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art that the present invention may be practised without these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present invention. The needs identified in the foregoing Background, and other needs and objects that will become apparent from the following description, are achieved by, in one aspect, a method for applying ciphering in a mobile telecommunications system, the system comprising a network of a plurality of cells and at least one user equipment device, in which parameters relating to a plurality of ciphering configurations for a given type of ciphering configuration are stored. Thus, for instance, a plurality of new ciphering configurations, old ciphering configurations or current ciphering configurations may be stored. In other aspects, the invention encompasses apparatus and a computer-readable medium configured to carry out the foregoing steps. In particular, the method may be implemented in a mobile telecommunications device, with or without voice capabilities, or other electronic devices such as handheld or portable devices. Referring to the drawings, FIG. 1 shows an overview of a network and a UE device. Clearly in practice there may be many UE devices operating with the network but, for the sake of simplicity, FIG. 1 only shows a single UE device 500. For the purposes of illustration, FIG. 1 also shows a network 519 having a few components. It will be clear to a person skilled in the art that in practice a network will include far more components than those shown. FIG. 1 shows an overview of the radio access network 519 (UTRAN) used in a UMTS system. The network 519 as shown in FIG. 1 comprises three Radio Network Subsystems (RNS) 2. Each RNS has a Radio Network Controller (RNC) 4. Each RNS 2 has one or more Node B 6 which are similar in function to a Base Transmitter Station of a GSM radio access network. User Equipment UE 500 may be mobile within the radio access network. Radio connections (indicated by the straight dotted lines in FIG. 1) are established between the UE and one or more of the Node Bs in the UTRAN. The radio network controller controls the use and reliability of the radio resources within the RNS 2. Each RNC may also be connected to a 3G mobile switching centre 10 (3G MSC) and a 3G serving GPRS support node 12 (3G SGSN). An RNC 4 controls one or more Node B's. An RNC plus its Node B's together make up an RNS 2. A Node B controls one or more cells. Each cell is uniquely identified by a frequency and a primary scrambling code (primary CPICH in FDD, primary CCPCH in TDD). Generally in UMTS a cell refers to a radio network object that can be uniquely identified by a UE from a cell identifier that is broadcast over geographical areas from a UTRAN access point. A UTRAN access point is a conceptual point within the UTRAN performing radio transmission and reception. A UTRAN access point is associated with one specific cell i.e., there exists one UTRAN access point for each cell. It is the UTRAN-side end point of a radio link. A single physical Node B 6 may operate as more than one cell since it may operate at multiple frequencies and/or with multiple scrambling codes. The UE 500 is configured to store more than one ciphering configuration of a given type (current, old, new) such that a plurality of current ciphering configurations are stored and/or a plurality of old (previously applied) ciphering configurations are stored and/or a plurality of new (future) ciphering configurations are stored. The UTRAN 519 may also be configured to store more than one ciphering configuration of a given type (current, old, new) for each Radio Bearer such that a plurality of current ciphering configurations are stored and/or a plurality of old (previously applied) ciphering configurations are stored and/or a plurality of new (future) ciphering configurations are stored. For instance, a plurality of old ciphering configurations may be stored. If the transmit window for a radio bearer is large then it is possible that the ciphering configuration may be changed more than once between the first transmission of a PDU and its retransmission. Additionally or alternatively a plurality of pending new configurations may be stored. For instance, according to clause 8.1.12.4b of the 25.331 standard, if a cell update procedure is initiated during the change in security configuration, then the configuration should be aborted and the UE should resume to the state it was in before it attempted the change. Storing a plurality of pending new configurations enables a UE to also revert to using a pending new configuration which was the pending new configuration at the time the change was attempted. Therefore if the UE had previously been storing a pending configuration, and a new configuration was received, the UE stores both pending future configurations until the configuration is complete so that it may restore the original pending configuration if the change is aborted. The UTRAN may also store both pending future configurations until the configuration is complete. The size of the transmission window is different for each radio bearer. This means that the number of old configurations which are required may be different for each radio bearer. Also each radio bearer will not necessarily have the same old or current ciphering configurations as other radio bearers. Since the activation time for each radio bearer is dependant on traffic flow, the new configuration may become the current configuration at different times on different radio bearers. So at any given time some radio bearers may be using the newest ciphering configuration, while others may be using the previous one as the new has not activated yet. Thus the UE and/or network may store more than one current configuration so that the RBs may have a different current configuration depending on the activation time for each RB. The configurations may activate at different times in different Radio Bearers. Allowing the storage of a plurality of configurations for a given type of ciphering configuration means that it is possible to store new, old and current configurations for each Radio Bearer, each of which may be different from each other. Thus configurations relevant for each Radio Bearer may be stored, rather than only storing three configurations per CN domain. In this way it is easier for the UE and network to determine which ciphering configuration should be used for each PDU to be transmitted or retransmitted on a Radio Bearer. If the UE or network was limited to storing only one new, one current and one old configuration for all Radio Bearers, the UE or network may simply not have the required configuration and so it would be unable to cipher or decipher the data. The UE or UTRAN may be arranged to store ciphering configurations in the layer of the protocol stack that applies the ciphering. Thus, for instance, the UE may store ciphering configurations in the Radio Resource Control (RRC), a sublayer of Layer 3 on the UMTS radio interface. Alternatively the UE may store the ciphering configurations in the Radio Link Control (RLC) layer, a sublayer of the radio interface. This latter implementation has the advantage in Unacknowledged Mode (UM) and Acknowledged Mode (AM), as in these modes it is the RLC layer that applies the ciphering to the data and thus less signalling will be required to determine the ciphering configuration to be applied. In Transparent Mode (TM), the UE may be arranged to store the ciphering configurations in the MAC layer as in TM the ciphering is applied in the MAC layer. The UTRAN also includes a similar protocol stack with the RLC and the MAC generally being stored in a RNC. An example will now be considered of the operation of a UE which stores parameters relating to more than one instance of a ciphering configuration of a given type. Consider two radio bearers RB1 and RB2. At time t=0, each radio bearer has the same old, current and new configurations (C1, C2 and C3 respectively) with C2 activating at time t=0, but C3 activates at time t2 in RB1 and t4 in RB2. So at time t=0 the UE is configured as follows: RB1 RB2 Time t Old Current New Old Current New 0 C1 C2 C3t2 C1 C2 C3t4 At time t=1 the UE is configured as follows: RB1 RB2 Time t Old Current New Old Current New 0 C1 C2 C3t2 C1 C2 C3t4 1 C1 C2 C3t2 C1 C2 C3t4 At time t=2: RB1 RB2 Time t Old Current New Old Current New 0 C1 C2 C3t2 C1 C2 C3t4 1 C1 C2 C3t2 C1 C2 C3t4 2 C1<t0/ C3 — C1 C2 C3t4 C2≧t0, <t2 At time t=2, RB1 has two Old ciphering configurations C1 and C2. C1 will be applied to any PDUs that are subsequently received but which were transmitted prior to t=0 and C2 will be applied to any PDUs that are subsequently received but which were transmitted on or after t=0 and before t=2. C3 is applied to PDUs with a sequence number representing time after t=2. RB2 has a single old, new and current configuration. At time t=4 the new cipher configuration C3 will activate for RB2 and the following cipher configurations are stored: RB1 RB2 Time t Old Current New Old Current New 0 C1 C2 C3t2 C1 C2 C3t4 1 C1 C2 C3t2 C1 C2 C3t4 2 C1<t0/ C3 — C1 C2 C3t4 C2≧t0, <t2 3 C1<t0/ C3 — C1 C2 C3t4 C2≧t0, <t2 4 C1<t0/ C3 — C1<t0/ C3 C2≧t0, <t2 C2≧t0, <t4 Old ciphering configurations may be discarded as soon as all PDUs transmitted with that ciphering configuration have been received by the UE. Thus in the above example, the old ciphering configuration C1 may be deleted for RB1 once all PDUs transmitted prior to t=0 have been received. This may be determined by examining the sequence number of each PDU. Now consider the situation in which at time t=3 the UTRAN changes the new ciphering configuration to C4 with activation times in each RB as follows: RB1 RB2 Time t Old Current New Old Current New 0 C1 C2 C3t2 C1 C2 C3t4 1 C1 C2 C3t2 C1 C2 C3t4 2 C1<t0/ C3 — C1 C2 C3t4 C2≧t0, <t2 3 C1<t0/ C3 C4t5 C1 C2 C4t4 C2≧t0, <t2 According to the 25.331 standard, if a UTRAN sends a new configuration (e.g. C4) before a previous one has activated (e.g. C3), then the UTRAN must use the same activation time. So therefore, as shown above, the new configuration C4 has an activation time t4, the same as the previous new configuration C3. C3 may therefore be deleted from the configurations for RB2 as being redundant. Now after t4 and t5 have passed the stored cipher configurations are as follows: RB1 RB2 Time t Old Current New Old Current New 0 C1 C2 C3t2 C1 C2 C3t4 1 C1 C2 C3t2 C1 C2 C3t4 2 C1<t0/ C3 — C1 C2 C3t4 C2≧t0, <t2 3 C1<t0/ C3 C4t5 C1 C2 C4t4 C2≧t0, <t2 4 C1<t0/ C3 C4t5 C1 C4 — C2≧t0, <t2 C2≧t0, <t4 5 C1<t0/ C4 — C1<t0/ C4 — C2≧t0, <t2/ C2≧t0, <t4 C3≧t2, t5 If a PDU which was originally transmitted just after t2 is retransmitted after t5, C3 will be used if the PDU was transmitted on RB1 and C2 if the PDU was transmitted on RB2. As shown above, at t=3 there are two new configurations shown with the same activation time. The two new ciphering configurations C3 and C4 only exist whilst the configurations procedure occurs. If the ciphering configuration C4 is successfully implemented, then C3 is discarded. If the configuration procedure implementing ciphering configuration C4 fails, then C4 may be discarded and C3 implemented as the new ciphering configuration. The situation may be similar when implemented in the network. Messages from between the UTRAN and the UE include a sequence number that is sequential. The time indications given above may be considered equivalent to the sequence number included in messages sent by the UTRAN to the UE. As the sequence numbers are sequential, the UE may determine whether a PDU has been missed by virtue of this sequence number. When a UE determines from the sequence number that all messages ciphered with a given cipher configuration Cn have been received, then the UE may discard the old ciphering configuration Cn as it is no longer applicable. Referring to the drawings, FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of a device's protocol stack provided with a RRC block, in accordance with the present application. The RRC block 200 is a sub layer of Layer 3 130 of a UMTS protocol stack 100. The RRC 200 exists in the control plane only and provides an information transfer service to the non-access stratum NAS 134. The RRC 200 is responsible for controlling the configuration of radio interface Layer 1 110 and Layer 2 120. When the UTRAN wishes to change the UE configuration it will issue a message to the UE containing a command to invoke a specific RRC procedure. The RRC 200 layer of the UE decodes this message and initiates the appropriate RRC procedure. When the procedure has been completed (either successfully or not) then the RRC may send a response message to the UTRAN (via the lower layers) informing the UTRAN of the outcome. However, in many cases the RRC need not and does not reply. The RRC block 200 can implement several different behaviour strategies for implementing ciphering of messages. The number of ciphering configurations of a given type (current, new, old) may be limitless or a maximum limit (e.g. 20) may be applied. The UE may be arranged to delete any old ciphering configurations that are no longer applicable for any radio bearer in use by the UE on a CN domain. The operation of a UE having the capability to store ciphering parameters relating to a plurality of ciphering configurations of a given type (e.g. current, new, old) will now be described with reference to the drawings. FIG. 3 is a flow chart illustrating the operation of a UE according to one embodiment of handling of cipher configurations by the UE. At step 302, the UE receives cipher configuration parameters (for instance according to clause 8.1.12.3 of the 25.331 standard these parameters are contained in the field “Ciphering mode Info”). At step 304, the ciphering configuration information is stored in a memory of the UE. Periodically, the UE carries out an audit of the stored cipher configurations. As illustrated in FIG. 4, at step 402 the UE determines whether each of the stored cipher configurations is still applicable. As mentioned above, this determination may be based on the sequence numbers of messages sent and received by the UE. The UE then, at step 404, removes from the store any ciphering configurations that are deemed no longer to be applicable. Thus the UE may store all the ciphering configurations that it receives for a given Core Network, but manages the storage so that ciphering configurations are deleted when it is determined that they are no longer applicable to messages sent and received by the UE. When this technique is implemented in the network, the operation of the network may be similar. Thus a network device in the UTRAN (for instance, the RNC) maintains a protocol stack for a given device similar to that shown in FIG. 2 and the UTRAN has the capability to store ciphering parameters relating to a plurality of ciphering configurations of a given type (e.g. current, new, old). The UTRAN stores different configurations for different RB's, domains and UEs. For each RB for each UE the UTRAN may store a plurality of different ciphering configurations of a given type. Turning now to FIG. 5, FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating a mobile device, which can act as a UE and co-operate with the apparatus and methods of FIGS. 1 to 9, and which is an exemplary wireless communication device. Mobile station 500 is preferably a two-way wireless communication device having at least voice and data communication capabilities. Mobile station 500 preferably has the capability to communicate with other computer systems on the Internet. Depending on the exact functionality provided, the wireless device may be referred to as a data messaging device, a two-way pager, a wireless e-mail device, a cellular telephone with data messaging capabilities, a wireless Internet appliance, or a data communication device, as examples. Where mobile station 500 is enabled for two-way communication, it will incorporate a communication subsystem 511, including both a receiver 512 and a transmitter 514, as well as associated components such as one or more, preferably embedded or internal, antenna elements 516 and 518, local oscillators (LOs) 513, and a processing module such as a digital signal processor (DSP) 520. As will be apparent to those skilled in the field of communications, the particular design of the communication subsystem 511 will be dependent upon the communication network in which the device is intended to operate. For example, mobile station 500 may include a communication subsystem 511 designed to operate within the Mobitex™ mobile communication system, the DataTAC™ mobile communication system, GPRS network, UMTS network, or EDGE network. Network access requirements will also vary depending upon the type of network 502. For example, in the Mobitex and DataTAC networks, mobile station 500 is registered on the network using a unique identification number associated with each mobile station. In UMTS and GPRS networks, however, network access is associated with a subscriber or user of mobile station 500. A GPRS mobile station therefore requires a subscriber identity module (SIM) card in order to operate on a GPRS network. Without a valid SIM card, a GPRS mobile station will not be fully functional. Local or non-network communication functions, as well as legally required functions (if any) such as “911” emergency calling, may be available, but mobile station 500 will be unable to carry out any other functions involving communications over the network 502. The SIM interface 544 is normally similar to a card-slot into which a SIM card can be inserted and ejected like a diskette or PCMCIA card. The SIM card can have approximately 64K of memory and hold many key configuration 551, and other information 553 such as identification, and subscriber related information. When required network registration or activation procedures have been completed, mobile station 500 may send and receive communication signals over the network 502. Signals received by antenna 516 through communication network 502 are input to receiver 512, which may perform such common receiver functions as signal amplification, frequency down conversion, filtering, channel selection and the like, and in the example system shown in FIG. 5, analog to digital (A/D) conversion. A/D conversion of a received signal allows more complex communication functions such as demodulation and decoding to be performed in the DSP 520. In a similar manner, signals to be transmitted are processed, including modulation and encoding for example, by DSP 520 and input to transmitter 514 for digital to analog conversion, frequency up conversion, filtering, amplification and transmission over the communication network 502 via antenna 518. DSP 520 not only processes communication signals, but also provides for receiver and transmitter control. For example, the gains applied to communication signals in receiver 512 and transmitter 514 may be adaptively controlled through automatic gain control algorithms implemented in DSP 520. Mobile station 500 preferably includes a microprocessor 538 which controls the overall operation of the device. Communication functions, including at least data and voice communications, are performed through communication subsystem 511. Microprocessor 538 also interacts with further device subsystems such as the display 522, flash memory 524, random access memory (RAM) 526, auxiliary input/output (I/O) subsystems 528, serial port 530, keyboard 532, speaker 534, microphone 536, a short-range communications subsystem 540 and any other device subsystems generally designated as 542. Some of the subsystems shown in FIG. 5 perform communication-related functions, whereas other subsystems may provide “resident” or on-device functions. Notably, some subsystems, such as keyboard 532 and display 522, for example, may be used for both communication-related functions, such as entering a text message for transmission over a communication network, and device-resident functions such as a calculator or task list. Operating system software used by the microprocessor 538 is preferably stored in a persistent store such as flash memory 524, which may instead be a read-only memory (ROM) or similar storage element (not shown). Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the operating system, specific device applications, or parts thereof, may be temporarily loaded into a volatile memory such as RAM 526. Received communication signals may also be stored in RAM 526. As shown, flash memory 524 can be segregated into different areas for both computer programs 558 and program data storage 550, 552, 554 and 556. These different storage types indicate that each program can allocate a portion of flash memory 524 for their own data storage requirements. Microprocessor 538, in addition to its operating system functions, preferably enables execution of software applications on the mobile station. A predetermined set of applications that control basic operations, including at least data and voice communication applications for example, will normally be installed on mobile station 500 during manufacturing. A preferred software application may be a personal information manager (PIM) application having the ability to organize and manage data items relating to the user of the mobile station such as, but not limited to, e-mail, calendar events, voice mails, appointments, and task items. Naturally, one or more memory stores would be available on the mobile station to facilitate storage of PIM data items. Such PIM application would preferably have the ability to send and receive data items, via the wireless network 502. In a preferred embodiment, the PIM data items are seamlessly integrated, synchronized and updated, via the wireless network 502, with the mobile station user's corresponding data items stored or associated with a host computer system. Further applications may also be loaded onto the mobile station 500 through the network 502, an auxiliary I/O subsystem 528, serial port 530, short-range communications subsystem 540 or any other suitable subsystem 542, and installed by a user in the RAM 526 or preferably a non-volatile store (not shown) for execution by the microprocessor 538. Such flexibility in application installation increases the functionality of the device and may provide enhanced on-device functions, communication-related functions, or both. For example, secure communication applications may enable electronic commerce functions and other such financial transactions to be performed using the mobile station 500. In a data communication mode, a received signal such as a text message or web page download will be processed by the communication subsystem 511 and input to the microprocessor 538, which preferably further processes the received signal for output to the display 522, or alternatively to an auxiliary I/O device 528. A user of mobile station 500 may also compose data items such as email messages for example, using the keyboard 532, which is preferably a complete alphanumeric keyboard or telephone-type keypad, in conjunction with the display 522 and possibly an auxiliary I/O device 528. Such composed items may then be transmitted over a communication network through the communication subsystem 511. For voice communications, overall operation of mobile station 500 is similar, except that received signals would preferably be output to a speaker 534 and signals for transmission would be generated by a microphone 536. Alternative voice or audio I/O subsystems, such as a voice message recording subsystem, may also be implemented on mobile station 500. Although voice or audio signal output is preferably accomplished primarily through the speaker 534, display 522 may also be used to provide an indication of the identity of a calling party, the duration of a voice call, or other voice call related information for example. Serial port 530 in FIG. 5, would normally be implemented in a personal digital assistant (PDA)-type mobile station for which synchronization with a user's desktop computer (not shown) may be desirable, but is an optional device component. Such a port 530 would enable a user to set preferences through an external device or software application and would extend the capabilities of mobile station 500 by providing for information or software downloads to mobile station 500 other than through a wireless communication network. The alternate download path may for example be used to load an encryption key onto the device through a direct and thus reliable and trusted connection to thereby enable secure device communication. Other communications subsystems 540, such as a short-range communications subsystem, is a further optional component which may provide for communication between mobile station 500 and different systems or devices, which need not necessarily be similar devices. For example, the subsystem 540 may include an infrared device and associated circuits and components or a Bluetooth™ communication module to provide for communication with similarly enabled systems and devices. When mobile device 500 is used as a UE, protocol stacks 546 include apparatus and a method for handling messages that relate to a cell other than the currently operating cell in universal mobile telecommunications system user equipment. Extensions and Alternatives In the foregoing specification, the invention has been described with reference to specific embodiments thereof. It will, however, be evident that various modifications and changes may be made thereto without departing from the scope of the technique. The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense. It is to be noted that the methods as described have shown steps being carried out in a particular order. However, it would be clear to a person skilled in the art that the order of the evaluation is immaterial with respect to the operation of the method. The ordering of the steps as described herein is not intended to be limiting. It is also to be noted that where a method has been described it is also intended that protection is also sought for a device arranged to carry out the method and where features have been claimed independently of each other these may be used together with other claimed features. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Technical Field This application relates to mobile telecommunications systems in general, having particular application in UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) in general, and in particular to an apparatus and method for applying ciphering in universal mobile telecommunications system user equipment and network. 2. Description of the Related Art The approaches described in this section could be pursued, but are not necessarily approaches that have been previously conceived or pursued. Therefore, unless otherwise indicated herein, the approaches described in this section are not prior art to the claims in this application and are not admitted to be prior art by inclusion in this section. In a typical cellular radio system, mobile user equipment (UE) communicates via a radio access radio network (RAN) to one or more core networks. User equipment (UE) comprises various types of equipment such as mobile telephones (also known as cellular or cell phones), lap tops with wireless communication capability, personal digital assistants (PDAs) etc. These may be portable, hand held, pocket sized, installed in a vehicle etc and communicate voice and/or data signals with the radio access network. The radio access network covers a geographical area divided into a plurality of cell areas. Each cell area is served by at least one base station, which may be referred to as a Node B. Each cell is identified by a unique identifier which is broadcast in the cell. The base stations communicate at radio frequencies over an air interface with the UEs within range of the base station. Several base stations may be connected to a radio network controller (RNC) which controls various activities of the base stations. The radio network controllers are typically connected to a core network. UMTS is a third generation public land mobile telecommunication system. Various standardization bodies are known to publish and set standards for UMTS, each in their respective areas of competence. For instance, the 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) has been known to publish and set standards for GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) based UMTS, and the 3GPP2 (Third Generation Partnership Project 2) has been known to publish and set standards for CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) based UMTS. Within the scope of a particular standardization body, specific partners publish and set standards in their respective areas. Consider a wireless mobile device, generally referred to as user equipment (UE), that complies with the 3GPP specifications for the UMTS protocol. The 3GPP 25.331 specification, v.3.15.0, referred to herein as the 25.331 specification, addresses the subject of UMTS RRC (Radio Resource Control) protocol requirements between the UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) and the UE. In UMTS each radio bearer (including signalling radio bearers) may be configured to apply ciphering to all data as part of the security features of UMTS. Both the UE and the UTRAN store ciphering configurations for applying ciphering. The 25.331 standard states in section 8.6.3.4 that, at any given time, the UE needs to store at most two different ciphering configurations (keyset and algorithm) per Core Network (CN) domain at any given time in total for all radio bearers and three configurations in total for all signalling radio bearers. The ciphering configurations which are stored are: the current ciphering configuration (the configuration which is currently being applied to the data sent or received on the radio bearer); a new ciphering configuration (if one exists); and an old configuration. As far as a new ciphering configuration is concerned, if the UTRAN has decided to change the ciphering configuration, there is a period of time after the new configuration has been sent to the UE and before the new configuration is used. This period of time allows the UTRAN and UE radio bearers to synchronise a move to the new configuration at the same time and so no loss of data is encountered. The time at which the new configuration becomes current may be different for each radio bearer as it depends on traffic flow in that radio bearer. The old configuration is also stored because Packet Data Units (PDUs) which have failed to be received correctly may be retransmitted by the UTRAN and are ciphered using the configuration which was current at the time they were first sent. It is therefore possible that some PDUs which were originally sent before the new ciphering configuration was activated are resent with the previously used (old) ciphering configuration. Parties may submit proposals to 3GPP and the agenda item TSGR2#((99)K58 submitted to the TSG-RAN working group 2 of the 3GPP (which may be found at <http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/tsg_yan/WG2_RL2/TSGR2 — 09/Docs/Zips/R2-99k58.doc>) relates to the activation time for new ciphering configurations in Unacknowledged Mode (UM) and Acknowledged Mode (AM). There are proposed strategies for dealing with ciphering configurations. A number of such strategies are detailed below. Other aspects and features of the present invention will become apparent to those ordinarily skilled in the art upon review of the following description of specific embodiments of an apparatus and method for applying ciphering in mobile telecommunications system user equipment. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>Embodiments of the present invention will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the attached drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is an overview of a mobile telecommunications system; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of a protocol stack, apparatus provided with a cell update handling RRC block, in accordance with the present application; FIG. 3 is a flow diagram illustrating storage of cipher configurations in user equipment; FIG. 4 is a flow diagram illustrating management of cipher configurations in user equipment; FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating a mobile device, which can act as a UE and co-operate with the apparatus and methods of FIGS. 1 to 4 . detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? The same reference numerals are used in different figures to denote similar elements. | 20040609 | 20111011 | 20051215 | 64491.0 | 0 | SCHMIDT, KARI L | APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR APPLYING CIPHERING IN A UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,864,514 | ACCEPTED | Window adaptable pet door | The present invention relates to a pet door suitable for use in a window, and more particularly to a pet door having a substantially planar profile. In at least one embodiment, the pet door includes a frame which is cooperative with stationary side panels. The frame carries a moveable door through which an animal may enter and exit. Moveable side panels are housed within, and extendible from, the stationary side panels for securing the pet door within a window frame. | 1. A pet door capable of being mounted onto a window frame, said pet door consisting essentially of: a. a substantially planar frame oriented in a first plane; b. a moveable door attached to said frame; c. one or more substantially planar stationary side panels connected to said frame and oriented in an orientation substantially parallel to said first plane; and d. one or more substantially planar extendible side panels housed at least partially within said stationary side panels, and retractable and extendible towards and away from said stationary panels and said pet door being capable of engaging a window frame to secure said pet door onto said window frame, said one or more substantially planar extendible side panels being oriented in an orientation which is substantially parallel to said first plane, and wherein said substantially planar frame, said one or more substantially planar stationary side panels, and said one or more substantially planar extendible side panels are each so oriented and connected one to another such that said pet door has a configuration which is generally volumeless. 2. A pet door of claim 1, further comprising at least one member for securing said moveable door in a substantially stationary position. 3. A pet door of claim 2, wherein said at least one member for securing said moveable door comprises a first magnet and a second magnet. 4. A pet door of claim 3, wherein said first magnet is attached to said moveable door and said second magnet is attached to or within said frame. 5. A pet door of claim 4, wherein said second magnet attached to or within said frame is capable of moving axially towards said first magnet on said moveable door, to secure said moveable door in a substantially stationary position. 6. A pet door of claim 1, wherein said pet door has a substantially rectangular and low profile. 7. A pet door of claim 1, wherein said pet door is capable of being transiently installed onto said window frame. 8. A pet door of claim 1, comprising two stationary side panels. 9. A pet door of claim 8, comprising two extendible side panels housed within said two stationary side panels. 10. A pet door of claim 1, wherein said stationary side panels are opaque. 11. A pet door of claim 1, wherein said extendible side panels are opaque. 12. A pet door of claim 1, wherein said stationary side panels comprise a framework, said framework enclosing a plastic window, a Plexiglass window, a glass window or a screen. 13. A pet door of claim 1, wherein said extendible side panels comprise a framework, said framework enclosing a plastic window, a Plexiglas® window, a glass window or a screen. 14. A pet door of claim 1, further comprising a spring member for moving said extendible side panels. 15. A pet door capable of being mounted onto a window frame, said pet door consisting essentially of: a. a frame; b. a moveable door attached to said frame; c. a first substantially planar stationary side panel connected to said frame; d. a second substantially planar stationary side panel connected to said frame; e. a first substantially planar extendible side panel at least partially housed within said first stationary side panel; and f. a second substantially planar extendible side panel at least partially housed within said secondary stationary side panel; and wherein said first substantially planar extendible side panel and said second substantially planar extendible side panel are extendible from within said first stationary side panel and said second stationary side panel, respectively, for securing said pet door onto a window frame; and wherein said pet door has a substantially planar configuration; and wherein said substantially planar frame, said first and second substantially planar stationary side panels, and said first and second substantially planar extendible side panels are each so oriented and connected one to another in a generally co-planar orientation such that said pet door has a configuration which is generally volumeless. 16. A pet door of claim 1, further comprising at least one member for securing said moveable door in a substantially stationary position. 17. A pet door of claim 16, wherein said at least one member for securing said moveable door comprises a first magnet and a second magnet. 18. A pet door of claim 17, wherein said first magnet is attached to said moveable door and said second magnet is attached to or within said frame. 19. A pet door of claim 18, wherein said second magnet attached to or within said frame is capable of moving axially towards said first magnet on said moveable door, to secure said moveable door in a substantially stationary position. 20. A pet door of claim 15, wherein said pet door has a substantially rectangular and low profile. 21. A pet door of claim 15, wherein said pet door is capable of being transiently installed onto said window frame. 22. A pet door of claim 15, wherein said first stationary side panel and said second stationary side panel are opaque. 23. A pet door of claim 15, wherein said first extendible side panel and said second extendible side panel are opaque. 24. A pet door of claim 15, wherein said first stationary side panel and said second stationary side panel each comprises a framework enclosing a plastic window, a Plexiglas® window, a glass window or a screen. 25. A pet door of claim 15, wherein said first extendible side panel and said second extendible side panel each comprises comprise a framework enclosing a plastic window, a Plexiglass window, a glass window or a screen. 26. A pet door of claim 15, further comprising a first spring member for moving said first moveable said panel and a second spring member for moving said second extendible side panel. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a low profile pet door adapted for use in a window. More particularly, this invention relates to a portable, window installable pet door having a substantially planar profile which may be constructed from a variety of materials to achieve various functional and/or aesthetic purposes. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The use of pet doors for permitting an animal to enter and exit a residence is known. Such known pet doors are commonly installed in an exterior door and are manufactured to accommodate animals of a variety of sizes. Typically, such pet doors are permanently installed in the exterior door by removing a section of the exterior door and installing the pet door in its place. Such installations therefore require irreparably altering the exterior door. However, this may not be desirable as exterior doors can be very costly, as they are typically constructed of solid wood or steel. Moreover, a pet door may only be needed for the limited period of time that the pet owner lives at the residence where the pet door is installed (e.g. in a rental property). Also, a pet owner may desire to remove the pet door on a temporary basis for security reasons. Certain pet doors are known which do not require permanent installation. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,164,013 discloses a pet door which may be installed in the opening between a door frame and an ajar door. However, such a pet door prevents use of the house door to which it is installed and is not suitable for use with an exterior door, which preferably remains closed when not in use for security reasons. Therefore, pet doors not requiring permanent installation are needed. One attempt at providing for this need involves the use of pet portals in a window. Such portals afford the advantage of not requiring permanent installation and do not interfere with operation of a door. However, known pet portals for installation in a window do not blend well with the window into which they are installed and have other disadvantages. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,253,711 discloses a pet portal which may be installed in a window, but requires the pet to maneuver through a complicated U-shaped interior passageway in order to reach the exit. Such a portal may not be suitable for certain pets due to size and other physical limitations. Moreover, such a device does not fit entirely within the window frame but rather protrudes from the window, resulting in a awkward structure which may fall out of the window and may also present a hazard to those walking by. Such a device is also unsightly, relatively complicated to manufacture, is difficult to package, requires considerable inventory storage space, i.e. because of its box-like configuration), and does not blend well with windows or building structures. Moreover, pet cages and litter boxes that may be installed in a window are also known, but do not permit ingress and egress of a pet from the building in which they were installed. Examples are set forth in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,469,807; 5,522,344; and 5,842,438. These devices serve a specific, unrelated purpose and are also large, unsightly and do not blend well with the aesthetics of the windows into which they are installed. Therefore, there exists a need in the art for a low profile pet door which does not require permanent installation and which permits a pet to enter and exit a structure at will. There further exists a need for such a pet door which blends well cosmetically with windows and building structures, is easy to install and uninstall, and which is easy to manufacture, store, package, and transport. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates one embodiment of a pet door according to the present invention. FIG. 2 illustrates a front view of the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1 shown installed onto a window frame. FIG. 3 illustrates one embodiment of a magnetic-type securing member used in a pet door according to the present invention to selectively secure the moveable portion of the pet door in a substantially stationary position. FIG. 4 illustrates a top view of a pet door according to the present invention. FIG. 5 illustrates an alternative embodiment of a pet door according to the subject invention employing accordion type side panes for extension and retraction. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a pet door suitable for use in a window, and more particularly to a pet door preferably having a substantially rectangular and planar profile which may be constructed from a variety of materials to effect various functional and/or cosmetic purposes. Generally speaking, the present invention is directed to a pet door capable of being selectively mounted onto a window frame. In a preferred embodiment, the pet door includes a window insertable frame, a moveable door attached to the frame, one or more stationary side panels in cooperation with the frame, and one or more extendible side panels housed substantially within the stationary side panels. The extendible side panels are extendible from within the stationary side panels and capable of engaging a window frame to secure the pet door onto the window frame. The pet door may include at least one member for securing the moveable door in a substantially stationary position, which may be a first magnet and a second magnet. The first magnet may be attached to the moveable door and the second magnet may be attached to or within the frame. The second magnet may be capable of moving axially towards the first magnet on the moveable door, to secure the moveable door in a substantially stationary position. A pet door of the present invention further preferably has a substantially rectangular and low profile (e.g. a planar profile) and is capable of being transiently installed onto a window frame. Preferably, a pet door according to present invention has two stationary side panels and two extendible side panels housed within the two stationary side panels. The stationary side panels and extendible side panels may be constructed of any suitable material as desired and may define a framework enclosing, a for example, a plastic window, a Plexiglas® window, a glass window, or a screen. The pet door may also include a biasing (e.g. a spring) member for moving the extendible side panels. In at least one embodiment the present invention is directed to a pet door capable of being mounted onto and/or within a window frame and comprises a frame, a moveable door (e.g. preferably flexible) attached to the frame, a first stationary side panel in cooperation with the frame, a second stationary side panel connected in plane with the frame, a first extendible side panel at least partially housed within the first stationary side panel, and a second extendible side panel at least partially housed within the secondary stationary side panel. The first extendible side panel and the second extendible side panel are extendible from within the first stationary side panel and the second stationary side panel, respectively, for securing the pet door onto a window frame. The pet door may also have additional features such as recited above or otherwise known in the art. In a further embodiment of the present invention the pet door optionally includes, a first magnet attached to the moveable door and a second magnet attached to or within the frame. The extendible side panels are extendible from within the stationary side panels and capable of engaging a window frame to secure the pet door onto the window frame, and the second magnet preferably attached to or within the frame is capable of moving axially towards the first magnet on the moveable door, to secure the moveable door in a substantially stationary position. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS The present invention is directed towards a pet door for installation within a window frame. As such, the pet door generally comprises a frame having a moveable or swingable door attached to the frame, stationary side panels connected to the frame, and extendible side panels which may be partially housed within the stationary side panels and which are extendible therefrom. When the extendible side panels are extended from the stationary side panels, they are capable of engaging a window frame, thereby securing the pet door within the window frame. A biasing mechanism is optionally used to cause the extendible side panels to engage the window frame, thereby resulting in a tight seal between the pet door and the sides and bottom of the window frame. Furthermore, when the window is closed such that it engages the top of the pet door, a tight seal is created therebetween. A pet door of the present invention preferably has a substantially rectangular and low thickness or profile, thereby permitting it to fit flush within the window to which it is installed. Also, because a pet door of the present invention does not extend substantially beyond the frame of the window, it does not present a danger of falling from the window due to uneven weight distribution. Furthermore, the profile of a pet door of the present invention provides advantages over known pet doors which include, but are not limited to, ease of manufacture, compact storage and packaging (due to the preferably planar configuration), & ease of transport, storage and owner and pet use. In preferred embodiments of the present invention, a mechanism is included for securing the moveable door in a substantially stationary position when not in use. For example, the moveable door and the frame may each include a magnet. The magnet included in the moveable/swingable door may be attached to the bottom thereof, and the magnet included in the frame may be positioned within a groove or aperture in the frame. The magnet positioned within a groove is seated within the groove when the moveable door is in use. However, when the moveable door is not in use, the magnet positioned within the groove of the frame is drawn up from the groove through magnetic attraction to engage the magnet attached to the moveable door. In one embodiment, the magnet in the frame slides axially towards the magnet attached to the bottom of the moveable door, thereby rendering the moveable door substantially stationary until a threshold force is provided to the moveable door. Such a force will cause the magnetic seal to break, thus allowing the moveable door to swing freely. Such a force may be provided, for example, by an animal pushing against the moveable door. Referring initially to FIG. 1, a pet door 100 of the present invention is shown. Pet door 100 includes a frame 102 to which is attached a moveable or swingable door 104. Frame 102 is housed or connected stationary side panels 106A and 106B. In preferred embodiments, frame 102 is contiguous with side panels 106A and 106B or, in alternative embodiments is a component which is attached to side panels 106A and 106B. Pet door 100 further includes one or more extendible side panels 108A and 108B which are housed at least partially within stationary side panels 106A and 106B, respectively, and are extendible therefrom. Preferably, stationary side panels 106A and 106B include channels within which extendible side panels 108A and 108B respectively slide in a substantially horizontal manner. Extendible side panels 108A and 108B are preferably biased from within stationary side panels 106A and 106B through the use of springs 114A and 114B (shown in FIG. 5), respectively. In at least one embodiment, when extendible side panels 108A and 108B are housed within stationary side panels 106A and 106B, springs 114A and 114B are kept in a substantially compressed state through a member (not shown) which locks extendible side panels 108A and 108B in place. Such a locking member may include a locking member on the interior or exterior of stationary side panels 106A and 106B, which is releasable by a user. A front view of a pet door 100 according to the present invention is shown in FIG. 2. In this figure, pet door 100 is shown installed within a window frame 110 with window 112 closed onto the top surface of pet door 100. Extendible side panels 108A and 108B are shown partially extended from stationary side panels 106A and 106B, respectively, to create a tight seal between extendible side panels 108A and 108B and window frame 110. When pet door 100 is seated onto the bottom of window frame 110, window 112 is closed such that it engages to top of pet door 100, and extendible side panels 108A and 108B are extended such that they engage the sides of window frame 110. When installed as such, a tight seal is formed between the perimeter of pet door 100 and window frame 110, such that the flow of air through the space enclosed by window frame 110 is substantially effectively prevented so as not to interfere with the building structures climate control systems. Accordingly, a pet door according to the present invention is well-suited for use in a window when loss of energy efficiency via the window unit is undesired. In order to further accomplish this, the perimeter of pet door 100, including stationary side panels 108A and 108B, may include a weather stripping material (e.g. of known type). It is noted, of course, that in embodiments which employ screen-type materials, air flow through the side panels would be the desired objective. Referring now to FIG. 3, this figure, shows a mechanism for securing moveable door 104 in a substantially stationary position. Shown in FIG. 3 is a first magnet 116A attached to moveable door 104 and second magnet 116B within an aperture of the bottom of frame 102. One skilled in the art will recognize that second magnet 116B may otherwise be attached to frame 102 by other mechanism or in alternate configurations, so long as second magnet 116B is capable of engaging the magnetic field of first magnet 116A. In the present invention, it is preferred that second magnet 116B sits in a groove or aperture 118 such that when first magnet 116A on moveable door 104 is positioned proximately to second magnet 116B such that a magnetic field is create therebetween, second magnet 116B moves axially towards and contacts said first magnet 116A to secure moveable door 104 in a substantially stationary position. This magnetic field is disrupted when a threshold force is applied to moveable door 104, such as when an animal pushes thereon, which releases moveable door 104 and allows it to swing open. One skilled in the art will appreciate that the optional mechanism for securing moveable door 104 in a substantially stationary position need not be a magnet, but may be any material or mechanism which serves a similar purpose. For example, an electric locking mechanism may be employed which is released by way of a signal sent by a transmitter worn on the collar of an animal as the animal approaches the proximity of the door (see, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,497,133 and 6,141,911, which are incorporated in their entirety). Turning now to FIG. 4 this figure shows a top view of a pet door 100 according to the present invention. As such, FIG. 4 illustrates that pet door 100 has a narrow width (e.g. a planar profile), making pet door 100 of the present invention well suited for placement onto window frame 110 (shown in FIG. 2) without displeasing aesthetic or uneven weight distribution which may otherwise render the unit unstable and create a hazardous condition. FIG. 5 shows an alternative embodiment in which accordion-type side panels 114A-B are employed as substitutes for the prior mentioned side wall structures. Such accordion-type panels are capable of extending and compressing thereby to effect installation or removal of door 100 respectively. In addition, FIG. 5 shows moveable door 104 in a position where it has swung open from frame 102. One of skill in the art will appreciate that only one stationary side panel need be present in a pet door of the present invention. For example, only one stationary side panel could be used where it was desired to have the moveable door situated to one extreme end of the pet door. In such a case, only one extendible side panel, housed within and extendible from a single stationary side panel, would be needed to secure a pet door 100 onto a window frame 110. Moreover, a pet door 100 of the present invention is capable of being fabricated out of a variety of materials, such as, without limitation, metal, plastic, glass, screen, or wood. Furthermore, frame 102 and stationary side panels 106A and 106B may be machined out of a single piece of material or may be assembled from individual pieces. Importantly, a pet door of the present invention is constructible from a variety of materials and in multiple configurations to permit the pet door to be used in a variety of conditions. For example, stationary side panels 106A and 106B and/or extendible side panels 108A and 108B may be an opaque material, such as solid plastic, metal or wood, in order to prevent viewing therethrough, or they may define frameworks for a plastic window, a glass window, a Plexiglas® window or a screen. For example, where window 112 is glass, it may be desired that stationary side panels 106A and 106B and/or extendible side panels 108A and 108B each comprise frameworks containing plastic windows, Plexiglas® windows or glass windows which are at least partially transparent, such that these panels are similar in appearance to window 112 and provide similar viewability as window 112. Likewise, when a screen in installed (not shown) onto window frame 110, it may be desired that stationary side panels 106A and 106B and/or extendible side panels 108A and 108B comprise frameworks employing a screen material to permit air and sound flow through window frame 110. Even if a screen is not installed onto widow frame 110, it still may be desirable to fabricate extendible side panels 108A and 108B from a screen in order to permit such air and sound flow. Of course, stationary side panels 106A and 106B and/or extendible side panels 108A and 108B do not each have to be of the same material, but it is expected that a user would desire to have each be of the same material in order to have a uniform appearance and function for the window unit. Moreover, the present invention may be provided as a kit with more than one stationary and extendible side panel material, thereby allowing a user to change the materials as needed to accommodate changing weather conditions. Moveable or swingable door 104 may be constructed of any suitable material. For example, it may be made of rubber, vinyl, hard plastic, other synthetic material or metal. Moreover, frame 102 may include a means for accepting a hard divider of any suitable material which may be positioned within frame 102 to completely block entrance and exit therethrough, such as when a user does not want a pet to enter or exit a structure or for security purposes. Moreover, moveable door 104 may be constructed to be selectively operable unidirectionally, such as when the user desires only to have a pet move through the door in one direction but not another. As discussed above, a pet door according to the present invention is uniquely fabricated, preferably in a substantially planar configuration, for use on a window frame. The rectangular and low profile of the inventive pet door permits it to be easily situated onto a window frame where the extendible side panels engage the sides of the window frame to create a tight seal therebetween. In doing so, the present invention is uniquely suited for use with a window unit, where energy efficiency is important. Moreover, the ability of the extendible side panels to retract into the stationary side panels, in addition to the rectangular and low profile, permits a pet door of the present invention to be easily transported, packaged, and stored. This is very important during the manufacturing and inventory process, as well as in the user's residence. The ability of the unit to be transiently installed in a window unit permits use of the pet door in a window unit without requiring permanent and expensive alteration thereof. It also permits the pet door to be completely removed from the window unit when not in use which may be very important for security purposes. EXAMPLE In one prophetic example of the present invention, pet door 100 is installed in a window of a residence. In this example, pet door 100 employs extendible side panels 108A and 108B substantially housed-within stationary side panels 106A and 106B, respectively. Biasing mechanisms (not shown) for effecting are locked in a compressed state. Moveable door 104 rests vertically within frame 102 and is in a stationary closed position due to the magnetism created between first magnet 116A and second magnet 116B. A user wishing to install pet door 100 opens window 112 to a height within window frame 110 which is greater than the height of pet door 100. The user then releases the locking mechanism which holds the biasing mechanisms in a compressed state, thereby permitting extendible side panels 108A and 108B to extend from within stationary side panels 106A and 106B. Thereafter, the user should adjust pet door 100 to ensure that it is seated firmly against the sides and bottom of window frame 110 and then lower window 112 such that it contacts the top of pet door 100, creating a tight seal therebetween. With pet door 100 now in place, a pet, such as a cat or small dog, can enter the door by simply exerting a force against moveable door 104. This force disrupts the magnetic force between first magnet 116A and second magnet 116B, thus causing second magnet 116B to drop into groove or aperture 118 in frame 102 and allowing moveable door 104 to swing open, permitting the cat to exit (or enter) the residence. When a user desires to remove pet door 100 from window frame 110, the process described above is simply performed in reverse order. Afterwards, pet door 100 is capable of being readily transported and stored due to its small form factor and light weight. In preferred embodiments, door 100 can be stored or packaged flat due to its planar nature. The particular nature of pet door 100, in preferred embodiments, ensures that the door can be easily removed from the window in which it is installed. Therefore, in at least one alternative embodiment thereof, a security device is utilized in conjunction with the subject pet door. For example, in at least one preferred embodiment employing a security device therewith (see FIGS. 1 and 2), a flanged member 119 may be included attached (e.g. either rigidly or via a hinge) to each of side panels 108A-B (only one being shown for sake of clarity). In such a preferred embodiment, each flanged member 119 includes one or more apertures “A” through which fasteners 121 and 123 (e.g. screws or nails) can be inserted and affixed to a portion of the window sill or frame 110. When attached using fasteners 121 and 123 as such, with access to the fasteners (preferably) effectively limited to the interior of the building structure, door 100 cannot be easily removed by a prospective intruder, for example. Alternative embodiments of additional security features are, of course, contemplated. For example, such embodiments might include low-profile tabs integral or connected to frame 102, or small brackets (e.g. L-shaped), any of which may contain apertures for installation of fasteners therethrough. While the above invention has been described in connection with specific embodiments thereof, it is understood that further modifications or embodiments are contemplated and this application is intended to cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the invention following, in general, the principles of the invention and including such departures from the present disclosure as come within known or customary practice within the art to which the invention pertains and as may be applied to the essential features hereinbefore set forth and as follows in the scope of the appended claims. All references cited herein are expressly incorporated in their entirety. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The use of pet doors for permitting an animal to enter and exit a residence is known. Such known pet doors are commonly installed in an exterior door and are manufactured to accommodate animals of a variety of sizes. Typically, such pet doors are permanently installed in the exterior door by removing a section of the exterior door and installing the pet door in its place. Such installations therefore require irreparably altering the exterior door. However, this may not be desirable as exterior doors can be very costly, as they are typically constructed of solid wood or steel. Moreover, a pet door may only be needed for the limited period of time that the pet owner lives at the residence where the pet door is installed (e.g. in a rental property). Also, a pet owner may desire to remove the pet door on a temporary basis for security reasons. Certain pet doors are known which do not require permanent installation. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,164,013 discloses a pet door which may be installed in the opening between a door frame and an ajar door. However, such a pet door prevents use of the house door to which it is installed and is not suitable for use with an exterior door, which preferably remains closed when not in use for security reasons. Therefore, pet doors not requiring permanent installation are needed. One attempt at providing for this need involves the use of pet portals in a window. Such portals afford the advantage of not requiring permanent installation and do not interfere with operation of a door. However, known pet portals for installation in a window do not blend well with the window into which they are installed and have other disadvantages. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,253,711 discloses a pet portal which may be installed in a window, but requires the pet to maneuver through a complicated U-shaped interior passageway in order to reach the exit. Such a portal may not be suitable for certain pets due to size and other physical limitations. Moreover, such a device does not fit entirely within the window frame but rather protrudes from the window, resulting in a awkward structure which may fall out of the window and may also present a hazard to those walking by. Such a device is also unsightly, relatively complicated to manufacture, is difficult to package, requires considerable inventory storage space, i.e. because of its box-like configuration), and does not blend well with windows or building structures. Moreover, pet cages and litter boxes that may be installed in a window are also known, but do not permit ingress and egress of a pet from the building in which they were installed. Examples are set forth in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,469,807; 5,522,344; and 5,842,438. These devices serve a specific, unrelated purpose and are also large, unsightly and do not blend well with the aesthetics of the windows into which they are installed. Therefore, there exists a need in the art for a low profile pet door which does not require permanent installation and which permits a pet to enter and exit a structure at will. There further exists a need for such a pet door which blends well cosmetically with windows and building structures, is easy to install and uninstall, and which is easy to manufacture, store, package, and transport. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a pet door suitable for use in a window, and more particularly to a pet door preferably having a substantially rectangular and planar profile which may be constructed from a variety of materials to effect various functional and/or cosmetic purposes. Generally speaking, the present invention is directed to a pet door capable of being selectively mounted onto a window frame. In a preferred embodiment, the pet door includes a window insertable frame, a moveable door attached to the frame, one or more stationary side panels in cooperation with the frame, and one or more extendible side panels housed substantially within the stationary side panels. The extendible side panels are extendible from within the stationary side panels and capable of engaging a window frame to secure the pet door onto the window frame. The pet door may include at least one member for securing the moveable door in a substantially stationary position, which may be a first magnet and a second magnet. The first magnet may be attached to the moveable door and the second magnet may be attached to or within the frame. The second magnet may be capable of moving axially towards the first magnet on the moveable door, to secure the moveable door in a substantially stationary position. A pet door of the present invention further preferably has a substantially rectangular and low profile (e.g. a planar profile) and is capable of being transiently installed onto a window frame. Preferably, a pet door according to present invention has two stationary side panels and two extendible side panels housed within the two stationary side panels. The stationary side panels and extendible side panels may be constructed of any suitable material as desired and may define a framework enclosing, a for example, a plastic window, a Plexiglas® window, a glass window, or a screen. The pet door may also include a biasing (e.g. a spring) member for moving the extendible side panels. In at least one embodiment the present invention is directed to a pet door capable of being mounted onto and/or within a window frame and comprises a frame, a moveable door (e.g. preferably flexible) attached to the frame, a first stationary side panel in cooperation with the frame, a second stationary side panel connected in plane with the frame, a first extendible side panel at least partially housed within the first stationary side panel, and a second extendible side panel at least partially housed within the secondary stationary side panel. The first extendible side panel and the second extendible side panel are extendible from within the first stationary side panel and the second stationary side panel, respectively, for securing the pet door onto a window frame. The pet door may also have additional features such as recited above or otherwise known in the art. In a further embodiment of the present invention the pet door optionally includes, a first magnet attached to the moveable door and a second magnet attached to or within the frame. The extendible side panels are extendible from within the stationary side panels and capable of engaging a window frame to secure the pet door onto the window frame, and the second magnet preferably attached to or within the frame is capable of moving axially towards the first magnet on the moveable door, to secure the moveable door in a substantially stationary position. | 20040610 | 20061219 | 20051229 | 62214.0 | 1 | NGUYEN, SON T | WINDOW ADAPTABLE PET DOOR | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,864,562 | ACCEPTED | Method of reducing alignment measurement errors between device layers | An integrated circuit in which measurement of the alignment between subsequent layers has less susceptibility to stress induced shift. A first layer of the structure has a first overlay mark. A second and/or a third layer are formed in the alignment structure and on the first layer. Portions of the second and/or third layer are selectively removed from regions in and around the first overlay mark. A second overlay mark is formed and aligned to the first overlay mark. The alignment between the second overlay mark and first overlay mark may be measured with an attenuated error due to reflection and refraction or due to an edge profile shift of the first overlay mark. | 1. A method of fabricating an integrated circuit, comprising: providing a first layer comprising a first material; forming in a surface of the first layer at least one first overlay mark; forming another layer comprising another material over the first layer; patterning the other layer such that the other layer is removed from regions in and around the at least one first overlay mark; and forming at least one second overlay mark on the first layer. 2. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 1, wherein: the forming of at least one first overlay mark is followed by forming a second layer comprising a second material in portions of the at least one first overlay mark; and the other layer is a third layer comprising a third material. 3. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 2, wherein the first layer comprises one of tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS), borophosphosilicate glass (BPSG), a TEOS and BPSG complex, and 4. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 3, wherein the conductive material comprises tungsten (W). 5. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 2, wherein forming the second layer comprises: forming a second layer over the first layer; and selectively removing the second layer such that it remains in portions of the at least one first overlay mark. 6. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 5, wherein the selectively removing of the second layer is performed by chemical mechanical polishing (CMP). 7. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 5, wherein selectively removing the second layer is performed by wet or dry etch back. 8. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 2, wherein the third layer comprises a conductive material. 9. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 8, wherein the conductive material comprises at least one of aluminum and copper. 10. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 2, wherein prior to the forming of a third layer a glue layer is formed. 11. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 2, wherein the at least one second overlay mark is aligned to the at least one first overlay mark. 12. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 2, wherein the at lest one first overlay mark and at least one second overlay mark are rectangular in shape. 13. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 2, wherein the at lest one first overlay mark and at least one second overlay mark comprise ovals shapes. 14. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 1, wherein the other layer comprises an oxide. 15. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 2, wherein the at least one first overlay mark corresponds to at least one first vernier layer, and the at least one second overlay mark corresponds to at least one second vernier layer. 16. The method of fabricating an integrated circuit as set forth in claim 2, wherein the at least one first overlay mark comprises a plurality of first overlay marks and the at least one second overlay mark comprises a plurality of second overlay marks. 17. A structure formed using the method of claim 2. 18. A structure formed using the method of claim 5. 19. An integrated circuit structure, comprising: a first layer; a first overlay mark disposed in the first layer; a second layer having a second layer feature disposed within the first overlay mark; and a second overlay mark disposed on the first layer, the second overlay mark being aligned with the first overlay mark. 20. The integrated circuit structure as set forth in claim 19, and further comprising a third layer disposed on the first layer. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to integrated circuits and fabrication methods for integrated circuits and, more particularly, to methods of forming overlay alignment structures. 2. Description of Related Art Since the introduction of semiconductors and fabrication processes for semiconductor devices and integrated circuitry, the density of devices and number of devices on a chip have increased at an exponential rate. With limited space on a semiconductor wafer, the trend has been to construct devices vertically through the use of alternating stacked layers of conductive and non-conductive materials. Layers are patterned through photolithographic processes before additional layers are deposited or grown. A photolithographic process can include depositing a photoresist on top of a layer, positioning a reticle mask (containing a pattern of opaque lines and regions on an otherwise transparent material) over the photoresist, and shining coherent or noncoherent light through the reticle mask onto the photoresist. The light cures the photoresist only where the photoresist is not shadowed by the reticle mask pattern. For positive photoresist any cured photoresist (e.g., the photoresist not shadowed by the reticle mask pattern) is then washed away, exposing regions of the uppermost layer to subsequent processes such as oxidation, metal deposition, and/or impurity doping. Finally, any uncured photoresist is then stripped away, and another photolithography process may begin with another material. An industry trend toward smaller devices has exacerbated a need to align the subsequent reticle masks more precisely with the previous photolithographic step along the x-y plane as well as rotationally. If, for example, a semiconductor-layer step creates a transistor and then a subsequent metal-layer step is not aligned precisely, a vital connection between the transistor and a conductive path may not be formed. To facilitate alignment, the first layer on a wafer generally contains a set of alignment marks, which are high precision features that are used to reference the first layer when positioning subsequent layers. Alignment marks are also included in other layers, as the original marks become difficult to align with during further processing. Many fabrication steps include creation of a vernier pattern or other alignment marks on both a reticle mask and the layer to which the reticle mask is to be aligned. Such alignment marks are not necessary for operation of the integrated circuit, but can allow improved alignment of the reticle masks with the substrate. Vernier patterns are useful alignment structures that comprise a first layer of a plurality of equally spaced rectangles over which a second layer of equally spaced rectangles having a different spacing than the first layer of rectangles is formed. The first layer of rectangles is commonly formed of oxide during for example the field oxidation step. The second layer of rectangles can be formed of photoresist during a subsequent metal deposition step. If, for example, the spacing between the first plurality of rectangles is different than the spacing of the second plurality of rectangles by 0.1 μm, and the top center rectangle aligns to the bottom center rectangle, then perfect alignment is achieved. If however, the top rectangle fourth to the right of center aligns to the bottom rectangle fourth to the right of center, then there is an overlay offset of 0.4 μm in that direction, and the offset can be corrected accordingly. Common practice is to optically align to the vernier and/or alignment marks through any previously deposited films. With this practice alignment can be difficult to achieve due to optical distortion from reflection and diffraction through the deposited material. The profile of the alignment marks can also change due to expansion or contraction of the deposition film during temperature changes. FIGS. 1a and 1b illustrate a prior art alignment structure 12 comprising a first overlay mark 14 and a second overlay mark 16 in accordance with a theoretical ideal example and a real world example, respectively. It should be noted that FIGS. 1a and 1b illustrate both plan and cross-sectional views of the prior art alignment structure and that the scales for the plan and cross-sectional views are different. The first overlay mark 14 comprises a metal lined trench 19 and the second overlay mark 16 comprises a first patterned photoresist layer 21. In the stress free ideal condition of FIG. 1a the overlay separations, distance A and distance B, provide the real overlay value. An equal distance A and distance B means that the second overlay mark 16 and its accompanying layer have been correctly positioned. In the real world condition of FIG. 1b compressive and expansive stresses cause the edge profile 27 to shift. Changes in the edge profile 27 cause the first overlay mark 14 to be asymmetric which in turn causes false overlay separation readings of distance A1 and distance B1. In the situation of FIG. 1b the first overlay mark 14 and second overlay mark 16 are properly aligned, but a measurement of the overlay separations indicates that the two overlay marks are not properly aligned due to the edge profile shift. The edge profile shift can create false readings, making it difficult to ascertain actual alignment conditions. As device dimensions become smaller, the attenuation of errors introduced by optically aligning through the deposition material becomes increasingly important. As such, there is introduced in the art a need to develop a process wherein optical distortion and stress induced measurement error is reduced or eliminated. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, at least one of the above shortcomings is addressed by providing a first layer comprising a first material, forming in a surface of the first layer at least one first overlay mark, forming a second layer comprising a second material in portions of the at least one first overlay mark, forming a third layer comprising a third material over the first and second layers, patterning the third layer such that the third layer is removed from regions in and around the at least one first overlay mark, and forming at least one second overlay mark. The provided process can allow proper angular relationship with respect to other features in the layer despite thermally-induced flexing of the substrate. An overlay mark near a periphery of the substrate (i.e., an outer overlay mark), can reflect a real or proper overlay condition in response to a reticle mask being aligned with the substrate. The invention herein disclosed can allow and facilitate improved alignment of a reticle mask with a substrate by allowing a process engineer to determine whether the reticle mask “overlays” the substrate, i.e., by reflecting a real or proper overlay condition of a reticle mask with a substrate. The reticle mask overlays the substrate when the reticle mask is positioned properly with respect to the substrate. In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, the first layer may comprise an inter-layer dielectric. The inter-layer dielectric may comprise TEOS, BPSG, or a TEOS and BPSG complex. The first layer may also comprise silicon dioxide. The second layer may comprise a conductive material which may include tungsten (W). In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, forming the second layer may comprise the steps of: forming a second layer over the first layer, and selectively removing the second layer such that it remains in portions of the at least one first overlay mark. The step of selectively removing the second layer may comprise chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) or etch back. The third layer as set forth in the above process may comprise a conductive material. The conductive material may comprise copper and/or aluminum. Prior to the formation of the third layer, a glue layer may be formed, wherein the glue layer may comprise a ti-nitride (TiN)/titanium (Ti) complex such as TiN/Ti or Ti/TiN/Ti. The at least one second overlay mark and at least one first overlay mark may be rectangular, circular, oval, or otherwise arbitrary in shape, and the at least one second overlay mark may be aligned to that at least one first overlay mark. In one embodiment of the invention the forming of a second layer may be omitted. When the second layer is omitted, the third layer may comprise an oxide or SiN. In another embodiment of the invention the at least one first overlay mark may correspond to at least one first vernier layer, and the at least one second overlay mark may correspond to at least one second vernier layer. The at least one overlay mark may correspond to a plurality of first overlay marks, and the at least one second overlay mark may correspond to a plurality of second overlay marks. Any feature or combination of features described herein are included within the scope of the present invention provided that the features included in any such combination are not mutually inconsistent as will be apparent from the context, this specification, and the knowledge of one of ordinary skill in the art. For purposes of summarizing the present invention, certain aspects, advantages and novel features of the present invention are described herein. Of course, it is to be understood that not necessarily all such aspects, advantages or features will be embodied in any particular embodiment of the present invention. Additional advantages and aspects of the present invention are apparent in the following detailed description and claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1a shows a prior art representation of an ideal example of an alignment structure; FIG. 1b shows a prior art representation of a real world example of an alignment structure; FIG. 2 shows a first layer disposed on a substrate in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 shows a plan view and a cross sectional view of a first overlay mark formed in the first layer in accordance with an illustrated embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 shows a second layer disposed in the first overlay mark and on the first layer in accordance with an illustrated embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5a shows the formation of FIG. 4, in which the second layer has been planarized by a wet or dry etch in accordance with an illustrated embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5b shows the formation of FIG. 4, in which the second layer has been planarized by chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) in accordance with an illustrated embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 shows a plan view and cross sectional view of the formation of FIG. 5a after the formation of a third layer in accordance with an illustrated embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 shows the formation of FIG. 6 with the addition of a second patterned photoresist layer in accordance with an illustrated embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 shows the formation of FIG. 7 after the third layer has been etched and the second patterned photoresist layer has been removed in accordance with an illustrated embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 shows the formation of FIG. 8 after a third photoresist layer has been applied and patterned to form the second overlay mark in accordance with an illustrated embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10a shows the locations of a plurality of alignment structures disposed on a semiconductor wafer, and values of profile shifts at specified locations in accordance with the prior art; FIG. 10b shows more locations of a plurality of alignment structures disposed on a semiconductor wafer, and values of profile shifts at those locations in accordance with the prior art; FIG. 11a shows the locations of a plurality of alignment structures disposed on a semiconductor wafer, and values of profile shifts at those locations in accordance with an illustrated embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 11b shows more locations of a plurality of alignment structures disposed on a semiconductor wafer, and values of profile shifts at those locations in accordance with an illustrated embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESENTLY PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Reference will now be made in detail to the presently preferred embodiments of the invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Wherever possible, the same or similar reference numbers are used in the drawings and in the description to refer to the same or like parts. It should be noted that the drawings are in simplified form and are not to precise scale. In reference to the disclosure herein, for purposes of convenience and clarity only, directional terms, such as, top, bottom, left, right, up, down, over, above, below, beneath, rear, and front, are used with respect to the accompanying drawings. Such directional terms should not be construed to limit the scope of the invention in any manner. Although the disclosure herein refers to certain illustrated embodiments, it is to be understood that these embodiments are presented by way of example and not by way of limitation. The intent of the following detailed description, although discussing exemplary embodiments, is to be construed to cover all modifications, alternatives, and equivalents of the embodiments as may fall within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. It is to be understood and appreciated that the process steps and structures described herein do not cover a complete process flow for the manufacture of vernier structures or alignment marks. The present invention may be practiced in conjunction with various integrated circuit fabrication techniques that are conventionally used in the art, and only so much of the commonly practiced process steps are included herein as are necessary to provide an understanding of the present invention. The present invention has applicability in the field of semiconductor devices and processes in general. For illustrative purposes, however, the following description pertains to integrated circuit devices and methods of etching layers disposed on substrates of such devices. FIG. 2 shows a first layer 34 disposed on a substrate 36. The first layer 34 may comprise an inter-layer dielectric such as tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS), borophosphosilicate glass (BPSG), or a TEOS and BPSG complex, and may be deposited or grown on the substrate in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Inter-layer dielectrics are used between metal layers, such as an underlying layer and second layer, to prevent inter-layer shorts. It should be appreciated that many integrated circuits, such as microprocessors and other devices commonly manufactured in the computer industry, can have six or more metal layers separated from one another by inter-layer dielectrics. In modified embodiments, first layer 34 may be a thick native silicon-dioxide layer that has been epitaxially grown directly on an amorphous silicon substrate and then planarized. The amorphous silicon substrate may have been doped to create semiconductor devices such as transistors and diodes. In modified embodiments, the first layer 34 can be any suitable dielectric or other insulator. FIG. 3 shows a first overlay mark 14 of an alignment structure. Note that FIGS. 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9 illustrate plan and cross-sectional views of an alignment structure and that the scales of the plan and cross-sectional views are different. The first overlay mark 14 may be formed along a scribe line placed in conjunction with the formation of contact holes in a device region. The contact holes and the first overlay mark 14 may be formed, for example, by photolithographically etching an inter-layer dielectric. Photolithography and etching processes, which are well-understood in the art, are described below in the context of an exemplary embodiment in connection with the formation of the first overlay mark 14 and the corresponding contact holes in the first layer 34. An exemplary photolithographic technique includes covering the first layer 34 with a photoresist, aligning a reticle mask substantially parallel with and at a predetermined distance above the substrate, and generating light or other radiation (such as deep ultraviolet light or laser emission) at a location such that only the light or other radiation that has passed through the reticle mask may reach the substrate. Thus, the reticle mask is positioned between the substrate and a source of the light or other radiation, so that the reticle mask prevents the light or other radiation from curing the photoresist in some regions and allows the light or other radiation to cure the photoresist in other regions. For positive photoresist, the light (or other radiation) cures the photoresist where exposed. Any cured portions of the photoresist are washed away, exposing the first layer 34 where the photoresist has not been cured. An etcher then removes portions of the first layer 34 where the photoresist has been cured, leaving behind a first overlay mark 14 and, for example, at least one contact hole. FIG. 4 shows a deposition of a second layer 39. The second layer 39 has a second-layer feature that is located within the first overlay mark 14. To create the second layer 39, the substrate 36 and first layer 34 can be covered with a second material. For purposes of illustration, the second layer 39 is described as comprising tungsten (W). Tungsten is commonly used to fill interconnects such as contact holes and vias due to its superior ability to flow into narrow deep trenches and holes without leaving voids or air gaps. Such voids may cause shorts and or circuit failure when a device undergoes stress. It will, however, be appreciated that any metal or other electrical conductor, such as aluminum (Al) or copper (Cu), could function appropriately in accordance with the illustrated embodiment of the present invention. Sputtering or chemical-vapor deposition (CVD) can allow the tungsten to be deposited onto the substrate, and annealing (a heating process) can allow the tungsten to be infused into the first layer 34 and/or to flow more-or-less evenly across the substrate. The tungsten can then be planarized, for example, by chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP) or by etching back to remove the tungsten from the surface of the first layer 34. After planarization, the first overlay mark 14 thus contains a second-layer feature formed of tungsten, or other metal, of the second layer 39 as shown in FIGS. 5a and 5b. When an etch back process is performed as in FIG. 5a, the second layer 39 is removed from the bottom of the first overlay mark 14. The use of CMP as in FIG. 5b does not remove the second layer 39 from the bottom of the first overlay mark 14. In accordance with one aspect, the existence or lack of portions of the second layer 39 along the bottom of the first overlay mark 14 may not materially impact the functionality of the first overlay mark 14 as an alignment structure. For purposes of clarity, the following steps will be described assuming that an etch back process has been performed. A subsequent deposition stage includes formation of a third layer 41, such as a sputtering of additional metal onto the substrate to form the third layer 41. For example, an aluminum layer may be sputtered onto the substrate. In a modified embodiment, another conductive material such as copper, for example, may be used instead of aluminum. At least some of the aluminum that is deposited falls into the first overlay mark 14 and forms a contact with the first layer 34 and the second layer 39 as shown in FIG. 6. Prior to sputtering the aluminum onto the substrate 36 a glue layer may be deposited to augment bonding. Such glue layers may comprise, for example, ti-nitride (TiN)/titanium (Ti) complexes such as TiN/Ti or Ti/TiN/Ti. The improved adhesion can increase interface quality and may impact the diffusivity of the aluminum atoms at the interface, thus reducing electromagnetic resistance. FIG. 7 illustrates a formation comprising the first overlay mark 14 of FIG. 6 with the addition of a second patterned photoresist layer 43. The photolithographic techniques that are used to pattern the second photoresist layer 43 can be similar to the photolithographic techniques that are used to pattern the first layer 34, but may differ in specific wavelengths and use different reticle masks, etchers and photoresists. Moreover, in accordance with one aspect of the present invention the subsequent reticle mask used in patterning the second photoresist layer 43 can be aligned with the first overlay mark 14 such that the first overlay mark 14 and a region surrounding it are left completely exposed. Aligning the reticle mask used in patterning the second photoresist layer 43 with the first overlay mark 14 can ensure that the third layer 41 is entirely removed from regions in and around the first overlay mark 14 during a subsequent dry or wet etch process. FIG. 8 shows the first overlay mark 14 after the third layer 41 has been etched and the second patterned photoresist layer 43 has been removed. A third photoresist layer 45 (FIG. 9) can then be applied and patterned to form a second overlay mark 16 using similar photolithography steps to those implemented for the first and second photoresist layers. The reticle mask used to pattern the third photoresist layer can be aligned to the first overlay mark 14 to ensure that corresponding device structures such as contact holes are in physical and electrical contact and in alignment with predetermined features of device structures formed in previous layers. Alignment with the first overlay mark 14 may be performed either manually or automatically. Manual alignment can entail use of a microscope through which an operator views both the reticle mask and the substrate. Either the reticle mask or the substrate is moved slightly, as necessary, until the reticle mask target is positioned directly over the substrate target. Automatic alignment mechanisms can reflect an incident light beam from the substrate, wherein various sharp edges of the features on the substrate, particularly sharp edges of substrate targets, refract the reflected light. An automatic mechanism can interpret the refraction pattern and move the substrate slightly, as necessary, until the reticle mask target is positioned directly over the substrate target. Laser interferometers, for example, can allow a stepper to control movement of the reticle mask. Heating or annealing of the substrate, for example, may cause the third layer 41 and thus the first overlay mark 14 to undergo a profile shift. The profile shift may comprise, for example, flexing due to unequal thermal expansions of various components such as the first layer 34 and the third layer 41. The profile shift can undesirably move, for example, the third layer 41 or cause it to shift relative to the first layer 34. An example in which the first overlay mark 14 has undergone an edge profile change is described above in connection with FIG. 1b. In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 9 shows the substrate 36 after the third photoresist layer 45 has been patterned to form the second overlay mark 16. The alignment structure of FIG. 9 shows a profile that has not undergone a profile shift. In accordance with the illustrated embodiment of the present invention profile shifts can be prevented or attenuated, since the edge profile 47 of the first overlay mark 14 does not comprise the material of the third layer 41. Thus, as a result of the removal of the third layer 41 from a vicinity of the first overlay mark 14, the edge profile 47 is more likely to maintain a stable distance from the second overlay mark 16. In other words, as a result of the removal of the third layer 41 from a vicinity of the first overlay mark 14, a central region of the first overlay mark 14 remains at a distance A from a central region of the second overlay mark 16 and at a distance B from another central region of the second overlay mark 16 and/or tends not to shift as it would if portions of the third layer 41 were present. FIGS. 10a and 10b show locations of a plurality of alignment structures disposed on a semiconductor wafer and the values of profile shifts at those locations, in accordance with the prior art. Assuming that (0,0) is the Cartesian coordinate for the center of the wafer, alignment structures at coordinates (−5,0) through (5,0) are shown in expanded detail. As shown, there is no change in overlay at the wafer's center (0,0), but a trend of an increasing overlay change due to profile shifts progresses as measurements are taken further from the center. At the center of the wafer, equal forces stress the alignment structures from all directions. As alignment structures are positioned away from the center, uneven forces affect them. The further from the center that an alignment structure is disposed, the greater the difference between the forces pulling toward the center of the wafer and the forces pulling toward the edge of the wafer, and thus the greater the profile shift. Profile changes are measured in nanometers and reflect the displacement in alignment at different positions on a wafer. The greater the displacement, the poorer the alignment between the first overlay mark 14 and the second overlay mark 16. The profile changes for the prior art alignment structures are 39 nm at (−4,0), 60 nm at (−5,0), 27 nm at (1,0), 27 nm at (2,0), 45 nm at (3,0), 65 nm at (4,0), and 96 nm at (5,0). Whereas no contact hole is visible at coordinate (0,0), the progressive profile shift causes shifts in the positions of contact holes in the example. These shifts are evident in FIG. 10b at coordinates (−5,0), (−4,0), (3,0), (4,0), and (5,0). Shifts in the positions of contact holes may cause problems by interfering with the formation of required conductive paths between layers of an integrated circuit. FIGS. 10a and 10b can be compared to corresponding data shown in FIGS. 11a and 11b, which reflect similar measurements taken from identical points on a semiconductor wafer that has been processed in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The overlay changes occurring in the alignment structures formed in accordance with an aspect of the present invention are 29 nm at (−5,0), <10 nm at (5,0), and not appreciable at (−4,0) through (4,0). These reduced overlay changes may not introduce as many visible shifts in contact holes compared to those illustrated in FIGS. 10a and 10b. Although presently embodied as rectangular formations, the first overlay mark 14 and second overlay mark 16 can comprise other shapes, such as in one aspect arbitrary shapes including oval or circular formations. In an alternative embodiment, the second layer 39 may be omitted, and the third layer 41 may comprise, for example, an oxide or SiN. Process steps may remain unchanged, and reticle masks corresponding to various different material layers may be used such that the layers formed in the device region form, for example, a bit line or a word line structure. In another alternative embodiment the first overlay mark corresponds to a first vernier layer, and the second overlay mark corresponds to a second vernier layer, such that when the first and second vernier layers are lined up the overlay offset may be determined. In view of the foregoing, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the methods of the present invention can facilitate formation of semiconductor device structures in an integrated circuit structure. The above-described embodiments have been provided by way of example, and the present invention is not limited to these examples. Multiple variations and modification to the disclosed embodiments will occur, to the extent not mutually exclusive, to those skilled in the art upon consideration of the foregoing description. Additionally, other combinations, omissions, substitutions and modifications will be apparent to the skilled artisan in view of the disclosure herein. Accordingly, the present invention is not intended to be limited by the disclosed embodiments, but is to be defined by reference to the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to integrated circuits and fabrication methods for integrated circuits and, more particularly, to methods of forming overlay alignment structures. 2. Description of Related Art Since the introduction of semiconductors and fabrication processes for semiconductor devices and integrated circuitry, the density of devices and number of devices on a chip have increased at an exponential rate. With limited space on a semiconductor wafer, the trend has been to construct devices vertically through the use of alternating stacked layers of conductive and non-conductive materials. Layers are patterned through photolithographic processes before additional layers are deposited or grown. A photolithographic process can include depositing a photoresist on top of a layer, positioning a reticle mask (containing a pattern of opaque lines and regions on an otherwise transparent material) over the photoresist, and shining coherent or noncoherent light through the reticle mask onto the photoresist. The light cures the photoresist only where the photoresist is not shadowed by the reticle mask pattern. For positive photoresist any cured photoresist (e.g., the photoresist not shadowed by the reticle mask pattern) is then washed away, exposing regions of the uppermost layer to subsequent processes such as oxidation, metal deposition, and/or impurity doping. Finally, any uncured photoresist is then stripped away, and another photolithography process may begin with another material. An industry trend toward smaller devices has exacerbated a need to align the subsequent reticle masks more precisely with the previous photolithographic step along the x-y plane as well as rotationally. If, for example, a semiconductor-layer step creates a transistor and then a subsequent metal-layer step is not aligned precisely, a vital connection between the transistor and a conductive path may not be formed. To facilitate alignment, the first layer on a wafer generally contains a set of alignment marks, which are high precision features that are used to reference the first layer when positioning subsequent layers. Alignment marks are also included in other layers, as the original marks become difficult to align with during further processing. Many fabrication steps include creation of a vernier pattern or other alignment marks on both a reticle mask and the layer to which the reticle mask is to be aligned. Such alignment marks are not necessary for operation of the integrated circuit, but can allow improved alignment of the reticle masks with the substrate. Vernier patterns are useful alignment structures that comprise a first layer of a plurality of equally spaced rectangles over which a second layer of equally spaced rectangles having a different spacing than the first layer of rectangles is formed. The first layer of rectangles is commonly formed of oxide during for example the field oxidation step. The second layer of rectangles can be formed of photoresist during a subsequent metal deposition step. If, for example, the spacing between the first plurality of rectangles is different than the spacing of the second plurality of rectangles by 0.1 μm, and the top center rectangle aligns to the bottom center rectangle, then perfect alignment is achieved. If however, the top rectangle fourth to the right of center aligns to the bottom rectangle fourth to the right of center, then there is an overlay offset of 0.4 μm in that direction, and the offset can be corrected accordingly. Common practice is to optically align to the vernier and/or alignment marks through any previously deposited films. With this practice alignment can be difficult to achieve due to optical distortion from reflection and diffraction through the deposited material. The profile of the alignment marks can also change due to expansion or contraction of the deposition film during temperature changes. FIGS. 1 a and 1 b illustrate a prior art alignment structure 12 comprising a first overlay mark 14 and a second overlay mark 16 in accordance with a theoretical ideal example and a real world example, respectively. It should be noted that FIGS. 1 a and 1 b illustrate both plan and cross-sectional views of the prior art alignment structure and that the scales for the plan and cross-sectional views are different. The first overlay mark 14 comprises a metal lined trench 19 and the second overlay mark 16 comprises a first patterned photoresist layer 21 . In the stress free ideal condition of FIG. 1 a the overlay separations, distance A and distance B, provide the real overlay value. An equal distance A and distance B means that the second overlay mark 16 and its accompanying layer have been correctly positioned. In the real world condition of FIG. 1 b compressive and expansive stresses cause the edge profile 27 to shift. Changes in the edge profile 27 cause the first overlay mark 14 to be asymmetric which in turn causes false overlay separation readings of distance A 1 and distance B 1 . In the situation of FIG. 1 b the first overlay mark 14 and second overlay mark 16 are properly aligned, but a measurement of the overlay separations indicates that the two overlay marks are not properly aligned due to the edge profile shift. The edge profile shift can create false readings, making it difficult to ascertain actual alignment conditions. As device dimensions become smaller, the attenuation of errors introduced by optically aligning through the deposition material becomes increasingly important. As such, there is introduced in the art a need to develop a process wherein optical distortion and stress induced measurement error is reduced or eliminated. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, at least one of the above shortcomings is addressed by providing a first layer comprising a first material, forming in a surface of the first layer at least one first overlay mark, forming a second layer comprising a second material in portions of the at least one first overlay mark, forming a third layer comprising a third material over the first and second layers, patterning the third layer such that the third layer is removed from regions in and around the at least one first overlay mark, and forming at least one second overlay mark. The provided process can allow proper angular relationship with respect to other features in the layer despite thermally-induced flexing of the substrate. An overlay mark near a periphery of the substrate (i.e., an outer overlay mark), can reflect a real or proper overlay condition in response to a reticle mask being aligned with the substrate. The invention herein disclosed can allow and facilitate improved alignment of a reticle mask with a substrate by allowing a process engineer to determine whether the reticle mask “overlays” the substrate, i.e., by reflecting a real or proper overlay condition of a reticle mask with a substrate. The reticle mask overlays the substrate when the reticle mask is positioned properly with respect to the substrate. In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, the first layer may comprise an inter-layer dielectric. The inter-layer dielectric may comprise TEOS, BPSG, or a TEOS and BPSG complex. The first layer may also comprise silicon dioxide. The second layer may comprise a conductive material which may include tungsten (W). In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, forming the second layer may comprise the steps of: forming a second layer over the first layer, and selectively removing the second layer such that it remains in portions of the at least one first overlay mark. The step of selectively removing the second layer may comprise chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) or etch back. The third layer as set forth in the above process may comprise a conductive material. The conductive material may comprise copper and/or aluminum. Prior to the formation of the third layer, a glue layer may be formed, wherein the glue layer may comprise a ti-nitride (TiN)/titanium (Ti) complex such as TiN/Ti or Ti/TiN/Ti. The at least one second overlay mark and at least one first overlay mark may be rectangular, circular, oval, or otherwise arbitrary in shape, and the at least one second overlay mark may be aligned to that at least one first overlay mark. In one embodiment of the invention the forming of a second layer may be omitted. When the second layer is omitted, the third layer may comprise an oxide or SiN. In another embodiment of the invention the at least one first overlay mark may correspond to at least one first vernier layer, and the at least one second overlay mark may correspond to at least one second vernier layer. The at least one overlay mark may correspond to a plurality of first overlay marks, and the at least one second overlay mark may correspond to a plurality of second overlay marks. Any feature or combination of features described herein are included within the scope of the present invention provided that the features included in any such combination are not mutually inconsistent as will be apparent from the context, this specification, and the knowledge of one of ordinary skill in the art. For purposes of summarizing the present invention, certain aspects, advantages and novel features of the present invention are described herein. Of course, it is to be understood that not necessarily all such aspects, advantages or features will be embodied in any particular embodiment of the present invention. Additional advantages and aspects of the present invention are apparent in the following detailed description and claims. | 20040608 | 20070320 | 20051208 | 60221.0 | 0 | THAI, LUAN C | METHOD OF REDUCING ALIGNMENT MEASUREMENT ERRORS BETWEEN DEVICE LAYERS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,864,566 | ACCEPTED | Solar powered compaction apparatus | A trash compactor designed for public use is powered by a photovoltaic cell array. This allows the trash compactor to be placed in locations where no power is available, but with frequent human traffic. The compaction feature allows the unit to be emptied less often than a typical trash container. The trash compactor can include a storage system to store power for compaction cycles. A removable bin allows easy removal of the compacted trash. The removable bin can include multiple chambers for different trash types. | 1. A storage container comprising: an enclosure; a photovoltaic panel located on an upper exterior surface of said enclosure, said photovoltaic panel positioned to be exposed to sunlight, to convert said received sunlight into electric power; a storage battery, located within said enclosure and electrically connected to said photovoltaic panel; a compaction ram, located within said enclosure, said compaction ram positioned to travel along a preset path within said enclosure; a driving mechanism located within said enclosure and electrically connected to said storage battery, wherein said driving mechanism is coupled to said compaction ram, said driving mechanism to use electric power from said storage battery to move said compaction ram along said preset path within said enclosure; and an access door, located on said enclosure, said access door to allow user access within said enclosure. 2. The storage container of claim 1, further including: a removable bin, located within said enclosure, wherein when said compaction ram travels along said preset path within said enclosure, said compaction ram travels within at least a part of said removable bin. 3. The storage container of claim 2, wherein said compaction ram is outside of said removable bin at one end of said preset path. 4. The storage container of claim 2 wherein said removable bin includes wheels attached at a lower portion. 5. The storage container of claim 1 wherein items introduced into said enclosure by said access door settle into said removable bin, and wherein when said compaction ram travels along said preset path within said enclosure, said compaction ram compresses said items within said removable bin. 6. The storage container of claim 1 wherein said driving mechanism is disabled when said access door is open. 7. The storage container of claim 5 further including: a signaling mechanism, to provide an indication that said enclosure is substantially full of items. 8. The storage container of claim 5 further including: a signaling mechanism, to provide an indication that said enclosure is failing to operate properly. 9. The storage container of claim 2 wherein said removable bin includes multiple chambers. 10. The storage container of claim 9 wherein said compaction ram travels simultaneously within all of said multiple chambers. 11. The storage container of claim 9 wherein said compaction ram travels within only one of said multiple chambers at a time. 12. The storage container of claim 9 wherein said enclosure includes multiple access doors, each of said access doors allowing access to one of said multiple chambers, to allow different items to be placed in each chamber. 13. The storage container of claim 1 further including an electric power outlet electrically connected to said storage battery, said electric power outlet accessible from outside of said enclosure. 14. A method for compacting trash comprising: providing a enclosure for the collection of trash; providing a solar panel positioned for exposure to the sun; storing power produced by said solar panel; upon receiving a signal, using stored power to drive a compacting ram through at least a portion of said enclosure, to reduce the volume of trash in said enclosure; and using stored power to drive said compacting ram back to a starting position. 15. The method of claim 14 further including: before said step of using stored power to drive a compacting ram, disabling access to said container by users; and after said step of using stored power to drive said compacting ram back to a starting position, enabling access to said container by users. 16. A solar powered trash compactor comprising: an enclosure; a photovoltaic panel located on an angled upper exterior surface of said enclosure, said photovoltaic panel positioned to be exposed to sunlight, to convert said received sunlight into electric power; a storage battery, located within said enclosure and electrically connected to said photovoltaic panel; an electric motor located within said enclosure and electrically connected to said storage battery, said electric motor connected to a chain drive mechanism, said chain drive mechanism also connected to a compaction ram, wherein said compaction ram, when moved by said chain drive mechanism, moves along a preset path within said enclosure; a removable bin, located within said enclosure, and positioned so that when said compaction ram travels along said preset path within said enclosure, said compaction ram travels within at least a part of said removable bin; and a removable bin access door, located on said enclosure, to allow insertion and removal of said removable bin from said enclosure. | RELATED APPLICATION The present application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/476,832 filed on Jun. 9, 2003, which is incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention is directed towards compactors for crushing trash or recyclables, and more particularly to an apparatus and method for solar-powered waste compaction. BACKGROUND Garbage cans and trash receptacles are important items at any location where there are people, to avoid the people having to carry trash with them or worse, simply littering. Many public areas such as outdoor recreation facilities provide trash cans at many locations, and most visitors are quite receptive to using such trash cans, provided that they are convenient and accessible. However, trash cans often quickly fill up and require periodic emptying by maintenance personnel. Larger trash cans provide more capacity, but they still fill up and result in larger bulky unwieldy loads when they're emptied. For any size, trash cans that are remote are more difficult to empty, and require that personnel spend time and equipment traveling, emptying and hauling from the remote locations. Also, in urban locations and other high traffic areas, sanitation personnel must spend significant amounts of time and cost to remove trash and recyclables often several times daily, and urban areas often have space constraints on trash-bin size. As is well known, typical trash is fairly bulky and is capable of being compacted down to smaller sizes. Most trash collection trucks utilize hydraulic compactors to increase their capacity. Compaction on-site can save money and help to conserve fuel by reducing collection frequency, and thus vehicle travel time. Prior art trash and recyclables compactors characteristically require high-voltage, AC electricity, and are almost ubiquitously connected to the electricity grid. This limits the location of such trash compactors. Others have a fuel tank associated with them, such as with compaction mechanisms onboard garbage trucks or certain compactors that use diesel generators to provide power for compaction rams. These gas or diesel systems produce great noise and pollution as they operate. Thus, prior art trash compactors are characteristically confined to areas where electrical connections are feasible and cost-effective, or where there is a fossil fuel power source. There is a need for powered compaction in remote settings and high-traffic areas, that will allow people to conveniently dispose of trash or recyclables, but allow much less frequent emptying service from maintenance personnel. SUMMARY The present invention uses the novel approach of using solar energy to compact trash and recyclables. Solar energy is a clean source of power, and also it enables compaction of waste in remote locations where other forms of power are impractical and uneconomical. Often, it is impractical and uneconomical to connect grid power to a compactor located even at a relatively close distance to an electricity source, for example, across a parking lot from a retail establishment. This invention provides a low cost device and method for compacting trash and recyclables using stored photovoltaic energy. The device is formed to efficiently collect solar energy, efficiently store said energy and as needed, use the stored energy to compact trash or recyclables. The solar collector typically is a photovoltaic (PV) apparatus which is connected to a storage device, such as a battery, capacitor or fuel cell. Mechanical means of energy storage may include springs, pneumatic and hydraulic pressure. The apparatus uses stored energy to intermittently compact trash or recyclables. In another embodiment, the device supplies AC electricity to an AC-powered compaction mechanism by changing DC power from the PV array into AC electricity by means of an inverter. In a separate embodiment, the device supplies pressurized hydraulic fluid to a compaction ram that is actuated by hydraulic pressure. In an illustrative embodiment, the electronics of the receptacle are enclosed in two compartments adjacent to the compaction area. This compartment is not accessible from the outside, to prevent tampering and/or user injury. Another feature to prevent user or operator injury is a battery disengage, which will prevent compaction-ram movement when either compartment door is open and will provide access to electronics or the compaction chamber. This works because the lock is coupled with a contactor switch, so whenever a door is open, the contactor switch is open as well. The battery and electronics compartments are also sealed from water to protect the enclosed electronics from the elements, and the battery compartment is vented separately from the electronics and motor compartments to allow for hydrogen gas to escape safely, as the flammable gas can be produced during charging of many types of batteries. The PV array is protected from weather and vandalism by a covering constructed typically of durable plastic and a metal grate. The battery is stored at the bottom of the compartment, in order to lower the center of gravity of the receptacle, and prevent tipping, while the hydrogen vent is located above the battery chamber to allow hydrogen gas to rise and escape the chamber without coming into contact with sparks from the motor or electronics compartments. At the bottom of this compartment is the motor, which is connected to the reduction gearbox and drive chains. The waste insertion door is locked shut during a compaction cycle or is constructed to block from user intrusion into compaction chamber. This safety measure eliminates the possibility of a user being injured by the compaction ram. In the illustrative embodiment, this use lockout is passive and does not require energy to operate. Similar contraptions are seen on mailboxes, and prevent the user from access to the inner chamber of the device. Other safety measures include a locking mechanism on the access door to the waste bin to prohibit the general public from removing the waste. Only waste management personnel can access the waste chamber and electronics chamber. An access door is hingedly attached to allow the sanitation personnel to have unimpeded access to the waste bin. Another embodiment can incorporate several compaction rams and/or compaction chambers, allowing for separation and compaction of different recyclable materials. It may also include mechanisms such as paper or plastic shredders, and bottle or can crushers, to more effectively reduce the volume of many materials. Since such an embodiment can be constructed to have multiple compaction chambers, the overall weight of each collection bin can be reduced, which will reduce worker injury associated with heavy loads. Another embodiment of the present invention allows monitoring of the trash level in the compaction chamber. By monitoring the level of trash or recyclables in the chamber, a wireless communication mechanism can relay this information to the sanitation personnel so that unneeded visits are avoided. Communication may be relayed with a wireless transmitter or by a physical indicator, such as an indicator lamp. This further saves time and money by allowing the maintenance personnel to schedule collections according to demand. Another embodiment of the present invention is constructed to be easily moved by virtue of a towing apparatus that enables many devices and/or compaction bins to be connected to each other, so that a single vehicle can tow many devices at once. This works much like luggage carts at the airport. This unique method of trash removal also helps to reduce worker injuries associated with carrying heavy loads. Advantages of the present invention include a trash or recyclable collector which can be located in remote places that don't have access to AC power, and also require many fewer maintenance visits for emptying, while reducing litter. Another advantage of the present invention is that it is optimized to work more often during times of most usage. Peoples' use of the device will occur most often during daylight hours, and therefore the unit has power from daylight as needed to perform compaction. Further, since more people are active outdoors during sunny days, the present invention is optimized to meet increased usage with increased compaction cycles. Another advantage of the present invention is that the collection bins which handle dense, heavy waste, are positioned on a wheeled cart, reducing heavy lifting by sanitation personnel. Since waste is packed into two or more compartments, each load is made lighter, further reducing the strain for workers of lifting loads. Another advantage of the present invention is that the system is animal-proof, for everything from insects to bears. Access to the contents is blocked by doors and circuitous paths. Odor which is objectionable and which also can attract critters is reduced by the design. Another advantage of the present invention is that it allows bin capacity information to be relayed wirelessly, helping to avoid wasted trips and time. Real-time information provides an advantage over traditional reactionary scheduling methods. Real-time information will enable significant improvements in routing and scheduling techniques, and can be reduced to software to automate and optimize waste collection scheduling and routing decisions. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing and other features and advantages of the present invention will be more fully understood from the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a compaction ram and compaction chambers according to the present invention; FIG. 2 shows an illustrative embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a perspective view of a second illustrative embodiment according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is a side sectional view of the illustrative embodiment of FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a top sectional view of the illustrative embodiment of FIG. 3; FIG. 6 is a block diagram of a control system for an illustrative embodiment; FIG. 7 is a block diagram of an alternative control system supplying hydraulic fluid; FIG. 8 is a schematic of electronics according to one embodiment; and FIG. 9 is a schematic of an alternative control system providing AC power. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention is directed towards a waste collection receptacle with integrated solar compaction mechanism for public use. The generally rectangular metal unit has a solar panel on the top to attract maximum sunlight. The unit typically resembles waste receptacles currently in use, with respect to aesthetics, usage and size. FIG. 1 provides a perspective view detailing the compacting ram 24, chain drive sprockets 22, ram guide track 21, and compaction chambers 20, showing the relationship between the compaction mechanism and the compaction chambers, according to the present invention. The compaction chambers 20 can include a handle and wheels 26 for easy removal. A solar-compaction system according to the present invention is shown in FIG. 2, illustrating the orientation of the components of the outer container 28, as well as showing a position of a hinged waste removal door 30, and a trash insertion door 34. A photovoltaic (PV) cell array 32 is mounted on top of the unit, covering much of it. In one embodiment, cells 32 produce enough power for the average number of 15 compaction cycles per day, and the battery 36, shown in FIG. 4, has enough energy storage to provide for usage through weeks of intermittent sunlight. The cells are wired to the energy storage system, which stores power to drive the compaction. Status indicator lamps 60, FIGS. 2 and 6, provide visual means of displaying information such as a system malfunction or to indicate the level of bin capacity used and available. A trash insertion door 34 acts to prevent user injury because it locks out the user from the trash compaction area. More details are provided with the illustrative embodiment shown in FIGS. 3 and 4. The Photovoltaic (PV) array 32 is positioned on top of the device for maximum sunlight exposure. The PV array 32 may also be placed on other sides of the device to increase exposure to the sun when the sun is lower on the horizon. The PV array 32 may be optimally placed on an angle to prevent it from being covered by snow or debris. Further, the angle may be used to increase sunlight exposure based on azimuth of the sun across the sky. For example a PV array can be arranged to receive the most southern exposure during the day. Alternatively, the PV array 32 may be pivotally mounted and powered in order to rotate and track maximum sunlight exposure. Although the PV array 32 is shown attached to the unit, the PV array may also be separately located from the device and electrically connected. The PV array may alternatively be located inside the outer cover 28, and the outer cover may be constructed to allow sunlight into the protected area where the PV resides. The PV array may otherwise be mounted in a location on or outside the outer container accessible by light via a reflective surface such as a mirror, and inaccessible by vandals, negligent operators and animals. The compaction ram 24 is shown in the resting position above the compaction chambers 20, FIG. 4. The illustrated embodiment includes a two sided ram to improve compaction capability and to facilitate removal by decreasing weight of each load, FIG. 5. The chain drive sprocket 22, upon rotating, drives chain 42 forward, driving the attached compaction ram 24 down, compacting the load. Alternatively the compaction ram 24 may move up or sideways, depending on the design of the system. The removable bin 20 includes a handle and wheels to roll smoothly in and out of the outer container 28. The storage battery 36 is located preferably at a low point in the container to provide stability. The storage battery or batteries 36 can be upsized or downsized for different climates, compaction demands, or for or auxiliary functions, such as providing usable AC electricity through an inverter. The battery or batteries may also be stored separately from the container. The electronics compartments are preferably located in a weather-proof area 37 of the container. Electronic components can include a motor controller, battery charging controller, user interface, and sensors, as will be described below. The access door 38 to the electronics area 37 is key-lockable. When unlocked, the battery 36 will preferably be automatically disengaged. In the illustrative embodiment, a deep cycle battery 36 is employed to drive a DC motor 40, FIG. 5. The motor 40 drives a chain 42, which rotates sprockets rigidly connected to the unit 22, and which transmits the crushing force to the compaction ram 24. Alternatively, the motor 40 may provide power to the chain drive 22 through a drive shaft and gears, including reduction gears, or one or more motors 40 may be directly attached to the chain drive 22, or the motor or motors may be connected via reduction gears to chains or lead screws, which control the position of the compaction ram. Alternatively, a hydraulic piston may be used to move the compaction ram. In this embodiment, the motor is used to drive a fluid pump, which supplies pressure to the hydraulic cylinders to move the ram. A control apparatus for the illustrative embodiment is shown in FIG. 6. The motor controller 44 is a central microprocessor which manages all operations, detects all inputs and provides outputs for running the device. It controls power to the motor 40 by relays or contactors 58, FIG. 6 (mechanical or solid-state) or other switching means. A photo-eye 46 is located above the compaction chamber 20, FIG. 4, and is actuated when trash blocks the light rays between this photo-eye sensor and a reflector on the opposite side of the channel above the compaction chamber. The photo-eye signals the programmable logic controller (PLC) 44 when trash blocks the light beam for a measured amount of time, indicating that trash is located in the channel above the compaction chamber, and should be compacted. Other sensors may be used to detect the level of trash, including for example pressure sensors, micro switches, scales etc. Pressure sensors 48, FIG. 6, are located above and below the compaction ram 24 and are actuated when the compaction ram has reached the end of its downward and then upward cycle. The sensors provide input to the motor controller PLC 44. The motor controller 44 can also receive input from the motor 40 that signals that the compaction ram 24 has reached the bottom of its downward cycle by means of a centrifugal switch on the motor 40 or a current sensor 49 in the motor controller 44 which detects motor current, or other type of sensor. When the motor 40 has reached the bottom of its cycle (or jams), it will stop due to the upward force on the ram from the compacted trash, or due to irregular forces that cause the ram to jam. At this point, the motor will stall, and a centrifugal switch sends a signal to the motor controller 44 to stop or reverse the direction of the motor 40, or the current sensor 49 (programmed current limit) linked to the motor controller 44 senses high current in the stalled motor, and will reverse the cycle, returning the compaction ram 24 to the top of its cycle. Otherwise, the motor 40 may be stopped by use of a manual kill switch 56, or activated by a manual actuator 57. In this illustrative embodiment, the current sensor is linked to a timer 50 through the PLC 44, which will allow the motor controller to gauge the travel distance of the compaction ram before motor stall, and thus measure the degree of “fullness” in the trash bins. In the illustrative embodiment, the maximum load is reached when the 12V motor reaches 40 Amps. If this current limit is reached within 10 seconds, then the controller will gauge that the compaction chamber is ½ full. If the current limit is reached within 5 seconds, then the controller will gauge that the compaction bin is full. Another method of indicating “fullness” is sensing ram travel with a rotational encoder located on the drive shaft. The PLC 44 senses conditions and then indicates status through a wireless data transmitter 66, and through status indicator lamps 60. In this embodiment, the projected PV array output is 50 Watts Peak, and will generate, on average, 150 Watt-hours of energy per day, given an average of 3 hours of full sunlight available per day. Sunlight energy is collected in the PV Array 32, FIG. 6, and is converted by the charge controller 33, into a useful battery charging current and voltage. Battery reserve will be approximately 600 Watt-hours, and each cycle will use approximately 3 Watt-hours. Thus, the energy reserve in the illustrative embodiment is enough to run up to 200 compaction cycles. The controller will be programmed to permit compaction cycles such that battery over-discharge and thus battery damage is avoided. Since many electrical components are popular in 24 volt configurations and most PV arrays are available in 12 volt charging configurations, it may be economically advantageous to provide for 12 volt battery charging and 24 volt systems operations. This may be accomplished through the use of a relay and contactor switch, which will change the system voltage from 12 volts to 24 volts each time a compaction cycle is initiated. In another embodiment which does not use an embedded microprocessor, the switching and control is performed using solid-state electronics, as shown in FIG. 8. The cycle is triggered by a “Start” signal, shown as a key switch 54, however other devices may be used, including a pushbutton, photoelectric sensor, weight sensor etc. When the cycle begins, the motor will turn on and latch into the “forward” (down) mode. A lamp will turn on, indicating that a cycle is taking place. If the bin is not full, the compaction ram will actuate the lower pressure sensor 48, which will then turn the status lamp 60 off. If the bin is full (pressure sensor or limit switch is not actuated), the lamp will remain on after machine cycle is done, alerting sanitation staff that collection is needed. The motor will run in forward until either lower limit switch or pressure switch is reached, or until a timeout occurs. A timeout will occur if the amount of trash prevents the ram from reaching the bottom in the time allotted for a normal downward cycle. When the ram stalls, a clutch 47 will disengage the motor, allowing the motor to spin at no-load. Motor will spin at no-load until timeout occurs and motor is reversed. When motor reverses, clutch will automatically re-engage. Upon hitting the lower limit switch or reaching a timeout, motor will stop for a preset time delay, then will reverse. The motor will run in reverse until the upper limit switch is actuated. When the upper limit switch 48 is reached, the motor stops and a new timer begins. A start signal will be ignored until this timer is finished. Once the cycle delay timer is done, the system is reset and ready for a new start signal. The system includes a separate safety interlock switch 49 on the access door for emptying the bin. This switch disengages the power supply from all the control elements when the access door to the compaction area is open (this switch also resets the “bin full” lamp). In another embodiment shown in FIG. 9, the motor controller 44 outputs AC power to an AC motor, allowing the same invention to power AC compaction mechanisms. The motor controller 44 includes a power inverter 55 (including either a pure sine wave or modified sine wave) to provide alternating current power for an AC motor. This is advantageous because many of the existing compactors in the field use AC power. Thus, the present invention, as shown in this embodiment, can power a traditional compactor with solar power and embedded control logic. Yet another embodiment of a controlling system is shown in FIG. 7. In this embodiment, the device uses a hydraulic pump 51 to pressurize hydraulic fluid from a tank 53, allowing the same invention to power a compaction mechanism that utilizes hydraulic fluid pressure cylinders to move the compaction ram. This is advantageous because many of the existing compactors are hydraulic, and require a hydraulic pump that is powered by AC electric power or internal combustion engine. The present invention, as shown in this embodiment, can power a traditional compactor with solar power and embedded control logic and a DC motor. This can save money and setup time, and allow compaction with various types of mechanisms to be used in remote locations not currently economically serviced by common electricity lines or with current compaction methods. Alternative systems may be used, and are within the scope of the present invention. For example, a pneumatic pump can be used to inflate a bladder inside the compaction chamber 20, thereby compacting the trash without requiring a compacting ram and chain drive system. A feature of the illustrative embodiment is that the motor controller 44, when in charging mode, can act as a maximum power tracker, regulating the charging of the battery from the PV array. The power tracker has the ability to vary the level of voltage and amperage based on the characteristics of the PV array, the sunlight level and the battery condition. The power tracker has the ability to balance off current and voltage to optimize battery 36 charging. The motor controller 44 has the ability to optimize the charging regimen of the batteries 36, by tracking the level of photovoltaic energy available and the battery charge. When the battery 36 is fully discharged, the controller 44 will provide low voltage and high amperage. When the battery 36 is almost completely charged, the controller 44 will provide a higher voltage and lower current. When the battery is fully charged, the controller will not provide any charge to the battery 36, or will simply provide a trickle charge. Conversely, when the battery 36 is undercharged, the controller 44 may delay or skip a compaction cycle until adequate charge has been attained. This serves to save battery life and prevent failure. Because of the ability for the controller 44 to optimize charging regimen and control the motor, it serves a dual purpose. Typically the duty cycle of the compaction apparatus is higher during peak traffic hours. For example, during lunch time, there will be more waste discarded into the device. This duty cycle can be controlled by a timer, or by a photo-eye as described above. The preferred method is to use the photo-eye because it will optimize compaction cycle to meet the demand for compaction. This allows for maximum charge time between needed compactions, and minimizes noise (if any) and down time due to the compaction cycle. This duty cycle is typically determined by low power timing circuitry contained in the receptacle. It is modifiable on the unit, or is programmable by means of a wireless communication device or by electrical connection between the programming device (i.e. computer) and the PLC 44. The motor controller 44 can also include data logging features, to allow compaction cycle history to be stored for later analysis. A battery disconnect is attached to one or both of the battery supply cables. When either the trash bin removal door or the electronics door is opened, the battery is automatically disconnected, to prevent injury. Table 1 provides specifications for a prototype system in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. TABLE 1 Physical Specs of Unit Size of Ram Width 8.00 Inches Length 12.50 Inches Number of Rams 2 Weight 20.00 Pounds Size of Compartment Height of bin 24.00 inches Length of bin 19.50 inches Width of bin 10.50 inches plunge of ram 8.00 inches height of ram 10.00 inches Volume of Bin 42.54 gallons Volume available after compaction 15.79 gallons Worst case volume after compaction 7.89 gallons Compaction ratio 4:1 Volume of raw trash collected 107.17 gallons Best Case number of compactions 8.08 per fill Worst case number of compactions 16.17 per fill Desired Pressure Chain Drive Diameter of Drive Sprocket 3.00 inches Length of Ram/Chain Travel 18.00 inches Compaction Time 30.00 seconds Desired Pressure 10.00 PSI Compacting Force 2000.00 pounds Motor Specs Horsepower 0.50 HP RPM 1800.00 RPM Voltage 12.00 volts Max Amps 39.00 amps Power Numbers RPM at Chain drive 8.00 RPM Torque 3983 HP Cycle Time 30 Seconds Power Consumption Losses Drive Mechanism 80.00 percent Chain Drive 80.00 percent Energy Consumption per compact Energy of compaction stroke 1.41 W * hrs Energy of retraction stroke 0.94 W * hrs Energy Needed per cycle 2.35 W * hrs Energy Needed per cycle w/losses 3.36 W * hrs Compactions Needed Compactions per day in High Volume Use 12.13 Energy Used per day 40.77 W * hr Battery Voltage 12.00 Volts Amp * hours 55.00 Ah Watt * hours 660.00 W * hr Average Temperature (Min) 14.00 Deg F. Efficiency Due to Temp (round trip) 60.00 Percent Actual Energy per battery 396.00 W * hr Days of Compacting w/o charge 9.71 Days Days to completely recharge 10.30 Days Photovoltaic Number of Cells 35.00 Cells Area of PV 560.00 Square Inches (4″ × 4″ cell) PV Specs Energy from Sun 0.66 W/in{circumflex over ( )}2 PV efficiency 15.00 Percent efficient (14-22%) Peak wattage of PV 55.44 Peak watts Power from Cell 0.10 W/in{circumflex over ( )}2 Capacity factor (avg sun) 70.00 percent Hours at avg capacity 3.00 hours Energy Collected per day 116.42 W * hr Adjusted available energy 52.39 W * hr The container may include drainage holes near the bottom to allow liquids in the trash to drain from the unit, to allow increased compaction of the remaining trash. An additional feature for cold weather locations includes a heating element to warm up the trash, thereby thawing any frozen liquids to allow them to drain. Further, many materials such as plastic are easier to compress at a higher temperature, so by heating the contents to the present invention can increase compaction efficiency. The heating element may be controlled so that it is only activated when the battery 36 is near full charge. Further, heating elements may be placed above, beneath or within the PV array, in order to melt snow or ice that is covering the PV array. In warmer climates, a shallow drainage basin may be used to facilitate evaporation of liquids. Sensors can detect moisture, temperature, or a lack of light reaching the PV array and activate the snow melting heating elements, or may initiate fans to evaporate liquids in the drainage basin. Another embodiment of the present invention includes using two or more similar bins for trash storage, for the purpose of separating recyclable materials and to reduce the weight and volume of each bin, reducing the chance of worker injury, and enabling the use of smaller, more standardized garbage bags. The container may include mounting clips on the exterior to allow advertisement placards to be placed on the outside of the containers. Other features include wired or wireless communications equipment installed with the container. Radio signals may be transmitted by the container when it is full and no more compaction is possible, or if the unit is broken or being vandalized. Further, the container can report on conditions including battery charge, cycle counts etc. The container can also receive signals, including commands to immediately perform compaction cycles or to change cycle timing, etc. The containers may also report conditions by indicator lights which may indicate if the unit is full or malfunctioning. Such indicator lights allow the containers to be inspected from a distance (such as through binoculars) to allow service personnel to determine whether it is necessary to make a service trip to the container. It is possible to have two or more containers for trash storage, for the purpose of separating recyclable materials and to reduce the weight and volume of each bin, reducing the chance of worker injury, and enabling the use of smaller, more standardized garbage bags. The containers may have separate access ports to allow people to sort and place different types of items into different containers. For example, one container could have paper products while others have cans. Such a device according to the present invention could then compact the contents each internal container separately (using individual compaction rams or one compaction ram which the containers are mechanically shifted to), or all at once using one large compaction ram 24 that spans all the containers. Alternatively, each container may have various types of crushers or shredders suited for each type of material. If different compaction rams are used for each internal container, than the device could compact only the containers that were full. Further, since different materials have different compacting characteristics (for example, crumpled paper compresses much easier than metal cans), the compacting mechanism size, shape, force, method and cycle duration can be optimized for a particular type of material. Although solar power is disclosed as a source of power for the present invention, other sources of power are within the scope of the invention. This includes windmill or waterwheel generators located proximate the container, or located at an optimal location for collecting power. Alternatively, a generator with a hand or foot crank may be positioned with the container, with instructions inviting users of the trash container to crank the handle or pedal several times to help store energy to compact their trash. For such generators, whether by windmill, waterwheel or human, alternative energy generation means and energy storage means may be used, for example pumping air into a pressure tank for driving a pneumatic motor, winding up a spring mechanism, or a pulley system to raise a very heavy compaction ram, which then compacts the trash by its own weight. Although the invention has been shown and described with respect to illustrative embodiments thereof, various other changes, omissions and additions in the form and detail thereof may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Garbage cans and trash receptacles are important items at any location where there are people, to avoid the people having to carry trash with them or worse, simply littering. Many public areas such as outdoor recreation facilities provide trash cans at many locations, and most visitors are quite receptive to using such trash cans, provided that they are convenient and accessible. However, trash cans often quickly fill up and require periodic emptying by maintenance personnel. Larger trash cans provide more capacity, but they still fill up and result in larger bulky unwieldy loads when they're emptied. For any size, trash cans that are remote are more difficult to empty, and require that personnel spend time and equipment traveling, emptying and hauling from the remote locations. Also, in urban locations and other high traffic areas, sanitation personnel must spend significant amounts of time and cost to remove trash and recyclables often several times daily, and urban areas often have space constraints on trash-bin size. As is well known, typical trash is fairly bulky and is capable of being compacted down to smaller sizes. Most trash collection trucks utilize hydraulic compactors to increase their capacity. Compaction on-site can save money and help to conserve fuel by reducing collection frequency, and thus vehicle travel time. Prior art trash and recyclables compactors characteristically require high-voltage, AC electricity, and are almost ubiquitously connected to the electricity grid. This limits the location of such trash compactors. Others have a fuel tank associated with them, such as with compaction mechanisms onboard garbage trucks or certain compactors that use diesel generators to provide power for compaction rams. These gas or diesel systems produce great noise and pollution as they operate. Thus, prior art trash compactors are characteristically confined to areas where electrical connections are feasible and cost-effective, or where there is a fossil fuel power source. There is a need for powered compaction in remote settings and high-traffic areas, that will allow people to conveniently dispose of trash or recyclables, but allow much less frequent emptying service from maintenance personnel. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention uses the novel approach of using solar energy to compact trash and recyclables. Solar energy is a clean source of power, and also it enables compaction of waste in remote locations where other forms of power are impractical and uneconomical. Often, it is impractical and uneconomical to connect grid power to a compactor located even at a relatively close distance to an electricity source, for example, across a parking lot from a retail establishment. This invention provides a low cost device and method for compacting trash and recyclables using stored photovoltaic energy. The device is formed to efficiently collect solar energy, efficiently store said energy and as needed, use the stored energy to compact trash or recyclables. The solar collector typically is a photovoltaic (PV) apparatus which is connected to a storage device, such as a battery, capacitor or fuel cell. Mechanical means of energy storage may include springs, pneumatic and hydraulic pressure. The apparatus uses stored energy to intermittently compact trash or recyclables. In another embodiment, the device supplies AC electricity to an AC-powered compaction mechanism by changing DC power from the PV array into AC electricity by means of an inverter. In a separate embodiment, the device supplies pressurized hydraulic fluid to a compaction ram that is actuated by hydraulic pressure. In an illustrative embodiment, the electronics of the receptacle are enclosed in two compartments adjacent to the compaction area. This compartment is not accessible from the outside, to prevent tampering and/or user injury. Another feature to prevent user or operator injury is a battery disengage, which will prevent compaction-ram movement when either compartment door is open and will provide access to electronics or the compaction chamber. This works because the lock is coupled with a contactor switch, so whenever a door is open, the contactor switch is open as well. The battery and electronics compartments are also sealed from water to protect the enclosed electronics from the elements, and the battery compartment is vented separately from the electronics and motor compartments to allow for hydrogen gas to escape safely, as the flammable gas can be produced during charging of many types of batteries. The PV array is protected from weather and vandalism by a covering constructed typically of durable plastic and a metal grate. The battery is stored at the bottom of the compartment, in order to lower the center of gravity of the receptacle, and prevent tipping, while the hydrogen vent is located above the battery chamber to allow hydrogen gas to rise and escape the chamber without coming into contact with sparks from the motor or electronics compartments. At the bottom of this compartment is the motor, which is connected to the reduction gearbox and drive chains. The waste insertion door is locked shut during a compaction cycle or is constructed to block from user intrusion into compaction chamber. This safety measure eliminates the possibility of a user being injured by the compaction ram. In the illustrative embodiment, this use lockout is passive and does not require energy to operate. Similar contraptions are seen on mailboxes, and prevent the user from access to the inner chamber of the device. Other safety measures include a locking mechanism on the access door to the waste bin to prohibit the general public from removing the waste. Only waste management personnel can access the waste chamber and electronics chamber. An access door is hingedly attached to allow the sanitation personnel to have unimpeded access to the waste bin. Another embodiment can incorporate several compaction rams and/or compaction chambers, allowing for separation and compaction of different recyclable materials. It may also include mechanisms such as paper or plastic shredders, and bottle or can crushers, to more effectively reduce the volume of many materials. Since such an embodiment can be constructed to have multiple compaction chambers, the overall weight of each collection bin can be reduced, which will reduce worker injury associated with heavy loads. Another embodiment of the present invention allows monitoring of the trash level in the compaction chamber. By monitoring the level of trash or recyclables in the chamber, a wireless communication mechanism can relay this information to the sanitation personnel so that unneeded visits are avoided. Communication may be relayed with a wireless transmitter or by a physical indicator, such as an indicator lamp. This further saves time and money by allowing the maintenance personnel to schedule collections according to demand. Another embodiment of the present invention is constructed to be easily moved by virtue of a towing apparatus that enables many devices and/or compaction bins to be connected to each other, so that a single vehicle can tow many devices at once. This works much like luggage carts at the airport. This unique method of trash removal also helps to reduce worker injuries associated with carrying heavy loads. Advantages of the present invention include a trash or recyclable collector which can be located in remote places that don't have access to AC power, and also require many fewer maintenance visits for emptying, while reducing litter. Another advantage of the present invention is that it is optimized to work more often during times of most usage. Peoples' use of the device will occur most often during daylight hours, and therefore the unit has power from daylight as needed to perform compaction. Further, since more people are active outdoors during sunny days, the present invention is optimized to meet increased usage with increased compaction cycles. Another advantage of the present invention is that the collection bins which handle dense, heavy waste, are positioned on a wheeled cart, reducing heavy lifting by sanitation personnel. Since waste is packed into two or more compartments, each load is made lighter, further reducing the strain for workers of lifting loads. Another advantage of the present invention is that the system is animal-proof, for everything from insects to bears. Access to the contents is blocked by doors and circuitous paths. Odor which is objectionable and which also can attract critters is reduced by the design. Another advantage of the present invention is that it allows bin capacity information to be relayed wirelessly, helping to avoid wasted trips and time. Real-time information provides an advantage over traditional reactionary scheduling methods. Real-time information will enable significant improvements in routing and scheduling techniques, and can be reduced to software to automate and optimize waste collection scheduling and routing decisions. | 20040609 | 20061024 | 20050113 | 61131.0 | 1 | NGUYEN, JIMMY T | SOLAR POWERED COMPACTION APPARATUS | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,864,681 | ACCEPTED | Circuit arrays having cells with combinations of transistors and nanotube switching elements | Circuit arrays having cells with combinations of transistors and nanotube switches. Under one embodiment, a circuit array includes a plurality of cells arranged in an organization of words, each word having a plurality of bits. Each cell is responsive to a bit line, word line, reference line, and release line. Bit lines are arranged orthogonally relative to word lines and each word line and bit line are shared among a plurality of cells. Each cell is selectable via the activation of the bit line and word line. Each cell includes a field effect transistor coupled to a nanotube switching element. The nanotube switching element is switchable to at least two physical positions at least in part in response to electrical stimulation via the reference line and release line. Information state of the cell is non-volatilely stored via the respective physical position of the nanotube switching element. Under another embodiment, a circuit array includes a plurality of cells arranged in an organization of words, each word having a plurality of bits. Each cell is responsive to a bit line, word line, and reference line. Each word line and bit line are shared among a plurality of cells. Each cell is selectable via the activation of the bit line and word line. Each cell includes a field effect transistor and a nanotube switching element. Each nanotube switching element includes a nanotube article positioned between a set electrode and a release electrode. The set electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article into contact with the set electrode and the release electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article out of contact with the set electrode. Information state of the cell is non-volatilely stored via the respective physical position of the nanotube switching element. Cells are arranged as pairs with the nanotube switching elements of the pair being cross coupled so that the set electrode of one nanotube switching element is coupled to the release electrode of the other and the release electrode of the one nanotube switching element being coupled to the set electrode of the other. The nanotube articles are coupled to the reference line, and the source of one field effect transistor of a pair is coupled to the set electrode to one of the two nanotube switching elements and the source of the other field effect transistor of the pair is coupled to the release electrode to the one of the two nanotube switching elements. | 1. A circuit array, comprising: a plurality of cells arranged in an organization of words, each word having a plurality of bits; each cell being responsive to a bit line, word line, reference line, and release line, wherein bit lines are arranged orthogonally relative to word lines and each word line and bit line are shared among a plurality of cells; each cell being selectable via the activation of the bit line and word line; each cell including a field effect transistor coupled to a nanotube switching element, the nanotube switching element being switchable to at least two physical positions at least in part in response to electrical stimulation via the reference line and release line; wherein information state of the cell is non-volatilely stored via the respective physical position of the nanotube switching element. 2. The array of claim 1 wherein the nanotube switching element includes a nanotube article positioned between a set electrode and a release electrode, wherein the set electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article into contact with the set electrode and wherein the release electrode may be electrically stimulated to electrostatically attract the nanotube article out of contact with the set electrode. 3. The array of claim 2 wherein the field effect transistor in each cell includes a source that is coupled to the nanotube switching element to act as the set electrode and wherein the release line is coupled to the release electrode. 4. The array of claim 3 wherein the field effect transistor in each cell includes a gate that is coupled to the word line, and includes a drain that is coupled to the bit line. 5. The array of claim 4 wherein the reference line is coupled to the nanotube article. 6. The array of claim 3 wherein an individual selected cell is readable via a time varying decay of a pre-charged bit line to the selected cell. 7. The array of claim 5 wherein the word line and release line are arranged to extend in parallel. 8. The array of claim 7 wherein adjacent cells have drains coupled together to share a bit line. 9. The array of claim 7 wherein the array uses a single word line decoder and a single bit line decoder. 10. The array of claim 9 wherein the array further includes logic to select corresponding word lines or release lines. 11. The array of claim 9 wherein the array further includes logic to select corresponding bit lines or reference lines. 12. The array of claim 5 wherein the word line and reference line are arranged to extend in parallel. 13. The array of claim 12 wherein adjacent cells have drains coupled together to share a bit line. 14. The array of claim 12 wherein the array uses a single word line decoder and a single bit line decoder. 15. The array of claim 14 wherein the array further includes logic to select corresponding word lines or reference lines. 16. The array of claim 14 wherein the array further includes logic to select corresponding bit lines or release lines. 17. The array of claim 5 wherein the bit line and reference line are arranged to extend in parallel. 18. The array of claim 5 wherein the bit line and release line are arranged to extend in parallel. 19. The array of claim 2 wherein the field effect transistor in each cell includes a drain that is coupled to the nanotube switching element to act as the set electrode and wherein the release line is coupled to the release electrode. 20. The array of claim 19 wherein the field effect transistor in each cell includes a gate that is coupled to the word line, and includes a source that is coupled to the reference line. 21. The array of claim 20 wherein the bit line is coupled to the nanotube article. 22. The array of claim 19 wherein an individual selected cell is readable via a time varying decay of a pre-charged bit line to the selected cell. 23. The array of claim 21 wherein the word line and release line are arranged to extend in parallel. 24. The array of claim 23 wherein adjacent cells have sources coupled together to share a reference line. 25. The array of claim 23 wherein the array uses a single word line decoder and a single bit line decoder. 26. The array of claim 25 wherein the array further includes logic to select corresponding word lines or release lines. 27. The array of claim 25 wherein the array further includes logic to select corresponding bit lines or reference lines. 28. The array of claim 2 wherein the field effect transistor in each cell includes a gate that is coupled to the nanotube switching element to act as the set electrode and wherein the release line is coupled to the release electrode. 29. The array of claim 28 wherein the field effect transistor in each cell includes a source that is coupled to the reference line, and includes a drain that is coupled to the bit line. 30. The array of claim 29 wherein the word line is coupled to the nanotube article. 31. The array of claim 28 wherein an individual selected cell is readable via a time varying decay of a pre-charged bit line to the selected cell. 32. The array of claim 30 wherein the word line and reference line are arranged to extend in parallel. 33. The array of claim 29 wherein a source is coupled to a reference plate. 34. The array of claim 32 wherein adjacent cells have drains coupled together to share a bit line. 35. The array of claim 31 wherein the array uses a single word line decoder and a single bit line decoder. 36. The array of claim 35 wherein the array further includes logic to select corresponding bit lines or release lines. 37. A circuit array, comprising: a plurality of cells arranged in an organization of words, each word having a plurality of bits; each cell being responsive to a bit line, word line, and reference line, wherein each word line and bit line are shared among a plurality of cells; each cell being selectable via the activation of the bit line and word line; each cell including a field effect transistor and a nanotube switching element, each nanotube switching element including a nanotube article positioned between a set electrode and a release electrode, wherein the set electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article into contact with the set electrode and wherein the release electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article out of contact with the set electrode and wherein information state of the cell is non-volatilely stored via the respective physical position of the nanotube switching element; wherein cells are arranged as pairs with the nanotube switching elements of the pair being cross coupled so that the set electrode of one nanotube switching element is coupled to the release electrode of the other and the release electrode of the one nanotube switching element being coupled to the set electrode of the other; and wherein the nanotube articles are coupled to the reference line, and wherein the source of one field effect transistor of a pair is coupled to the set electrode to one of the two nanotube switching elements and the source of the other field effect transistor of the pair is coupled to the release electrode to the one of the two nanotube switching elements. 38. The array of claim 37 wherein the release electrodes are covered with a dielectric on the surface facing the nanotube switching element. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 19(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/476,976, filed on Jun. 9, 2003, entitled Non-Volatile Electromechanical Field Effect Transistors and Methods of Forming Same, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. This application is related to the following U.S. applications, the contents of which are incorporated herein in their entirety by reference: U.S. pat. apl. Ser. No. 10/810,962, filed Mar. 26, 2004, entitled NRAM BIT SELECTABLE TWO-DEVICE NANOTUBE ARRAY; U.S. pat. apl. Ser. No. 10/810,963, filed Mar. 26, 2004, entitled NRAM BYTE/BLOCK RELEASED BIT SELECTABLE ONE-DEVICE NANOTUBE ARRAY; U.S. pat. apl. Ser. No. 10/811,191, filed Mar. 26, 2004, entitled SINGLE TRANSISTOR WITH INTEGRATED NANOTUBE (NT-FET); and U.S. pat. apl. Ser. No. 10/811,356, filed Mar. 26, 2004, entitled NANOTUBE-ON-GATE FET STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS. BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field The present invention relates to field effect devices having non-volatile behavior as a result of control structures having nanotube components and to methods of forming such devices. 2. Discussion of Related Art Semiconductor MOSFET transistors are ubiquitous in modern electronics. These field effect devices possess the simultaneous qualities of bistability, high switching speed, low power dissipation, high-reliability, and scalability to very small dimensions. One feature not typical of such MOSFET-based circuits is the ability to retain a digital state (i.e. memory) in the absence of applied power; that is, the digital state is volatile. FIG. 1 depicts a prior art field effect transistor 10. The transistor 10 includes a gate node 12, a drain node 14, and a source node 18. Typically, the gate node 12 is used to control the device. Specifically, by applying an adequate voltage to the gate node 12 an electric field is caused that creates a conductive path between the drain 14 and source 18. In this sense, the transistor is referred to as switching on. Currently, most memory storage devices utilize a wide variety of energy dissipating devices which employ the confinement of electric or magnetic fields within capacitors or inductors respectively. Examples of state of the art circuitry used in memory storage include FPGA, CPLD, ASIC, CMOS, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, DRAM, MRAM and FRAM, as well as dissipationless trapped magnetic flux in a superconductor and actual mechanical switches, such as relays. An FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) or a CPLD (Complex Programmable Logic Device) is a programmable logic device (PLD), a programmable logic array (PLA), or a programmable array logic (PAL) with a high density of gates, containing up to hundreds of thousands of gates with a wide variety of possible architectures. The ability to modulate (i.e. effectively to open and close) electrical circuit connections on an IC (i.e. to program and reprogram) is at the heart of the FPGA (Field programmable gate array) concept. An ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) chip is custom designed (or semi-custom designed) for a specific application rather than a general-purpose chip such as a microprocessor. The use of ASICs can improve performance over general-purpose CPUs, because ASICs are “hardwired” to do a specific job and are not required to fetch and interpret stored instructions. Important characteristics for a memory cell in electronic device are low cost, nonvolatility, high density, low power, and high speed. Conventional memory solutions include Read Only Memory (ROM), Programmable Read only Memory (PROM), Electrically Programmable Memory (EPROM), Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM), Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) and Static Random Access Memory (SRAM). ROM is relatively low cost but cannot be rewritten. PROM can be electrically programmed but with only a single write cycle. EPROM (Electrically-erasable programmable read-only memories) has read cycles that are fast relative to ROM and PROM read cycles, but has relatively long erase times and reliability only over a few iterative read/write cycles. EEPROM (or “Flash”) is inexpensive, and has low power consumption but has long write cycles (ms) and low relative speed in comparison to DRAM or SRAM. Flash also has a finite number of read/write cycles leading to low long-term reliability. ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM are all non-volatile, meaning that if power to the memory is interrupted the memory will retain the information stored in the memory cells. DRAM (dynamic random access memory) stores charge on capacitors but must be electrically refreshed every few milliseconds complicating system design by requiring separate circuitry to “refresh” the memory contents before the capacitors discharge. SRAM does not need to be refreshed and is fast relative to DRAM, but has lower density and is more expensive relative to DRAM. Both SRAM and DRAM are volatile, meaning that if power to the memory is interrupted the memory will lose the information stored in the memory cells. Consequently, existing technologies are either non-volatile but are not randomly accessible and have low density, high cost, and limited ability to allow multiple writes with high reliability of the circuit's function, or they are volatile and complicate system design or have low density. Some emerging technologies have attempted to address these shortcomings. For example, magnetic RAM (MRAM) or ferromagnetic RAM (FRAM) utilizes the orientation of magnetization or a ferromagnetic region to generate a nonvolatile memory cell. MRAM utilizes a magnetoresistive memory element involving the anisotropic magnetoresistance or giant magnetoresistance of ferromagnetic materials yielding nonvolatility. Both of these types of memory cells have relatively high resistance and low-density. A different memory cell based upon magnetic tunnel junctions has also been examined but has not led to large-scale commercialized MRAM devices. FRAM uses circuit architecture similar to DRAM but which uses a thin film ferroelectric capacitor. This capacitor is purported to retain its electrical polarization after an externally applied electric field is removed yielding a nonvolatile memory. FRAM suffers from a large memory cell size, and it is difficult to manufacture as a large-scale integrated component. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,853,893; 4,888,630; 5,198,994, 6,048,740; and 6,044,008. Another technology having non-volatile memory is phase change memory. This technology stores information via a structural phase change in thin-film alloys incorporating elements such as selenium or tellurium. These alloys are purported to remain stable in both crystalline and amorphous states allowing the formation of a bi-stable switch. While the nonvolatility condition is met, this technology appears to suffer from slow operations, difficulty of manufacture and poor reliability and has not reached a state of commercialization. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,448,302; 4,845,533; and 4,876,667. Wire crossbar memory (MWCM) has also been proposed. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,128,214; 6,159,620; and 6,198,655. These memory proposals envision molecules as bi-stable switches. Two wires (either a metal or semiconducting type) have a layer of molecules or molecule compounds sandwiched in between. Chemical assembly and electrochemical oxidation or reduction are used to generate an “ON” or “OFF” state. This form of memory requires highly specialized wire junctions and may not retain non-volatilely owing to the inherent instability found in redox processes. Recently, memory devices have been proposed which use nanoscopic wires, such as single-walled carbon nanotubes, to form crossbar junctions to serve as memory cells. See WO 01/03208, Nanoscopic Wire-Based Devices, Arrays, and Methods of Their Manufacture; and Thomas Rueckes et al., “Carbon Nanotube-Based Nonvolatile Random Access Memory for Molecular Computing,” Science, vol. 289, pp. 94-97, 7 July, 2000. Electrical signals are written to one or both wires to cause them to physically attract or repel relative to one another. Each physical state (i.e., attracted or repelled wires) corresponds to an electrical state. Repelled wires are an open circuit junction. Attracted wires are a closed state forming a rectified junction. When electrical power is removed from the junction, the wires retain their physical (and thus electrical) state thereby forming a non-volatile memory cell. The use of an electromechanical bi-stable device for digital information storage has also been suggested (c.f. U.S. Pat. No. 4,979,149: Non-volatile memory device including a micro-mechanical storage element). The creation and operation of a bi-stable nano-electro-mechanical switches based on carbon nanotubes (including mono-layers constructed thereof) and metal electrodes has been detailed in a previous patent application of Nantero, Inc. (U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,574,130, 6,643,165, 6,706,402; U.S. patent apl. Ser. Nos. 09/915,093, 10/033,323, 10/033,032, 10/128,117, 10/341,005, 10/341,055, 10/341,054, 10/341,130, 10/776,059, and 10/776,572, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties). SUMMARY The invention provides circuit arrays having cells with combinations of transistors and nanotube switches. Under one aspect of the invention, a circuit array includes a plurality of cells arranged in an organization of words, each word having a plurality of bits. Each cell is responsive to a bit line, word line, reference line, and release line. Bit lines are arranged orthogonally relative to word lines and each word line and bit line are shared among a plurality of cells. Each cell is selectable via the activation of the bit line and word line. Each cell includes a field effect transistor coupled to a nanotube switching element. The nanotube switching element is switchable to at least two physical positions at least in part in response to electrical stimulation via the reference line and release line. Information state of the cell is non-volatilely stored via the respective physical position of the nanotube switching element. Under another aspect of the invention, the nanotube switching element includes a nanotube article positioned between a set electrode and a release electrode. The set electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article into contact with the set electrode and the release electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article out of contact with the set electrode. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a source that is coupled to the nanotube switching element to act as the set electrode and wherein the release line is coupled to the release electrode. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a gate that is coupled to the word line, and includes a drain that is coupled to the bit line. Under another aspect of the invention, the reference line is coupled to the nanotube article. Under another aspect of the invention, an individual selected cell is readable via a time varying decay of a pre-charged bit line to the selected cell. Under another aspect of the invention, the word line and release line are arranged to extend in parallel. Under another aspect of the invention, adjacent cells have drains coupled together to share a bit line. Under another aspect of the invention, the array uses a single word line decoder and a single bit line decoder. Under another aspect of the invention, the array further includes logic to select corresponding word lines or release lines. Under another aspect of the invention, the array further includes logic to select corresponding bit lines or reference lines. Under another aspect of the invention, the word line and reference line are arranged to extend in parallel. Under another aspect of the invention, adjacent cells have drains coupled together to share a bit line. Under another aspect of the invention, bit line and reference line are arranged to extend in parallel. Under another aspect of the invention, the bit line and release line are arranged to extend in parallel. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a drain that is coupled to the nanotube switching element to act as the set electrode and wherein the release line is coupled to the release electrode. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a gate that is coupled to the word line, and includes a source that is coupled to the reference line. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a gate that is coupled to the nanotube switching element to act as the set electrode and wherein the release line is coupled to the release electrode. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a source that is coupled to the reference line, and includes a drain that is coupled to the bit line. Under another aspect of the invention, a circuit array includes a plurality of cells arranged in an organization of words, each word having a plurality of bits. Each cell is responsive to a bit line, word line, and reference line. Each word line and bit line are shared among a plurality of cells. Each cell is selectable via the activation of the bit line and word line. Each cell includes a field effect transistor and a nanotube switching element. Each nanotube switching element includes a nanotube article positioned between a set electrode and a release electrode. The set electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article into contact with the set electrode and the release electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article out of contact with the set electrode. Information state of the cell is non-volatilely stored via the respective physical position of the nanotube switching element. Cells are arranged as pairs with the nanotube switching elements of the pair being cross coupled so that the set electrode of one nanotube switching element is coupled to the release electrode of the other and the release electrode of the one nanotube switching element being coupled to the set electrode of the other. The nanotube articles are coupled to the reference line, and the source of one field effect transistor of a pair is coupled to the set electrode to one of the two nanotube switching elements and the source of the other field effect transistor of the pair is coupled to the release electrode to the one of the two nanotube switching elements. Under another aspect of the invention, the release electrodes are covered with a dielectric on the surface facing the nanotube switching element. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the drawing, FIG. 1 is a schematic of a prior art field effect transistor; FIGS. 2A-L illustrate schematics of three models of preferred embodiments of the invention; FIGS. 3A-C illustrate the operation of field effect devices with controllable sources for two of the FED configurations; FIGS. 4-6 illustrate waveforms for exemplary operation of devices according to certain aspects of the invention; FIGS. 7A-C illustrate the operation of field effect devices according to certain aspects of the invention; FIGS. 8 and 9 illustrate waveforms for exemplary operation of devices according to certain aspects of the invention; FIGS. 10A-12 illustrate the operational waveforms for field effect devices according to certain aspects of the invention; FIGS. 13A-C illustrate schematic representations of preferred embodiments of the invention; FIG. 14 illustrates a cross section of one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 15 illustrates operational waveforms for field effect devices according to certain aspects of the invention; FIG. 16 illustrates electrical (I/V) characteristics of devices according to one aspect of the invention; FIGS. 17A-D illustrate a schematic representation of devices according to one aspect of the invention along with depictions of memory states of such a device; FIG. 18 illustrates schematics of an NRAM system according to preferred embodiments of the invention; FIG. 19 illustrates operational waveforms for memory devices according to certain aspects of the invention; FIG. 20A illustrates a memory array flow chart according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 20B illustrates a schematic of a switch amplifier/latch according to certain aspects of the invention; FIG. 21 illustrates waveforms for a memory system according to certain aspects of the invention; FIG. 22 is a flow chart of a method of manufacturing preferred embodiments of the invention; FIGS. 23, 23′ and 23″ are flow charts illustrating acts performed in preferred methods of the invention; FIGS. 24A-F illustrate exemplary structures according to aspects of the invention; FIGS. 25A-GG illustrate exemplary intermediate structures according to certain aspects of the invention; FIG. 26 is a flow chart of a method of manufacturing preferred embodiments of the invention; FIGS. 27, 27′, 28 and 28′ are flow charts of method of manufacturing preferred embodiments of the invention; FIGS. 29A-F illustrate intermediate structures according to certain aspects of the invention; FIGS. 30A-P illustrate intermediate structures according to certain aspects of the invention; FIGS. 31A-D illustrate intermediate structures according to certain aspects of the invention; FIGS. 32A-B illustrate cross sections of an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 32C illustrates a plan view of an embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 33A-C illustrate cross sections of an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 33D illustrates a plan view of an embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 34A-D illustrate schematics of circuitry according to certain aspects of the invention; FIG. 35 illustrates schematics of memory arrays according to certain aspects of the invention; FIG. 36 illustrates operational waveforms of a memory array according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 37A illustrates a diagram outlining a memory array system according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 37B is a schematic of a cell according to once aspect of the invention; FIG. 38 illustrates operational waveforms of a memory array according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 39A-D illustrate schematics of circuitry according to certain aspects of the invention; FIG. 40 illustrates a schematic of an NRAM system, according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 41 illustrates the operational waveforms of a memory array according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 42A illustrates a diagram outlining a memory array system according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 42B is a schematic of a cell according to once aspect of the invention; FIG. 43 illustrates the operational waveforms of a memory array according to one aspect of the invention; FIGS. 44A-B illustrate cross sections of memory arrays according to aspects of the invention; FIG. 44C illustrates a plan view of a memory array structure according to one aspect of the invention; FIGS. 45A-B illustrate cross sections of memory arrays according to aspects of the invention; FIG. 45C illustrates a plan view of a memory array structure according to one aspect of the invention; FIGS. 46A-C illustrate cross sections of structures according to certain aspects of the invention; FIG. 46D illustrates a plan view of a memory array structure according to one aspect of the invention; FIGS. 47A-C illustrate schematics of circuitry for a non-volatile field effect device according to aspects of the invention; FIG. 48 illustrates a schematic of an NRAM system according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 49 illustrates operational waveforms of a memory array according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 50A illustrates a diagram outlining a memory array system according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 50B is a schematic of a cell according to once aspect of the invention; FIG. 51 illustrates operational waveforms of a memory array according to one aspect of the invention; FIGS. 52A-G illustrate cross sections of exemplary structures according to aspects of the invention; FIG. 52H illustrates a plan view of an exemplary structure according to one aspect of the invention; FIGS. 53A-C illustrate schematics of circuitry for two controlled source non-volatile field effect devices according to certain aspects of the invention; FIG. 54 illustrates a schematic of an NRAM system according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 55 illustrates the operational waveforms of a memory array according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 56A illustrates a diagram outlining a memory array system according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 56B is a schematic of a cell according to once aspect of the invention; FIG. 57 illustrates the operational waveforms of a memory array according to one aspect of the invention; FIGS. 58A-C illustrate cross sections of exemplary structures according to aspects of the invention; FIG. 58D illustrates a plan view of an exemplary structure according to one aspect of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Preferred embodiments of the invention provide a field effect device that acts like a FET in its ability to create an electronic communication channel between a drain and a source node, under the control of a gate node. However, the preferred field effect devices further include a separate control structure to non-volatilely control the electrical capabilities of the field effect device. More specifically, the control structure uses carbon nanotubes to provide non-volatile switching capability that independently control the operation of the drain, source, or gate node of the field effect device. By doing so, the control structure provides non-volatile state behavior to the field effect device. Certain embodiments provide non-volatile RAM structures. Preferred embodiments are scalable to large memory array structures. Preferred embodiments use processes that are compatible with CMOS circuit manufacture. While the illustrations combine NMOS FETs with carbon nanotubes, it should be noted that based on the principle of duality in semiconductor devices, PMOS FETs may replace NMOS FETs, along with corresponding changes in the polarity of applied voltages Overview FIGS. 2A-L illustrate schematics of three models of preferred embodiments of the invention. As will be explained further, below, a preferred field effect device includes a control structure using nanotubes to provide non-volatile behavior as a result of the control structure. Field Effect Devices (FEDs) with Controllable Sources Field effect devices (FEDs) with controllable sources may also be referred to as nanotube (NT)-on-Source. FIG. 2A illustrates a schematic for field effect device (FED1) 20. The FED1 device 20 has a terminal T1 connected to gate 22, a terminal T2 connected to drain 24, and a controllable source 26. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 27 between the drain 24 and a (controllable) source 26. In this case, the source 26 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated with the switch 30. Switch 30, like all nanofabric articles referred to below, is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs) as described in incorporated references. Switch 30 is preferably physically and electrically connected to controllable source 26 by contact 28. Switch 30 may be displaced to contact switch-plate (switch-node) 32, which is connected to a terminal T3. Switch 30 may be displaced to contact release-plate (release-node) 34, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit. FIG. 2B illustrates a schematic for second field effect device (FED2) 40. The FED2 device 40 has a terminal T1 connected to gate 42, a terminal T2 connected to drain 44, and a controllable source 46. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 47 between the drain 44 and a (controllable) source 46. In this case, the source 46 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated with the depiction of switch 50. Switch 50 is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs). Switch 50 is preferably physically and electrically connected to contact 52, which is connected to a terminal T3. Switch 50 may be displaced to contact a switch-plate 48, which is connected to a controllable source 46. Switch 50 may be displaced to contact release-plate 54, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit. FIG. 2C illustrates a schematic of third field effect device (FED3) 60. The FED3 device 60 has a terminal T1 connected to gate 62, a terminal T2 connected to drain 64, and a controllable source 66. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 67 between the drain 64 and a (controllable) source 66. In this case, the source 66 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated with the depiction of switch 70. Switch 70 is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs). Switch 70 is preferably physically and electrically connected to controllable source 66 by contact 68. Switch 70 may be displaced to contact switch-plate 72, which is connected to a terminal T3. Switch 70 may be displaced to contact dielectric surface of release-plate 76 on release-plate 74, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit, such non-volatilely is more fully described in incorporated references and will not be repeated here for the sake of brevity. FIG. 2D illustrates a schematic of fourth field effect device (FED4) 80. The FED4 device 80 has a terminal T1 connected to gate 82, a terminal T2 connected to drain 84, and a controllable source 86. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 87 between the drain 84 and a (controllable) source 86. In this case, the source 86 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated with by the depiction of switch 90. Switch 90 is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs) as described in incorporated references. Switch 90 is preferably physically and electrically connected to contact 92, which is connected to a terminal T3. Switch 90 may be displaced to contact a switch-plate 88, which is connected to a controllable source 86. Switch 90 may be displaced to contact release-plate dielectric surface 96 on release-plate 94, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit. Field Effect Devices (FEDs) with Controllable Drains Field effect devices (FEDs) with controllable drains may also be referred to as nanotube (NT)-on-Drain. FIG. 2E illustrates a schematic of fifth field effect device (FED5) 100. The FED5 device 100 has a terminal T1 connected to gate 102, a controllable drain 104, and a source 106 connected to a terminal T3. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 107 between the (controllable) drain 104 and a source 106. In this case, the drain 104 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated by the depiction of switch 110. Switch 110 is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs). Switch 110 is preferably physically and electrically connected to controllable drain 104 by contact 108. Switch 110 may be displaced to contact switch-plate 112, which is connected to a terminal T2. Switch 110 may be displaced to contact release-plate 114, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit. FIG. 2F illustrates a schematic of sixth field effect device (FED6) 120. The FED6 device 120 has a terminal T1 connected to gate 122, a controllable drain 124, and a source 126 connected to a terminal T3. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 127 between the drain 124 and a (controllable) source 126. In this case, the drain 124 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated by the depiction of switch 130. Switch 130 is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs). Switch 130 is preferably physically and electrically connected to contact 132, which is connected to terminal T2. Switch 130 may be displaced to contact a switch-plate 128, which is connected to a controllable drain 124. Switch 130 may be displaced to contact release-plate 134, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit. FIG. 2G illustrates a schematic of seventh field effect device (FED7) 140. The FED7 device 140 has a terminal T1 connected to gate 142, a controllable drain 144, and a source 146 connected to a terminal T3. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 147 between the (controllable) drain 144 and a source 146. In this case, the drain 144 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated by the depiction of switch 150. Switch 150 is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs). Switch 150 is preferably physically and electrically connected to controllable drain 144 by contact 148. Switch 150 may be displaced to contact switch-plate 152, which is connected to a terminal T2. Switch 150 may be displaced to contact release-plate dielectric surface 156 on release-plate 154, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit. FIG. 2H illustrates a schematic of eighth field effect device (FED8) 160. The FED8 device 160 has a terminal T1 connected to gate 162, a controllable drain 164, and a source 166 connected to a terminal T3. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 167 between the (controllable) drain 164 and a source 166. In this case, the drain 164 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated by the depiction of switch 170. Switch 170 is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs). Switch 170 is preferably physically and electrically connected to contact 172, which is connected to terminal T2. Switch 170 may be displaced to contact a switch-plate 168, which is connected to a controllable drain 164. Switch 170 may be displaced to contact release-plate dielectric surface 176 on release-plate 174, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit. Field Effect Devices (FEDs) with Controllable Gates Field effect devices (FEDs) with controllable gates may also be referred to as nanotube (NT)-on-Gate. FIG. 21 illustrates a schematic of ninth field effect device (FED9) 180. The device 180 has a controllable gate 182, a drain 184 connected to terminal T2, and a source 186 connected to a terminal T3. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 187 between a drain 184 and a source 186. In this case, the gate 182 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated by the depiction of switch 190. Switch 190 is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs). Switch 190 is preferably physically and electrically connected to controllable gate 182 by contact 188. Switch 190 may be displaced to contact switch-plate 192, which is connected to a terminal T1. Switch 190 may be displaced to contact release-plate 194, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit. FIG. 2J illustrates a schematic of tenth field effect device (FED 10) 200. The FED10 device 200 has a terminal controllable gate 202, a drain 204 connected to a terminal T2, and a source 206 connected to a terminal T3. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 207 between the drain 204 and source 206. In this case, the gate 202 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated by the depiction of switch 210. Switch 210 is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs). Switch 210 is preferably physically and electrically connected to contact 212, which is connected to terminal T1. Switch 210 may be displaced to contact a switch-plate 208, which is connected to a controllable gate 202. Switch 210 may be displaced to contact release-plate 214, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit. FIG. 2K illustrates a schematic of eleventh field effect device (FED11) 220. The device 220 has a controllable gate 222, a drain 224 connected to a terminal T2, and a source 226 connected to a terminal T3. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 227 between a drain 224 and a source 226. In this case, the gate 222 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated by the depiction of switch 230. Switch 230 is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs). Switch 230 is preferably physically and electrically connected to controllable gate 222 by contact 228. Switch 230 may be displaced to contact switch-plate 232, which is connected to a terminal T1. Switch 230 may be displaced to contact release-plate dielectric surface 236 on release-plate 234, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit. FIG. 2L illustrates a schematic of twelfth field effect device (FED12) 240. The FED12 device 240 has a controllable gate 242, a drain 244 connected to a terminal T2, and a source 246 connected to a terminal T3. Like a typical field effect device (e.g., transistor 10 of FIG. 1) the gate node may be used to create a field to induce a conductive channel in channel region 247 between the (controllable) drain 244 and a source 246. In this case, the gate 242 is controllable so that it may be in open or closed communication as illustrated by the depiction of switch 250. Switch 250 is fabricated using one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs, or NTs). Switch 250 is preferably physically and electrically connected to contact 252, which is connected to terminal T1. Switch 250 may be displaced to contact a switch-plate 248, which is connected to a controllable gate 242. Switch 250 may be displaced to contact release-plate dielectric surface 256 on release-plate 254, which is connected to terminal T4. As will be explained below, the controllable gate utilizes nanotube components to create a non-volatile switching ability, meaning that the gate will retain its open or closed state even upon interruption of power to the circuit. As will be explained below, the controllable structures are implemented using nanotube technology. More specifically, non-volatile switching elements are made of ribbons of matted fabric of carbon nanotubes. These elements may be electromechanically deflected into an open or closed state relative to a respective source, drain, or gate node using electrostatic forces. Under preferred embodiments, the construction of the control structures is such that once switched “ON” inherent van der Waals forces are sufficiently large (relative to a restoring force inherent in the device geometry) so that the switching element will retain its non-volatilized state; that is, the element will retain its state even in the event of power interruption. Operation of Field Effect Devices with Controllable Sources Four schematics of field effect devices (FEDs) with controllable sources have been described (FIGS. 2A-D). FIGS. 3A through FIG. 9 illustrate the operation of field effect devices with controllable sources for two of the FED configurations, device 80 (FIG. 2D) and device 20 (FIG. 2A). FED devices with controllable sources are also referred to as NT-on-Source devices. For each of these two FED configurations, at least one switch-mode setting operation is described, followed by an example of full voltage swing circuit operation (digital switching), and an example of small signal analog circuit operation. FIG. 3A illustrates a first FED configuration; field effect device 80 is combined with resistor 302 of value R, such that one terminal of resistor 302 is attached to FED device 80 terminal T2, and the other side of resistor 302 is attached to power supply terminal 304 to form circuit schematic 300. FIG. 3B illustrates circuit schematic 310 in which switch 90 has been activated to position 90′ to electrically connect switch-plate 88 with contact 92 as illustrated in FIG. 3B. Controllable source 86 is electrically connected to terminal T3 by means of the established continuous electrical path formed by source 86 connected to switch-plate 88, switch-plate 88 connected to one side of switch 90′, the opposite side of switch 90′ connected to contact 92, and contact 92 connected to terminal T3. FIG. 3C illustrates circuit schematic 310′ in which switch 90 has been activated to position 90″ to electrically release-plate dielectric surface 96. Controllable source 86 is an electrically open circuited, and has no continuous electrical path to any FED4 80 device terminals. The mode-setting electrical signals applied to the terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4 of schematics 300, 310, and 310′ to cause switch 90 to switch to position 90′ or position 90″ are illustrated in FIG. 4. FIG. 4 illustrates the operational mode-setting voltage waveforms 311 applied to terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4 to activate switch 90. Control signals are applied to terminals T1-T4 by a control circuit (not shown) using control lines (not shown). There is no electrical signal applied to electrical terminal 304 during mode-setting. Column 1 illustrates the electrical signals used to change switch 90 from position 90″, (also referred to as the open (off) position), to position 90′, (also referred to as the closed (on) position). Column 2 illustrates the electrical signals used to change switch 90 from position 90′, (also referred to as the closed position), to position 90″, (also referred to as the open position). The mode-setting waveforms are valid within the mode-setting time interval illustrated under columns 1 and 2 in FIG. 4. Other time intervals contain cross-hatched lines between voltages 0 and VDD, indicating that these waveforms can be anywhere within this voltage range, and represent the circuit operating range. VDD is selected to be less than the voltage switching voltage VSW to ensure that switch 90 is not activated (resulting in mode-change) during circuit operation. Mode-setting is based on electromechanical switching of carbon nanotube (NT) switch using electrostatic forces. The behavior of a NT fabric is similar to that of a single NT, see U.S. Pat. No. 6,643,165, where the electrostatic attractive force is due to oppositely charged surfaces 1 and 2, and where the electrostatic FE=K (V1−V2)2/(R12)2. For an applied voltage, an equilibrium position of the NT, or NT fabric, is defined by the balance of the elastic, electrostatic, and van der Waals forces. As the NT, or NT fabric deflects, the elastic forces change. When the applied potential (voltage) difference between the nanotube and a reference electrode exceeds a certain voltage, the NT or NT fabric becomes unstable and collapses onto the reference electrode. The voltage difference between a NT or NT fabric, and a reference electrode that causes the NT or NT fabric to collapse, may be referred to as the pull-in voltage, or the collapse voltage, or the nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH. The reference electrode may be a switch-plate, or a release-plate, or a release-plate with a dielectric layer. Once the NT or NT fabric is in contact with, or in very close proximity to, the reference electrode (in a region of strong van der Waals force), the electrostatic force FE may be reduced to zero by removing the voltage difference between NT or NT fabric and the reference electrode. Power may be removed, and the NT or NT fabric remains in contact, and thus stores information in a non-volatile mode. Column 1 of FIG. 4 illustrates the voltage and timing waveforms applied to terminals T1-T4 of FED4 80 that force a transition of NT switch 90 from position 90″, in contact with insulator surface 96 on release-plate 94 as illustrated in FIG. 3C, to position 90′, in contact with switch-plate 88 as illustrated in FIG. 3B. Switch 90 transitions from open to closed. Voltage VT4, applied to terminal T4, transitions to switching voltage VSW. Voltage VT2 applied to terminal T2 transitions to zero (0) volts. VT3 applied to terminal T3 transitions to switching voltage VSW. Terminal T1 (connected to gate 82) transitions from zero to VDD forming a channel in channel region 87, thereby driving controllable source 86 voltage VSOURCE to zero. The electrostatic force between switch 90 in position 90″ and release-plate 94 is zero. The electrostatic force between switch 90 in position 90″ and switch-plate 88 is FE=K (VSW)2/(R12)2, where R12 is the gap separating switch 90 from switch-plate 88. Typical VNT-TH voltages may range from 2 to 3 volts, for example, any appropriate potential difference however, is within the scope of the invention. VNT-TH is a function of the suspended length of NT switch 90 and the gap (separation) between NT switch 90 and the switch-plate and release-plate electrodes. Typical NT switch suspended length is 130 to 180 nm, with gaps of 10 to 20 nm, for example, but other geometries are possible so long as the switching properties work appropriately. Column 2 of FIG. 4 illustrates the voltage and timing waveforms applied to terminals T1-T4 of FED4 80 that force a transition of NT switch 90 from position 90′, in contact with switch-plate 88 as illustrated in FIG. 3B, to position 90″, in contact with release-plate dielectric surface 96 on release-plate 94 as illustrated in FIG. 3C. Switch 90 transitions from closed to open. Voltage VT4, applied to terminal T4, transitions to switching voltage VSW. Voltage VT2 applied to terminal T2 transitions to zero (0) volts. VT3 applied to terminal T3 transitions to zero volts. Terminal T1 (connected to gate 82) transitions from zero to VDD forming a channel in channel region 87, thereby driving controllable source 86 voltage VSOURCE to zero. The electrostatic force between switch 90 in position 90′ and switch-plate 88 is zero. The electrostatic force between switch 90 in position 90′ and release-plate 94 is FE=K (VSW)2/(R12)2, where R12 is the gap separating switch 90 from release-plate 94. Typical VNT-TH voltages may range from 2 to 3 volts, for example. The threshold voltage for switch 90 transitions between open and closed, and closed and open positions may be different, without effecting the operation of the device. If VSW exceeds VNT-TH, then mode-setting will take place. Circuit operating voltages range from 0 to VDD. In order to avoid unwanted mode-setting during circuit operation, VDD is less than VNT-TH. FIG. 5 illustrates the full signal (voltage) swing waveform 313 operation of circuit 300, with waveforms applied to terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4. Column 1 illustrates the electrical signals applied to terminal T1-T4 for circuit schematic 310 when switch 90 is in the closed position 90′ as illustrated in FIG. 3B. Column 2 illustrates the electrical signals applied to terminals T1-T4 for circuit schematic 310′ when switch 90 is in the open position 90″ as illustrated in FIG. 3C. Circuit schematic 310 illustrates the FED used in a simple inverter configuration with load resistor 302 of value R connected to voltage terminal 304 at voltage V=VDD. For VNT-TH in the 2 to 3 volt range, for example, VDD is selected as less than 2 volts, 1.0 to 1.8 volts, for example. The operation of circuit 310 is as illustrated in FIG. 5, column 1. With switch 90 in the 90′ position, the voltage VT4 on terminal T4 can be any value. Voltage VT3 applied to terminal T3 is set to zero volts. A pulse VT1 of amplitude VDD is applied to terminal T1. When VT1=0, no FET conductive path is activated, the electrical path between terminals T2 and T3 of FED4 80 is open, current I=0, and VOUT=VDD. When VT1=VDD, FET 80 channel of resistance RFET is formed, in series with RSWITCH of switch 90′, connecting terminals T2 and T3. The resistance of FED4 80 between terminals T2 and T3 is RFED=RFET+RSWITCH. RFET is the FET channel resistance, and RSWITCH is the resistance of NT switch 90′. RSWITCH includes the resistance between switch-plate 88 and NT 90′, the NT 90′ resistance (typically much less than the contact resistances), and the contact resistance between contact 92 and NT 90′. RFET is determined by the FET electrical parameters and the width to length ratio used in the FET design (Reference: Baker et al., “CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation”, IEEE Press, 1998, Chapter 5 “the MOSFET”, pages 83-106). By selecting W/L ratio values, RFET may range from less than 10 Ohms to more than 10,000 Ohms. The quantum contact resistance between metal electrodes and the NT fabric varies as a function of the fabric density (number of NTs per unit area) and the width of the contact. The contact resistance per fiber may vary from less than 100 Ohms to more than 100,000 Ohms. When VT1=VDD, current I=VDD/(R+RFED), and VT2=VOUT=VDD×(RFED)/(R+RFED). If RFED<<R, then VT2=VOUT≈0 volts, illustrated in FIG. 5, column 1. Circuit schematic 310′ illustrates FED4 80 used in a simple inverter configuration with load resistor 302 of value R connected to voltage terminal 304 at voltage V=VDD. The full signal (voltage) swing operation of circuit 310′ is as illustrated in FIG. 5, column 2. With switch 90 in position 90″, the FED electrical path between terminals T2 and T3 is open, terminal T4 is insulated, therefore current I=0, and VT2=VOUT=VDD for all applied voltages. FIG. 6 illustrates the small signal (voltage) swing waveforms 315 operation of circuit 300, with waveforms applied to terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4. Column 1 illustrates the electrical signals applied to terminal T1-T4 for circuit schematic 310 when switch 90 is in the closed position 90′ as illustrated in FIG. 3B. Circuit schematic 310 illustrates the FED used in a simple inverter configuration with load resistor 302 of value R connected to voltage terminal 304 at voltage V=VDD. For VNT-TH in the 2 to 3 volt range, for example, VDD is selected as less than 2 volts, 1.0 to 1.8 volts, for example. The operation of circuit 310 for small signal (analog) amplification is as illustrated in FIG. 5, column 1. With switch 90 in position 90′, the voltage VT4 on terminal T4 can be any value. Voltage VT3 applied to terminal T3 is set to zero volts. A signal VT1 of with amplitude exceeding FET threshold voltage VFET-TH (VFET-TH=0.3-0.7 volts, for example) is applied to terminal T1. Since VT1>VFET-TH, a path between terminals T2 and T3 is maintained. If RSWITCH is less than RFET, then the output VT2=VOUT of circuit 310 inverts the input signal and exhibits gain as illustrated in FIG. 6, column 1. Circuit gain can be calculated as described in Baker et al., “CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation”, IEEE Press, 1998, Chapter 9 “the MOSFET”, pages 165-181. Circuit schematic 310′ illustrates FED4 80 used in a simple inverter configuration with load resistor 302 of value R connected to voltage terminal 304 at voltage V=VDD. The small signal (voltage) swing operation of circuit 310′ is as illustrated in FIG. 6, column 2. With switch 90 in position 90″, the FED electrical path between terminals T2 and T3 is open, terminal T4 is insulated, therefore current I=0, and VT2=VOUT=VDD for all applied voltages. In the second FED configuration, field effect device 20 is combined with first resistor 324 of value R, such that one terminal of resistor 324 is attached to FED device 20 terminal T2, and the other side of resistor 324 is attached to power supply terminal 322 as illustrated in FIG. 7A. A second resistor 328 of value R′ is attached to FED device 20 terminal T4, and the other side of resistor 328 is attached to power supply 326 to form the circuit schematic illustrated in FIG. 7A. Such configurations are exemplary and other working configurations are within the scope of the invention. FIG. 7B illustrates a schematic of circuit 330 in which switch 30 has been activated to first position 30′ to electrically connect contact 28 to switch-plate 32. Controllable source 26 is electrically connected to terminal T3 by means of the established continuous electrical path formed by source 26 connected to contact 28; contact 28 connected to one side of switch 30′; the opposite side of switch 30′ connected to switch-plate 32; switch-plate 32 connected to terminal T3. FIG. 7C illustrates a schematic of circuit 330′ in which switch 30 has been activated to second position 30″ and contacts release-plate 34. Controllable source 26 is electrically connected to FED1 20 device terminal T4. The mode-setting electrical signals applied to the terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4 of schematics 320, 330, and 330′ that cause switch 30 to switch to first position 30′ or second position 30″ are illustrated in FIG. 8. FIG. 8 illustrates the operational mode-setting waveforms 335 applied to terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4 to activate switch 30. Control signals are applied to terminals T1-T4 by a control circuit (not shown) using control lines (not shown). There is no electrical signal applied to electrical terminals 322 and 326 during mode-setting. Column 1 illustrates the electrical signals used to change switch 30 from position 30″, also referred to as the second position, to position 30′, also referred to as the first position. Column 2 illustrates the electrical signals used to change switch 30 from position 30′, also referred to as the first position, to position 30″, also referred to as the second position. The mode-setting waveforms are valid within the mode-setting time interval illustrated under columns 1 and 2 in FIG. 8. Other time intervals contain cross-hatched lines between voltages 0 and VDD, indicating that these waveforms can be anywhere within this voltage range, and represent the circuit operating range. VDD is selected to be less than the voltage switching voltage VSW to ensure that switch 30 is not activated (resulting in mode-resetting) during circuit operation. Mode-setting is based on electromechanical switching of carbon nanotube (NT) switch using electrostatic forces. The behavior of a NT fabric is similar to that of a single NT, as stated above, where the electrostatic attractive force is due to oppositely charged surfaces. Column 1 of FIG. 8 illustrates the voltage and timing waveforms applied to terminals T1-T4 of FED1 20 that force a transition of NT switch 30 from second position 30″, in contact with release-plate 94 as illustrated in FIG. 7C, to first position 30′, in contact with switch-plate 32 as illustrated in FIG. 7B. Voltage VT4, applied to terminal T4, transitions to zero volts. Voltage VT2 applied to terminal T2 transitions to zero (0) volts. VT3 applied to terminal T3 transitions to switching voltage VSW. Terminal T1 (connected to gate 22) transitions from zero to VDD forming a channel in channel region 27, thereby driving controllable source 26 voltage VSOURCE to zero. The electrostatic force between switch 30 in position 30″ and release-plate 34 is zero. The electrostatic force between switch 30 in position 30″ and switch-plate 32 is FE=K (VSW)2/(R12)2, where R12 is the gap separating switch 30 from switch-plate 32. Typical VNT-TH voltages may range from 2 to 3 volts, for example. Typical NT switch suspended length is 130 to 180 nm, with gaps of 10 to 20 nm, for example. Column 2 of FIG. 8 illustrates the voltage and timing waveforms applied to terminals T1-T4 of FED 20 that force a transition of NT switch 30 from first position 30′, in contact with switch-plate 32 as illustrated in FIG. 7B, to second position 30″, in contact with release-plate 34 as illustrated in FIG. 7C. Voltage VT4, applied to terminal T4, transitions to switching voltage VSW. Voltage VT2 applied to terminal T2 transitions to zero (0) volts. VT3 applied to terminal T3 transitions to zero volts, terminal T1 (connected to gate 22) transitions from zero to VDD forming a channel in channel region 27, thereby driving controllable source 26 voltage VSOURCE to zero. The electrostatic force between switch 30 in position 30′ and switch-plate 28 is zero. The electrostatic force between switch 30 in position 30′ and release-plate 34 is FE=K (VSW)2/(R12)2, where R12 is the gap separating switch 30 from release-plate 34. Typical VNT-TH voltages may range from 2 to 3 volts, for example. The threshold voltage for switch 30 transitions between second and first, and first and second positions may be different, without effecting the operation of the device. If VSW exceeds VNT-TH, then mode-setting will take place. Circuit operating voltages range from 0 to VDD. In order to avoid unwanted mode-setting during circuit operation, VDD is less than VNT-TH. FIG. 9 illustrates the full signal (voltage) swing waveforms 345 operation of circuit 320, with waveforms applied to terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4. Column 1 illustrates the electrical signals applied to terminal T1-T4 for circuit 330 when switch 30 is in the first position 30′ as illustrated in FIG. 7B. Column 2 illustrates the electrical signals applied to terminals T1-T4 for circuit 330′ when switch 30 is in the second position 30″ as illustrated in FIG. 7C. Circuit 330 illustrates a FED used in a simple inverter configuration with load resistor 324 of value R connected to voltage terminal 322 at voltage V=VDD. For VNT-TH in the 2 to 3 volt range, for example, VDD is selected as less than 2 volts, 1.0 to 1.8 volts, for example. The operation of circuit 330 is as illustrated in FIG. 9, column 1. With switch 30 in the 30′ position, the voltage VT4 on terminal T4 can be any value. Voltage VT3 applied to terminal T3 is set to zero volts. A pulse VT1 of amplitude VDD is applied to terminal T1. When VT1=0, no FET conductive path is activated, the electrical path between terminals T2 and T3 of FED 20 is open, current I=0, and VT2=VOUT=VDD. When VT1=VDD, FET channel 27 of resistance RFET is formed, in series with RSWITCH of switch 30′, connecting terminals T2 and T3. The resistance of FED 20 between terminals T2 and T3 is RFED=RFET+RSWITCH. RFET is the FET channel resistance, and RSWITCH is the resistance of NT switch 30′. RSWITCH includes the resistance between contact 28 and NT 30′, the NT 30′ resistance (typically much less than the contact resistances), and the resistance between switch-plate 32 and NT 30′. RFET is determined by the FET electrical parameters and the width to length ratio used in the FET design (Reference: Baker et al., “CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation”, IEEE Press, 1998, Chapter 5 “the MOSFET”, pages 83-106). By selecting W/L ratio values, RFET may range from less than 10 Ohms to more than 10,000 Ohms. The quantum contact resistance between metal electrodes and the NT fabric varies as a function of the fabric density (number of NTs per unit area) and the width of the contact. The contact resistance may vary from less than 100 Ohms to more than 100,000 Ohms. When VT1=VDD, current I=VDD/(R+RFED), and VT2=VOUT=VDD×(RFED)/(R+RFED). If RFED<<R, then VT2=VOUT≈0 volts, illustrated in FIG. 9, column 1. The schematic of circuit 330′ illustrates a FED used in a more complex circuit configuration with load resistor 324 of value R connected to voltage terminal 322 at voltage V=VDD, and resistor 328 of value R′ connected to voltage terminal 326 at voltage zero. For VNT-TH in the 2 to 3 volt range, for example, VDD is selected as less than 2 volts, 1.0 to 1.8 volts, for example. The operation of circuit 330′ is as illustrated in FIG. 9, column 2. With switch 30 in the 30′ position, the voltage VT3 on terminal T3 can be any value. A pulse VT1 of amplitude VDD is applied to terminal T1. When VT1=0, no FET conductive path is activated, the electrical path between terminals T2 and T4 of FED1 20 is open, current I=0, and VT2=VOUT=VDD, and VT4=0. When VT1=VDD, FET channel 27 of resistance RFET is formed, in series with RSWITCH of switch 30″, connecting terminals T2 and T4. The resistance of FED 20 between terminals T2 and T4 is RFED=RFET+RSWITCH. RFET is the FET channel resistance, and RSWITCH is the resistance of NT switch 30″. RSWITCH includes the resistance between contact 28 and NT 30″, the NT 30″ resistance (usually much less than the contact resistances), and the resistance between release-plate 34 and NT 30″. RFET is determined by the FET electrical parameters and the width to length ratio used in the FET design. By selecting W/L ratio values, RFET may range from less than 10 Ohms to more than 10,000 Ohms. The quantum contact resistance between metal electrodes and the NT fabric varies as a function of the fabric density (number of NTs per unit area) and the width of the contact. The contact resistance may vary from less than 100 Ohms to more than 100,000 Ohms When VT1=VDD, current I=VDD/(R+R′+RFED), VT2=VOUT=VDD×(R′+RFED)/(R+R′+RFED), and VT4=VDD×(R′)/(R+R′+RFED). If RFED<<R, and R′=R, then VT2=VOUT=VDD/2, and VT4=VDD/2, as illustrated in FIG. 9, column 2. In the example of the operation of circuit 320 (FIG. 7A), circuit operation for two switch-mode settings were described, one for switch 30 in first position 30′ as illustrated in FIG. 7B, and the other for switch 30 in the second position 30″ as illustrated in FIG. 7C. The voltages on FED terminals T2 and T4 varied as a function of the switch-mode settings. FED1 20 may also be used in other applications. For example, a first network may be connected to terminal T2, a second network may be connected to terminal T3, and a third network may be connected to terminal T4. When FED1 20 switch 30 is in the first position 30′ (FIG. 7B), a first network connected to terminal T2 is connected to a second network connected to terminal T3. When FED1 20 switch 30 is in the second position 30″, a first network connected to terminal T2 is connected to a third network connected to terminal T4. Thus, in this application, FED1 20 is used to route signals from a first network to a second network, or instead, to a third network. The network configuration remains in place even if power is turned off because FED1 20 is a non-volatile device. Operation of Field Effect Devices with Controllable Drains Four schematics of field effect devices (FEDs) with controllable drains have been described (FIGS. 2E-H). FIGS. 10A-12 illustrates the operation of field effect devices with controllable drains for one of the FED configurations, FED8 device 160 (FIG. 2H). As stated above, FED devices with controllable drains are also referred to as NT-on-Drain devices. A switch-mode setting operation is described, followed by an example of full voltage swing circuit operation (digital switching). Field effect device FED8 160 is combined with resistor 364 of value R, such that one terminal of resistor 364 is attached to FED8 device 160 terminal T2, and the other side of resistor 364 is attached to power supply terminal 362 to form circuit schematic 360 as illustrated in FIG. 10A. FIG. 10B illustrates circuit schematic 370 in which switch 170 has been activated to position 170′ to electrically connect switch-plate 168 to contact 172. Controllable drain 164 is electrically connected to terminal T2 by means of the established continuous electrical path formed by drain 164 connected to switch-plate 168; switch-plate 168 connected to one side of switch 170′; the opposite side of switch 170′ connected to contact 172; contact 172 connected to terminal T2. FIG. 10C illustrates circuit schematic 370′ in which switch 170 has been activated to position 170″ to contact release-plate dielectric surface 176. Controllable drain 164 is electrically open circuited, and has no continuous electrical path to any terminals of FED8 160 device. The mode-setting electrical signals applied to the terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4 of schematics 360, 370, and 370′ to cause switch 170 to switch to position 170′ or position 170″ are illustrated in FIG. 11. FIG. 11 illustrates the operational mode-setting waveforms 355 applied to terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4 to activate switch 170. Control signals are applied to terminals T1-T4 by a control circuit (not shown) using control lines (not shown). There is no electrical signal applied to electrical terminal 362. Column 1 illustrates the electrical signals used to change switch 170 from position 170″, also referred to as the open position, to position 170′, also referred to as the closed position. Column 2 illustrates the electrical signals used to change switch 170 from position 170′, also referred to as the closed position, to position 170″, also referred to as the open position. The mode-setting waveforms are valid within the mode-setting time interval illustrated under columns 1 and 2 in FIG. 11. Other time intervals contain cross-hatched lines between voltages 0 and VDD, indicating that these waveforms can be anywhere within this voltage range, and represent the circuit operating range. VDD is selected to be less than the voltage switching voltage VSW to ensure that switch 170 is not activated (resulting in mode-resetting) during circuit operation. Mode-setting is based on electromechanical switching of carbon nanotube (NT) switch using electrostatic forces. As stated above, the behavior of a NT fabric is similar to that of a single NT, where the electrostatic attractive force is due to oppositely charged surfaces. Column 1 of FIG. 11 illustrates the voltage and timing waveforms applied to terminals T1-T4 of FED8 160 that force a transition of NT switch 170 from position 170″, in contact with insulator surface 176 on release-plate 174 as illustrated in FIG. 10C, to position 170′, in contact with switch-plate 168 as illustrated in FIG. 10B. Switch 170 transitions from open to closed. Voltage VT4, applied to terminal T4, transitions to switching voltage VSW. Voltage VT2 applied to terminal T2 transitions switching voltage VSW. VT3 applied to terminal T3 transitions to zero volts. Terminal T1 (connected to gate 162) transitions from zero to VDD forming a channel in channel region 167, thereby driving controllable drain 164 voltage VDRAIN to zero. The electrostatic force between switch 170 in position 170″ and release-plate 174 is zero. The electrostatic force between switch 170 in position 170″ and switch-plate 168 is FE=K (VSW)2/(R12)2, where R12 is the gap separating switch 170 from switch-plate 168. Typical VNT-TH voltages may range from 2 to 3 volts, for example. VNT-TH is a function of the suspended length of NT switch 170 and the gap (separation) between NT switch 170 and the switch-plate and release-plate electrodes. Typical, but non-exclusive exemplary ranges for NT switch suspended length is 130 to 180 nm, with gaps of 10 to 20 nm. Column 2 of FIG. 11 illustrates the voltage and timing waveforms applied to terminals T1-T4 of FED8 160 that force a transition of NT switch 170 from position 170′, in contact with switch-plate 168 as illustrated in FIG. 10B, to position 170″, in contact with release-plate dielectric surface 176 on release-plate 174 as illustrated in FIG. 10C. Switch 170 transitions from closed to open. Voltage VT4, applied to terminal T4, transitions to switching voltage VSW. Voltage VT2 applied to terminal T2 transitions to zero (0) volts. VT3 applied to terminal T3 transitions to zero volts. Terminal T1 (connected to gate 162) transitions from zero to VDD forming a channel in channel region 167, thereby driving controllable drain 164 voltage VDRAIN to zero. The electrostatic force between switch 170 in position 170′ and switch-plate 168 is zero. The electrostatic force between switch 170 in position 170′ and release-plate 174 is FE=K (VSW)2/(R12)2, where R12 is the gap separating switch 170 from release-plate 174. Typical VNT-TH voltages may range from 2 to 3 volts, for example. The threshold voltage for switch 170 transitions between open and closed, and closed and open positions may be different, without effecting the operation of the device. If VSW exceeds VNT-TH, then mode-setting will take place. Circuit operating voltages range from 0 to VDD. In order to avoid unwanted mode-setting during circuit operation, VDD is less than VNT-TH. FIG. 12 illustrates the full signal (voltage) swing waveforms 365 operation of circuit 360, with waveforms applied to terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4. Column 1 illustrates the electrical signals applied to terminal T1-T4 for circuit schematic 370 when switch 170 is in the closed position 170′ as illustrated in FIG. 10B. Column 2 illustrates the electrical signals applied to terminals T1-T4 for circuit schematic 370′ when switch 170 is in the open position 170″ as illustrated in FIG. 10C. Circuit schematic 370 illustrates the FED used in a simple inverter configuration with load resistor 364 of value R connected to voltage terminal 362 at voltage V=VDD. For VNT-TH in the 2 to 3 volt range, for example, VDD is selected as less than 2 volts, 1.0 to 1.8 volts, for example. The operation of circuit 370 is as illustrated in FIG. 12, column 1. With switch 170 in the 170′ position, the voltage VT4 on terminal T4 can be any value. Voltage VT3 applied to terminal T3 is set to zero volts. A pulse VT1 of amplitude VDD is applied to terminal T1. When VT1=0, no FET conductive path is activated, the electrical path between terminals T2 and T3 of FED8 160 is open, current I=0, and VOUT=VDD. When VT1=VDD, FET 167 channel of resistance RFET is formed, in series with RSWITCH of switch 170′, connecting terminals T2 and T3. The resistance of FED8 160 between terminals T2 and T3 is RFED=RFET+RSWITCH. RFET is the FET channel resistance, and RSWITCH is the resistance of NT switch 170′. RSWITCH includes the resistance between switch-plate 168 and NT 170′, the NT 170′ resistance (typically much less than the contact resistances), and the contact resistance between contact 172 and NT 170′. RFET is determined by the FET electrical parameters and the width to length ratio used in the FET design. By selecting W/L ratio values, RFET may range from less than 10 Ohms to more than 10,000 Ohms. The quantum contact resistance between metal electrodes and the NT fabric varies as a function of the fabric density (number of NTs per unit area) and the width of the contact. The contact resistance may vary from less than 100 Ohms to more than 100,000 Ohms. When VT1=VDD, current I=VDD/(R+RFED), and VT2=VOUT=VDD×(RFED)/(R+RFED). If RFED<<R, then VT2=VOUT≈0 volts, illustrated in FIG. 12, column 1. Circuit schematic 370′ illustrates FED8 160 used in a simple inverter configuration with load resistor 364 of value R connected to voltage terminal 362 at voltage V=VDD. The full signal (voltage) swing operation of circuit 370′ is as illustrated in FIG. 12, column 2. With switch 90 in position 90″, the FED electrical path between terminals T2 and T3 is open, terminal T4 is insulated, therefore current I=0, and VT2=VOUT=VDD for all applied voltages. Operation of Field Effect Devices with Controllable Gates Four schematics of field effect devices (FEDs) with controllable gates have been described (FIGS. 2I-L). FIGS. 13A-16 illustrates the operation of field effect devices with controllable gates for one of the FED configurations, FED11 device 240 (FIG. 2L). FED devices with controllable gates are also referred to as NT-on-Gate devices. A switch-mode setting operation is described, followed by an example of full voltage swing circuit operation (digital switching). FIG. 13A illustrates FED11 240. FED11 240 is combined with resistor 886 of value R, such that one terminal of resistor 886 is attached to FED11 device 240 terminal T2, and the other side of resistor 886 is attached to power supply terminal 884 to form circuit schematic. FED11 240 terminal T2 is connected to FET drain 244; terminal T3 is connected to FET source 246; terminal T4 is connected to release plate 254. FIG. 13B illustrates circuit schematic 390 in which switch 250 has been activated to position 250′ to electrically connect switch-plate 248 to contact 252. Controllable gate 242 is electrically connected to terminal T1 by means of the established continuous electrical path formed by gate 242 connected to switch-plate 248; switch-plate 248 connected to one side of switch 250′; the opposite side of switch 250′ connected to contact 252; contact 252 connected to terminal T1. The combination of contact 252 area and NT fabric layer switch 250 area may be referred to as the NT control gate, because the voltage applied to this control gate controls the FET channel region 247 electrical characteristics. FIG. 13C illustrates circuit schematic 390′ in which switch 250 has been activated to position 250″ to contact release-plate dielectric surface 256. Controllable gate 242 is electrically open circuited, and has no continuous electrical path to any FED 249 device terminals. FIG. 13A also depicts a FED11 240 with the coupling capacitances both inherent in the device and designed for the device, and corresponds to FIG. 14 which illustrates cross section 400 of the FED11 240. Capacitance C1G is the capacitance between contact 252 and switch 250 combined areas (i.e., nanotube fabric-based switch 250) and switch-plate 248 area that connects to polysilicon gate 242 using connecting contact (connecting stud, for example) 243. CG-CH is the capacitance between the polysilicon gate 242 and the channel region 247 (FET gate oxide capacitance). CCH-SUB is the depletion capacitance, in depleted region 402, between the channel region 247 and substrate 382. The substrate 382 voltage is controlled using substrate contact 383, and is at zero volts in this example. Source diffusion 246 is connected to FED11 240 terminal T3, and drain diffusion 244 is connected to FED11 240 terminal T2. The nanotube (NT) fabric layer switch 250 is mechanically supported at both ends. Contact 252 acts as both electrical contact and mechanical support, and support 253 provides the other mechanical support (support 253 may also provide an additional electrical connection as well) as illustrated in FIG. 14. Switch 250 in closed position 250′ (FIG. 13B) is illustrated by the deflected NT fabric layer in contact with switch-plate 248. The closed position is the “ON” state, the polysilicon gate 242 is in contact with the nanotube fabric layer switch 250 (i.e., it is not floating) by contact 243. The polysilicon gate voltage is defined by the voltage of the nanotube control gate. The nanotube control gate includes the contact 252 area and the NT fabric-based switch 250 area (not drawn to scale). Switch 250 in open position 250″ is illustrated by the deflected NT fabric layer in contact with surface 256 of insulator 404. FED 11 device 240 terminal T4 is connected to release-plate 254 with insulator 404. The open position is the “OFF” state, the polysilicon gate is not in contact with the nanotube control gate. Thus, the polysilicon gate voltage floats, and the floating gate (FG) voltage has a value that depends on the capacitance coupling network in the device. The value of diffusion capacitance CCH-SUB can be modulated by the voltage applied to the drain 244 (source 246 may float, or may be at the voltage applied to drain 244), and may be used to set the floating gate (FG) voltage when switch 250 is in open position 250″. However, as used during write, drain 244 voltage (VDRAIN=0) and CCH-SUB is not part of the network, and voltage VT1 is used to set the state of switch 250. The principle of FET channel modulation using drain voltage is illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 6,369,671. If voltage on drain 244 equals zero (VDRAIN=0), the channel 247 remains as an inverted region, and capacitor CCH-SUB is not part of the capacitor network. Capacitor CG-CH holds polysilicon gate 242 at a relatively low voltage, which is transmitted to switch plate 248 by contact 243. Therefore, a relatively high voltage appears between switch 250 and switching plate 248, across capacitor C1G, and nanotube fabric layer switch 250 switches from open (“OFF”) position 250″ to closed (“ON”) position 250′. FIG. 15 illustrates mode-setting electrical signals applied to the terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4 of schematics 380, 390, and 390′ to cause switch 250 to switch to position 250′ or position 250″. FIG. 15 illustrates the operational mode-setting waveforms 375 applied to terminals T1, T2, T3, and T4 of FED11 240 to activate switch 250. Control signals are applied to terminals T1-T4 by a control circuit (not shown) using control lines (not shown). There is no electrical signal applied to electrical terminal 884 during mode-setting. Column 1 of FIG. 15 illustrates the electrical signals used to change switch 250 from position 250″, also referred to as the open (“OFF”) position, to position 250′, also referred to as the closed (“ON”) position. Column 2 illustrates the electrical signals used to change switch 250 from position 250′, also referred to as the closed (“ON”) position, to position 250″, also referred to as the open (“OFF”) position. The mode-setting waveforms are valid within the mode-setting time interval illustrated under columns 1 and 2 in FIG. 15. Other time intervals contain cross-hatched lines between voltages 0 and VDD, indicating that these waveforms can be anywhere within this voltage range, and represent the circuit operating range. VDD is selected to be less than the voltage switching voltage VSW to ensure that switch 250 is not activated (resulting in mode-resetting) during circuit operation. Mode-setting is based on electromechanical switching of carbon nanotube (NT) switch using electrostatic forces. Column 1 of FIG. 15 illustrates the voltage and timing waveforms applied to terminals T1-T4 of FED11 240 that force a transition of NT switch 250 from position 250″, in contact with insulator surface 256 on release-plate 254 as illustrated in FIGS. 13C and 14A, to position 250′, in contact with switch-plate 248 as illustrated in FIGS. 13B and 14A. Switch 250 transitions from open to closed. Voltage VT4, applied to terminal T4, transitions to switching voltage VSW. Voltage VT2 applied to terminal T2 transitions to zero. VT3 applied to terminal T3 transitions to zero volts. Terminal T1 (connected to NT fabric switch 250 through control gate contact 252) transitions from zero to switching voltage VSW forming a channel in channel region 247. The electrostatic force between switch 250 in position 250″ and release-plate 254 is zero. The electrostatic force between switch 250 in position 250″ and switch-plate 248 is FE=K (VSW−VG)2/(R12)2, where R12 is the gap separating switch 250 from switch-plate 248. VG is determined by the relative values of capacitances C1G and CG-CH (FIG. 14). C1G is typically designed to be 0.25 times the capacitance CG-CH (C1G=0.25 CG-CH). Gate voltage VG=VSW×C1G/(C1G+CG-CH); VG=0.2 VSW. If the voltage difference required between switch 250 and switch-plate 248 to activate switch 250 is 2.5 volts, for example, then switching voltage VSW greater than approximately 3.2 volts is required. Column 2 of FIG. 15 illustrates the voltage and timing waveforms applied to terminals T1-T4 of FED11 240 that force a transition of NT switch 250 from position 250′, in contact with switch-plate 248 as illustrated in FIGS. 13B and 14A, to position 250″, in contact with release-plate dielectric surface 256 on release-plate 254 as illustrated in FIG. 13C. Switch 250 transitions from closed to open. Voltage VT4, applied to terminal T4, transitions to switching voltage VSW. Voltage VT2 applied to terminal T2 transitions is between zero and 1 volt (as high as VDD is acceptable). VT3 applied to terminal T3 transitions to zero to 1 volt (as high as VDD is acceptable). Terminal T1 (connected to NT switch 250 by contact 252) transitions to zero volts. The electrostatic force between switch 250 in position 250′ and switch-plate 248 is zero. The electrostatic force between switch 250 in position 250′ and release-plate 254 is FE=K (VSW)2/(R12)2, where R12 is the gap separating switch 250 from release-plate 254. Typical VNT-TH voltages may range from 2 to 3 volts, for example. The threshold voltage for switch 250 transitions between open (“OFF”) and closed (“ON”), and closed (“ON”) and open (“OFF”) positions may be different, without effecting the operation of the device. If VSW exceeds VNT-TH, then mode-setting will take place. Circuit operating voltages range from 0 to VDD. In order to avoid unwanted mode-setting during circuit operation, VDD is less than VNT-TH. The threshold voltage VFET-TH of the FET device with gate 242, drain 244, and source 246 that forms a portion of FED1 240 is modulated by the position of NT fabric switch 250. FIG. 16 illustrates the current—voltage (I-V) characteristic 385 of FED 11 240 for switch 250 in the closed (“ON”) state (switch 250 in position 250′) and the open (“OFF”) state (switch 250 in position 250″). For switch 250 in the closed state, VG=VT1, current I flows when VT1=VG is greater than FET threshold voltage VFET-TH=0.4 to 0.7 volts. Current I flows between terminals T2 and T3 of FED11 240. For switch 250 is in the open state, current I flows between terminals T2 and T3 of FED11 240 when VT1 is greater than 1.4 volts. At VT1=1.4 volts, capacitive coupling raises FET gate voltage VG to greater than 0.7 volts, and current flows between terminals of FED11 240 device. The state of FED11 240 device may be detected by applying VT1 voltage of 1.2 volts. If FED11 240 is in the closed state (also referred to as the written or programmed state), then current I will flow when VT1=1.2 volts. If FED11 240 is in the open state (also referred to as the released or erased state), then no current (I=0) will flow when VT1=1.2 volts. Nanotube Random Access Memory using FEDs with Controllable Sources Nanotube Random Access Memory (NRAM) Systems and Circuits, with Same Non-volatile field effect devices (FEDs) 20, 40, 60, and 80 with controllable sources may be used as cells and interconnected into arrays to form non-volatile nanotube random access memory (NRAM) systems. The memory cells contain one select device (transistor) T and one non-volatile nanotube storage element NT (1T/1NT cells). By way of example, FED4 80 (FIG. 2D) is used to form a non-volatile NRAM memory cell that is also referred to as a NT-on-Source memory cell. NT-On-Source NRAM Memory Systems and Circuits with Parallel Bit and Reference Lines, and Parallel Word and Release Lines NRAM 1T/1NT memory arrays are wired using four lines. Word line WL is used to gate select device T, bit line BL is attached to a shared drain between two adjacent select devices. Reference line REF is used to control the NT switch voltage of storage element NT, and release line RL is used to control the release-plate of storage element NT. In this NRAM array configuration, REF is parallel to BL and acts as second bit line, and RL is parallel to WL and acts as a second word line. The NT-on-source with REF line parallel to BL and RL parallel WL is the preferred NT-on-source embodiment. FIG. 17A depicts non-volatile field effect device FED4 80 with memory cell wiring to form NT-on-Source memory cell 1000 schematic. Memory cell 1000 operates in a source-follower mode. Word line (WL) 1200 connects to terminal T1 1220 of FED4 80; bit line (BL) 1300 connects to terminal T2 1320 of FED4 80; reference line (REF) 1400 connects to terminal T3 1420 of FED4 80; and release line (RL) 1500 connects to terminal T4 1520 of FED4 80. Memory cell 1000 performs write and read operations, and stores the information in a non-volatile state. The FED4 80 layout dimensions and operating voltages are selected to optimize memory cell 1000. Memory cell 1000 FET select device (T) gate 1040 corresponds to gate 82; drain 1060 corresponds to drain 84; and controllable source 1080 corresponds to controllable source 86. Memory cell 1000 nanotube (NT) switch-plate 1120 corresponds to switch-plate 88; NT switch 1140 corresponds to NT switch 90; release-plate insulator layer surface 1160 corresponds to release-plate insulator layer surface 96; and release-plate 1180 corresponds to release-plate 94. The interconnections between the elements of memory cell 1000 schematic correspond to the interconnection of the corresponding interconnections of the elements of FED4 80. BL 1300 connects to drain 1060 through contact 1320; REF 1400 connects to NT switch 1140 through contact 1420; RL 1500 connects to release-plate 1180 by contact 1520; WL 1200 interconnects to gate 1040 by contact 1220. The non-volatile NT switching element 1140 may be caused to deflect toward switch-plate 1120 via electrostatic forces to closed (“ON”) position 1140′ to store a logic “1” state as illustrated in FIG. 17B. The van der Waals force holds NT switch 1140 in position 1140′. Alternatively, the non-volatile NT switching element 1140 may be caused to deflect to insulator surface 1160 on release-plate 1180 via electrostatic forces to open (“OFF”) position 1140″ to store a logic “0” state as illustrated in FIG. 17C. The van der Waals force holds NT switch 1140 in position 1140″. Non-volatile NT switching element 1140 may instead be caused to deflect to an open (“OFF”) near-mid point position 1140′″ between switch-plate 1120 and release-plate 1180, storing an apparent logic “0” state as illustrate in FIG. 17D. However, the absence of a van der Waals retaining force in this open (“OFF”) position is likely to result in a memory cell disturb that causes NT switch 1140 to unintentionally transition to the closed (“ON”) position, and is not desirable. Sufficient switching voltage is needed to ensure that the NT switch 1140 open (“OFF”) position is position 1140″. The non-volatile element switching via electrostatic forces is as depicted by element 90 in FIG. 2D. Voltage waveforms 311 used to generate the required electrostatic forces are illustrated in FIG. 4. NT-on-Source schematic 1000 forms the basis of a non-volatile storage (memory) cell. The device may be switched between closed storage state “1” (switched to position 1140′) and open storage state “0” (switched to position 1140″), which means the controllable source may be written to an unlimited number of times to as desired. In this way, the device may be used as a basis for a non-volatile nanotube random access memory, which is referred to here as a NRAM array, with the ‘N’ representing the inclusion of nanotubes. FIG. 18 represents an NRAM memory array 1700, according to preferred embodiments of the invention. Under this arrangement, an array is formed with m×n (only exemplary portion being shown) of non-volatile cells ranging from cell C0,0 to cell Cm−1,n−1. NRAM memory array 1700 may be designed using one large m×n array, or several smaller sub-arrays, where each sub-array if formed of m×n cells. To access selected cells, the array uses read and write word lines (WL0, WL1, . . . WLn−1), read and write bit lines (BL0, BL1, . . . BLm−1), read and write reference lines (REF0, REF1, . . . REFm−1), and read and write release lines (RL0, RL1, . . . RLn−1). Non-volatile cell C0,0 includes a select device T0,0 and non-volatile storage element NT0,0. The gate of T0,0 is coupled to WL0, and the drain of T0,0 is coupled to BL0. NT0 is the non-volatilely switchable storage element where the NT0,0 switch-plate is coupled to the source of T0,0, the switching NT element is coupled to REF0, and the release-plate is coupled to RL0. Connection 1720 connects BL0 to shared drain of select devices T0,0 and T0,1. Word, bit, reference, and release decoders/drivers are explained further below. Under preferred embodiments, nanotubes in NRAM array 1700 may be in the “ON” “1” state or the “OFF” “0” state. The NRAM memory allows for unlimited read and write operations per bit location. A write operation includes both a write function to write a “1” and a release function to write a “0”. By way of example, a write “1” to cell C0,0 and a write “0” to cell C1,0 is described. For a write “1” operation to cell C0,0, select device T0,0 is activated when WL0 transitions from 0 to VDD, BL0 transitions from VDD to 0 volts, REF0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW, and RL0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW. The release-plate and NT switch of the non-volatile storage element NT0,0 are each at VSW resulting in zero electrostatic force (because the voltage difference is zero). The zero BL0 voltage is applied to the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT0,0 by the controlled source of select device T0,0. The difference in voltage between the NT0,0 switch-plate and NT switch is VSW and generates an attracting electrostatic force. If VSW exceeds the nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH, the nanotube structure switches to “ON” state or logic “1” state, that is, the nanotube NT switch and switch-plate are electrically connected as illustrated in FIG. 17B. The near-Ohmic connection between switch-plate 1120 and NT switch 1140 in position 1140′ represents the “ON” state or “1” state. If the power source is removed, cell C0,0 remains in the “ON” state. For a write “0” (release) operation to cell C1,0, select device T1,0 is activated when WL0 transitions from 0 to VDD, BL1 transitions from VDD to 0 volts, REF 1 transitions from VDD to zero volts, and RL0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW. The zero BL1 voltage is applied to the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT1,0 by the controlled source of select device T1,0, and zero volts is applied the NT switch by REF1, resulting in zero electrostatic force between switch-plate and NT switch. The non-volatile storage element NT1,0 release-plate is at switching voltage VSW and the NT switch is at zero volts generating an attracting electrostatic force. If VSW exceeds the nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH, the nanotube structure switches to the “OFF” state or logic “0” state, that is, the nanotube NT switch and the surface of the release-plate insulator are in contact as illustrated in FIG. 17C. The non-conducting contact between insulator surface 1160 on release-plate 1180 and NT switch 1140 in position 1140″ represents the “OFF” state or “0” state. If the power source is removed, cell C1,0 remains in the “OFF” state. An NRAM read operation does not change (destroy) the information in the activated cells, as it does in a DRAM, for example. Therefore the read operation in the NRAM is characterized as a non-destructive readout (or NDRO) and does not require a write-back after the read operation has been completed. For a read operation of cell C0,0, BL0 is driven high to VDD and allowed to float. WL0 is driven high to VDD and select device T0,0 turns on. REF0 is at zero volts, and RL0 is at VDD. If cell C0,0 stores an “ON” state (“1” state) as illustrated in FIG. 17B, BL0 discharges to ground through a conductive path that includes select device T0,0 and non-volatile storage element NT0,0 in the “ON” state, the BL0 voltage drops, and the “ON” state or “1” state is detected by a sense amplifier/latch circuit (not shown) that records the voltage drop by switching the latch to a logic “1” state. BL0 is connected by the select device T0,0 conductive channel of resistance RFET to the switch-plate of NT0,0. The switch-plate of NT0,0 in the “ON” state contacts the NT switch with contact resistance and the NT switch contacts reference line REF0 with contact resistance RC. The total resistance in the discharge path is RFET+RSW+RC. Other resistance values in the discharge path, including the resistance of the NT switch, are much smaller and may be neglected. For a read operation of cell C1,0, BL1 is driven high to VDD and allowed to float. WL0 is driven high to VDD and select device T1,0 turns on. REF1=0, and RL0 is at VDD. If cell C1,0 stores an “OFF” state (“0” state) as illustrated in FIG. 17C, BL1 does not discharge to ground through a conductive path that includes select device T1,0 and non-volatile storage element NT1,0 in the “OFF” state, because the switch-plate is not in contact with the NT switch when NT1,0 is in the “OFF” state, and the resistance RSW is large. Sense amplifier/latch circuit (not shown) does not detect a voltage drop and the latch is set to a logic “0” state. FIG. 19 illustrates the operational waveforms 1800 of NRAM memory array 1700 of FIG. 18 during read, write “1”, and write “0” operations for selected cells, while not disturbing unselected cells (no change to unselected cell-stored logic states). Waveforms 1800 illustrate voltages and timings to write logic state “1” in cell C0,0, write a logic state “0” in cell C1,0, read cell C0,0, and read cell C1,0. Waveforms 1800 also illustrate voltages and timings to prevent disturbing the stored logic states (logic “1” state and logic “0” state) in partially selected (also referred to as half-selected) cells. Partially selected cells are cells in memory array 1700 that receive applied voltages because they are connected to (share) word, bit, reference, and release lines that are activated as part of the read or write operation to the selected cells. Cells in memory array 1700 tolerate unlimited read and write operations at each memory cell location. At the start of the write cycle, WL0 transitions from zero to VDD, activating select devices T0,0, T1,0, . . . Tm−1,0. Word lines WL1, WL2 . . . WLn−1 are not selected and remain at zero volts. BL0 transitions from VDD to zero volts, connecting the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT0,0 to zero volts. BL1 transitions from VDD to zero volts connecting the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT1,0 to zero volts. BL2, BL3 . . . BLm−1 remain at VDD connecting the switch-plate of non-volatile storage elements NT2,0, NT3,0, . . . NTm−1,0 to VDD. REF0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW, connecting the NT switches of non-volatile storage elements NT0,0, NT0,1, . . . NT0,n−2, NT0,n−1 to VSW. REF1 transitions from VDD to zero volts, connecting the NT switches of non-volatile storage elements NT1,0, NT1,1 . . . NT1,n−2,NT1,n−1 to zero volts. REF2, REF3, . . . REFm−1 remain at VDD, connecting the NT switches of non-volatile storage elements NT3,0 to Nm−1,n−1 to VDD. REL0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW, connecting release-plates of non-volatile storage elements NT0,0, NT1,0, . . . NTm−1,0 to VSW. RL1, RL2 . . . RLn−1 remain at VDD, connecting release-plates of non-volatile storage elements NT0,1 to NTn−1,n−1 to VDD. NT0,0 may be in “ON” (“1” state) or “OFF” (“0” state) state at the start of the write cycle. It will be in “ON” state at the end of the write cycle. If NT0,0 in cell C0,0 is “OFF” (“0” state) it will switch to “ON” (“1” state) since the voltage difference between NT switch and release-plate is zero, and the voltage difference between NT switch and switch-plate is VSW. If NT0,0 in cell C0,0 is in the “ON” (“1” state), it will remain in the “ON” (“1”) state. NT1,0 may be in “ON” (“1” state) or “OFF” (“0” state) state at the start of the write cycle. It will be in “OFF” state at the end of the write cycle. If NT1,0 in cell C1,0 is “ON” (“1” state) it will switch to “OFF” (“0” state) since the voltage difference between NT switch and switch-plate is zero, and the voltage difference between NT switch and release-plate is VSW. If NT1,0 in cell C1,0 is “OFF” (“0” state), it will remain “OFF” (“0” state). If for example, VSW=3.0 volts, VDD=1.5 volts, and NT switch threshold voltage range is VNT-TH=1.7 to 2.8 volts, then for NT0, and NT1,0 a difference voltage VSW>VNT-TH ensuring write states of “ON” (“1” state) for NT0,0 and “OFF” (“0” state) for NT1,0. Cells C0,0 and C1,0 have been selected for the write operation. All other cells have not been selected, and information in these other cells must remain unchanged (undisturbed). Since in an array structure some cells other than selected cells C0,0 and C1,0 in array 1700 will experience partial selection voltages, often referred to as half-select voltages, it is necessary that half-select voltages applied to non-volatile storage element terminals be sufficiently low (below nanotube activation threshold VNT-TH) to avoid disturbing stored information. For storage cells in the “ON” state, it is also necessary to avoid parasitic current flow (there cannot be parasitic currents for cells in the “OFF” state because the NT switch is not in electrical contact with switch-plate or release-plate). Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines WL0 and RL0 includes cells C3,0 to Cm−1,0 because WL0 and RL0 have been activated. Storage elements NT3,0 to NTm−1,0 will have BL2 to BLm−1 electrically connected to the corresponding storage element switch-plate by select devices T3,0 to Tm−1,0. All release-plates in these storage elements are at write voltage VSW. To prevent undesired switching of NT switches, REF2 to REFm−1 reference lines are set at voltage VDD. BL2 to BLm−1 voltages are set to VDD to prevent parasitic currents. The information in storage elements NT2,0 to NTm−1,0 in cells C2,0 to Cm−1,0 is not disturbed and there is no parasitic current. For those cells in the “OFF” state, there can be no parasitic currents (no current path), and no disturb because the voltage differences favor the “OFF” state. For those cells in the “ON” state, there is no parasitic current because the voltage difference between switch-plates (at VDD) and NT switches (at VDD) is zero. Also, for those cells in the “ON” state, there is no disturb because the voltage difference between corresponding NT switches and release-plate is VSW−VDD=1.5 volts, when VSW=3.0 volts and VDD=1.5 volts. Since this voltage difference of 1.5 volts is less than the minimum nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH of 1.7 volts, no switching takes place. Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines REF0 and BL0 includes cells C0,1 to C0, n−1 because REF0 and BL0 have been activated. Storage elements NT0, 1 to NT0, n−1 all have corresponding NT switches connected to switching voltage VSW. To prevent undesired switching of NT switches, RL1 to RLn−1 are set at voltage VDD. WL1 to WL n−1 are set at zero volts, therefore select devices T0,1 to T0,n−1 are open, and switch-plates (all are connected to select device source diffusions) are not connected to bit line BL0. All switch-plates are in contact with a corresponding NT switch for storage cells in the “ON” state, and all switch plates are only connected to corresponding “floating” source diffusions for storage cells in the “OFF” state. Floating diffusions are at approximately zero volts because of diffusion leakage currents to semiconductor substrates. However, some floating source diffusions may experience disturb voltage conditions that may cause the source voltage, and therefore the switch-plate voltage, to increase up to 0.6 volts as explained further below. The information in storage elements NT0,1 to NT0,n−1 in cells C0,1 to C0,n−1 is not disturbed and there is no parasitic current. For cells in both “ON” and “OFF” states there can be no parasitic current because there is no current path. For cells in the “ON” state, the corresponding NT switch and switch-plate are in contact and both are at voltage VSW. There is a voltage difference of VSW−VDD between corresponding NT switch and release-plate. For VSW=3.0 volts and VDD=1.5 volts, the voltage difference of 1.5 volts is below the minimum VNT-TH=1.7 volts for switching. For cells in the “OFF” state, the voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and switch-plate ranges from VSW to VSW−0.6 volts. The voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and switch-plate may be up to 3.0 volts, which exceeds the VNT-TH voltage, and would disturb “OFF” cells by switching them to the “ON” state. However, there is also a voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and release-plate of VSW−VDD of 1.5 volts with an electrostatic force in the opposite direction that prevents the disturb of storage cells in the “OFF” state. Also very important is that NT 1140 is in position 1140″ in contact with the storage-plate dielectric, a short distance from the storage plate, thus maximizing the electric field that opposes cell disturb. Switch-plate 1140 is far from the NT 1140 switch greatly reducing the electric field that promotes disturb. In addition, the van der Waals force also must be overcome to disturb the cell. Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines REF1 and BL1 includes cells C1,1 to C1, n−1 because REF1 and BL1 have been activated. Storage elements NT1,1 to NT1, n−1 all have corresponding NT switches connected to zero volts. To prevent undesired switching of NT switches, RL1 to RLn−1 are set at voltage VDD. WL1 to WL n−1 are set at zero volts, therefore select devices T1,1 to T1,n−1 are open, and switch-plates (all are connected to select device source diffusions) are not connected to bit line BL1. All switch-plates are in contact with a corresponding NT switch for storage cells in the “ON” state, and all switch plates are only connected to corresponding “floating” source diffusions for storage cells in the “OFF” state. Floating diffusions are at approximately zero volts because of diffusion leakage currents to semiconductor substrates. However, some floating source diffusions may experience disturb voltage conditions that may cause the source voltage, and therefore the switch-plate voltage, to increase up to 0.6 volts as explained further below. The information in storage elements NT 1,1 to NT1,n−1 in cells C1,1 to C1,n−1 is not disturbed and there is no parasitic current. For cells in both “ON” and “OFF” states there can be no parasitic current because there is no current path. For cells in the “ON” state, the corresponding NT switch and switch-plate are in contact and both are at zero volts. There is a voltage difference of VDD between corresponding NT switch and release-plate. For VDD=1.5 volts, the voltage difference of 1.5 volts is below the minimum VNT-TH=1.7 volts for switching. For cells in the “OFF” state, the voltage of the switch-plate ranges zero to 0.6 volts. The voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and switch-plate may be up to 0.6 volts. There is also a voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and release-plate of VDD=1.5 volts. VDD is less than the minimum VNT-TH of 1.7 volts the “OFF” state remains unchanged. For all remaining memory array 1700 cells, cells C2,1 to Cm−1,n−1, there is no electrical connection between NT2,1 to NTm−1,n−1 switch-plates connected to corresponding select device source and corresponding bit lines BL2 to BLm−1 because WL1 to WLn−1 are at zero volts, and select devices T2,1 to Tm−1,n−1 are open. Reference line voltages for REF2 to REFm−1 are set at VDD and release line voltages for RL1 to RLn−1 are set at VDD. Therefore, all NT switches are at VDD and all corresponding release-plates are at VDD, and the voltage difference between corresponding NT switches and release-plates is zero. For storage cells in the “ON” state, NT switches are in contact with corresponding switch-plates and the voltage difference is zero. For storage cells in the “OFF” state, switch plate voltages are zero to a maximum of 0.6 volts. The maximum voltage difference between NT switches and corresponding switch-plates is VDD=1.5 volts, which is below the VNT-TH voltage minimum voltage of 1.7 volts. The “ON” and “OFF” states remain undisturbed. Non-volatile NT-on-source NRAM memory array 1700 with bit lines parallel to reference lines is shown in FIG. 18 contains 2N×2M bits, is a subset of non-volatile NRAM memory system 1810 illustrated as memory array 1815 in FIG. 20A. NRAM memory system 1810 may be configured to operate like an industry standard asynchronous SRAM or synchronous SRAM because nanotube non-volatile storage cells 1000 shown in FIG. 17A, in memory array 1700, may be read in a non-destructive readout (NDRO) mode and therefore do not require a write-back operation after reading, and also may be written (programmed) at CMOS voltage levels (5, 3.3, and 2.5 volts, for example) and at nanosecond and sub-nanosecond switching speeds. NRAM read and write times, and cycle times, are determined by array line capacitance, and are not limited by nanotube switching speed. Accordingly, NRAM memory system 1810 may be designed with industry standard SRAM timings such as chip-enable, write-enable, output-enable, etc., or may introduce new timings, for example. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 1810 may be designed to introduce advantageous enhanced modes such as a sleep mode with zero current (zero power−power supply set to zero volts), information preservation when power is shut off or lost, enabling rapid system recovery and system startup, for example. NRAM memory system 1810 circuits are designed to provide the memory array 1700 waveforms 1800 shown in FIG. 19. NRAM memory system 1810 accepts timing inputs 1812, accepts address inputs 1825, and accepts data 1867 from a computer, or provides data 1867 to a computer using a bidirectional bus sharing input/output (I/O) terminals. Alternatively, inputs and outputs may use separate (unshared) terminals (not shown). Address input (I/P) buffer 1830 receives address locations (bits) from a computer system, for example, and latches the addresses. Address I/P buffer 1830 provides word address bits to word decoder 1840 via address bus 1837; address I/P buffer 1830 provides bit addresses to bit decoder 1850 via address bus 1852; and address bus transitions provided by bus 1835 are detected by function generating, address transition detecting (ATD), timing waveform generator, controller (controller) 1820. Controller 1820 provides timing waveforms on bus 1839 to word decoder 1840. Word decoder 1840 selects the word address location within array 1815. Word address decoder 1840 is used to decode both word lines WL and corresponding release lines RL (there is no need for a separate RL decoder) and drives word line (WL) and release line (RL) select logic 1845. Controller 1820 provides function and timing inputs on bus 1843 to WL & RL select logic 1845, resulting in NRAM memory system 1810 on-chip WL and RL waveforms for both write-one, write-zero, read-one, and read-zero operations as illustrated by waveforms 1800′ shown in FIG. 21. FIG. 21 NRAM memory system 1810 waveforms 1800′ correspond to memory array 1700 waveforms 1800 shown in FIG. 19. Bit address decoder 1850 is used to decode both bit lines BL and corresponding reference lines REF (there is no need for a separate REF decoder) and drive bit line (BL) and reference (REF) select logic 1855 via bus 1856. Controller 1820 provides timing waveforms on bus 1854 to bit decoder 1850. Controller 1820 also provides function and timing inputs on bus 1857 to BL & REF select logic 1855. BL & REF select logic 1855 uses inputs from bus 1856 and bus 1857 to generate data multiplexer select bits on bus 1859. The output of BL and REF select logic 1855 on bus 1859 is used to select control data multiplexers using combined data multiplexers & sense amplifiers/latches (MUXs & SAs) 1860. Controller 1820 provides function and timing inputs on bus 1862 to MUXs & SAs 1860, resulting in NRAM memory system 1810 on-chip BL and REF waveforms for both write-one, write-zero, read-one, and read-zero operations as illustrated by waveforms 1800′ corresponding to memory array 1700 waveforms 1800 shown in FIG. 19. MUXs & SAs 1860 are used to write data provided by read/write buffer 1865 via bus 1864 in array 1815, and to read data from array 1815 and provide the data to read/write buffer 1865 via bus 1864 as illustrated in waveforms 1800′. Sense amplifier/latch 1900 is illustrated in FIG. 20B. Flip flop 1910, comprising two back-to-back inverters is used to amplify and latch data inputs from array 1815 or from read/write buffer 1865. Transistor 1920 connects flip flop 1910 to ground when activated by a positive voltage supplied by control voltage VTIMING 1980, which is provided by controller 1820. Gating transistor 1930 connects a bit line BL to node 1965 of flip flop 1910 when activated by a positive voltage. Gating transistor 1940 connects reference voltage VREF to flip flop node 1975 when activated by a positive voltage. Transistor 1960 connects voltage VDD to flip flop 1910 node 1965, transistor 1970 connects voltage VDD to flip flop 1910 node 1975, and transistor 1950 ensures that small voltage differences are eliminated when transistors 1960 and 1970 are activated. Transistors 1950, 1960, and 1970 are activated (turned on) when gate voltage is low (zero, for example). In operation, VTIMING voltage is at zero volts when sense amplifier 1900 is not selected. NFET transistors 1920, 1930, and 1940 are in the “OFF” (non-conducting) state, because gate voltages are at zero volts. PFET transistors 1950, 1960, and 1970 are in the “ON” (conducting) state because gate voltages are at zero volts. VDD may be 5, 3.3, or 2.5 volts, for example, relative to ground. Flip flop 1910 nodes 1965 and 1975 are at VDD. If sense amplifier/latch 1900 is selected, VTIMING transitions to VDD, NFET transistors 1920, 1930, and 1940 turn “ON”, PFET transistors 1950, 1960, and 1970 are turned “OFF”, and flip flop 1910 is connected to bit line BL and reference voltage VREF. VREF is connected to VDD in this example. As illustrated by waveforms BL0 and BL1 of waveforms 1800′, bit line BL is pre-charged prior to activating a corresponding word line (WL0 in this example). If cell 1000 of memory array 1700 (memory system array 1815) stores a “1”, then bit line BL in FIG. 20B corresponds to BL0 in FIG. 21, BL is discharged by cell 1000, voltage droops below VDD, and sense amplifier/latch 1900 detects a “1” state. If cell 1000 of memory array 1700 (memory system array 1815) stores a “0”, then bit line BL in FIG. 20B corresponds to BL1 in FIG. 21, BL is not discharged by cell 1000, voltage does not droop below VDD, and sense amplifier/latch 1900 detect a “0” state. The time from sense amplifier select to signal detection by sense amplifier/latch 1900 is referred to as signal development time. Sense amplifier/latch 1900 typically requires 100 to 200 mV relative to VREF in order to switch. It should be noted that cell 1000 requires a nanotube “OFF” resistance to “ON” resistance ratio of greater than about 10 to 1 for successful operation. A typical bit line BL has a capacitance value of 250 fF, for example. A typical nanotube storage device (switch) or dimensions 0.2 by 0.2 um typically has 8 nanotube filaments across the suspended region, for example, as illustrated further below. For a combined contact and switch resistance of 50,000 Ohms per filament, as illustrated further below, the nanotube “ON” resistance of cell 1000 is 6,250 Ohms. For a bit line of 250 fF, the time constant RC=1.6 ns. The sense amplifier signal development time is less than RC, and for this example, is between 1 and 1.5 nanoseconds. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 1810 operation may be designed for high speed cache operation at 5 ns or less access and cycle time, for example. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 1810 may be designed for low power operation at 60 or 70 ns access and cycle time operation, for example. For low power operation, address I/P buffer 1830 operation requires 8 ns; controller 1820 operation requires 16 ns; bit decoder 1850 operation plus BL & select logic 1855 plus MUXs & SA 1860 operation requires 12 ns (word decoder 1840 operation plus WL & RL select logic 1845 ns require less than 12 ns); array 1815 delay is 8 ns; sensing 1900 operation requires 8 ns; and read/write buffer 1865 requires 12 ns, for example. The access time and cycle time of non-volatile NRAM memory system 1810 is 64 ns. The access time and cycle time may be equal because the NDRO mode of operation of nanotube storage devices (switches) does not require a write-back operation after access (read). Method of Making Field Effect Device with Controllable Source and NT-On-Source Memory System and Circuits with Parallel Bit and Reference Array Lines, and Parallel Word and Release Array Lines Non-volatile field effect devices (FEDs) 20, 40, 60, and 80 with controllable sources may be used as cells and interconnected into arrays to form non-volatile nanotube random access memory (NRAM) systems. The memory cells contain one select device (transistor) T and one non-volatile nanotube storage element NT (1T/1NT) cells). By way of example, FED4 80 (FIG. 2D) devices are fabricated and interconnected to form a non-volatile NRAM memory cell that is also referred to as a NT-on-Source memory cell with parallel bit and reference array lines, and parallel word and release array lines. FIG. 22 describes the basic method 3000 of manufacturing preferred embodiments of the invention. The following paragraphs describe such method in specific relation to an NRAM NT-on-source structure. However, this method is sufficient to cover the manufacturer of all the preferred field effect devices described. In general, preferred methods first form 3002 a field effect device similar to a MOSFET, having drain, source, and gate nodes. Such a structure may be created with known techniques and thus is not described here. Such a structure defines a base layer on which a nanotube control structure may be created. Once the semiconductor structure is defined in the substrate, preferred methods then 3004 a lower carbon nanotube intermediate control structure having nanotube electromechanical, non-volatile switches. FIGS. 24A, 24B, 24C, 24D, and 24E depict five exemplary structures that are NT-on-source devices. FIG. 24A illustrates a cross section of intermediate structure 3103. Intermediate structure 3103 includes an intermediate base structure 3102′ (formed in step 3002) with an intermediate nanotube control structure on top. The base structure 3102′ includes N+ drain regions 3126, and N+ doped source regions 3124 in p-type monocrystalline silicon substrate 3128. Polysilicon gates 3120 control the channel region between drain and source. Shared conductive stud 3118 contacts drain 3126 in contact region 3123. Contact studs 3122, one for each nanotube structure, physically and electrically connect the base structure 3102′ to the NT control structure. Specifically stud 3122 connects to electrode 3106 at contact region 3101, and to source 3124 at contacting region 3121. The NT structure is disposed over the planar oxide region 3116. The NT structure includes electrode (switch-plate) 3106, a first sacrificial gap layer 3108 on electrode 3106, a nanotube fabric (porous) element 3114 deposited on first sacrificial gap layer 3108, a nanotube conductive contact layer 3117 providing mechanical support (nanotube fabric element pinning between layers 3108 and 3117) and electrical contact, and conductive layer 3119 deposited on nanotube contact layer 3117 for enhanced electrical conductivity, and to act as an etch mask for layer 3117. At this point, lower carbon nanotube intermediate control structures 3109 and 3109′, illustrated in FIGS. 25E-25G and FIGS. 25EE-25GG, respectively, have been formed. The material of electrode 3106 may be tungsten, aluminum, copper, gold, nickel, chrome, platinum, palladium, or combinations of conductors such as chrome-copper-gold. Electrode 3106 thickness is in the range of 25 to 200 nm. The material of electrode 3106 is selected for reliable near-ohmic low contact resistance RSW between electrode 3106 and nanotube fabric layer 3114, and cyclability (number or contact-release cycles) after gap formation (shown below), when switching fabric layer 3114 switches in-out-of contact with electrode 3106 during product operation. RSW may be in the range of 1,000 to 100,000 Ohms per contacted fiber in fabric layer 3114. For a fabric layer 3114 with 10 contacted fibers, for example, contact resistance RSW may be in the range of 100 to 10,000 Ohms, for example. Once the lower carbon nanotube intermediate control structures 3109 and 3109′ are formed, then fabricate 3006 an upper carbon nanotube electrode intermediate structure. Opening 3136 defines the dimensions of the nanotube fabric element 3114 to be suspended, including that portion of first sacrificial gap layer 3108 to be removed. The material from which nanotube fabric conductive contact layer 3117 is chosen depends upon desired electrical contact 3127 resistance RC properties, such as a near-ohmic low resistance contact between conductor 3117 and nanotube fabric element 3114. Combined nanotube fabric element 3114 below opening 3136, and combined electrical conductors 3117 and 3119 in adjacent mechanical and electrical contact region 3127, form a low resistance RC local NT to conductor contact 3127 region. RC may be in the range of 1,000 to 100,000 Ohms per contacted fiber in fabric layer 3114. For a fabric layer 3114 with 10 contacted fibers, for example, contact resistance RC may be in the range of 100 to 10,000 Ohms, for example. This local conductor region surrounds opening 3136 and may be referred to as a picture frame region, with nanotube contact layer 3114 element pinned between conductor 3117 and a portion of first sacrificial gap layer 3108 that remains in the final product structure. In a picture frame region as illustrated in FIG. 24A, each end of a fiber is electrically connected to the picture frame, such that the resistance connection to the switch is RC/2. Combined electrical conductors 3117 and 3119 form a low resistance interconnect NT structure. At this stage of the method, electrode (release-plate) 3205 is formed. A conformal second sacrificial gap layer 3201 deposited on patterned conductor 3119, and electrode 3205 is deposited on second sacrificial gap layer 3201, planarized, and layers of material for electrode 3205 and 3201 are patterned. The thickness of first sacrificial gap layer 3108 situated between nanotube fabric layer 3114 and electrode 3106 is typically in the range of 5 to 20 nm. The film thickness of second sacrificial gap layer 3201 situated between nanotube fabric layer 3114 and electrode 3205 is typically in the range of 5 to 40 nm. Film thicknesses are in the range of 100 to 200 nm, typical of 130 nm minimum dimension (half-period) semiconductor technology. Nanotube fabric layer 3114 film thickness is on the order of 0.5-5 nm, for example. Nanotube fabric layer 3114 minimum dimension is typically 130 nm. As will be explained below, once the sacrificial materials are removed, the suspended length of the nanotube fabric element 3114 in the NT device region is on the order of 100 to 150 nm, but may be scaled to a suspended length of 20 to 40 nm, for example. The channel length between drain 3126 and source 3124 can be on the order of 100 to 130 nm as defined by polysilicon gate 3120, but may be scaled to the 30 to 90 nm range, for example. The integrated semiconductor structure defines a surface 3104′ on which the NT structure is formed. FIG. 24B illustrates a cross section of intermediate structure 3103′. Intermediate structure 3103′ is similar to structure 3103 of FIG. 24A, but adds additional nanotube layer element 3114 angled (non-horizontal) supports 3112 (nanotube layer contact to supports 3112 is not visible in this cross sectional view). FIG. 24C illustrates a cross section of intermediate structure 3107. Intermediate structure 3107 is similar to structure 3103 of FIG. 24A, but has an additional insulating layer 3203 between second sacrificial gap layer 3201 and electrode 3205. Insulating layer 3201 thickness is typically in the range of 5 to 20 nm. Structure 3107 with insulating layer 3203 on the underside of electrode 3205 forms a release-plate of the nanotube switch above nanotube fabric layer 3114 as discussed further below. Electrode 3106 forms a switch-plate of the nanotube switch below nanotube fabric layer 3114 as discussed further below. FIG. 24D illustrates a cross section of intermediate structure 3107′. Intermediate structure 3107′ is similar to structure 3107 of FIG. 24C, but adds additional nanotube layer 3114 element angled (non-horizontal) supports 3112 (contact region is not visible in this cross sectional view). FIG. 24E illustrates a cross section of intermediate structure 3107X. Intermediate structure 3107X is similar to structure 3107 of FIG. 24C, except that first sacrificial layer 3108 insulator, Si3N4, for example, is replaced by first sacrificial layer 3108X semiconductor or conductor, silicon (Si), for example, and an insulator border region 3115, where region 3115 may be SiO2 or Si3N4, for example. First sacrificial layer 3108X dimensions correspond to the suspended region of the nanotube switch structure. Insulator border region 3115 is used as part of a nanotube pinning structure (explained further below) under the nanotube fabric required to support nanotube 3114 when elongated during switching. FIG. 24F illustrates a cross section of intermediate structure 3107″. Intermediate structure 3107″ is similar to structure 3103 of FIG. 24A, but has an additional insulating layer 3203′ between first sacrificial gap layer 3108 and electrode 3106. Insulating layer 3203′ thickness is typically in the range of 5 to 20 nm. Structure 3107″ with insulating layer 3203′ on the topside of electrode 3106 forms a release-plate of the nanotube switch below nanotube fabric 3114 as discussed further below. Electrode 3205 forms switch-plate of the nanotube switch above nanotube fabric layer 3114 as discussed further below. In other words, the roles of bottom and top electrodes in FIGS. 24C and 24E are reversed, however, after fabrication is completed and the nanotubes are released (gap regions are formed), both nanotube switches exhibit the same electrical operational characteristics. Fabrication methods used to fabricate the structures illustrated in FIGS. 24A-24D also may be used to fabricate structure 24F, with slight modifications as discussed further below. FIG. 30F illustrates the intermediate structure 3212, through completion of method act 3006. FIG. 30F shows structure 3212 much like structure 3103 in FIG. 24A which has been processed to include encapsulation over the nanotube structures in an insulator. Likewise, a structure 3103′ of FIG. 24B could be analogously encapsulated. FIG. 30F′ illustrates the intermediate structure 3214, through completion of Step 3006. FIG. 30F′ shows structure 3214 much like structure 3107 in FIG. 24C which has been processed to include encapsulation over the nanotube structures in an insulator. Likewise, a structure 3107′ of FIG. 24D could be analogously encapsulated. FIG. 30FX illustrates the intermediate structure 3212X, through completion of method act 3006. FIG. 30FX shows structure 3212X much like structure 3212 of FIG. 30F, except that first sacrificial layer 3108 has been replaced with first sacrificial layer 3108X and co-planar border region 3115. FIG. 30FX′ illustrates the intermediate structure 3214X, through completion of method act 3006. FIG. 30FX′ shows structure 3214X much like structure 3214 of FIG. 30F′, except that first sacrificial layer 3108 has been replaced with first sacrificial layer 3108X and co-planar border region 3115. At this point, upper carbon nanotube intermediate control structure 3212 and 3214 are formed. When encapsulated, FIG. 25E (not shown) is similar to structure 3214 of FIG. 30F′, except that insulator layer 3203 between second sacrificial layer 3201 and electrode 3205, but is instead between first sacrificial layer 3108 and electrode 3106. After the structure is completed through the pre-nanotube release (pre-suspend) level, preferred methods then create a gap region above and below the (carbon) nanotube element by etching to gap sacrificial layers and removing the sacrificial gap layer between electrode 3205 and conductor 3119, and sacrificial gap layers in the NT switch region. The process of creating such a gap region is described below in connection with FIGS. 27 and 27′. Briefly, fluid communication paths are formed to the sacrificial gap material, see, e.g., opening 3207′ of FIG. 30H and opening 3208′ of FIG. 30H′. These paths are used to remove second sacrificial gap material 3201 and a segment of first sacrificial gap material 3108 of segment length defined by combined conductor 3119 and 3117 opening e.g., gap region 3209A and 3108A in FIGS. 30K and 30K′ to suspend segment 3114A of nanotube elements 3114. Alternatively, these paths are used to remove second sacrificial gap material 3201 and first sacrificial gap material layer 3108X, leaving border region 3115. Afterwards the paths may be closed, see, e.g., FIG. 30J and FIG. 30J′. A suspended portion 3114A of nanotube elements 3114 may be seen in pre-wiring level structure 3213 illustrated in FIG. 30K and pre-wiring level structure 3215 illustrated in FIG. 30K′. After sacrificial material has been removed, preferred embodiment complete fabrication 3009 of the combined nanotube and semiconductor structure to the external contact and passivation layers (not shown). For example, after the fluid communication openings (paths) are closed (encapsulated), connections to drain node 3126 are made, see structure 3223 of FIG. 30M and structure 3225 of FIG. 30M′, prior to final wiring to terminal pads, passivation, and packaging. FIGS. 23, 23′, 23″ each describe methods (processes) of forming the nanotube switching structures 3103, 3103′ of FIGS. 24A and 24B, respectively, and nanotube switching structures 3107, 3107′ of FIGS. 24C and 24D, respectively. FIGS. 23, 23′, and 23″ each describe methods (processes) of forming the nanotube switching structures 3107X and 3107″ of FIGS. 24E and 24F, respectively. Referring to FIGS. 23, 23′ and 23″, preferred methods in Flow Chart 3004 start with act 3010. Step 3010 presumes that an intermediate structure has already been created, on top of which the nanotube control structure is to be formed. For example, FIGS. 24A, 24B, 24C, 24D, 24E, and 24F each illustrate an intermediate structure 3102′ on which the control structure is to be formed. Structure 3102′ already has many components of a field effect device, including drain, source, and gate nodes. The first step is to deposit a conductor layer on surface 3104 intermediate structure 3102. By way of example, conductor layer may be tungsten, aluminum, copper, gold, nickel, chrome, platinum, palladium, polysilicon, or combinations of conductors such as chrome-copper-gold. Alternatively, conductor layer may be formed of single-layers or multi-layers of single or multi-walled nanotube fabric with conductivities in the range of 0.1 to 100 Ohms per square as describe in incorporated patent references explained further below. Nanotube fabric may be used in vias and wiring in any array structure. Conductor thickness may be in the range of 50 to 200 nm. Then, preferred embodiments deposit 3012 first sacrificial gap material layer on top of the conductor layer. A sacrificial layer 3108′ of gap material such as insulator silicon nitride (Si3N4) or semiconductor silicon (Si) for example, is deposited on conductor layer 3106′, as illustrated in FIG. 25A. Sacrificial layer 3108′ may also be a conductor, such as TiW, for example. As will be explained below, the first sacrificial gap layer thickness controls the separation (or gap) between the nanotube fabric element (yet to be formed) and conductor layer 3106′ in the nanotube switch region. In a preferred embodiment, this separation or gap dimension is approximately {fraction (1/10)} of the suspended length of the nanotube element. For a nanotube switch design with suspended length of 130 nm, the gap is therefore chosen as about 13 nm. Sacrificial layer 3108′ is deposited to a thickness of about 13 nm, for example. Alternatively, after method act 3010, but before method act 3012, insulating film layer 3203′ may be deposited as illustrated in FIG. 25A′. Insulating film layer 3203′ may be SiO2, for example, of thickness 5 to 20 nm, for example. Method 3004 continues with step 3012. Adding insulating layer 3203′ results in structure 3107″ after completion of methods 3004, 3036, and 3006 as described further below. Then, preferred embodiments deposit and image 3014 photoresist. Such patterning may be done using known techniques. This is done to define (in photoresist) the pattern for the electrode and sacrificial material, see, e.g., electrode 3106 and first sacrificial gap layer 3108 of FIGS. 24A, 24B, 24C, 24D and 24F. Alternatively, preferred embodiments step 3014 patterns layer 3108′ resulting in first sacrificial layer 3108X as illustrated in FIG. 25AX, where first sacrificial layer 3108X is a conductor or semiconductor (silicon, for example), with dimensions corresponding to nanotube switching region suspended length LSUSP, see e.g., electrode 3106 and first sacrificial gap layer 3108X of FIG. 24E. The inventors envision that for certain applications, the ability to precisely control sacrificial layer removal may be advantageous for manufacturability. Specifically, to etch layers anisotropically has advantages over isotropic etching in defining the underlying gap, e.g. gap region 3108A. Next, preferred embodiments deposit 3015 insulating material layer 3115′ such material may be SiO2, Si3N4, Al2O3, or other insulating materials, for example, as illustrated in FIG. 25AX. Next, preferred embodiments CMP etch then directly etch 3017 insulating layer 3115′ exposing first sacrificial layer 3108X, silicon, for example, and forming coplanar insulating layer 3115″, SiO2 or Si3N4, for example, as shown in FIG. 25AX′. Then, preferred methods etch 3016 conductor layer 3106′ and sacrificial material layer 3108′ to form electrode structure 3106 and sacrificial gap material layer 3108 as follows. Sacrificial layer 3108′ is etched. The photoresist layer (not shown) is removed. Etched sacrificial layer 3108 is used as the mask layer for etching conductor layer 3106′. Alternatively, the photoresist layer is used to etch both sacrificial gap layer 3108′ and conductor layer 3106′, and then the photoresist is removed (not shown). Alternatively, preferred methods etch 3016 conductor layer 3106′ and insulating material 3115″ of coplanar layer 3115″ and first sacrificial layer 3108X using a photoresist layer, and then the photoresist is removed (not shown). After the electrode and sacrificial material region are formed, preferred methods deposit 3018 a conformal sacrificial material layer. As shown in FIG. 25B, conformal sacrificial layer 3110 is deposited over the combined control electrode 3106 and first sacrificial gap layer 3108 structure. Alternatively, as shown in FIG. 25BX, conformal sacrificial layer 3110 is deposited over the combined control electrode 3106 and coplanar first sacrificial layer 3108X and border layer 3115. Conformal layer 3110 may be formed using a variety of insulating materials such as SiO2, Si3N4, Al2O3, and polyimide, or conducting materials such as aluminum, copper, nickel, chromium, tungsten, and silicon, for example. In a preferred implementation, SiO2 is selected. The SiO2 may be conformably deposited as spin-on-glass, or using Low Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition (LPCVD), or by other conformal deposition techniques. The thickness of the deposited SiO2 layer depends on the thickness of the combined control electrode 3106 and sacrificial layer 3108 (or combined control electrode 3106 and coplanar first sacrificial layer 3108X and border layer 3115) and method of etching conformal layer 3110, and may range from 70 nm to 300 nm, for example. After the conformal sacrificial material is deposited, a first methods chemical-mechanical-polish etch 3020 partially removes sacrificial layer material 3110 to top surface of first sacrificial gap layer 3108, leaving planar support structure 3110′ as illustrated in FIG. 25C. Alternatively, first methods CMP etch 3020 partially removes sacrificial layer material 3110 to top surface of combined control electrode 3106 and coplanar first sacrificial layer 3108X and border layer 3115, leaving support structure 3110X′ as illustrated in FIG. 25CX. CMP etch applied to surface of sacrificial layer 3108 may result in surface damage to first sacrificial gap layer 3108. CMP etch applied to combined control electrode 3106 and coplanar first sacrificial layer 3108X and border layer 3115 may result in damage to first sacrificial layer 3108X. Alternatively, a second methods 3020′CMP etch partially removes sacrificial layer 3110, then directional etch removes additional sacrificial layer 3110 exposing top surface of first sacrificial gap layer 3108, leaving planar support structure 3110′, or alternatively exposing top surface of first sacrificial layer 3108X, leaving support structure 3110X′. Two-step etch 3020′ method may be simplified to a single-step method without exposing the surface of first sacrificial gap layer 3108, or first sacrificial gap layer 3108X, to a CMP etch process. Alternatively, third etch 3020″ directly etches sacrificial layer 3110 material exposing top surface of first sacrificial layer 3108, leaving sloped support structure 3112 as illustrated in FIG. 25CC. Conformal sacrificial layer 3110 may be etched using sputter etching, reactive ion beam (RIE) etching, or other techniques. Next, preferred methods form 3022 a porous layer of matted carbon nanotubes. This may be done with spin-on technique or other appropriate technique as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,643,165 and 6,574,130 and U.S. patent apl. Ser. Nos. 09/915,093, 10/033,323, 10/033,032, 10/128,118, 10/128,117, 10/341,005, 10/341,055, 10/341,054, 10/341,130, 60/446,783 and 60/446,786, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties (hereinafter and hereinbefore, the “incorporated patent references”). Under preferred embodiments, the carbon nanotube layer has a thickness of approximately 0.5-5 nm for devices using single-walled nanotubes and 5-20 nm and greater for devices using multi-walled nanotubes. Then, preferred methods deposit 3023 a first conductor material layer 3117′ as shown in FIG. 25D and FIG. 25DX. The material of conductor layer 3117′ may be tungsten, aluminum, copper, gold, nickel, chrome, platinum, palladium, or combinations of conductors such as chrome-copper-gold. Conductor layer 3117′ thickness is in the range of 25 to 100 nm. The material of conductor layer 3117′ is selected for reliable low contact resistance RC between conductor layer 3117′and nanotube fabric layer 3114′. Next, preferred methods deposit 3025 a second conductor material layer 3119′ as shown in FIG. 25D and FIG. 25DX. The material of conductor layer 3119′ may be tungsten, aluminum, copper, gold, nickel, chrome, platinum, palladium, or combinations of conductors such as chrome-copper-gold. Conductor layer 3119′ thickness is in the range of 50 to 200 nm. The material of conductor layer 3119′ is selected for good conductivity. Photoresist is then deposited and imaged in act 3027 on second conductor material layer 3119′. Next, preferred methods 3029 etches second conductor layer 3119′ using appropriate known etch techniques to form electrical conductor 3119 as shown in FIGS. 25E, 25F, 25EX, and 25FX. Next, preferred methods 3031 etches first electrical conductor 3117 using second conductor 3119 as a masking layer using known etch techniques to form electrical conductor 3117. Combined electrical conductors 3117 and 3119 are shown in FIGS. 25E, 25F, 25EX, and 25FX. Next, preferred methods 3035 etches the carbon nanotube fabric layer 3114′ by using appropriate techniques as described in the incorporated patent applications, with combined electrical conductors 3117 and 3119 acting as a masking layer. Combined electrical conductors 3117 and 3119, and patterned nanotube fabric layer 3114 are shown in FIGS. 25E, 25F, 25EX, 25FX, and 25G. Under certain embodiments, photoresist is deposited 3027 and used to define an image of electrical conductor 3119, electrical conductor 3117, and nanotube fabric layer 3114. FIG. 25G shows a plan view of intermediate structure 3109 and intermediate structure 3109X. FIGS. 25E and 25EX show cross sectional views of intermediate structure 3109 and 3109X, respectively, taken at AA-AA′ of FIG. 25G, and FIGS. 25F and 25FX show cross sectional views of intermediate structures 3109 and 3109X, respectively, taken at BB-BB′ of FIG. 25G. Dimensions LSUSP and L′SUSP indicate orthogonal dimensions of first sacrificial layer 3108X and are typically at sub-minimum or minimum lithographic dimensions. Dimensions L and L′ indicate orthogonal dimensions of electrode 3106. L and L′ and are typically at or greater than the minimum lithographic dimensions allowed for a technology. Intermediate structure 3109 corresponds to a portion of FIGS. 24A and 24C in which electrode 3106, first sacrificial gap layer 3108 and combined electrical conductors 3117 and 3119 were formed using a planar support structure 3110′, but prior to the formation of opening 3136. Intermediate structures 3109 and 3109X were formed using methods as indicated in flow chart 3004 shown in FIGS. 23, 23′, and 23″, the steps used were acts 3010 through 3018, next, acts 3020 or 3020′ to define the planar support structure 3110′ and 3110X′, next, acts 3022 through 3035 to complete substructures 3109 and 3109X. Referring to method 3004 shown in FIGS. 23, 23′, and 23″, a preferred method of forming another intermediate structure 3109′ executes first, methods 3010 through 3018, next, method 3020″ to define the sloped support structure 3112, next, methods 3022 through 3035 to complete substructure 3109. FIG. 25GG shows a plan view of intermediate structure 3109′. FIG. 25EE shows a cross sectional view of intermediate structure 3109′ taken at AA-AA′ of FIG. 25GG, and FIG. 25FF shows a cross sectional view of intermediate structure 3109′ taken at BB-BB′ of FIG. 25GG. Dimensions L and L′ indicate orthogonal dimensions of electrode 3106. L and L′ are typically at or greater than the minimum lithographic dimensions allowed for a technology. Intermediate structure 3109′ corresponds to a portion of FIGS. 24B and 24D in which electrode 3106, first sacrificial gap layer 3114, and combined electrical conductors 3117 and 3119 were formed using a sloped support structure 3112, but prior to the formation of opening 3136. When the suspended portion (structure not yet illustrated) of carbon nanotube fabric layer 3114 shown schematically in FIG. 14 (position 250′) and FIG. 17B (position 1140′) storing logic state “1” (the same comments apply for a stored logic “0” state), carbon nanotube fibers in the nanotube fabric layer 3114 are elongated and under strain (tension). The ends of carbon nanotube fibers in the nanotube fabric layer 3114 that are supported (clamped, pinned) at the perimeter of the suspended region, apply a restoring force. The electrical and mechanical contact, support (clamping, pinning) region is illustrated by contact 3127 in FIGS. 24A-24F, with additional support in oxide layers beyond contact region 3127. Contacts 3127 in structures 3103 and 3107 and on adjacent surfaces of planar support structure 3110′ shown in FIGS. 24A, 24C, 24E, and 24F illustrated in corresponding FIGS. 25F and 25FX, are sufficient to provide the necessary restoring force without carbon nanotube fiber slippage. Layer 3314 is thus pinned between 3117 and 3110′ in region 3127. Contacts 3127 in structures 3103′ and 3107′ and on adjacent sloped support surfaces 3112 illustrated in FIGS. 24B and 24D, with sloped support surface 3112 overlap illustrated in corresponding FIG. 25FF, may tolerate still greater restoring forces without carbon nanotube fiber slippage. All preferred structures may be fabricated using lithographic minimum dimensions and greater than minimum lithographic dimensions for a selected generation of technology. Selective introduction of sub-minimum lithographic dimensions may be used to realize smaller cell size, lower carbon nanotube switching (threshold) voltages with tighter distributions through scaling (reducing) the carbon nanotube structure dimensions (combination of shorter suspended length and gap spacings), faster nanotube switching, and lower power operation. Carbon nanotubes fibers of 130 nm suspended length and 13 nm gaps typically switch in less than 350 ps. Selective introduction of sub-minimum lithographic dimensions may be used to form smaller fluid communication pipes used to remove sacrificial material, facilitating covering (sealing) the openings prior to deposition of the conductive wiring layers. Sub-minimum lithographic dimensions may be introduced on any planar surface at any step in the process. Flow chart 3036 illustrated in FIG. 26 may be used to generate shapes with sub-minimum dimensions. Shapes having two opposite sides of sub-minimum dimension, and two orthogonal sides having minimum or greater than minimum dimension may be formed using well known sidewall spacer technology. Sidewall periodicity is at minimum or greater than minimum dimensions. Shapes having two opposite sides of sub-minimum dimensions, and two orthogonal sides also having sub-minimum dimensions may be formed using the intersection of two sub-minimum dimension sidewall spacers as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,920,101 and 5,834,818. Sidewall periodicity is at minimum or greater than minimum dimensions in both orthogonal directions. Referring to FIG. 26, preferred methods flow chart 3036 start with methods step 3042. Methods step 3042 presumes that an intermediate base structure has already been created with a planar surface. An intermediate base structure 3102″ may include semiconductor and carbon nanotube structure elements, and may be at any step in a process that has a planar surface. The preferred methods first step deposits 3042 sacrificial layer 3131′ on intermediate structure 3102″, having surface 3104″, as illustrated in FIG. 29A. Sacrificial layer 3131′ may be photo resist, an insulator such as Si3N4, a semiconductor, a conductor, and may be in the thickness range of 50 to 300 nm. Sacrificial layer 3131′ is patterned to minimum or greater-than-minimum dimensions using photoresist (not shown). Then, preferred embodiments form 3044 sub-lithographic sidewall spacer selectively etchable over sacrificial layer. Deposit a conformal layer of an insulator, or a conductor such as tungsten, for example, on patterned sacrificial layer of insulator Si3N4, for example. Tungsten thickness is selected to achieve a desired sidewall spacing dimension. For a technology of 130 nm minimum dimension, for example, a tungsten thickness is chosen that results in a sidewall lateral dimension in the range of 50 to 100 nm, for example. After deposition, the combined tungsten and Si3N4 layer is planarized, forming the sidewall spacer structure 3133 on the sidewalls of sacrificial layer 3131 illustrated in FIG. 29B Next, preferred methods 3046 selectively etch sacrificial layer, leaving sub-minimum tungsten spacers on planarized surface. Sub-minimum tungsten spacer structure 3133 of width in the range of 50 to 100 nm, for example, are shown in FIG. 29C. Alternatively, a second methods 3058 forms a second sidewall spacer structure above and orthogonal to sidewall spacer structure 3133 as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,920,101 and 5,834,818. For a technology of 130 nm minimum dimension, for example, a tungsten thickness is chosen that results in a shape of lateral dimension in the range of 50 to 100 nm in one dimension, and. a shape of lateral dimension in the range of 50 to 100 nm in an orthogonal dimension (not shown). Then, preferred methods deposit 3048 a sacrificial layer 3130 and planarize. The sacrificial layer 3130 may be an insulator layer, or a photoresist layer, for example. Planarization exposes the spacer material. Next, preferred method 3050 spacer material is etched leaving photoresist openings to the underlying planar surface having the dimensions of the spacer structures. Photoresist layer openings 3134 may be shapes with one pair of minimum (or greater than minimum) shape W1, and sub-minimum pair of opposite dimensions of W2 as illustrated in plan view FIG. 29D. Photoresist layer openings 3132 may be shapes with one pair of sub-minimum opposite dimensions W2, and a second pair of orthogonal sub-minimum dimensions W3 as illustrated in plan view FIG. 29E. FIG. 29F shows a cross sectional view of intermediate sacrificial structure 3113 plan view FIG. 29D intermediate sacrificial structure 3113 taken at CC-CC′ of FIG. 29D. FIG. 29F shows a cross sectional view of intermediate sacrificial structure 3113′ plan view FIG. 29E intermediate sacrificial structure 3113‘taken at DD-DD’ of FIG. 29E. FIGS. 27 and 27′ each describe methods (processes) 3006 for completing the nanotube switch (control) structures 3103 and 3107 illustrated in FIGS. 24A and 24C, respectively. Referring to FIG. 27, preferred method preferred method acts in flow chart 3006 start with step 3230. Step 3230 presumes that a lower portion carbon nanotube intermediate structure 3109 (FIGS. 25E, 25F, and 25G) or nanotube intermediate structure 3109X (FIGS. 25DX, 25EX, and 25FX) of dimension L have already been created on an intermediate substrate structure 3102′. Structure 3102′ already has many components of a field effect device, including drain, source, and gate nodes, and electrode 3106 of structure 3109 or 3109X is electrically connected to an FET source. The first step is to deposit and planarize an insulating layer that may be formed using a variety of insulating materials such as SiO2, Si3N4, Al2O3. In a preferred implementation, SiO2 is selected. The SiO2 may be deposited as spin-on-glass, or using Low Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition (LPCVD), or by other deposition techniques. The thickness of the deposited SiO2 layer depends on the thickness of the lower portion carbon nanotube intermediate structure 3109, and may range from 150 nm to 300 nm, for example, as illustrated in FIG. 25D or FIG. 25E. Method steps described fully below with respect to FIG. 30A also apply to FIG. 30AX Then, preferred methods deposit and image 3232 photoresist. Such patterning may be done using known techniques to produce images in the photoresist of minimum size LMIN or greater in photoresist layer 3129 shown in FIG. 30B. Alternatively, intermediate sacrificial structure 3113 may be formed in lieu of photoresist layer 3129, such that opening LMIN is reduced to sub-minimum dimension W2 (LSUB-MIN=W2) as illustrated in FIGS. 29D and 29F. Lower portion carbon nanotube intermediate structure 3109 may be reduced in size, such that L is replaced by LMIN, and LMIN is replaced by W2 (also referred to as LSUB-MIN). For a 130 nm minimum feature technology, L may be reduced from 250 nm to 190 nm, with the opening reduced from LMIN of 130 nm to W2 (LSUB-MIN) of 65 nm, for example. Alternatively, intermediate artificial structure 3113′ may be formed in lieu of photoresist layer 3129, such that opening LMIN is reduced to sub-minimum dimension W2, and orthogonal opening dimension (not shown) is reduced to sub-minimum dimension W3, as illustrated in FIGS. 29E and 29F. If W2=W3=65 nm, and, lower portion carbon nanotube intermediate structure 3109 dimensions L and L′ are equal (FIGS. 25E and 25F), then the dimension of structure 3109 may reduced from 250×250 nm to 190×190 nm, with an opening reduced from 130×130 nm, to 65×65 nm, for example. Then, preferred methods etch 3234 holes in second conductor layer 3119 to the top of conductor 3117. This etch can be done directly through conductor 3119 using RIE directional etch, for example, transferring the minimum or sub-minimum dimension of opening 3136 into conductor 3119 as minimum or sub-minimum opening 3151 as illustrated in FIG. 30C. Conductor 3117 is used an etch stop for the RIE because RIE may destroy carbon nanotube fibers in carbon nanotube layer 3114. Next, preferred methods etch 3235 holes in first conductor layer 3117 to the carbon nanotube layer 3114. This etch can be done directly through conductor 3117, transferring the minimum or sub-minimum dimension of opening 3151 into opening 3153 in conductor 3117 as illustrated in FIG. 30D. A wet etch is used to create opening 3153 in conductor 3117. Wet etch is selected to prevent damage to nanotube layer 3114 as described in the incorporated patent applications. Wet etch is selected not to etch first sacrificial gap layer 3108. First sacrificial gap layer 3108 may consist of Si3N4 or Si, for example. Then, preferred methods deposit 3236 conformal layer of second sacrificial gap material over conductor 3119, into opening 3153′ contacting sidewalls of conductors 3119 and 3117, and over the carbon nanotube element 3114 as illustrate in FIG. 30E. One example is thin conductor layer of TiW, of approximate thickness 5-50 nm. The actual thickness may vary depending upon the performance specifications required for the nanotube device. Next, preferred methods deposit 3240 conductor layer, fill the opening 3153′ illustrated in FIG. 30E, and planarized. Conductor layer may be composed of tungsten, aluminum, copper, gold, nickel, chrome, platinum, palladium, or combinations of conductors such as chrome-copper-gold, of thickness 150 to 300 nm. Alternatively, preferred methods deposit 3238 of a conformal insulator layer 3203, layer 3202 may be selected from materials such as SiO2, Al2O3, or other suitable material with etch properties selective to Si3N4 or Si, for example. SiO2 is preferred with approximate thickness 5-50 nm as illustrated in FIG. 30E′. Then, preferred methods deposit 3240 conductor layer for electrode 3205 on insulator layer, fill opening 3153. The actual thickness may vary depending upon the performance specifications required for the nanotube device.” Then, preferred methods 3242 pattern conductor layer using photoresist. Next, pattern second sacrificial gap layer is patterned using the photoresist layer as a mask, or conductor layer as a mask. Alternatively, preferred methods 3244 pattern conductor layer using photoresist. Next, pattern insulator layer using the photoresist layer as a mask, or conductor layer as a mask. Then, pattern second sacrificial gap layer is patterned using the photoresist layer as a mask, or combined metal and insulator as a mask. Then, preferred methods 3246 deposit insulating layer and planarize to form intermediate structure 3212 as illustrated in FIG. 30F. Insulator 3116 overcoats electrode 3205. Second sacrificial gap layer 3201 separates electrode 3205 from conductors 3119 and 3117, and carbon nanotube fabric layer 3114. Alternatively, preferred methods 3246 deposit insulating layer and planarize to form intermediate structure 3214 as illustrated in FIG. 30F′. Insulator 3116 overcoats electrode 3205. Conformal insulator layer 3203 separates electrode 3205 and second sacrificial gap layer 3201, and remains on the lower surface of electrode 3205 after the removal of second sacrificial gap layer 3201 (a later step). Second sacrificial gap layer 3201 separates electrode 3205 from conductors 3119 and 3117, and carbon nanotube fabric layer 3114 forming intermediate structure 3212. Alternatively, preferred methods 3232 through preferred methods 3246 applied to FIG. 30AX result in the structure 3212X shown in FIG. 30FX and structure 3214X shown in FIG. 30FX′. FIGS. 28 and 28′ describe processes for removing sacrificial layers around the switching portion (region) of carbon nanotube fabric layer 3114 so that gaps are formed around the nanotube element so that the element may be suspended and switched in response to electrostatic forces. Each method presumes an intermediate structure such as 3212 or 3214 (FIGS. 30F and 30F′, respectively) has already been formed. FIGS. 28 and 28′ describe processes for removing sacrificial layers around the switching portion (region) of carbon nanotube fabric layer 3114 so that gaps are formed around the nanotube element so that the element may be suspended and switched in response to electrostatic forces. Each method presumes an intermediate structure such as 3212X or 3214X (FIGS. 30FX and 30FX′, respectively) has already been formed. While preferred methods are described further below with respect to structures 3212 and 3214 (FIGS. 30F and 30F′, respectively), it is understood that these preferred methods may also be applied to structure 3212X shown in FIG. 30FX and structure 3214X shown in FIG. 30FX′. With reference to flow chart 3008 of FIGS. 28 and 28′ and to intermediate structures 3212 and 3214 of FIGS. 30F and 30F′, respectively, preferred methods form 3250 minimum images in photoresist masking sacrificial layer 3130. Alternatively, intermediate sacrificial structure 3113 may be formed in lieu of a photoresist layer, providing an opening of sub-minimum dimension W2 as illustrated in FIGS. 29D and 29F. Then, preferred methods directionally etch 3252 insulator form, via holes and expose a top surface of a top electrode. Via holes are located outside nanotube switching regions. Via hole 3207 through insulator 3116 to top electrode 3205 illustrated in FIG. 30G is taken at EE-EE′ as shown in FIG. 30F. No insulating layer is present between electrode 3205 and second sacrificial gap layer 3201. Alternatively, via hole 3208 through insulator 3116 to top electrode 3205 illustrated in FIG. 30G′ is taken at FF-FF′ as shown in FIG. 30F′. Insulating layer 3203 is present between electrode 3205 and second sacrificial gap layer 3201. Next, preferred methods directionally etch 3254 conductor electrode to top of second sacrificial gap layer. Openings 3207′ provide fluid communication paths to second sacrificial layers 3201 as illustrated in FIG. 30H. Alternatively, preferred methods directionally etch 3256 conductor electrode to top of insulating layer between conductor electrode and second sacrificial gap layer. Next, methods directionally etch 3254 insulator layer to top of second sacrificial layer. Openings 3208′ provide fluid communication paths to second sacrificial gap layers 3201 as illustrated in FIG. 30H′ Then, preferred methods etch (remove) 3258 second sacrificial gap layer material creating a gap and extending fluid communication paths to the exposed top portion (region) of first sacrificial gap layers inside openings in conductors in contact with carbon nanotube fabric layers. At this point in the process a gap exists above a portion of the carbon nanotube film, which may also be referred to as a single-gap nanotube switch structure, and switched as described further down. Next, preferred methods etch (remove) 3260 through porous carbon nanotube fabric layer without damaging carbon nanotube fibers by using appropriate techniques as descried in the incorporated patent applications, to exposed portion (region) of first sacrificial gap layers inside openings in conductors in contact with carbon nanotube fabric layer. Portions (regions) of first sacrificial gap layers exposed to the etch are removed and carbon nanotube fibers are suspended (released) in the switching region. First sacrificial layer 3108 is partially removed using industry standard wet etches for Si3N4, for example. Alternatively, first sacrificial layer 3108X is removed using industry standard wet etches for a silicon layer, for example. At this point a gap exists above and below a portion of the carbon nanotube, which may be referred to as a dual-gap switch structure, and switched as described further down. Carbon nanotube fibers in the peripheral region outside a switching region remain mechanically pinned and electrically connected, sandwiched between a conductor layer and the remaining (unetched) portion of the first sacrificial layer. A switching region is defined by openings in conductors in contact with carbon nanotube fabric layers. Gap regions 3209, 3209A, and 3108A for intermediate structure 3213 with no insulating layer above gap 3108A are illustrated in FIGS. 301 and 30K. Gap regions 3211, 3209A, and 3108A for intermediate structure 3215 with insulating layer above gap 3108A are illustrated in FIG. 30K′. Gap regions 3209, 3209A, and 3108A for intermediate structure 3215′ with insulating layer 3203′ below gap 3108A are illustrated in FIG. 30K″. Insulator 3203′ was deposited as illustrated in FIG. 25A′. Next, preferred methods deposit 3262 insulating layer to fill (seal) openings (via holes) that provide a fluid communication path (or fluid conduit) used to release (suspend) carbon nanotube fibers. Insulator surface is planarized. Openings (via holes) that provide fluid communication paths are sealed as illustrated by sealed opening 3207″ in FIG. 30J and by sealed opening 3208″ in FIG. 30J′. Next, preferred methods etch 3264 via holes to reach buried studs in contact with FET drain regions. Via holes are filled with a conductor and planarized. FIG. 30K illustrates structure 3213 with electrode 3205, combined metal conductors 3119 and 3117, and carbon nanotube region 3114A separated by gap regions 3209A and 3108A. Stud 3118A contacts stud 3118 that connects to drain 3126 through contact 3123. Structure 3213 is ready for first wiring layer. FIG. 30K′ illustrates structure 3215 with combined electrode 3205 and bottom insulator layer 3203, combined metal conductors 3119 and 3117, and carbon nanotube region 3114A separated by gap regions 3209A and 3108A. Stud 3118A contacts stud 3118 that connects to drain 3126 through contact 3123. Structure 3215 is ready for a first wiring layer. FIG. 30KK illustrates the nanotube switch portion 3217 of integrated dual-gap structure 3215 of FIG. 30K′, where the suspended portion 3114A of nanotube 3114 has been switched to the open position “OFF” state, with the elongated suspended portion 3114A′ in contact with insulator 3203 on release-plate 3216, and held in the open position by van der Waals forces between insulator 3203 and carbon nanotube portion 3114A′. Switch portion 3217 corresponds to switch 90 illustrated in the schematic of FIG. 3A switched to position 90″, as illustrated in the schematic of FIG. 3C. Nanotube elongated suspended portion 3114A′ of FIG. 30KK corresponds to nanotube elongated portion 1140″ of the memory cell schematic illustrated in FIG. 17C. FIG. 30KK′ illustrates the nanotube switch portion 3217′ of integrated dual-gap structure 3215 of FIG. 30K′, where the suspended portion 3114A of nanotube 3114 has been switched to the closed position “ON” state, with the elongated suspended portion 3114A″ in contact with switch-plate 3206, and held in the closed position by van der Waals forces between switch-plate 3206 and carbon nanotube portion 3114A″. Switch portion 3217′ corresponds to switch 90 illustrated in the schematic of FIG. 3A switched to position 90′, as illustrated in the schematic of FIG. 3B. Nanotube elongated suspended portion 3114A″ of FIG. 30KK′ also corresponds to nanotube elongated portion 1140′ of the memory cell schematic illustrated in FIG. 17B. FIG. 30L illustrates a cross section of an alternate integrated nanotube structure that uses a single gap region above the nanotube switching region to form integrated single-gap nanotube switching structure 3219, instead of a dual-gap nanotube structure that uses a gap region above and below the switching region of the nanotube. Structure 3219 is referred to as a single-gap structure because segment 3114B of nanotube 3114 only has a single gap 3209A. Dielectric layer 3108 below nanotube segment 3114B is not removed by etching. Structure 3219 is fabricated using the steps as illustrated by flow chart 3008 in FIG. 28′, and corresponds to the method of fabrication described above for fabricating cross section of structure 3213 of FIG. 30K, except that method steps 3260 are omitted, such that the first sacrificial gap layer is not removed. Electrode 3106 shown below nanotube 3114 in dual-gap integrated structure 3215 of FIG. 30K′ performs a switch-plate function, as does electrode 3205 shown above nanotube 3114 in single-gap integrated structure 3219 of FIG. 30L. In other words, the bottom electrode 3106 of FIG. 30K′ and the top electrode 3205 of FIG. 30L each performs a switch-plate function. Electrode 3205 with insulating layer 3203 shown above nanotube 3114 in dual-gap integrated structure 3215 of FIG. 30K′ performs a release-plate function, as does electrode 3106 with insulating layer 3108 shown below nanotube 3114 in single-gap integrated structure 3219 of FIG. 30L. In other words, the insulated top electrode 3205 of FIG. 30K′ and the insulated bottom electrode 3106 of FIG. 30L each performs a release-plate function. Source 3124 is connected to electrode 3106 as illustrated in FIG. 30K′, such that source 3124 controls the voltage applied to electrode 3106, which is used a switch-plate in structure 3215 shown in FIG. 30K′. Source 3124 controls the voltage of insulated electrode 3106, which is used as a release-plate in structure 3219 shown in FIG. 30L. FIG. 30L′ illustrates the structure 3219′ in which structure 3219 of FIG. 30L has been modified so that source 3124 controls the voltage of switch-plate electrode 3205. In operation, structure 3215 of FIG. 30K′ and structure 3219′ of FIG. 30L′ operate in the same way, except that the position of corresponding switch plates have been interchanged, such that the switch-plate is below the nanotube layer in structure 3215, and above the nanotube layer in structure 3219′. FIG. 30L″ illustrates the nanotube switch portion 3221 of integrated single-gap structure 3219 of FIG. 30L, and single-gap structure 3219′ of FIG. 30L′, where the suspended portion 3114B of nanotube 3114 is in the open position “OFF” state. In the open position, nanotube 3114 remains in contact with insulator layer 3108, in an approximately non-elongated state, with van der Waals force between nanotube 3114 and insulator layer 3108. FIG. 30L′″ illustrates the nanotube switch portion 3221′ of integrated single-gap structure 3219 of FIG. 30L, and single-gap structure 3219′ of FIG. 30L′, where the suspended portion 3114B of nanotube 3114 has been switched to the closed position “ON” state 3114B′. In the closed position, nanotube 3114 has been switched in contact with switch-plate 3205, and remains in contact electrode 3205, in an elongated state, with van der Waals force between nanotube 3114B segment and electrode 3205. A single-gap structure may be used in lieu of a dual-gap structure to fabricate field effect devices with controllable sources and memories using NT-on-Source arrays. Continuing the fabrication process using a dual-gap nanotube structure such as illustrated in FIG. 30K, bit line 3138 is then deposited and patterned; the resulting cross section 3223 is illustrated in FIG. 30M. Wiring layer 3138 contacts stud 3118A at contact region 3140 of intermediate structure 3223. Final processing to the passivation layer is not shown. Alternatively, continuing the fabrication process using a dual-gap nanotube structure such as illustrated in FIG. 30K′, bit line 3138 is then deposited and patterned; the resulting cross section 3225 is illustrated in FIG. 30M′. Wiring layer 3138 contacts stud 3118A at contact region 3140 of intermediate structure 3225. Final processing to the passivation layer is not shown. FIG. 30M′ illustrates cross section A-A′ of array 3225 taken at A-A′ of the plan view of array 3225 illustrated in FIG. 30P, and shows FET device region 3237 in the FET length direction, nanotube switch structure 3233, interconnections and insulators. FIG. 30N illustrates cross section B-B′ of array 3225 taken at B-B′ of plan view of array 3225 illustrated in FIG. 30P, and shows a release array line 3205, a reference array line 3119/3117 composed of combined conductors 3119 and 3117, and a word array line 3120. FIG. 30P illustrates a plan view of array 3225 including exemplary cell 3165 region, bit array line 3138 contacting drain 3126 through contact 3140 to stud 3118A, to stud 3118, to contact 3123, and to drain 3126, (studs 3118, 3118A, and contact 3123 not shown in plan view 3225). Reference array line 3119/3117 is parallel to bit line 3138, is illustrated in cross section in FIG. 30N, and contacts a corresponding reference line segment in the picture frame region formed by combined conductors 3117 and 3119, in contact with nanotube 3114, as shown in FIG. 30M′. Release array line 3205 is parallel to word array line 3120. Release line 3205 contacts and forms a portion of release electrode 3205 as illustrated in the nanotube switching region of FIG. 30M′. This nanotube switching region is illustrated as nanotube switch structure 3233 in array 3225 of FIG. 30P. In terms of minimum technology feature size, NT-on-source cell 3165 is approximately 12 to 13 F2. Nanotube-on-source array 3225 structures illustrated in FIGS. 30M′, 30N, and 30P correspond to nanotube-on-source array 1700 schematic representations illustrated in FIG. 18. Bit line 3138 structures correspond to any of bit lines BL0 to BLm−1 schematic representations; reference line 3119/3117 structures correspond to any of reference lines REF0 to REFm−1 schematic representations; word line 3120 structures correspond to any of word lines WL0 to WLn−1 schematic representations; release line 3205 structures correspond to any of release lines RL0 to RLn−1 schematic representations; source contact 3140 structures correspond to any of source contacts 1720 schematic representations; nanotube switch structures 3233 correspond to any of NT0,0 to NTm−1,n−1 schematic representations; FET 3237 structures correspond to any of FETs T0,0 to Tm−1, n−1 schematic representations; and exemplary cell 3165 corresponds to any of cells C0,0 to cell Cm−1,n−1 schematic representations. It is desirable to enhance array 3225 illustrated in plan view FIG. 30P by enhancing wireability, for example, or cell density, for example. In order to minimize the risk of shorts caused by misaligned via (vertical) connections between conductive layers, it is desirable to coat the top and sides of some selected conductors with an additional insulating layer that is not etched when etching the common insulator (common insulator SiO2, for example) between conductive layers as illustrated by structure 3227 in FIG. 31D. A method 3144 of coating a conductive layer with an additional insulating layer to form insulated conductor structure 3227 is described with respect to structures illustrated in FIGS. 31A-31D. FIG. 31A presumes that an intermediate structure has already been created and insulated with insulator layer 3116, SiO2 for example. Then, preferred methods deposit conductor layer 3139′ on insulator 3116. By way of example, conductor layer 3139′ may be tungsten, aluminum, copper, gold, nickel, chrome, platinum, palladium, polysilicon, or combinations of conductors such as chrome-copper-gold deposited by evaporation, sputtering, CVD, and other methods. Conductor thickness may be in the range of 50 to 200 nm. Then, preferred methods deposit insulating layer 3143′ on top of conductor layer 3139′ as illustrated in FIG. 31A. Insulator material may be silicon nitride, alumina, or polyimide, for example. Insulator thickness may be 20 to 100 nm, for example. Then, preferred methods deposit and image photoresist using known techniques. This is done to define a pattern in the photoresist that corresponds to the electrode and insulating layer. Then, preferred methods etch define conductor 3139 and insulating layer 3143 as illustrated in FIG. 31B. The photoresist layer (not shown) is removed. After the conductor 3139 and insulating layer 3143 are defined, preferred methods deposit conformal insulating layer 3147 as illustrated in FIG. 31C. Insulating layer 3147 may be of the same material as insulating layer 3143. Insulating thickness may be 20 to 100 nm, for example. Next, preferred methods directionally etch (reactive ion etch, for example) insulating layer 3147, resulting in conductor 3139 having insulating layer 3148 on top and on the sides and forming insulated conductor structure 3227 as illustrated in FIG. 31D. Method 3144 (or comparable methods) of insulating a conductor as illustrated in FIGS. 31A-31D may be applied to various conductive layers, such as those in memory array 3225. It is desirable to enhance the wireability of array 3225 illustrated in FIG. 30P by forming reference array line 3138′ on the same wiring level and at the same time as bit line 3138. Reference array line 3138′ contacts reference line segments 3119/3117 composed of combined conductors 3119 and 3117 as illustrated further below. Line segments 3119/3117 are not required to span relatively long sub-array regions and may be optimized for contact to nanotube layer 3114. FIG. 32A illustrates cross section A-A′ of array 3229 taken at A-A′ of the plan view of array 3229 illustrated in FIG. 32C, and shows FET device region 3237 in the FET length direction, nanotube switch structure 3233, interconnections and insulators. FIG. 32B illustrates cross section B-B′ of array 3229 taken at B-B′ of plan view of array 3229 illustrated in FIG. 32C, and shows a release array line 3205 with insulating layer 3149 corresponding to insulating layer 3148 in structure 3227 (FIG. 31D), a reference array line 3138′ in contact with conductor 3119 of combined conductors 3119 and 3117, and a word array line 3120. Reference array line 3138′ contacts conductor 3119 through contact 3155, to stud 3157, through contact 3159, to conductor 3119. Insulator 3149 is used to prevent contact between release line electrode 3205 and stud 3157 in case of stud 3157 misalignment. FIG. 32C illustrates a plan view of array 3229 including exemplary cell 3167 region, with bit array line 3138 contacting drain 3126 through contact 3140 to stud 3118A, to stud 3118, to contact 3123, and to drain 3126, (stud 3118A, stud 3118 and contact 3123 not shown in plan view 3229). Reference array line 3138′ is on the same array wiring layer and parallel to bit line 3138, as is illustrated in plan view of array 3229 in FIG. 32C, and reference line 3138′ contacts a corresponding reference line segment 3119, as shown in FIG. 32B. Release array line 3205 is parallel to word array line 3120. Release line 3205 contacts and forms a portion of release electrode 3205 as illustrated in the nanotube switching region of FIG. 32A. This nanotube switching region is illustrated as nanotube switch structure 3233 in array 3229 of FIG. 32C. In terms of minimum technology feature size, NT-on-source cell 3167 is approximately 12 to 13 F2. Nanotube-on-source array 3229 structures illustrated in FIGS. 32A, 32B, and 32C correspond to nanotube-on-source array 1700 schematic representation illustrated in FIG. 18. Bit line 3138 structures correspond to any of bit lines BL0 to BLm−1 schematic representations; reference line 3138′ structures correspond to any of reference lines REF0 to REFm−1 schematic representations; word line 3120 structures correspond to any of word lines WL0 to WLn−1 schematic representations; release line 3205 structures correspond to any of release lines RL0 to RLn−1 schematic representations; source contact 3140 structures correspond to any of source contacts 1720 schematic representations; nanotube switch structure 3233 correspond to any of NT0,0 to NTm−1,n−1 schematic representations; and FET 3237 structures correspond to any of FET T0,0 to Tm−1, n−1 schematic representations; and exemplary cell 3167 corresponds to any of cells C0,0 to cell Cm−1,n−1 schematic representations. It is desirable to enhance the density of array 3225, illustrated in FIG. 30P, to reduce the area of each bit in the array, resulting in higher performance, lower power, and lower cost due to smaller array size. Smaller array size results in the same number of bits occupying a reduced silicon chip area, resulting in increased productivity and therefore lower cost, because there are more chips per wafer. Cell area is decreased by reducing the size (area) of nanotube switch region 3233, thereby reducing the periodicity between nanotube switch regions 3233 and correspondingly reducing the spacing between bit lines 3138 and reference lines 3119/3117. FIG. 33A illustrates cross section A-A′ of array 3231 taken at A-A′ of the plan view of array 3231 illustrated in FIG. 33D, and shows FET device region 3237 in the FET length direction, reduced area (smaller) nanotube switch structure 3239, interconnections and insulators. A smaller picture frame opening is formed in combined conductors 3119 and 3117 by applying sub-lithographic method 3036 shown in FIG. 26 and corresponding sub-lithographic structures shown in FIGS. 29D, 29E, and 29F during the fabrication of nanotube switch structure 3239. FIG. 33B illustrates cross section B-B′ of array 3231 taken at B-B′ of plan view of array 3231 illustrated in FIG. 33D, and shows reference line 3163 comprising conductive layers 3117 and 3119, and conformal insulating layer 3161. Conductive layers 3117 and 3119 of reference line 3163 are extended to form the picture frame region of nanotube device structure 3239; however, insulating layer 3161 is not used as part of the nanotube switch structure 3239. FIG. 33B also illustrates release line 3205, and word array line 3120. FIG. 33C illustrates cross section C-C′ of array 3231 taken at C-C′ of the plan view of array 3231 illustrated in FIG. 33D. Bit line 3138 is connected to drain diffusion 3126 through contact 3140, to stud 3118A, and through contact 3123. In order to achieve greater array density, there is a small spacing between stud 3118A and reference line 3163. Insulator 3161 is used to prevent electrical shorting between stud 3118A and reference line 3163 conductors 3119 and 3117 if stud 3118A is misaligned. FIG. 33D illustrates a plan view of array 3231 including exemplary cell 3169 region, with bit array line 3138 contacting drain 3126 as illustrated in FIG. 33C, reference array lines 3163 parallel to bit line 3138 but on a different array wiring level (wiring plane). Release array line 3205 is parallel to word array line 3120. Release line 3205 contacts and forms a portion of release electrode 3205 as illustrated in the nanotube switching region of FIG. 33A. Exemplary cell 3169 area (region) is smaller (denser) than exemplary cell 3167 area shown in FIG. 32C and exemplary cell 3165 area shown in FIG. 30P, and therefore corresponding array 3231 is denser (occupies less area) than corresponding array areas of array 3229 and 3225. The greater density of array 3231 results in higher performance, less power, less use of silicon area, and therefore lower cost as well. In terms of minimum technology feature size, NT-on-source cell 3169 is approximately 10 to 11 F2. Nanotube-on-source array 3231 structures illustrated in FIGS. 33A-33D correspond to nanotube-on-source array 1700 schematic representation illustrated in FIG. 18. Bit line 3138 structures correspond to any of bit lines BL0 to BLm−1 schematic representations; reference line 3163 structures correspond to any of reference lines REF0 to REFm−1 schematic representations; word line 3120 structures correspond to any of word lines WL0 to WLn−1 schematic representations; release line 3205 structures correspond to any of release lines RL0 to RLn−1 schematic representations; source contact 3140 structures correspond to any of source contacts 1720 schematic representations; nanotube switch structure 3239 correspond to any of NT0,0 to NTm−1,n−1 schematic representations; and FET 3237 structures correspond to any of FET T0,0 to Tm−1, n−1 schematic representations; and exemplary cell 3169 corresponds to any of cells C0,0 to cell Cm−1,n−1 schematic representations. NT-On-Source NRAM Memory Systems and Circuits with Parallel Bit and Release Lines, and Parallel Word and Reference Lines NRAM 1T/1NT memory arrays are wired using four lines. Word line WL is used to gate select device T, bit line BL is attached to a shared drain between two adjacent select devices. Reference line REF is used to control the NT switch voltage of storage element NT, and release line RL is used to control the release-plate of storage element NT. In this NRAM array configuration, RL is parallel to BL and acts as second bit line, and REF is parallel to WL and acts as a second word line. FIG. 34A depicts a structure comprising non-volatile field effect device. FED4 80 with memory cell wiring to form NT-on-Source memory cell 2000 schematic. Memory cell 2000 operates in a source-follower mode. Word line (WL) 2200 connects to terminal T1 of FED4 80; bit line (BL) 2300 connects to terminal T2 of FED4 80; reference line (REF) 2400 connects to terminal T3 of FED4 80; and release line (RL) 2500 connects to terminal T4 of FED4 80 (T1-T4 shown in FIG. 2D). Memory cell 2000 performs write and read operations, and stores the information in a non-volatile state. The FED4 80 layout dimensions and operating voltages are selected to optimize memory cell 2000. Memory cell 2000 FET select transistor (T) gate 2040 corresponds to gate 82; drain 2060 corresponds to drain 84; and controllable source 2080 corresponds to controllable source 86. Memory cell 2000 nanotube (NT) switch-plate 2120 corresponds to switch-plate 88; NT switch 2140 corresponds to NT switch 90; release-plate insulator layer surface 2160 corresponds to release-plate insulator layer surface 96; and release-plate 2180 corresponds to release-plate 94. The interconnections between the elements of memory cell 2000 schematic correspond to the interconnection of the corresponding interconnections of the elements of FED4 80. BL 2300 connects to drain 2060 through contact 2320; REF 2400 connects to NT switch 2140 through contact 2420; RL 2500 connects to release-plate 2180 by contact 2520; WL 2200 interconnects to gate 2040 by contact 2220. The non-volatile NT switching element 2140 may be caused to deflect toward switch-plate 2120 via electrostatic forces to closed (“ON”) position 2140′ to store a logic “1” state as illustrated in FIG. 34B. The van der Waals force holds NT switch 2140 in position 2140′. Alternatively, the non-volatile NT switching element 2140 may be caused to deflect to insulator surface 2160 on release-plate 2180 via electrostatic forces to open (“OFF”) position 2140″ to store a logic “0” state as illustrated in FIG. 34C. The van der Waals force holds NT switch 2140 in position 2140″. Non-volatile NT switching element 2140 may instead be caused to deflect to an open (“OFF”) near-mid point position 2140′″ between switch-plate 2120 and release-plate 2180, storing an apparent logic “0” state as illustrate in FIG. 34D. However, the absence of a van der Waals retaining force in this open (“OFF”) position is likely to result in a memory cell disturb that causes NT switch 2140 to unintentionally transition to the closed (“ON”) position, and is not desirable. Sufficient switching voltage is needed to ensure that the NT switch 2140 open (“OFF”) position is position 2140″. The non-volatile element switching via electrostatic forces is as depicted by element 90 in FIG. 2D. Voltage waveforms 311 used to generate the required electrostatic forces are illustrated in FIG. 4. NT-on-Source schematic 2000 forms the basis of a non-volatile storage (memory) cell. The device may be switched between closed storage state “1” (switched to position 2140′) and open storage state “0” (switched to position 2140″), which means the controllable source may be written to an unlimited number of times to as desired. In this way, the device may be used as a basis for a non-volatile nanotube random access memory, which is referred to here as a NRAM array, with the ‘N’ representing the inclusion of nanotubes. FIG. 35 represents an NRAM system 2700, according to preferred embodiments of the invention. Under this arrangement, an array is formed with m×n (only exemplary portion being shown) of non-volatile cells ranging from cell C0,0 to cell Cm−1,n−1. NRAM system 2700 may be designed using one large m×n array, or several smaller sub-arrays, where each sub-array is formed of m×n cells. To access selected cells, the array uses read and write word lines (WL0, WL1, . . . WLn−1), read and write bit lines (BL0, BL1, . . . BLm−1), read and write reference lines (REF0, REF1, . . . REFm−1), and read and write release lines (RL0, RL1, . . . RLn−1). Non-volatile cell C0,0 includes a select device T0,0 and non-volatile storage element NT0,0. The gate of T0,0 is coupled to WL0, and the drain of T0,0 is coupled to BL0. NT0 is the non-volatilely switchable storage element where the NT0,0 switch-plate is coupled to the source of T0,0, the switching NT element is coupled to REF0, and the release-plate is coupled to RL0. Connection 2720 connects BL0 to shared drain of select devices T0,0 and T0,1. Word, bit, reference, and release decoders/drivers are explained further below. Under preferred embodiments, nanotubes in array 2700 may be in the “ON” “1” state or the “OFF” “0” state. The NRAM memory allows for unlimited read and write operations per bit location. A write operation includes both a write function to write a “1” and a release function to write a “0”. By way of example, a write “1” to cell C0,0 and a write “0” to cell C1,0 is described. For a write “1” operation to cell C0,0, select device T0,0 is activated when WL0 transitions from 0 to VSW, BL0 transitions from VDD to 0 volts, RL0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW, and REF0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW. The release-plate and NT switch of the non-volatile storage element NT0,0 are each at VSW resulting in zero electrostatic force (because the voltage difference is zero). The zero BL0 voltage is applied to the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT0,0 by the controlled source of select device T0,0. The difference in voltage between the NT0,0 switch-plate and NT switch is VSW and generates an attracting electrostatic force. If VSW exceeds the nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH, the nanotube structure switches to “ON” state or logic “1” state, that is, the nanotube NT switch and switch-plate are electrically connected as illustrated in FIG. 34B. The near-Ohmic connection between switch-plate 2120 and NT switch 2140 in position 2140′ represents the “ON” state or “1” state. If the power source is removed, cell C0,0 remains in the “ON” state. For a write “0” (release) operation to cell C1,0, select device T1,0 is activated when WL0 transitions from 0 to VSW, BL1 transitions from VDD to VSW volts, RL 1 transitions from VDD to zero volts, and REF0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW. The VSW BL1 voltage is applied to the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT1,0 by the controlled source of select device T1,0, and switching voltage VSW is applied to the NT switch by REF0, resulting in zero electrostatic force between switch-plate and NT switch. The non-volatile storage element NT1,0 release-plate is at switching voltage zero and the NT switch is at switching voltage VSW generating an attracting electrostatic force. If VSW exceeds the nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH, the nanotube structure switches to the “OFF” state or logic “0” state, that is, the nanotube NT switch and the surface of the release-plate insulator are in contact as illustrated in FIG. 34C. The non-conducting contact between insulator surface 2160 on release-plate 2180 and NT switch 2140 in position 2140″ represents the “OFF” state or “0” state. If the power source is removed, cell C1,0 remains in the “OFF” state. An NRAM read operation does not change (destroy) the information in the activated cells, as it does in a DRAM, for example. Therefore the read operation in the NRAM is characterized as a non-destructive readout (or NDRO) and does not require a write-back after the read operation has been completed. For a read operation of cell C0,0, BL0 is driven high to VDD and allowed to float. WL0 is driven high to VDD and select device T0,0 turns on. REF0 is at zero volts, and RL0 is at VDD. If cell C0,0 stores an “ON” state (“1” state) as illustrated in FIG. 34B, BL0 discharges to ground through a conductive path that includes select device T0,0 and non-volatile storage element NT0,0 in the “ON” state, the BL0 voltage drops, and the “ON” state or “1” state is detected by a sense amplifier/latch circuit (not shown) that records the voltage drop by switching the latch to a logic “1” state. BL0 is connected by the select device T0,0 conductive channel of resistance RFET to the switch-plate of NT0,0. The switch-plate of NT0,0 in the “ON” state contacts the NT switch with contact resistance RSW and the NT switch contacts reference line REF0 with contact resistance RC. The total resistance in the discharge path is RFET+RSW+RC. Other resistance values in the discharge path, including the resistance of the NT switch, are much small and may be neglected For a read operation of cell C1,0, BL1 is driven high to VDD and allowed to float. WL0 is driven high to VDD and select device T1,0 turns on. REF0=0, and RL1 is at VDD. If cell C1,0 stores an “OFF” state (“0” state) as illustrated in FIG. 34C, BL1 does not discharge to ground through a conductive path that includes select device T1,0 and non-volatile storage element NT1,0 in the “OFF” state, because the switch-plate is not in contact with the NT switch when NT 1,0 is in the “OFF” state, and the resistance RC is large. During read, BL2 to BLm−1 is at zero volts. Sense amplifier/latch circuit (not shown) does not detect a voltage drop and the latch is set to a logic “0” state. FIG. 36 illustrates the operational waveforms 2800 of memory array 2700 of FIG. 35 during read, write “1”, and write “0” operations for selected cells, while not disturbing unselected cells (no change to unselected cell stored logic states). Waveforms 2800 illustrate voltages and timings to write logic state “1” in cell C0,0, write a logic state “0” in cell C1,0, read cell C0,0, and read cell C1,0. Waveforms 2800 also illustrate voltages and timings to prevent disturbing the stored logic states (logic “1” state and logic “0” state) in partially selected (also referred to as half-selected) cells. Partially selected cells are cells in memory array 2700 that receive applied voltages because they are connected to (share) word, bit, reference, and release lines that are activated as part of the read or write operation to the selected cells. Cells in memory array 2700 tolerate unlimited read and write operations at each memory cell location. At the start of the write cycle, WL0 transitions from zero to VSW, activating select devices T0,0, T1,0, . . . Tm−1,0. Word lines WL1, WL2, . . . WLn−1 are not selected and remain at zero volts. BL0 transitions from VDD to zero volts, connecting the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT0,0 to zero volts. BL1 transitions from VDD to VSW connecting the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT1,0 to VSW volts. BL2, BL3, . . . BLm−1 transition to VSW connecting the switch-plate of non-volatile storage elements NT2,0, NT3,0 . . . NTm−1,0 to VWS. RL0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW, connecting the release-plates of non-volatile storage elements NT0,0, NT0,1, . . . NT0,n−2, NT0,n−1 to VSW. RL1 transitions from VDD to zero volts, connecting the release-plates of non-volatile storage elements NT1,0, NT1, . . . NT1,n−2,NT1,n−1 to zero volts. RL2, RL3, . . . RLm−1 remain at VDD, connecting the release-plates of non-volatile storage elements NT3,0 to NTm−1,n−1 to VDD. REF0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW, connecting NT switches of non-volatile storage elements NT0,0, NT 1,0, . . . NTm−1,0 to VSW. REF1, REF2. REFn−1 remain at VDD, connecting NT switches of non-volatile storage elements NT0,1 to NTn−1,n−1 to VDD. NT0,0 may be in “ON” (“1” state) or “OFF” (“0” state) state at the start of the write cycle. It will be in “ON” state at the end of the write cycle. If NT0,0 in cell C0,0 is “OFF” (“0” state) it will switch to “ON” (“1” state) since the voltage difference between NT switch and release-plate is zero, and the voltage difference between NT switch and switch-plate is VSW. If NT0,0 in cell C0,0 is in the “ON” (“1” state), it will remain in the “ON” (“1”) state. NT1,0 may be in “ON” (“1” state) or “OFF” (“0” state) state at the start of the write cycle. It will be in “OFF” state at the end of the write cycle. If NT1,0 in cell C1,0 is “ON” (“1” state) it will switch to “OFF” (“0” state) since the voltage difference between NT switch and switch-plate is zero, and the voltage difference between NT switch and release-plate is VSW. If NT1,0 in cell C1,0 is “OFF” (“0” state), it will remain “OFF” (“0” state). If for example, VSW=3.0 volts, VDD=1.5 volts, and NT switch threshold voltage range is VNT-TH=1.7 to 2.8 volts, then for NT0, and NT1,0 a difference voltage VSW>VNT-TH ensuring write states of “ON” (“1” state) for NT0,0 and “OFF” (“0” state) for NT1,0. Cells C0,0 and C1,0 have been selected for the write operation. All other cells have not been selected, and information in these other cells must remain unchanged (undisturbed). Since in an array structure some cells other than selected cells C0,0 and C1,0 in array 2700 will experience partial selection voltages, often referred to as half-select voltages, it is necessary that half-select voltages applied to non-volatile storage element terminals be sufficiently low (below nanotube activation threshold VNT-TH) to avoid disturbing stored information. For storage cells in the “ON” state, it is also necessary to avoid parasitic current flow (there cannot be parasitic currents for cells in the “OFF” state because the NT switch is not in electrical contact with switch-plate or release-plate). Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines WL0 and REF0 includes cells C3,0 to Cm−1,0 because WL0 and REF0 have been activated. Storage elements NT3,0 to NTm−1,0 will have BL2 to BLm−1 electrically connected to the corresponding storage element switch-plate by select devices T3,0 to Tm−1,0. All NT switches in these storage elements are at write voltage VSW. To prevent undesired switching of NT switches, RL2 to RLm−1 reference lines are set at voltage VDD. BL2 to BLm−1 voltages are set to VSW to prevent parasitic currents. The information in storage elements NT2,0 to NTm−1,0 in cells C2,0 to Cm−1,0 is not disturbed and there is no parasitic current. For those cells in the “OFF” state, there can be no parasitic currents (no current path), and no disturb because the voltage differences favor the “OFF” state. For those cells in the “ON” state, there is no parasitic current because the voltage difference between switch-plates (at VDD) and NT switches (at VDD) is zero. Also, for those cells in the “ON” state, there is no disturb because the voltage difference between corresponding NT switches and release-plate is VSW−VDD=1.5 volts, when VSW=3.0 volts and VDD=1.5 volts. Since this voltage difference of 1.5 volts is less than the minimum nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH of 1.7 volts, no switching takes place. Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines RL0 and BL0 includes cells C0,1 to C0, n−1 because RL0 and BL0 have been activated. Storage elements NT0,1 to NT0, n−1 all have corresponding switch-plates connected to switching voltage VSW. To prevent undesired switching of NT switches, REF1 to REFn−1 are set at voltage VDD. WL1 to WLn−1 are set at zero volts, therefore select devices T0,1 to T0,n−1 are open, and switch-plates (all are connected to select device source diffusions) are not connected to bit line BL0. All switch-plates are in contact with a corresponding NT switch for storage cells in the “ON” state, and all switch plates are only connected to corresponding “floating” source diffusions for storage cells in the “OFF” state. Floating diffusions are at approximately zero volts because of diffusion leakage currents to semiconductor substrates. However, some floating source diffusions may experience disturb voltage conditions that may cause the source voltage, and therefore the switch-plate voltage, to increase up to 0.6 volts as explained further below. The information in storage elements NT0,1 to NT0,n−1 in cells C0,1 to C0,n−1 is not disturbed and there is no parasitic current. For cells in both “ON” and “OFF” states there can be no parasitic current because there is no current path. For cells in the “ON” state, the corresponding NT switch and switch-plate are in contact and both are at voltage VSW. There is a voltage difference of VSW−VDD between corresponding NT switch and release-plate. For VSW=3.0 volts and VDD=1.5 volts, the voltage difference of 1.5 volts is below the minimum VNT-TH=1.7 volts for switching. For cells in the “OFF” state, the voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and switch-plate ranges from VDD to VDD−0.6 volts. The voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and switch-plate may be up to 1.5 volts, which is less than VNT-TH minimum voltage of 1.7 volts, and does not disturb the “OFF” cells by switching them to the “ON” state. There is also a voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and release-plate of VSW−VDD of 1.5 volts with an electrostatic force that supports the “OFF” state. Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines RL1 and BL1 includes cells C1,1 to C1,n−1 because RL1 and BL1 have been activated. Storage elements NT1,1 to NT1, n−1 all have corresponding NT release-plates connected to zero volts. To prevent undesired switching of NT switches, REF1 to REFn−1 are set at voltage VDD. WL1 to WL n−1 are set at zero volts, therefore select devices T1,1 to T1,n−1 are open, and switch-plates (all are connected to select device source diffusions) are not connected to bit line BL1. All switch-plates are in contact with a corresponding NT switch for storage cells in the “ON” state, and all switch plates are only connected to corresponding “floating” source diffusions for storage cells in the “OFF” state. Floating diffusions are at approximately zero volts because of diffusion leakage currents to semiconductor substrates. However, some floating source diffusions may experience disturb voltage conditions that may cause the source voltage, and therefore the switch-plate voltage, to increase up to 0.6 volts as explained further below. The information in storage elements NT1,1 to NT1,n−1 in cells C1,1 to C1,n−1 is not disturbed and there is no parasitic current. For cells in both “ON” and “OFF” states there can be no parasitic current because there is no current path. For cells in the “ON” state, the corresponding NT switch and switch-plate are in contact and both are at voltage VDD. There is a voltage difference of VDD between corresponding NT switches and release-plates. For VDD=1.5 volts, the voltage difference of 1.5 volts is below the minimum VNT-TH=1.7 volts for switching. For cells in the “OFF” state, the voltage of the switch-plate ranges zero to 0.6 volts. The voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and switch-plate may be up to VDD. There is also a voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and release-plate of VDD=1.5 volts. VDD is less than the minimum VNT-TH of 1.7 volts the “OFF” state remains unchanged. For all remaining memory cells 2700, C2,1 to Cm−1,n−1, there is no electrical connection between NT2,1 to NTm−1,n−1 switch-plates connected to corresponding select device source and corresponding bit lines BL2 to BLm−1 because WL1 to WLn−1 are at zero volts, and select devices T2,1 to Tm−1,n−1 are open. Release line voltages for RL2 to RLm−1 are set at VDD and reference line voltages for REF1 to REFn−1 are set at VDD. Therefore, all NT switches are at VDD and all corresponding release-plates are at VDD, and the voltage difference between corresponding NT switches and release-plates is zero. For storage cells in the “ON” state, NT switches are in contact with corresponding switch-plates and the voltage difference is zero. For storage cells in the “OFF” state, switch-plate voltages are zero to a maximum of 0.6 volts. The maximum voltage difference between NT switches and corresponding switch-plates is VDD=1.5 volts, which is below the VNT-TH voltage minimum voltage of 1.7 volts. The “ON” and “OFF” states remain undisturbed. Non-volatile NT-on-source NRAM memory array 2700 with bit lines parallel to release lines is shown in FIG. 35 contains 2N×2M bits, is a subset of non-volatile NRAM memory system 2810 illustrated as memory array 2815 in FIG. 37A. NRAM memory system 2810 may be configured to operate like an industry standard asynchronous SRAM or synchronous SRAM because nanotube non-volatile storage cells 2000 shown in FIG. 34A, in memory array 2700, may be read in a non-destructive readout (NDRO) mode and therefore do not require a write-back operation after reading, and also may be written (programmed) at CMOS voltage levels (5, 3.3, and 2.5 volts, for example) and at nanosecond and sub-nanosecond switching speeds. NRAM read and write times, and cycle times, are determined by array line capacitance, and are not limited by nanotube switching speed. Accordingly, NRAM memory system 2810 may be designed with industry standard SRAM timings such as chip-enable, write-enable, output-enable, etc., or may introduce new timings, for example. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 2810 may be designed to introduce advantageous enhanced modes such as a sleep mode with zero current (zero power−power supply set to zero volts), information preservation when power is shut off or lost, enabling rapid system recovery and system startup, for example. NRAM memory system 2810 circuits are designed to provide the memory array 2700 waveforms 2800 shown in FIG. 36. NRAM memory system 2810 accepts timing inputs 2812, accepts address inputs 2825, and accepts data 1867 from a computer, or provides data 2867 to a computer using a bidirectional bus sharing input/output (I/O) terminals. Alternatively, inputs and outputs may use separate (unshared) terminals (not shown). Address input (I/P) buffer 2830 receives address locations (bits) from a computer system, for example, and latches the addresses. Address I/P buffer 2830 provides word address bits to word decoder 2840 via address bus 2837; address I/P buffer 2830 provides bit addresses to bit decoder 2850 via address bus 2852; and address bus transitions provided by bus 2835 are detected by function generating, address transition detecting (ATD) timing waveform generator, controller (controller) 2820. Controller 2820 provides timing waveforms on bus 2839 to word decoder 2840. Word decoder 2840 selects the word address location within array 2815. Word address decoder 2840 is used to decode both word lines WL and corresponding reference lines REF (there is no need for a separate REF decoder) and drives word line (WL) and reference line (REF) select logic 2845. Controller 2820 provides function and timing inputs on bus 2843 to WL & REF select logic 2845, resulting in NRAM memory system 2810 on-chip WL and REF waveforms for both write-one, write-zero, read-one, and read-zero operations as illustrated by waveforms 2800′ shown in FIG. 38. FIG. 38 NRAM memory system 2810 waveforms 2800′ correspond to memory array 2700 waveforms 2800 shown in FIG. 36. Bit address decoder 2850 is used to decode both bit lines BL and corresponding release lines RL (there is no need for a separate RL decoder) and drive bit line (BL) and release (RL) select logic 2855 via bus 2856. Controller 2820 provides timing waveforms on bus 2854 to bit decoder 2850. Controller 2820 also provides function and timing inputs on bus 2857 to BL & RL select logic 2855. BL & RL select logic 2855 uses inputs from bus 2856 and bus 2857 to generate data multiplexer select bits on bus 2859. The output of BL and RL select logic 2855 on bus 2859 is used to select control data multiplexers using combined data multiplexers & sense amplifiers/latches (MUXs & SAs) 2860. Controller 2820 provides function and timing inputs on bus 2862 to MUXs & SAs 2860, resulting in NRAM memory system 2810 on-chip BL and RL waveforms for both write-one, write-zero, read-one, and read-zero operations as illustrated by waveforms 2800′ corresponding to memory array 2700 waveforms 2800 shown in FIG. 36. MUXs & SAs 2860 are used to write data provided by read/write buffer 2865 via bus 2864 in array 2815, and to read data from array 2815 and provide the data to read/write buffer 2865 via bus 2864 as illustrated in waveforms 2800′. Sense amplifier/latch 2900 is illustrated in FIG. 37B. Flip flop 2910, comprising two back-to-back inverters is used to amplify and latch data inputs from array 2815 or from read/write buffer 2865. Transistor 2920 connects flip flop 2910 to ground when activated by a positive voltage supplied by control voltage VTIMING 2980, which is provided by controller 2820. Gating transistor 2930 connects a bit line BL to node 2965 of flip flop 2910 when activated by a positive voltage. Gating transistor 2940 connects reference voltage VREF to flip flop node 2975 when activated by a positive voltage. Transistor 2960 connects voltage VDD to flip flop 2910 node 2965, transistor 2970 connects voltage VDD to flip flop 2910 node 2975, and transistor 2950 ensures that small voltage differences are eliminated when transistors 2960 and 2970 are activated. Transistors 2950, 2960, and 2970 are activated (turned on) when gate voltage is low (zero, for example). In operation, VTIMING voltage is at zero volts when sense amplifier 2900 is not selected. NFET transistors 2920, 2930, and 2940 are in the “OFF” (non-conducting) state, because gate voltages are at zero volts. PFET transistors 2950, 2960, and 2970 are in the “ON” (conducting) state because gate voltages are at zero volts. VDD may be 5, 3.3, or 2.5 volts, for example, relative to ground. Flip flop 2910 nodes 2965 and 2975 are at VDD. If sense amplifier/latch 2900 is selected, VTIMING transitions to VDD, NFET transistors 2920, 2930, and 2940 turn “ON”, PFET transistors 2950, 2960, and 2970 are turned “OFF”, and flip flop 2910 is connected to bit line BL and reference voltage VREF-VREF is connected to VDD in this example. As illustrated by waveforms BL0 and BL1 of waveforms 2800′, bit line BL is pre-charged prior to activating a corresponding word line (WL0 in this example). If cell 2000 of memory array 2700 (memory system array 2815) stores a “1”, then bit line BL in FIG. 37B corresponds to BL0 in FIG. 38, BL is discharged by cell 2000, voltage droops below VDD, and sense amplifier/latch 2900 detects a “1” state. If cell 2000 of memory array 2700 (memory system array 2815) stores a “0”, then bit line BL in FIG. 37B corresponds to BL1 in FIG. 38, BL is not discharged by cell 2000, voltage does not droop below VDD, and sense amplifier/latch 2900 detect a “0” state. The time from sense amplifier select to signal detection by sense amplifier/latch 2900 is referred to as signal development time. Sense amplifier/latch 2900 typically requires 100 to 200 mV relative to VREF in order to switch. It should be noted that cell 2000 requires a nanotube “OFF” resistance to “ON” resistance ratio of greater than 10 to 1 for successful operation. A typical bit line BL has a capacitance value of 250 fF, for example. A typical nanotube storage device (switch) or dimensions 0.2 by 0.2 um typically has 8 nanotube filaments across the suspended region, for example, as illustrated further below. For a combined contact and switch resistance of 50,000 Ohms per filament, as illustrated further below, the nanotube “ON” resistance of cell 2000 is 6,250 Ohms. For a bit line of 250 fF, the time constant RC=1.6 ns. The sense amplifier signal development time is less than RC, and for this example, is between 1 and 1.5 nanoseconds. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 2810 operation may be designed for high speed cache operation at 5 ns or less access and cycle time, for example. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 2810 may be designed for low power operation at 60 or 70 ns access and cycle time operation, for non-limiting example. For low power operation, address I/P buffer 2830 operation typically requires 8 ns; controller 2820 operation requires 16 ns; bit decoder 2850 operation plus BL & RL select logic 2855 plus MUXs & SA 2860 operation requires 12 ns (word decoder 2840 operation plus WL & RL select logic 2845 ns require less than 12 ns); array 2815 delay is 8 ns; operation of sense latch 2900 requires 8 ns; and read/write buffer 2865 requires 12 ns, for non-limiting example. The access time and cycle time of non-volatile NRAM memory system 2810 is 64 ns. The access time and cycle time may be equal because the NDRO mode of operation of nanotube storage devices (switches) does not require a write-back operation after access (read). NT-on-source arrays with bit lines BL parallel to release lines RL and reference lines REF parallel to word lines WL may be fabricated by applying methods illustrated previously illustrated above to fabricate preferred NT-on-source arrays with BLs parallel to REF lines and WLs parallel to RLs. Examples of preferred NT-on-source arrays with BLs parallel to REF lines and WLs parallel to RLs are illustrated by array 3225 in FIGS. 30M′, 30N, and 30P; array 3229 shown in FIGS. 32A-32C, and array 3231 shown in FIGS. 33A-33D. The methods used to fabricate arrays 3225, 3229, and 3231 may be used to fabricate NT-on-source arrays with BLs parallel to RLs, and WLs parallel to REF lines. These methods include methods 3000 shown in FIG. 22 and corresponding figures and structures; methods 3004 shown in FIGS. 23 and 23′ and corresponding figures and structures; methods 3036 shown in FIG. 26 and corresponding figures and structures; methods 3006 shown in FIGS. 27 and 27′ and corresponding figures and structures; methods 3008 shown in FIGS. 28 and 28′and corresponding figures and structures; and other methods and structures illustrated in fabricating arrays 3225, 3229, and 3231 as described above. Nanotube Random Access Memory using FEDs with Controllable Drains Nanotube Random Access Memory (NRAM) Systems and Circuits, with Same Non-volatile field effect devices (FEDs) 100, 120, 140, and 160 with controllable drains may be used as cells and interconnected into arrays to form non-volatile nanotube random access memory (NRAM) systems. The memory cells contain one select device (transistor) T and one non-volatile nanotube storage element NT (1T/1NT cells). By way of example, FED8 160 (FIG. 2H) is used to form a non-volatile NRAM memory cell that is also referred to as a NT-on-Drain memory cell. NT-On-Drain NRAM Memory Systems and Circuits with Parallel Bit and Reference Lines, and Parallel Word and Release Lines NRAM 1T/1NT memory arrays are wired using four lines. Word line WL is used to gate select device T, reference line REF is attached to a shared source between two adjacent select devices. Bit line BL is used to control NT switch voltage of storage element NT, and release line RL is used to control the release-plate of storage element NT. In this NRAM array configuration, REF is parallel to BL and acts as second bit line, and RL is parallel to WL and acts as a second word line. FIG. 39A depicts non-volatile field effect device 160 with memory cell wiring to form NT-on-Drain memory cell 4000 schematic. Word line (WL) 4200 connects to terminal T1 of FED8 160; bit line (BL) 4400 connects to terminal T2 or FED8 160; reference line (REF) 4300 connects to terminal T3 of FED8 160; and release line (RL) 4500 connects to terminal T4 of FED8 160. Memory cell 4000 performs write and read operations, and stores the information in a non-volatile state. The FED8 160 layout dimensions and operating voltages are selected to optimize memory cell 4000. Memory cell 4000 FET select device (T) gate 4040 corresponds to gate 162; controllable drain 4080 corresponds to controllable drain 164; and source 4060 corresponds to source 166. Memory cell 4000 nanotube (NT) switch-plate 4120 corresponds to switch-plate 168; NT switch 4140 corresponds to NT switch 170; release-plate insulator layer surface 4160 corresponds to release-plate insulator layer surface 176; and release-plate 4180 corresponds to release-plate 174. The interconnections between the elements of memory cell 4000 schematic correspond to the interconnection of the corresponding interconnections of the elements of FED8 160. REF 4300 connects to source 4060 through contact 4320; BL 4400 connects to NT switch 4140 through contact 4420; RL 4500 connects to release-plate 4180 by contact 4520; WL 4200 interconnects to gate 4040 by contact 4220. The non-volatile NT switching element 4140 may be caused to deflect toward switch-plate 4120 via electrostatic forces to closed (“ON”) position 4140′ to store a logic “1” state as illustrated in FIG. 39B. The van der Waals force holds NT switch 4140 in position 4140′. Alternatively, the non-volatile NT switching element 4140 may be caused to deflect to insulator surface 4160 on release-plate 4180 via electrostatic forces to open (“OFF”) position 4140″ to store a logic “0” state as illustrated in FIG. 39C. The van der Waals force holds NT switch 4140 in position 4140″. Non-volatile NT switching element 4140 may instead be caused to deflect to an open (“OFF”) near-mid point position 4140′″ between switch-plate 4120 and release-plate 4180, storing an apparent logic “0” state as illustrate in FIG. 24D. However, the absence of a van der Waals retaining force in this open (“OFF”) position is likely to result in a memory cell disturb that causes NT switch 4140 to unintentionally transition to the closed (“ON”) position, and is not desirable. Sufficient switching voltage is needed to ensure that the NT switch 4140 open (“OFF”) position is position 4140″. The non-volatile element switching via electrostatic forces is as depicted by element 170 in FIG. 2H. Voltage waveforms 355 used to generate the required electrostatic forces are illustrated in FIG. 11. NT-on-Drain memory cell schematic 4000 forms the basis of a non-volatile storage (memory) cell. The device may be switched between closed storage state “1” (switched to position 4140′) and open storage state “0” (switched to position 4140″), which means the controllable drain may be written to an unlimited number of times to as desired. In this way, the device may be used as a basis for a non-volatile nanotube random access memory, which is referred to here as a NRAM array, with the ‘N’ representing the inclusion of nanotubes. FIG. 40 represents an NRAM system 4700, according to preferred embodiments of the invention. Under this arrangement, an array is formed with m×n (only exemplary portion being shown) of non-volatile cells ranging from cell C0,0 to cell Cm−1,n−1. NRAM system 4700 may be designed using one large m×n array, or several smaller sub-arrays, where each sub-array if formed of m×n cells. To access selected cells, the array uses read and write word lines (WL0, WL1, . . . WLn−1), read and write bit lines (BL0, BL1, . . . BLm−1), read and write reference lines (REF0, REF1, . . . REFm−1), and read and write release lines (RL0, RL1, . . . RLn−1). Non-volatile cell C0,0 includes a select device T0,0 and non-volatile storage element NT0,0. The gate of T0,0 is coupled to WL0, and the source of T0,0 is coupled to REF0. NT0 is the non-volatilely switchable storage element where the NT0,0 switch-plate is coupled to the drain of T0,0, the switching NT element is coupled to BL0, and the release-plate is coupled to RL0. Connection 4720 connects REF0 to shared source of select devices T0,0 and T0,1. Word, bit, reference, and release decoders/drivers are explained further below. Under preferred embodiments, nanotubes in array 4700 may be in the “ON” “1” state or the “OFF” “0” state. The NRAM memory allows for unlimited read and write operations per bit location. A write operation includes both a write function to write a “1” and a release function to write a “0”. By way of example, a write “1” to cell C0,0 and a write “0” to cell C1,0 is described. For a write “1” operation to cell C0,0, select device T0,0 is activated when WL0 transitions from 0 to VDD, REF0 transitions from VDD to 0 volts, BL0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW, and RL0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW. The release-plate and NT switch of the non-volatile storage element NT0,0 are each at VSW resulting in zero electrostatic force (because the voltage difference is zero). The zero REF0 voltage is applied to the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT0,0 by the controlled drain of select device T0,0. The difference in voltage between the NT0,0 switch-plate and NT switch is VSW and generates an attracting electrostatic force. If VSW exceeds the nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH, the nanotube structure switches to “ON” state or logic “1” state, that is, the nanotube NT switch and switch-plate are electrically connected as illustrated in FIG. 39B. The near-Ohmic connection between switch-plate 4120 and NT switch 4140 in position 4140′ represents the “ON” state or “1” state. If the power source is removed, cell C0,0 remains in the “ON” state. For a write “0” (release) operation to cell C1,0, select device T11,0 is activated when WL0 transitions from 0 to VDD, REF1 transitions from VDD to 0 volts, BL1 transitions from VDD to zero volts, and RL0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW. The zero REF1 voltage is applied to the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT1,0 by the controlled drain of select device T1,0, and zero volts is applied the NT switch by BL1, resulting in zero electrostatic force between switch-plate and NT switch. The non-volatile storage element NT1,0 release-plate is at switching voltage VSW and the NT switch is at zero volts generating an attracting electrostatic force. If VSW exceeds the nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH, the nanotube structure switches to the “OFF” state or logic “0” state, that is, the nanotube NT switch and the surface of the release-plate insulator are in contact as illustrated in FIG. 39C. The non-conducting contact between insulator surface 4160 on release-plate 4180 and NT switch 4140 in position 4140″ represents the “OFF” state or “0” state. If the power source is removed, cell C1,0 remains in the “OFF” state. An NRAM read operation does not change (destroy) the information in the activated cells, as it does in a DRAM, for example. Therefore the read operation in the NRAM is characterized as a non-destructive readout (or NDRO) and does not require a write-back after the read operation has been completed. For a read operation of cell C0,0, BL0 is driven high to VDD and allowed to float. WL0 is driven high to VDD and select device T0,0 turns on. REF0 is at zero volts, and RL0 is at VDD. If cell C0,0 stores an “ON” state (“1” state) as illustrated in FIG. 39B, BL0 discharges to ground through a conductive path that includes select device T0,0 and non-volatile storage element NT0,0 in the “ON” state, the BL0 voltage drops, and the “ON” state or “1” state is detected by a sense amplifier/latch circuit (not shown) that records the voltage drop by switching the latch to a logic “1” state. REF0 is connected by the select device T0,0 conductive channel of resistance RFET to the switch-plate of NT0,0. The switch-plate of NT0,0 in the “ON” state contacts the NT switch with contact resistance RSW and the NT switch contacts bit line BL0 with contact resistance RC. The total resistance in the discharge path is RFET+RSW+RC. Other resistance values in the discharge path, including the resistance of the NT switch, are much small and may be neglected For a read operation of cell C1,0, BL1 is driven high to VDD and allowed to float. WL0 is driven high to VDD and select device T1,0 turns on. REF1=0, and RL0 is at VDD. If cell C1,0 stores an “OFF” state (“0” state) as illustrated in FIG. 39C, BL1 does not discharge to ground through a conductive path that includes select device T1,0 and non-volatile storage element NT1,0 in the “OFF” state, because the switch-plate is not in contact with the NT switch when NT 1,0 is in the “OFF” state, and the resistance RC is large. Sense amplifier/latch circuit (not shown) does not detect a voltage drop and the latch is set to a logic “0” state. FIG. 41 illustrates the operational waveforms 4800 of memory array 4700 of FIG. 40 during read, write “1”, and write “0” operations for selected cells, while not disturbing unselected cells (no change to unselected cell stored logic states). Waveforms 4800 illustrate voltages and timings to write logic state “1” in cell C0,0, write a logic state “0” in cell C1,0, read cell C0,0, and read cell C1,0. Waveforms 4800 also illustrate voltages and timings to prevent disturbing the stored logic states (logic “1” state and logic “0” state) in partially selected (also referred to as half-selected) cells. Partially selected cells are cells in memory array 4700 that receive applied voltages because they are connected to (share) word, bit, reference, and release lines that are activated as part of the read or write operation to the selected cells. Cells in memory array 4700 tolerate unlimited read and write operations at each memory cell location. At the start of the write cycle, WL0 transitions from zero to VDD, activating select devices T0,0, T1,0, . . . Tm−1,0. Word lines WL1, WL2 . . . WLn−1 are not selected and remain at zero volts. REF0 transitions from VDD to zero volts, connecting the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT0,0 to zero volts. REF1 transitions from VDD to zero volts connecting the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT1,0 to zero volts. REF2, REF3. REFm−1 remain at VDD connecting the switch-plate of non-volatile storage elements NT2,0, NT3,0 . . . NTm−1,0 to VDD. BL0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW, connecting the NT switches of non-volatile storage elements NT0,0, NT0,1 . . . NT0,n−2, NT0,n−1 to VSW. BL1 transitions from VDD to zero volts, connecting the NT switches of non-volatile storage elements NT1,0, NT1,1 . . . NT1,n−2,NT1,n−1 to zero volts. BL2, BL3 . . . BLm−1 remain at VDD, connecting the NT switches of non-volatile storage elements NT3,0 to NTm−1,n−1 to VDD. RL1, RL2 . . . RLn−1 remain at VDD, connecting release-plates of non-volatile storage elements NT0,1 to NTn−1,n−1 to VDD. NT0,0 may be in “ON” (“1” state) or “OFF” (“0” state) state at the start of the write cycle. It will be in “ON” state at the end of the write cycle. If NT0,0 in cell C0,0 is “OFF” (“0” state) it will switch to “ON” (“1” state) since the voltage difference between NT switch and release-plate is zero, and the voltage difference between NT switch and switch-plate is VSW. If NT0,0 in cell C0,0 is in the “ON” (“1” state), it will remain in the “ON” (“1”) state. NT1,0 may be in “ON” (“1” state) or “OFF” (“0” state) state at the start of the write cycle. It will be in “OFF” state at the end of the write cycle. If NT1,0 in cell C1,0 is “ON” (“1” state) it will switch to “OFF” (“0” state) since the voltage difference between NT switch and switch-plate is zero, and the voltage difference between NT switch and release-plate is VSW. If NT1,0 in cell C1,0 is “OFF” (“0” state), it will remain “OFF” (“0” state). If for example, VSW=3.0 volts, VDD=1.5 volts, and NT switch threshold voltage range is VNT-TH=1.7 to 2.8 volts, then for NT0, and NT1,0 a difference voltage VSW>VNT-TH ensuring write states of “ON” (“1” state) for NT0,0 and “OFF” (“0” state) for NT1,0. Cells C0,0 and C1,0 have been selected for the write operation. All other cells have not been selected, and information in these other cells must remain unchanged (undisturbed). Since in an array structure some cells other than selected cells C0,0 and C1,0 in array 4700 will experience partial selection voltages, often referred to as half-select voltages, it is necessary that half-select voltages applied to non-volatile storage element terminals be sufficiently low (below nanotube activation threshold VNT-TH) to avoid disturbing stored information. For storage cells in the “ON” state, it is also necessary to avoid parasitic current flow (there cannot be parasitic currents for cells in the “OFF” state because the NT switch is not in electrical contact with switch-plate or release-plate). Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines WL0 and RL0 includes cells C3,0 to Cm−1,0 because WL0 and RL0 have been activated. Storage elements NT3,0 to NTm−1,0 will have REF2 to REFm−1 electrically connected to the corresponding storage element switch-plate by select devices T3,0 to Tm−1,0. All release-plates in these storage elements are at write voltage VSW. To prevent undesired switching of NT switches, BL2 to BLm−1 reference lines are set at voltage VDD. REF2 to REFm−1 voltages are set to VDD to prevent parasitic currents. The information in storage elements NT2,0 to NTm−1,0 in cells C2,0 to Cm−1,0 is not disturbed and there is no parasitic current. For those cells in the “OFF” state, there can be no parasitic currents (no current path), and no disturb because the voltage differences favor the “OFF” state. For those cells in the “ON” state, there is no parasitic current because the voltage difference between switch-plates (at VDD) and NT switches (at VDD) is zero. Also, for those cells in the “ON” state, there is no disturb because the voltage difference between corresponding NT switches and release-plate is VSW−VDD=1.5 volts, when VSW=3.0 volts and VDD=1.5 volts. Since this voltage difference of 1.5 volts is less than the minimum nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH of 1.7 volts, no switching takes place. Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines REF0 and BL0 includes cells C0,1 to C0, n−1 because REF0 and BL0 have been activated. Storage elements NT0, 1 to NT0, n−1 all have corresponding NT switches connected to switching voltage VSW. To prevent undesired switching of NT switches, RL1 to RLn−1 are set at voltage VDD. WL1 to WL n−1 are set at zero volts, therefore select devices T0,1 to T0,n−1 are open, and switch-plates (all are connected to select device drain diffusions) are not connected to bit line REF0. All switch-plates are in contact with a corresponding NT switch for storage cells in the “ON” state, and all switch plates are only connected to corresponding “floating” drain diffusions for storage cells in the “OFF” state. Floating diffusions are at approximately zero volts because of diffusion leakage currents to semiconductor substrates. However, some floating source diffusions may experience disturb voltage conditions that may cause the source voltage, and therefore the switch-plate voltage, to increase up to 0.6 volts as explained further below. The information in storage elements NT0,1 to NT0,n−1 in cells C0,1 to C0,n−1 is not disturbed and there is no parasitic current. For cells in both “ON” and “OFF” states there can be no parasitic current because there is no current path. For cells in the “ON” state, the corresponding NT switch and switch-plate are in contact and both are at voltage VSW. There is a voltage difference of VSW−VDD between corresponding NT switch and release-plate. For VSW=3.0 volts and VDD=1.5 volts, the voltage difference of 1.5 volts is below the minimum VNT-TH=1.7 volts for switching. For cells in the “OFF” state, the voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and switch-plate ranges from VSW to VSW−0.6 volts. The voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and switch-plate may be up to 3.0 volts, which exceeds the VNT-TH voltage, and would disturb “OFF” cells by switching them to the “ON” state. However, there is also a voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and release-plate of VSW−VDD of 1.5 volts with an electrostatic force in the opposite direction that prevents the disturb of storage cells in the “OFF” state. Also very important is that NT switching element 4140 is in position 4140″ in contact with the storage-plate dielectric, a short distance from the storage plate, thus maximizing the electric field that opposes cell disturb. Switch-plate 4140 is far from the NT switching element 4140 switch greatly reducing the electric field that promotes disturb. In addition, the van der Waals force also must be overcome to disturb the cell. Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines REF1 and BL1 includes cells C1,1 to C1, n−1 because REF1 and BL1 have been activated. Storage elements NT1,1 to NT1, n−1 all have corresponding NT switches connected to zero volts. To prevent undesired switching of NT switches, RL1 to RLn−1 are set at voltage VDD. WL1 to WL n−1 are set at zero volts, therefore select devices T1,1 to T1,n−1 are open, and switch-plates (all are connected to select device drain diffusions) are not connected to reference line REF1. All switch-plates are in contact with a corresponding NT switch for storage cells in the “ON” state, and all switch plates are only connected to corresponding “floating” drain diffusions for storage cells in the “OFF” state. Floating diffusions are at approximately zero volts because of diffusion leakage currents to semiconductor substrates. However, some floating source diffusions may experience disturb voltage conditions that may cause the source voltage, and therefore the switch-plate voltage, to increase up to 0.6 volts as explained further below. The information in storage elements NT1,1 to NT1,n−1 in cells C1,1 to C1,n−1 is not disturbed and there is no parasitic current. For cells in both “ON” and “OFF” states there can be no parasitic current because there is no current path. For cells in the “ON” state, the corresponding NT switch and switch-plate are in contact and both are at zero volts. There is a voltage difference of VDD between corresponding NT switch and release-plate. For VDD=1.5 volts, the voltage difference of 1.5 volts is below the minimum VNT-TH=1.7 volts for switching. For cells in the “OFF” state, the voltage of the switch-plate ranges zero to 0.6 volts. The voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and switch-plate may be up to 0.6 volts. There is also a voltage difference between corresponding NT switch and release-plate of VDD=1.5 volts. VDD is less than the minimum VNT-TH of 1.7 volts the “OFF” state remains unchanged. For all remaining cells of memory array 4700, cells C2,1 to Cm−1,n−1, there is no electrical connection between NT2,1 to NTm−1,n−1 switch-plates connected to corresponding select device drain and corresponding reference lines REF2 to REFm−1 because WL1 to WLn−1 are at zero volts, and select devices T2,1 to Tm−1,n−1 are open. Bit line voltages for BL2 to BLm−1 are set at VDD and release line voltages for RL1 to RLn−1 are set at VDD. Therefore, all NT switches are at VDD and all corresponding release-plates are at VDD, and the voltage difference between corresponding NT switches and release-plates is zero. For storage cells in the “ON” state, NT switches are in contact with corresponding switch-plates and the voltage difference is zero. For storage cells in the “OFF” state, switch plate voltages are zero to a maximum of 0.6 volts. The maximum voltage difference between NT switches and corresponding switch-plates is VDD=1.5 volts, which is below the VNT-TH voltage minimum voltage of 1.7 volts. The “ON” and “OFF” states remain undisturbed. Non-volatile NT-on-drain NRAM memory array 4700 with bit lines parallel to reference lines is shown in FIG. 40 contains 2N×2M bits, is a subset of non-volatile NRAM memory system 4810 illustrated as memory array 4815 in FIG. 42A. NRAM memory system 4810 may be configured to operate like an industry standard asynchronous SRAM or synchronous SRAM because nanotube non-volatile storage cells of memory cell schematic 4000 shown in FIG. 39A, in memory array 4700, may be read in a non-destructive readout (NDRO) mode and therefore do not require a write-back operation after reading, and also may be written (programmed) at CMOS voltage levels (5, 3.3, and 2.5 volts, for example) and at nanosecond and sub-nanosecond switching speeds. NRAM read and write times, and cycle times, are determined by array line capacitance, and are not limited by nanotube switching speed. Accordingly, NRAM memory system 4810 may be designed with industry standard SRAM timings such as chip-enable, write-enable, output-enable, etc., or may introduce new timings, for example. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 4810 may be designed to introduce advantageous enhanced modes such as a sleep mode with zero current (zero power-power supply set to zero volts), information preservation when power is shut off or lost, enabling rapid system recovery and system startup, for example. NRAM memory system 4810 circuits are designed to provide the memory array 4700 waveforms 4800 shown in FIG. 41. Figure NRAM memory system 4810 accepts timing inputs 4812, accepts address inputs 4825, and accepts data 4867 from a computer, or provides data 4867 to a computer using a bidirectional bus sharing input/output (I/O) terminals. Alternatively, inputs and outputs may use separate (unshared) terminals (not shown). Address input (I/P) buffer 4830 receives address locations (bits) from a computer system, for example, and latches the addresses. Address I/P buffer 4830 provides word address bits to word decoder 4840 via address bus 4837; address I/P buffer 4830 provides bit addresses to bit decoder 4850 via address bus 4852; and address bus transitions provided by bus 4835 are detected by function generating, address transition detecting (ATD), timing waveform generator, controller (controller) 4820. Controller 4820 provides timing waveforms on bus 4839 to word decoder 4840. Word decoder 4840 selects the word address location within array 4815. Word address decoder 4840 is used to decode both word lines WL and corresponding release lines RL (there is no need for a separate RL decoder) and drives word line (WL) and release line (RL) select logic 4845. Controller 4820 provides function and timing inputs on bus 4843 to WL & RL select logic 4845, resulting in NRAM memory system 4810 on-chip WL and RL waveforms for both write-one, write-zero, read-one, and read-zero operations as illustrated by waveforms 4800′ shown in FIG. 43. FIG. 43 NRAM memory system 4810 waveforms 4800′ correspond to memory array 4700 waveforms 4800 shown in FIG. 41. Bit address decoder 4850 is used to decode both bit lines BL and corresponding reference lines REF (there is no need for a separate REF decoder) and drive bit line (BL) and reference (REF) select logic 4855 via bus 4856. Controller 4820 provides timing waveforms on bus 4854 to bit decoder 4850. Controller 4820 also provides function and timing inputs on bus 4857 to BL & REF select logic 4855. BL & REF select logic 4855 uses inputs from bus 4856 and bus 4857 to generate data multiplexer select bits on bus 4859. The output of BL and REF select logic 4855 on bus 4859 is used to select control data multiplexers using combined data multiplexers & sense amplifiers/latches (MUXs & SAs) 4860. Controller 4820 provides function and timing inputs on bus 4862 to MUXs & SAs 4860, resulting in NRAM memory system 4810 on-chip BL and REF waveforms for both write-one, write-zero, read-one, and read-zero operations as illustrated by waveforms 4800′ corresponding to memory array 4700 waveforms 4800 shown in FIG. 41. MUXs & SAs 4860 are used to write data provided by read/write buffer 4865 via bus 4864 in array 4815, and to read data from array 4815 and provide the data to read/write buffer 4865 via bus 4864 as illustrated in waveforms 4800′ of FIG. 43A. Sense amplifier/latch 4900 is illustrated in FIG. 42B. Flip flop 4910, comprising two back-to-back inverters is used to amplify and latch data inputs from array 4815 or from read/write buffer 4865. Transistor 4920 connects flip flop 4910 to ground when activated by a positive voltage supplied by control voltage VTIMING 4980, which is provided by controller 4820. Gating transistor 4930 connects a bit line BL to node 4965 of flip flop 4910 when activated by a positive voltage. Gating transistor 4940 connects reference voltage VREF to flip flop node 4975 when activated by a positive voltage. Transistor 4960 connects voltage VDD to flip flop 4910 node 4965, transistor 4970 connects voltage VDD to flip flop 4910 node 4975, and transistor 4950 ensures that small voltage differences are eliminated when transistors 4960 and 4970 are activated. Transistors 4950, 4960, and 4970 are activated (turned on) when gate voltage is low (zero, for example). In operation, VTIMING voltage is at zero volts when sense amplifier 4900 is not selected. NFET transistors 4920, 4930, and 4940 are in the “OFF” (non-conducting) state, because gate voltages are at zero volts. PFET transistors 4950, 4960, and 4970 are in the “ON” (conducting) state because gate voltages are at zero volts. VDD may be 5, 3.3, or 2.5 volts, for example, relative to ground. Flip flop 4910 nodes 4965 and 4975 are at VDD. If sense amplifier/latch 4900 is selected, VTIMING transitions to VDD, NFET transistors 4920, 4930, and 4940 turn ON, PFET transistors 4950, 4960, and 4970 are turned “OFF”, and flip flop 4910 is connected to bit line BL and reference voltage VREF. VREF is connected to VDD in this example. As illustrated by waveforms BL0 and BL1 of waveforms 4800′, bit line BL is pre-charged prior to activating a corresponding word line (WL0 in this example). If memory cell 4000 of memory array 4700 (memory system array 4815) stores a “1”, then bit line BL in FIG. 42B corresponds to BL0 in FIG. 43, BL is discharged by cell 4000, voltage droops below VDD, and sense amplifier/latch 4900 detects a “1” state. If cell 4000 of memory array 4700 (memory system array 4815) stores a “0”, then bit line BL in FIG. 42B corresponds to BL1 in FIG. 43, BL is not discharged by cell 4000, voltage does not droop below VDD, and sense amplifier/latch 4900 detect a “0” state. The time from sense amplifier select to signal detection by sense amplifier/latch 4900 is referred to as signal development time. Sense amplifier/latch 4900 typically requires 100 to 200 mV relative to VREF in order to switch. It should be noted that cell 4000 requires a nanotube “OFF” resistance to “ON” resistance ratio of greater than 10 to 1 for successful operation. A typical bit line BL has a capacitance value of 250 fF, for example. A typical nanotube storage device (switch) or dimensions 0.2 by 0.2 um typically has 8 nanotube filaments across the suspended region, for example, as illustrated further below. For a combined contact and switch resistance of 50,000 Ohms per filament, as illustrated further below, the nanotube “ON” resistance of cell 1000 is 6,250 Ohms. For a bit line of 250 fF, the time constant RC=1.6 ns. The sense amplifier signal development time is less than RC, and for this example, is between 1 and 1.5 nanoseconds. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 4810 operation may be designed for high speed cache operation at 5 ns or less access and cycle time, for example. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 4810 may be designed for low power operation at 60 or 70 ns access and cycle time operation, for example. For low power operation, address I/P buffer 4830 operation requires 8 ns; controller 4820 operation requires 16 ns; bit decoder 4850 operation plus BL & select logic 4855 plus MUXs & SA 4860 operation requires 12 ns (word decoder 4840 operation plus WL & RL select logic 4845 ns require less than 12 ns); array 4815 delay is 8 ns; sensing operation of sense amplifier latch 4900 requires 8 ns; and read/write buffer 4865 requires 12 ns, for example. The access time and cycle time of non-volatile NRAM memory system 4810 is 64 ns. The access time and cycle time may be equal because the NDRO mode of operation of nanotube storage devices (switches) does not require a write-back operation after access (read). Method of Making Field Effect Device with Controllable Drain and NT-On-Drain Memory System and Circuits with Parallel Bit and Reference Array Lines, and Parallel Word and Release Array Lines Methods of fabricating NT-on-drain memory arrays are the same as those used to fabricate NT-on-source memory arrays. Methods 3000 shown in FIG. 22 and associated figures; methods 3004 shown in FIGS. 23 and 23′ and associated figures; methods 3036 shown in FIG. 26 and associated figures; methods 3006 shown in FIGS. 27 and 27′ and associated figures; methods 3008 shown in FIGS. 28 and 28′ and associated figures; and methods 3144 as illustrated in FIGS. 31A-31D. Conductors, semiconductors, insulators, and nanotubes are formed in the same sequence and are in the same relative position in the structure. Length, widths, thickness dimensions may be different, reflecting differences in design choices. Also, conductor materials may be different, for example. The function of some electrodes may be different for NT-on-source and NT-on-drain memory arrays. For example, bit array lines and reference lines connect to different electrodes in the nanotube structure as may be seen further below. Also, connections to source and drain diffusions are different. For NT-on-source memory arrays, the switch-plate of the nanotube structure is connected to the source diffusion of the FET device. However, for NT-on-drain memory arrays, the switch-plate of the nanotube structure is connected to the drain diffusion of the FET device, as may be seen further below. Differences between NT-on-source and NT-on-drain memory arrays may be seen by comparing figures: 30M′ and 44A; FIGS. 30N and 44B; FIGS. 30P and 44C; FIGS. 32A and 45A; FIGS. 32B and 45B; FIGS. 32C and 45C; FIGS. 33A and 46A; FIGS. 33B and 46B; FIGS. 33C and 46C; and FIGS. 33D and 46D. FIG. 44A illustrates cross section A-A′ of array 4725 taken at A-A′ of the plan view of array 4725 illustrated in FIG. 44C, and shows FET device region 3237′ in the FET length direction, nanotube switch structure 3233′, interconnections and insulators. FIG. 44B illustrates cross section B-B′ of array 4725 taken at B-B′ of plan view of array 4725 illustrated in FIG. 44C, and shows a release array line 3205′, a bit array line 3119′/3117′ composed of combined conductors 3119′ and 3117′, and a word array line 3120′. FIG. 44C illustrates a plan view of array 4725 including exemplary cell 4765 region, reference array line 3138″ contacting source 3126′ through contact 3140′ to stud 3118A′, to stud 3118′, to contact 3123′ (3118A′, to stud 3118′, to contact 3123′ not shown in plan view 4725), and to source 3126′. Bit array line 3119′/3117′ is parallel to reference line 3138″, is illustrated in cross section in FIG. 44B, and contacts a corresponding bit line segment in the picture frame region formed by combined conductors 3117′ and 3119′, in contact with nanotube 3114′, as shown in FIG. 44A. Release array line 3205′ is parallel to word array line 3120′. Release line 3205′ contacts and forms a portion of release electrode 3205′ as illustrated in the nanotube switching region of FIG. 44A. This nanotube switching region is illustrated as nanotube switch structure 3233′ in array 4725 of FIG. 44C. In terms of minimum technology feature size, NT-on-drain cell 4765 is approximately 12 to 13 F2. Nanotube-on-drain array 4725 structures illustrated in FIGS. 44A, 44B, and 44C correspond to nanotube-on-drain array 4700 schematic representations illustrated in FIG. 40. Bit line 3119′/3117′ structures correspond to any of bit lines BL0 to BLm−1 schematic representations; reference line 3138″ structures correspond to any of reference lines REF0 to REFm−1 schematic representations; word line 3120′ structures correspond to any of word lines WL0 to WLn−1 schematic representations; release line 3205′ structures correspond to any of release lines RL0 to RLn−1 schematic representations; source contact 3140′ structures correspond to any of source contacts 4720 schematic representations; nanotube switch structures 3233′ correspond to any of NT0,0 to NTm−1,n−1 schematic representations; FET 3237′ structures correspond to any of FETs T0,0 to Tm−1, n−1 schematic representations; and exemplary cell 4765 corresponds to any of cells C0,0 to cell Cm−1,n−1 schematic representations. Switch plate 3106′ is connected to drain 3124′ through contact 3101′, conductive stud 3122′, and contact 3121′. Drain 3124′ is in substrate 3128′. It is desirable to enhance array 4725 illustrated in plan view FIG. 44C by enhancing wireability, for example, or cell density, for example. In order to minimize the risk of shorts caused by misaligned via (vertical) connections between conductive layers, it is desirable to coat the top and sides of some selected conductors with an additional insulating layer that is not etched when etching the common insulator (common insulator SiO2, for example) between conductive layers as illustrated by structure 3227 in FIG. 31D. A method such as Method 3144 of coating a conductive layer with an additional insulating layer to form insulated conductor structure 3227 as described with respect to structures illustrated in FIGS. 31A-31D may be applied to structures as illustrated further below. It is desirable to enhance the wireability of array 4725 illustrated in FIG. 44C by forming bit array line 3138′″ on the same wiring level and at the same time as reference line 3138″. Bit array line 3138′″ contacts bit line segments 3119′/3117′ composed of combined conductors 3119′ and 3117′ as illustrated further below. Line segments 3119′/3117′ are not required to span relatively long sub-array regions and may be optimized for contact to nanotube layer 3114′. FIG. 45A illustrates cross section A-A′ of array 4729 taken at A-A′ of the plan view of array 4729 illustrated in FIG. 45C, and shows FET device region 3237′ in the FET length direction, nanotube switch structure 3233′, interconnections and insulators. FIG. 45B illustrates cross section B-B′ of array 4729 taken at B-B′ of plan view of array 4729 illustrated in FIG. 45C, and shows a release array line 3205′ with insulating layer 3149′ corresponding to insulating layer 3148 in structure 3227 (FIG. 31D), a bit array line 3138′″ in contact with conductor 3119′ of combined conductors 3119′ and 3117′, and a word array line 3120′. Bit array line 3138′″ contacts conductor 3119′ through contact 3155′, to stud 3157′, through contact 3159′, to conductor 3119′. Insulator 3149′ is used to prevent contact between release line conductor 3205′ and stud 3157′ in case of stud 3157′ misalignment. FIG. 45C illustrates a plan view of array 4729 including exemplary cell 4767 region, with reference array line 3138″ contacting source 3126′ through contact 3140′ to stud 3118A′, to stud 3118′, to contact 3123′, (stud 3118A′, stud 3118′ and contact 3123′ not shown in plan view 4725) and to source 3126′. Reference array line 3118″ is on the same array wiring layer and parallel to bit line 3138′″, as is illustrated in plan view of array 4729 in FIG. 45C, and bit line 3138′″ contacts a corresponding bit line segment 3119′, as shown in FIG. 45B. Release array line 3205′ is parallel to word array line 3120′. Portions of release line 3205′ act as release electrode 3205′ as illustrated in the nanotube switching region of FIG. 45A. This nanotube switching region is illustrated as nanotube switch structure 3233′ in array 4729 of FIG. 45C. In terms of minimum technology feature size, NT-on-drain cell 4767 is approximately 12 to 13 F2. Nanotube-on-drain array 4729 structures illustrated in FIGS. 45A, 45B, and 45C correspond to nanotube-on-drain array 4700 schematic representation illustrated in FIG. 40. Bit line 3138′″ structures correspond to any of bit lines BL0 to BLm−1 schematic representations; reference line 3138″ structures correspond to any of reference lines REF0 to REFm−1 schematic representations; word line 3120′ structures correspond to any of word lines WL0 to WLn−1 schematic representations; release line 3205′ structures correspond to any of release lines RL0 to RLn−1 schematic representations; source contact 3140′ structures correspond to any of source contacts 4720 schematic representations; nanotube switch structure 3233′ correspond to any of NT0,0 to NTm−1,n−1 schematic representations; and FET 3237′ structures correspond to any of FET T0,0 to Tm−1, n−1 schematic representations; and exemplary cell 4767 corresponds to any of cells C0,0 to cell Cm−1,n−1 schematic representations. It is desirable to enhance the density of array 4725 illustrated in FIG. 44C to reduce the area of each bit in the array, resulting in higher performance, lower power, and lower cost due to smaller array size. Smaller array size results in the same number of bits occupying a reduced silicon chip area, resulting in increased productivity and therefore lower cost, because there are more chips per wafer. Cell area is decreased by reducing the size of nanotube switch region 3233′, thereby reducing the periodicity between nanotube switch regions 3233′, and correspondingly reducing the spacing between reference lines 3138″ and bit lines 3119′/3117′. FIG. 46A illustrates cross section A-A′ of array 4731 taken at A-A′ of the plan view of array 4731 illustrated in FIG. 46D, and shows FET device region 3237′ in the FET length direction, reduced area (smaller) nanotube switch structure 3239′, interconnections and insulators. A smaller picture frame opening is formed in combined conductors 3119′ and 3117′ by applying sub-lithographic method 3036 shown in FIG. 26 and corresponding sub-lithographic structures shown in FIGS. 29D, 29E, and 29F during the fabrication of nanotube switch structure 3239′. FIG. 46B illustrates cross section B-B′ of array 4731 taken at B-B′ of plan view of array 4731 illustrated in FIG. 46D, and shows reference line 3163′ comprising conductive layers 3117′ and 3119′, and conformal insulating layer 3161′. Conductive layers 3117′ and 3119′ of reference line 3163′ are extended to form the picture frame region of nanotube device structure 3239′, however, insulating layer 3161′ is not used as part of the nanotube switch structure 3239′. FIG. 46B also illustrates release line 3205′, and word array line 3120′. FIG. 46C illustrates cross section C-C′ of array 4731 taken at C-C′ of the plan view of array 4731 illustrated in FIG. 46D. Reference line 3138″ is connected to source diffusion 3126′ through contact 3140′, to stud 3118A′, and through contact 3123′. In order to achieve greater array density, there is a small spacing between stud 3118A′ and reference line 3163′. Insulator 3161′ is used to prevent electrical shorting between stud 3118A′ and reference line 3163′ conductors 3119′ and 3117′ if stud 3118A′ is misaligned. FIG. 46D illustrates a plan view of array 4731 including exemplary cell 4769 region, with reference array line 3138″ contacting source 3126′ as illustrated in FIG. 46C, bit array lines 3163′ parallel to reference line 3138″ but on a different array wiring level (wiring plane). Release array line 3205′ is parallel to word array line 3120′. Release line 3205′ contacts and forms a portion of release electrode 3205′ as illustrated in the nanotube switching region of FIG. 46A. Exemplary cell 4769 area (region) is smaller (denser) than exemplary cell 4767 area shown in FIG. 45C and exemplary cell 4765 area shown in FIG. 44C, and therefore corresponding array 4731 is denser (occupies less area) than corresponding array areas of array 4729 and 4725. The greater density (smaller size) of array 4731 results in higher performance, less power, less use of silicon area, and therefore lower cost as well. In terms of minimum technology feature size, NT-on-drain cell 4769 is approximately 10 to 11 F2. Nanotube-on-drain array 4731 structures illustrated in FIGS. 46A-46D correspond to nanotube-on-drain array 4700 schematic representation illustrated in FIG. 40. Bit line 3163′ structures correspond to any of bit lines BL0 to BLm−1 schematic representations; reference line 3138″ structures correspond to any of reference lines REF0 to REFm−1 schematic representations; word line 3120′ structures correspond to any of word lines WL0 to WLn−1 schematic representations; release line 3205′ structures correspond to any of release lines RL0 to RLn−1 schematic representations; source contact 3140′ structures correspond to any of source contacts 4720 schematic representations; nanotube switch structure 3239′ correspond to any of NT0,0 to NTm−1,n−1 schematic representations; and FET 3237′ structures correspond to any of FET T0,0 to Tm−1, n−1 schematic representations; and exemplary cell 4769 corresponds to any of cells C0,0 to cell Cm−1,n−1 schematic representations. Nanotube Random Access Memory Using FEDs with Controllable Gates Nanotube Random Access Memory (NRAM) Systems and Circuits, with Same Non-volatile field effect devices (FEDs) 180, 200, 220, and 240 with controllable gates may be used as cells and interconnected into arrays to form non-volatile nanotube random access memory (NRAM) systems. The memory cells contain a single element that combines both select and storage functions, and is referred to as a nanotube transistor (NT-T). By way of example, FED12 240 (FIG. 2L) is used to form a non-volatile NRAM memory cell that is also referred to as a NT-on-Gate memory cell. NT-On-Gate NRAM Memory Systems and Circuits with Parallel Bit and Release Lines, and Parallel Word and Reference Lines NRAM 1NT-T memory arrays are wired using four lines. Word line WL is used to gate combined nanotube/select device NT-T, bit line BL is attached to a shared drain between two adjacent combined nanotube/select devices. Reference line REF is attached to a shared source between two adjacent nanotube/select devices and is grounded. Release line RL is used to control a release-plate of a combined nanotube/select device. In this NRAM array configuration, RL is parallel to BL and acts as second bit line, and REF is parallel to WL, and REF is grounded. FIG. 47A depicts non-volatile field effect device 240 with memory cell wiring to form NT-on-Gate memory cell 5000 schematic. Word line (WL) 5200 connects to terminal T1 of FED12 240; bit line (BL) 5300 connects to terminal T2 of FED12 240; reference line (REF) 5400 connects to terminal T3 of FED12 240; and release line (RL) 5500 connects to terminal T4 of FED12 240. Memory cell 5000 performs write and read operations, and stores the information in a non-volatile state. The FED12 240 layout dimensions and operating voltages are selected to optimize memory cell 5000. Memory cell 5000 FET combined nanotube/select device controllable gate 5120 corresponds to a combination of gate 242 and switch plate 248; drain 5080 corresponds to drain 244; and source 5060 corresponds to source 246. Memory cell 5000 combined nanotube/select device control gate and NT switch 5140 corresponds to NT switch 250; release-plate insulator layer surface 5160 corresponds to release-plate insulator layer surface 256; and release-plate 5180 corresponds to release-plate 254. The interconnections between the elements of memory cell 5000 schematic correspond to the interconnection of the corresponding interconnections of the elements of FED12 240. BL 5300 connects to drain 5080 through contact 5320; REF 5400 connects to source 5060 through contact 5420; RL 5500 connects to release-plate 5180 by contact 5520; WL 5200 interconnects to combined nanotube/select device NT switch control gate 5140 by contact 5220. The non-volatile NT switching element 5140 may be caused to deflect toward combined switch-plate controllable gate 5120 via electrostatic forces to closed (“ON”) position 5140′ to store a logic “1” state as illustrated in FIG. 47B. The van der Waals force holds NT switch 5140 in position 5140′. In position 5140′ combined switch plate controllable gate 5120 is at the same voltage as NT switch control gate 5140′. Alternatively, the non-volatile NT switching element 5140 may be caused to deflect to insulator surface 5160 on release-plate 5180 via electrostatic forces to open (“OFF”) position 5140″ to store a logic “0” state as illustrated in FIG. 47C. The van der Waals force holds NT switch 5140 in position 5140″. In position 5140″ combined switch-plate controllable gate 5120 is floating (not connected). When combined switch plate controllable gate 5120 is not connected to a terminal, its voltage is determined by the internal capacitance network as illustrated in FIG. 13A and FIG. 14. Combined switch plate controllable gate 5120 is a combination of elements 242, 243, and 248 as illustrated in more detail in cross section 400 in FIG. 14. CCH-SUB is not in the internal device capacitance network because bit lines BL and reference lines REF are held at zero volts during the write operation. When combined switch plate controllable gate 5120 is floating, its voltage VG may be calculated as VG=VCG×C1G/(C1G+CG-CH), where VCG is the voltage of NT switch control gate 5140. Capacitance C1G is designed for a desired capacitance ratio relative to device gate capacitance CG-CH. For C1G=0.25×CG-CH, VG=0.2×VCG. The non-volatile element switching via electrostatic forces is as depicted by element 250 in FIG. 2L. Voltage waveforms 375 used to generate the required electrostatic forces are illustrated in FIG. 15. NT-on-Gate schematic of memory cell 5000 forms the basis of a non-volatile storage (memory) cell. The device may be switched between closed storage state “1” (switched to position 5140′) and open storage state “0” (switched to position 5140″), which means the controllable gate may be written to an unlimited number of times as desired. In this way, the device may be used as a basis for a non-volatile nanotube random access memory, which is referred to here as a NRAM array, with the ‘N’ representing the inclusion of nanotubes. In the NT-on-gate structure, no dc current flows through the switch-plate to NT fabric contact, maximizing cyclability (maximum number of ON/OFF cycles). FIG. 48 represents an NRAM system 5700, according to preferred embodiments of the invention. Under this arrangement, an array is formed with m×n (only exemplary portion being shown) of non-volatile cells ranging from cell C0,0 to cell C2,2. NRAM system 5700 may be designed using one large m×n array, or several smaller sub-arrays, where each sub-array is formed of m×n cells. Non-volatile cell C0,0 contains a single combined nanotube/select device NT-T0,0. To access selected cells, the array uses read and write word lines (WL0, WL1, WL2), read bit lines (BL0, BL1, BL2), grounded reference lines (REF0, REF1), and write release lines (behave as write bit lines) (RL0, RL1, RL2). The NT switch control gate of NT-T0,0 is coupled to WL0, the drain of NT-T0,0 is coupled to BL0, the source of NT-T0,0 is coupled to REF0, and the release-plate of NT-T0,0 is coupled to RL0. Connection 5720 connects BL0 to shared drain of select devices NT-T0,0 and NT-T0,1. Connection 5740 connects REF1 to shared source of select devices NT-T0,1 and NT-T0,2. Word, bit, reference, and release decoders/drivers are explained further below. Under preferred embodiments, nanotubes in array 5700 may be in the “ON” “1” state or the “OFF” “0” state. The NRAM memory allows for unlimited read and write operations per bit location. A write operation includes both a write function to write a “1” and a release function to write a “0”. By way of example, a write “1” to cell C0,0 and a write “0” to cell C1,0 is described. For a write “1” operation to cell C0,0, combined nanotube/select device NT-T0,0 is activated when WL0 transitions from 0 to VSW, BL0 has transitioned from VDD to 0 volts prior to WL0 activation, RL0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW, and REF0 remains at zero. The release-plate and combined NT-switch-control-gate of the non-volatile combined nanotube/select device NT0,0 are each at VSW resulting in zero electrostatic force (because the voltage difference is zero). The zero BL0 voltage is applied to the drain, and zero REF0 reference is applied to the source of combined nanotube/select device NT-T0,0. The difference in voltage between the NT0,0 combined NT-switch-control-gate and the combined switch-plate-gate is VSW−0.2 VSW, and generates an attracting electrostatic force. If VSW−0.2 VSW exceeds the nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH (VSW>1.25 VNT-TH), then the nanotube structure switches to “ON” state or logic “1” state, that is, combined NT-switch-control-gate and combined switch-plate-gate are electrically connected as illustrated in FIG. 47B. If NT-T0,0 was in the “1” state at the onset of the write “1” cycle, it remains in the “1” state. The near-Ohmic connection between combined switch-plate-gate 5120 and combined NT-switch-control-gate 5140 in position 5140′ represents the “ON” state or “1” state. If the power source is removed, cell C0,0 remains in the “ON” state. For a write “0” (release) operation to cell C1,0, combined nanotube/select device NT-T1,0 is activated when WL0 transitions from 0 to VSW and drives combined NT-switch-control-gate to VSW. BL1 transitioned from VDD to 0 volts prior to WL0 activation, RL1 transitions from VDD to zero volts, and REF0 remains at zero volts. If cell C1,0 is in the “1” state, then switching voltage VSW is applied to the combined switch-plate-gate of NT-T1,0. There is no electrostatic force between combined switch-plate-gate and combined NT-switch-control-gate. The non-volatile storage element NT1,0 release-plate is at switching voltage zero and the combined NT-switch-control-gate is at switching voltage VSW generating an attracting electrostatic force. If VSW exceeds the nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH, the nanotube structure switches to the “OFF” state or logic “0” state, that is, the nanotube NT switch and the surface of the release-plate insulator are in contact as illustrated in FIG. 47C. If NT-T1,0 was in the “0” state at the onset of the write “0” cycle, it remains in the “0” state. The non-conducting contact between insulator surface 5160 on release-plate 5180 and combined NT-switch-control-gate 5140 in position 5140″ represents the “OFF” state or “0” state. If the power source is removed, cell C1,0 remains in the “OFF” state. An NRAM read operation does not change (destroy) the information in the activated cells, as it does in a DRAM, for example. Therefore the read operation in the NRAM is characterized as a non-destructive readout (or NDRO) and does not require a write-back after the read operation has been completed. In this example, Cell C0,0 combined nanotube/select device NT-T0,0 stores a “1” state as illustrated in FIG. 47B. The electrical characteristics (source-drain current ISD VS combined switch-plate-gate) depend on the stored logic state (“1” state or “0” state). Combined nanotube/select device NT-T0,0 is field effect device (FED) 240 (FIG. 2L) with structure 400 (FIG. 14) used in cell 5000, and memory array 5700, and exhibits electrical characteristic 385, as illustrated in FIG. 16. FED12 240, NT switch 250 and position 250′, correspond to NT-T0,0 combined NT-switch-control-gate 5140 position 5140′. NT-switch-control-gate 5140 is connected to WL0 (which corresponds to VT1 in FIG. 16). During read, BL0 is precharged to VDD and allowed to float. WL0 transitions from zero to VDD (1.2 volts, for example). For a stored logic “1” state, the FET threshold voltage VFET-TH=0.4 volts is exceeded by 0.8 volts and BL0 is discharged. The change in BL0 voltage is detected by a sense amplifier/latch, and a logic “1” state is stored in the latch. BL0, in contact with NT-T0,0 drain 5080, discharges through conductive channel of resistance RFET to the grounded source terminal 5060. The combined NT-switch-control-gate 5140 contacts combined switch-plate-gate 5120 of NT-T0,0 through conductor to NT contact resistances RC and NT switch to switch-plate resistance RSW. RC+RSW are not in the discharge path for a NT-on-gate cell. In this example, cell C1,0 combined nanotube/select device NT-T1,0 stores a “0” state as illustrated in FIG. 47C. For a read operation of cell C1,0, BL1 is precharged high to VDD and allowed to float. WL0 is driven high to VDD (1.2 volts, for example). WL0 voltage VDD is capacitively coupled to combined switch-plate-gate 5120 by the internal capacitance network illustrated in FIG. 14, resulting in an FET-gate voltage of 0.24 volts (0.2×1.2 volts). Since the FET gate voltage is less than VFET-TH=0.4 volts (electrical characteristic 385, FIG. 16), there is no conductive path between drain 5080 and source 5060, and BL1 is not discharged. Sense amplifier/latch circuit (not shown) does not detect a voltage drop and the latch is set to a logic “0” state. FIG. 49 illustrates the operational waveforms 5800 of memory array 5700 of FIG. 48 during read, write “1”, and write “0” operations for selected cells, while not disturbing unselected cells (no change to unselected cell stored logic states). Waveforms 5800 illustrate voltages and timings to write logic state “1” in cell C0,0, write a logic state “0” in cell C1,0, read cell C0,0, and read cell C1,0. Waveforms 5800 also illustrate voltages and timings to prevent disturbing the stored logic states (logic “1” state and logic “0” state) in partially selected (also referred to as half-selected) cells. Partially selected cells are cells in memory array 5700 that receive applied voltages because they are connected to (share) word, bit, reference, and release lines that are activated as part of the read or write operation to the selected cells. Cells in memory array 5700 tolerate unlimited read and write operations at each memory cell location. At the start of the write cycle, BL0 transitions from VDD to zero volts, connecting the drain to ground. REF0 is at zero volts connecting source to ground. BL1 and BL2 transition from VDD to zero volts connecting all drains to ground. REF1 and REF2 are also at zero volts connecting all sources to ground. WL0 transitions from zero to VSW, activating select devices NT-T0,0, NT-T1,0, NT-T2,0. Word lines WL1, WL2 are not selected and remain at zero volts. RL0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW, connecting the release-plates combined nanotube/select device NT-T0,0, NT-T0,1, and NT-T0,2 to VSW. RL1 transitions from VDD to zero volts, connecting the release-plates of combined nanotube/select devices NT-T1,0, NT-T1,1, and NT-T1, 2, to zero volts. RL2 remains at VDD, connecting the release-plates of NT-T3,0 to VDD. REF0 transitions from VDD to switching voltage VSW, connecting NT switches of non-volatile storage elements NT0,0, NT1,0 . . . NTm−1,0 to VSW. REF1, REF2. REFn−1 remain at VDD, connecting NT switches of non-volatile storage elements NT0,1 to NTn−1,n−1 to VDD. NT-T0,0 may be in “ON” (“1” state) or “OFF” (“0” state) state at the start of the write cycle. It will be in “ON” state at the end of the write cycle. If NT-T0,0 in cell C0,0 is “OFF” (“0” state) it will switch to “ON” (“1” state) since the voltage difference between combined NT-switch-control-gate and release-plate is zero, and the voltage difference between combined NT-switch-control-gate and combined switch-plate-gate is VSW−0.2 VSW because of the internal device capacitance coupling network. Therefore, VSW must be sufficiently elevated to ensure nanotube switching occurs. For VNT-TH in the range of 1.7 to 2.2 volts, VSW−0.2 VSW must exceed 2.2 volts, therefore VSW>2.75 volts. VSW=2.8 volts is used in this example to ensure an “OFF” to “ON” transition. If NT-T-T0,0 in cell C0,0 is in the “ON” (“1” state), it will remain in the “ON” (“1”) state. NT-T1,0 may be in “ON” (“1” state) or “OFF” (“0” state) state at the start of the write cycle. It will be in “OFF” state at the end of the write cycle. If NT-T1,0 in cell C1,0 is “ON” (“1” state) it will switch to “OFF” (“0” state) since the voltage difference between combined NT-switch-control-plate and combined switch-plate-gate is zero, and the voltage difference between NT-switch-control-plate and release-plate is VSW. If NT-T1,0 in cell C1,0 is “OFF” (“0” state), it will remain “OFF” (“0” state). If for example, VSW=2.4 volts, VDD=1.2 volts, and NT switch threshold voltage range is VNT-TH=1.7 to 2.2 volts, then for NT-T0,0 and NT-T1,0 a difference voltage VSW>VNT-TH ensuring write states of “ON” (“1” state) for NT0,0 and “OFF” (“0” state) for NT1,0. Although VSW=2.4 volts ensures an “ON” to “OFF” transition, VSW=2.8 volts is used in this example to ensure “OFF” to “ON” transition. Cells C0,0 and C1,0 have been selected for the write operation. All other cells have not been selected, and information in these other cells must remain unchanged (undisturbed). Since in an array structure some cells other than selected cells C0,0 and C1,0 in array 5700 will experience partial selection voltages, often referred to as half-select voltages, it is necessary that half-select voltages applied to non-volatile storage element terminals be sufficiently low (below nanotube activation threshold VNT-TH) to avoid disturbing stored information. It is also necessary to avoid parasitic current flow. For NT-on-Gate memory cells during write operations, all bit lines (connected to drain) and reference lines (connected to sources) are at zero volts, so no disturb currents flow for write “1” or write “0” operations. Release lines are used as write bit lines in NT-on-Gate memory arrays. Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines WL0 (REF0 voltage is zero) includes cell C2,0 because WL0 has been activated. Storage element NT-T2,0 will have BL2 at zero volts. To prevent undesired switching of NT-T2,0, RL2 is set at voltage VDD. The information in storage elements NT-T2,0 in cell C2,0 is not disturbed, and there is no parasitic current. Since corresponding source and drain voltages are zero, there can be no parasitic current. If cell C2,0 is in the “ON” state, there is no disturb because the voltage difference between corresponding combined NT-switch-control-gates and corresponding release-plate is VSW−VDD=1.2 volts, when VSW=2.8 volts and VDD=1.2 volts. Since this voltage difference of 1.6 volts is less than the minimum nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH of 1.7 volts, no switching takes place. If C2,0 is in the “OFF” state, then the difference in voltage between combined NT-switch-control-gate and combined switch-pate-gate is VSW−0.2 VSW=2.2 volts. However, for NT-T0,1 and NT-T0,2 release-plate at VSW=2.8 volts, corresponding combined NT-switch-control-gate at VDD, and corresponding combined switch-plate-gate at VDD (for ON) and 0.2 VDD (equals 0.24 volts for OFF), and with minimum VNT-TH=1.7 volts, no disturb occurs. Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines RL0 and BL0 includes cells C0, 1 and C0,2 because RL0 and BL0 have been activated. RL0 drives combined nanotube/select device NT-T0, 1 and NT-T0,2 release-plates to switching voltage VSW, and WL1 and WL2 drive corresponding combined NT-switch-control-gates to VDD. Combined nanotube/select devices NT-T0, 1 and NT-T0,2 have corresponding release-plates at VSW and combined NT-switch-control-gates at VDD. For a stored “1” (“ON”) state, combined switch-plate-gate is at VDD. The voltage difference VSW−VDD=1.6 volts, less than minimum VNT-TH=1.7 volts, and the stored “1” (“ON”) state is not disturbed. For a stored “0” (“OF”F) state, combined switch-plate-gate is at 0.2 VDD due to internal device capacitance network coupling. The electrostatic attractive force due to VDD−0.2 VDD=1 volt and cannot overcome a much stronger electrostatic force due to the VSW−VDD=1.6 volts and close proximity between release-plate and corresponding combined NT-switch-control-gate, and the “0” (“OFF”) state is not disturbed. Potential half-select disturb along activated array lines RL1 and BL1 includes cells C1,1 and C1,2 because RL1 and BL1 have been activated. RL1 drives combined nanotube/select device NT-T0,1 and NT-T0,2 release-plates to zero volts, and WL1 and WL2 drive corresponding combined NT-switch-control-gates to VDD. Combined nanotube/select devices NT-T1,1 and NT-T1,2 have corresponding release-plates at zero volts and combined NT-switch-control-gates at VDD. For a stored “1” (“ON”) state, combined switch-plate-gate is at VDD. The voltage difference VDD−0=1.2 volts, less than minimum VNT-TH=1.7 volts, and the stored “1” (“ON”) state is not disturbed. For a stored “0” (“OFF”) state, combined switch-plate-gate is at 0.2 VDD due to internal device capacitance network coupling. The electrostatic attractive force due to VDD−0.2 VDD=1 volt causes a counter-balancing electrostatic, and the “0” (“OFF”) state is not disturbed. For all remaining memory array 5700 cells C2,1 and C2,2 BL2 and REL 1 and REL2 voltages are zero, so no parasitic currents can flow between drains and sources of combined nanotube/select devices NT-T2, 1 and NT-T2,2. RL2 drives combined nanotube/select device NT-T2,1 and NT-T2,2 release-plates to VDD, and WL1 and WL2 drive corresponding combined NT-switch-control-gates to VDD. Combined nanotube/select devices NT-T2, 1 and NT-T2,2 have corresponding release-plates at VDD and corresponding combined NT-switch-control-gates at VDD, for a voltage difference of zero. For a stored “1” (“ON”) state, combined switch-plate-gate is at VDD, all voltage differences are zero, and the stored “1” (“ON”) state is not disturbed. For a stored “0” (“OFF”) state, combined switch-plate-gate is at 0.2 VDD due to internal device capacitance network coupling. The electrostatic attractive force due to VDD−0.2 VDD=1 volt is much less than VNT-TH=1.7 volts, and the “0” (“OFF”) state is not disturbed. Non-volatile NT-on-gate NRAM memory array 5700 with bit lines parallel to release lines is shown in FIG. 48 contains 2N×2M bits, is a subset of non-volatile NRAM memory system 5810 illustrated as memory array 5815 in FIG. 50A. NRAM memory system 5810 may be configured to operate like an industry standard asynchronous SRAM or synchronous SRAM because nanotube non-volatile storage cells 5000 shown in FIG. 47A, in memory array 5700, may be read in a non-destructive readout (NDRO) mode and therefore do not require a write-back operation after reading, and also may be written (programmed) at CMOS voltage levels (5, 3.3, and 2.5 volts, for example) and at nanosecond and sub-nanosecond switching speeds. NRAM read and write times, and cycle times, are determined by array line capacitance, and are not limited by nanotube switching speed. Accordingly, NRAM memory system 5810 may be designed with industry standard SRAM timings such as chip-enable, write-enable, output-enable, etc., or may introduce new timings, for example. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 5810 may be designed to introduce advantageous enhanced modes such as a sleep mode with zero current (zero power−power supply set to zero volts), information preservation when power is shut off or lost, enabling rapid system recovery and system startup, for example. NRAM memory system 5810 circuits are designed to provide the memory array 5700 waveforms 5800 shown in FIG. 49. NRAM memory system 5810 accepts timing inputs 5812, accepts address inputs 5825, and accepts data 5867 from a computer, or provides data 5867 to a computer using a bidirectional bus sharing input/output (110) terminals. Alternatively, inputs and outputs may use separate (unshared) terminals (not shown). Address input (I/P) buffer 5830 receives address locations (bits) from a computer system, for example, and latches the addresses. Address I/P buffer 5830 provides word address bits to word decoder 5840 via address bus 5837; address I/P buffer 5830 provides bit addresses to bit decoder 5850 via address bus 5852; and address bus transitions provided by bus 5835 are detected by function generating, address transition detecting (ADT), timing waveform generator, controller (controller) 5820. Controller 5820 provides timing waveforms on bus 5839 to word decoder 5840. Word decoder 5840 selects the word address location within array 5815 and provides WL waveforms for both write-one, write-zero, read-one, and read-zero operations as illustrated by waveforms 5800′ shown in FIG. 51. FIG. 51 NRAM memory system 5810 waveforms 5800′ correspond to memory array 5700 waveforms 5800 shown in FIG. 49. Reference lines REF are grounded. Bit address decoder 5850 is used to decode both bit lines BL and corresponding release lines RL (there is no need for a separate RL decoder) and drive bit line (BL) and release (RL) select logic 5855 via bus 5856. Controller 5820 provides timing waveforms on bus 5854 to bit decoder 5850. Controller 5820 also provides function and timing inputs on bus 5857 to BL & RL select logic 5855. BL & RL select logic 5855 uses inputs from bus 5856 and bus 5857 to generate data multiplexer select bits on bus 5859. The output of BL and RL select logic 5855 on bus 5859 is used to select control data multiplexers using combined data multiplexers & sense amplifiers/latches (MUXs & SAs) 5860. Controller 5820 provides function and timing inputs on bus 5862 to MUXs & SAs 5860, resulting in NRAM memory system 5810 on-chip BL and RL waveforms for both write-one, write-zero, read-one, and read-zero operations as illustrated by waveforms 5800′ corresponding to memory array 5700 waveforms 5800 shown in FIG. 49. MUXs & SAs 5860 are used to write data provided by read/write buffer 5865 via bus 5864 in array 5815, and to read data from array 5815 and provide the data to read/write buffer 5865 via bus 5864 as illustrated in waveforms 5800′, of FIG. 51. Sense amplifier/latch 5900 is illustrated in FIG. 50B. Flip flop 5910, comprising two back-to-back inverters is used to amplify and latch data inputs from array 5815 or from read/write buffer 5865. Transistor 5920 connects flip flop 5910 to ground when activated by a positive voltage supplied by control voltage VTIMING 5980, which is provided by controller 5820. Gating transistor 5930 connects a bit line BL to node 5965 of flip flop 5910 when activated by a positive voltage. Gating transistor 5940 connects reference voltage VREF to flip flop node 5975 when activated by a positive voltage. Transistor 5960 connects voltage VDD to flip flop 5910 node 5965, transistor 5970 connects voltage VDD to flip flop 5910 node 5975, and transistor 5950 ensures that small voltage differences are eliminated when transistors 5960 and 5970 are activated. Transistors 5950, 5960, and 5970 are activated (turned on) when gate voltage is low (zero, for example). In operation, VTIMING voltage is at zero volts when sense amplifier 5900 is not selected. NFET transistors 5920, 5930, and 5940 are in the “OFF” (non-conducting) state, because gate voltages are at zero volts. PFET transistors 5950, 5960, and 5970 are in the “ON” (conducting) state because gate voltages are at zero volts. VDD may be 5, 3.3, or 2.5 volts, for example, relative to ground. Flip flop 5910 nodes 5965 and 5975 are at VDD. If sense amplifier/latch 5900 is selected, VTIMING transitions to VDD, NFET transistors 5920, 5930, and 5940 turn “ON”, PFET transistors 5950, 5960, and 5970 are turned “OFF”, and flip flop 5910 is connected to bit line BL and reference voltage VREF. VREF is connected to VDD in this example. As illustrated by waveforms BL0 and BL1 of waveforms 5800′, bit line BL is pre-charged prior to activating a corresponding word line (WL0 in this example). If cell 5000 of memory array 5700 (memory system array 5815) stores a “1”, then bit line BL in FIG. 50B corresponds to BL0 in FIG. 51, BL is discharged by cell 5000, voltage droops below VDD, and sense amplifier/latch 5900 detects a “1” state. If cell 5000 of memory array 5700 (memory system array 5815) stores a “0”, then bit line BL in FIG. 50B corresponds to BL1 in FIG. 51, BL is not discharged by cell 5000, voltage does not droop below VDD, and sense amplifier/latch 5900 detect a “0” state. The time from sense amplifier select to signal detection by sense amplifier/latch 5900 is referred to as signal development time. Sense amplifier/latch 5900 typically requires 100 to 200 mV relative to VREF in order to switch. It should be noted that cell 5000 requires a nanotube “OFF” resistance to “ON” resistance ratio of greater than 10 to 1 for successful operation. A typical bit line BL has a capacitance value of 250 fF, for example. A typical nanotube storage device (switch) or dimensions 0.2 by 0.2 um typically has 8 nanotube filaments across the suspended region, for example, as illustrated further below. For a combined contact and switch resistance of 50,000 Ohms per filament, as illustrated further below, the nanotube “ON” resistance of cell 5000 is 6,250 Ohms. For a bit line of 250 fF, the time constant RC=1.6 ns. The sense amplifier signal development time is less than RC, and for this example, is between 1 and 1.5 nanoseconds. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 5810 operation may be designed for high speed cache operation at 5 ns or less access and cycle time, for example. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 5810 may be designed for low power operation at 60 or 70 ns access and cycle time operation, for example. For low power operation, address I/P buffer 5830 operation requires 8 ns; controller 5820 operation requires 16 ns; bit decoder 5850 operation plus BL & select logic 5855 plus MUXs & SA 5860 operation requires 12 ns (word decoder 5840 operation requires less than 12 ns) array 5815 delay is 8 ns; operation of sense amplifier 5900 requires 8 ns; and read/write buffer 5865 requires 12 ns, for example. The access time and cycle time of non-volatile NRAM memory system 5810 is 64 ns. The access time and cycle time may be equal because the NDRO mode of operation of nanotube storage devices (switches) does not require a write-back operation after access (read). Method of Making Field Effect Device with Controllable Gate and NT-On-Gate Memory System and Circuits with Parallel Bit and Release Array Lines, and Parallel Word and Reference Array Lines NT-on-Gate memory cells are based on FED12 240 devices shown in FIG. 2L. Switch 250 may be displaced to contact a switch-plate 248, which is connected to a controllable gate 242. Switch 250 may be displaced to contact release-plate dielectric surface 256 on release-plate 254, which is connected to terminal T4. FED12 240 devices are interconnected to fabricate a NT-on-gate memory array. FIG. 22 describes a basic method 3000 of manufacturing preferred embodiments of the invention. In general, preferred methods first form 3002 a base structure including field effect device similar to a MOSFET, having drain, source, gate nodes, and conductive studs on source, drain, and gate structures for connecting to additional layers above the MOSFET device used to fabricate the nanotube switch. Base structure 3102′ shown in FIG. 24A-24E is used when fabricating NT-on-source memory arrays. The nanotube switch structure is fabricated on planar surface 3104′. Base structure 3102′″ shown in FIG. 44A is used when fabricating NT-on-drain memory arrays. The nanotube switch structure is fabricated on planar surface 3104′″ using the same methods as used to fabricate the NT-on-source memory array. Base structure 6002 shown in FIG. 52B is used when fabricating NT-on-gate memory arrays. The nanotube switch structure is fabricated on planar surface 6004 using the same methods as used to fabricate the NT-on-source and NT-on-drain memory arrays. Preferred methods first form 3002 base structure 6002 in two steps. First, MOSFET devices are formed using well known industry methods having a polysilicon (or metallic) gate 6120, for example, and source diffusion 6124 and drain diffusion 6126 in semiconductor substrate 6128, for example, as illustrated in FIG. 52A. Then studs (tungsten, aluminum, etc., for example) are embedded in dielectric 6116 (SiO2, for example) using well known industry methods, and the surface is planarized. Stud 6129 contacts source 6124 at contact 6121, stud 6118′ contacts drain 6126 at contact 6123, and stud 6122′ contacts gate 6120 at contact 6125. Next, reference array line (REF) 6163 is deposited and patterned using standard semiconductor process techniques, and contact stud 6129 at contact 6101 as illustrated in FIG. 52B. Standard semiconductor process methods insulate reference array line 6163. Next, standard semiconductor processes are used to open via holes to studs 6122′ and 6118′, fill via holes with metal, planarize, and pattern. Standard semiconductor processes deposit and insulator, such as SiO2, for example, and planarize. Stud 6122′ and stud 6118′ are thus extended in length above the top of reference array line 6163 to surface 6004 of base structure 6002 as illustrated in FIGS. 52A and 52B. Once base structure 6002 is defined, then methods of fabricating NT-on-gate memory arrays are the same as those used to fabricate NT-on-source memory arrays. Preferred methods 3004 shown in FIGS. 23 and 23′ and associated figures; methods 3036 shown in FIG. 26 and associated figures; methods 3006 shown in FIGS. 27 and 27′ and associated figures; methods 3008 shown in FIGS. 28 and 28′ and associated figures; and methods 3144 as illustrated in FIGS. 31A-31D. Conductors, semiconductors, insulators, and nanotubes are formed in the same sequence and are in the same relative position in the structure. Length, widths, thickness dimensions may be different, reflecting differences in design choices. Also, conductor materials may be different, for example. The function of some electrodes may be different for NT-on-source and NT-on-gate memory arrays. For example, reference array lines are connected to source diffusions. Alternatively, source diffusions may be used as reference array lines without a separate conductor layer, however, performance may be slower. Word array lines connect to different electrodes in the nanotube structure, the nanotube switch for example, as may be seen further below. For NT-on-gate memory arrays, the switch-plate of the nanotube structure is connected to the gate diffusion of the FET device. However, for NT-on-drain memory arrays, the switch-plate of the nanotube structure is connected to the drain diffusion of the FET device, and for NT-on-source memory arrays, the switch-plate of the nanotube structure is connected to the source diffusion of the FET device, as may be seen further below. The nanotube switch region of the NT-on-gate cross section illustrated in FIG. 52C corresponds to the nanotube switch region of the NT-on-source cross section illustrated in FIG. 30F′ after the formation of first and second gap regions, sealing of the fluid communication paths, and planarizing as discussed with respect to FIG. 30J′. Switch-plate 6106 is in electrical communication with FET gate 6120 by means of contact 6127, stud 6122, and contact 6125, (see FIGS. 52A and 52B). Insulator 6108 is between switch-plate 6106 and nanotube fabric 6114. Conductors 6117 and 6119 form composite conductor 6325, with an opening to form a picture frame opening used to suspend nanotube fabric 6114. Gap region 6209 is between the top of conductor 6119 and insulator 6203 on the bottom of release-plate 6205, in the combined nanotube/device switching region 6301. Reference array line 6263 is in electrical contact with source 6124 by means of contact 6101 and stud 6129. Insulator 6116, with a planarized surface, encapsulates the nanotube switch structure and array wiring. FIG. 52D illustrates the structure of FIG. 52C with extended stud 6118A contacting stud 6118 and reaching the planarized top surface of insulator 6116. Extended stud 6118A is surrounded by insulator 6310 to ensure that stud 6118A does not connect to regions of combined nanotube/device structure 6301 if stud 6118A is misaligned. Insulator 6310 is a conformal insulating layer deposited in the via hole reaching the top surface of stud 6118. A directional etch (RIE, for example) removes the insulator region in contact with 6118. The via hole is filled with a conductor, and the top surface is planarized as illustrated in FIG. 52D. Bit line 6138 is deposited and patterned forming structure 6000 illustrated in FIG. 52E. Differences between NT-on-source and NT-on-gate memory arrays may be seen by comparing FIGS. 33A and 52E; FIGS. 33B and 52F; FIGS. 33C and 52G; and FIGS. 33D and 52H. FIG. 52E illustrates cross section A-A′ of array 6000 taken at A-A′ of the plan view of array 6000 illustrated in FIG. 52H, and shows reduced area (smaller) combined nanotube/device switch region 6301 in the FET length, interconnections and insulators. A smaller picture frame opening is formed in combined conductors 6119 and 6117 by applying sub-lithographic method 3036 shown in FIG. 26 and corresponding sub-lithographic structures shown in FIGS. 29D, 29E, and 29F during the fabrication of combined nanotube/device switch structure 6301. FIG. 52F illustrates cross section B-B′ of array 6000 taken at B-B′ of plan view of array 6000 illustrated in FIG. 52H, and shows word line 6325 comprising conductive layers 3117 and 3119. Conductive layers 6117 and 6119 of word line 6325 are extended to form the picture frame region of nanotube device structure. FIG. 52F also illustrates release line 6205, and reference array line 6263. FIG. 52G illustrates cross section C-C′ of array 6000 taken at C-C′ of the plan view of array 6000 illustrated in FIG. 52H. Bit line 6138 is connected to drain diffusion 6126 through contact 6140, to stud 6118A, to stud 6118, and through contact 6123. In order to achieve greater array density, there is a small spacing between stud 6118A and release line 6205. Insulator 6310 is used to prevent electrical shorting between stud 6118A and release line 6205 if stud 6118A is misaligned. FIG. 52H illustrates a plan view of array 6000 including exemplary cell 6400 region, with bit array line 6138 contacting drain 6126 as illustrated in FIG. 52G, release array line 6205 parallel to bit line 6138 but on a different array wiring level (wiring plane). Reference array line 6263 is parallel to word array line 6325. Release line 6205 contacts and forms a portion of release electrode 6205 as illustrated in the nanotube switching region of FIG. 52E. NT-on-gate exemplary cell 6400 area (region) is smaller (denser) than corresponding exemplary nanotube-on-source cell 3169 area shown in FIG. 33D and corresponding NT-on-drain exemplary cell 4769 area shown in FIG. 46D, and therefore corresponding array 6000 is denser (occupies less area) than corresponding array areas of array 3231 and 4731. The greater density of array 6000 results in higher performance, less power, less use of silicon area, and therefore lower cost as well. In terms of minimum technology feature size, NT-on-gate cell 6400 is approximately 7 to 9 F2. Nanotube-on-gate array 6000 structures illustrated in FIGS. 52E-52H correspond to nanotube-on-gate array 5700 schematic representation illustrated in FIG. 48. Bit line 6138 structures correspond to any of bit lines BL0 to BLm−1 schematic representations; reference line 6263 structures correspond to any of reference lines REF0 to REFm−1 schematic representations; word line 6325 structures correspond to any of word lines WL0 to WLn−1 schematic representations; release line 6205 structures correspond to any of release lines RL0 to RLn−1 schematic representations; source contact 6140 structures correspond to any of source contacts 5740 schematic representations; combined nanotube/device switch structure 6301 correspond to any of combined nanotube/select devices NT0,0 to NTm−1,n−1 schematic representations; and exemplary cell 6400 corresponds to any of cells C0,0 to cell Cm−1,n−1 schematic representations. Nanotube Random Access Memory Using More Than One FED Per Cell with Controllable Sources Nanotube Random Access Memory (NRAM) Systems and Circuits, with Same Non-volatile field effect devices (FEDs) 20, 40, 60, and 80 with controllable sources may be used as the cells of one FED device and interconnected into arrays to form non-volatile nanotube random access memory (NRAM) systems as illustrated further above. In operation, cells with a single FED require a partial (or half-select) mode of operation as illustrated by array 1700 shown in FIG. 18 and corresponding waveforms 1800 shown in FIG. 19, for example. Memory cells that contain two select device (transistors) T and T′, and two non-volatile nanotube storage element NT and NT′ (2T/2NT cells) use full cell select operation, and do not require nanotube partial (or half-select) operation. By using full select operation, nanotube electrical characteristics such as threshold voltage and resistance may be operated over a wider range of values, and sensing may be faster because true and complement bit lines BL and BLb, respectively, are used in a differential signal mode. Cell size (area), however, is increased significantly (by more than two times single FED cell area). By way of example, two FED4 80 (FIG. 2D) devices are used to form a non-volatile NRAM memory cell that is also referred to as a two device NT-on-Source memory cell. Two FED device NT-on-drain cells using non-volatile field effect devices (FEDs) 100, 120, 140, and 180 and two FED device NT-on-gate cells using non-volatile field effect devices (FEDs) 180, 200, 220, and 240 may also be used (not shown). More than two non-volatile field effect devices (FEDs) per cell may be used for additional performance advantages, for example. Four devices, for example, with separate (non-shared) read and write cell terminals may be used (not shown), however, cell size (area) is increased significantly (by more than four times single FED cells). Two FED Device NT-On-Source NRAM Memory Systems and Circuits with Parallel Bit and Reference Lines, and Parallel Word and Release Lines NRAM 2T/2NT memory arrays are wired using three sets of unique array lines (a set of word lines and two sets of complementary bit lines), and one group of shared reference lines all at the same voltage, zero (ground) in this example. Read and write word line WL is used to gate select devices T and T′, read and write bit line BL is attached to a shared drain between two adjacent select T devices, and read and write complementary bit line BLb (or BL′) is attached to a shared drain between two adjacent select T′ devices. Reference line REF is used to control the NT switch voltage of storage element NT and NT′ and is grounded (zero volts). Voltages applied to the switch-plates and release-plates of NT and NT′ are controlled by transistor T and T′ sources. True bit array lines BL and complementary bit array lines BLb (bit line bar) are parallel to each other, and orthogonal to array word lines WL. Reference array lines may be parallel to bit lines or to word lines, or alternatively, a conductive layer (plane) may be used. FIG. 53A depicts two controlled source non-volatile field effect devices, FED4 80 (FIG. 2D) and memory cell wiring to form non-volatile 2T/2NT NT-on-Source memory cell 7000 schematic. A first FED device and associated elements and nodes is referred to as FED4 device 80, and a second FED device and associated elements and nodes is referred to as FED4′ device 80′. Memory cell 7000 is configured as two controlled source FED devices sharing a common gate input provided by a common word line WL, with two independent drain connections each connected to complementary bit lines. Word line (WL) 7200 connects to terminal T1 of FED4 80 and also to terminal T1′ of FED4 80′; bit line (BL) 7300 connects to terminal T2 of FED4 80 and complementary bit line (BLb) 7300′ connects to terminal T2′ of FED4 80′; reference line (REF) 7400 connects to terminal T3 of FED4 80 and terminal T3′ of FED4 80′. Memory cell 7000 performs write and read operations, and stores the information in a non-volatile state. The FED4 80 and FED4 80′ layout dimensions and operating voltages are selected to optimize memory cell 7000. Memory cell 7000 FET select device (T) gate 7040 and select device (T′) gate 7040′ correspond to gate 82; drains 7060 and 7060′ correspond to drain 84; and controllable sources 7080 and 7080′ correspond to controllable source 86. Memory cell 7000 nanotube (NT) switch-plates 7120 and 7120′ correspond to switch-plate 88; NT switches 1140 and 1140′ correspond to NT switch 90; release-plate insulator layer surfaces 7184 and 7184′ correspond to release-plate insulator layer surface 96; and release-plates 7180 and 7180′ correspond to release-plate 94. The interconnections between the elements of memory cell 7000 schematic correspond to the interconnection of the corresponding interconnections of the elements of FED4 80. BL 7300 connects to drain 7060 through contact 7320 and BLb 7300′ connects to drain 7060′ through contact 7320′; REF 7400 connects to NT switch 7140 and in parallel to NT′ switch 7141′ through connector 7145; WL 7200 interconnects to gate 7040 by contact 7220 and interconnects to gate 7040′ by contact 7220′. Alternatively, WL 7200 may form and interconnect gates 1040 and 1040′, requiring no separate contacts, as shown further below. Transistor T source 7080 connects to nanotube NT switch-plate 7120 and connects to nanotube NT′ release-plate 7180′ through connector 7190. Transistor T′ source 7080′ connects to nanotube NT release-plate 7180 and connects to nanotube NT′ switch-plate 7120′ through connector 7190′. In operation, the non-volatile NT switching element 7140 may be caused to deflect to switch-plate surface 7120 via electrostatic forces to closed (“ON”) position 7140S1, and non-volatile NT′ switching element 7140′ may be caused to deflect to insulator 7184′ on release-plate 7180′ via electrostatic forces to open (“OFF”) position 7140′S2, to store a logic “1” state as illustrated in FIG. 53B. That is, a logic “1” state for the two FED cell 7000 consists of NT in closed (“ON”) position 7140S1 and NT′ in open (“OFF”) position 7140′S2, as illustrated in FIG. 53B. The van der Waals forces hold nanotube switches 7140 and 7140′ in positions 7140S1 and 7140′S2, respectively. Alternatively, the non-volatile NT switching element 7140-may be caused to deflect toward release-plate 7180 via electrostatic forces to open (“OFF”) position 7140S2, and non-volatile switching element 1140′ may be caused to deflect toward switch-plate 7120′ to closed (“ON”) position 7140′S1, to store a logic “0” state as illustrated in FIG. 53C. That is, a logic “0” state for the two FED cell 7000 consists of NT in open (“OFF”) position 7140S2 and NT′ in closed (“ON”) position 7140′S1, as illustrated in FIG. 53C. The van der Waals forces hold nanotube switches 1140 and 1140′ in positions 7140S2 and 7140′S1, respectively. The non-volatile element switching via electrostatic forces is as depicted by element 90 in FIG. 2D with voltage waveforms 311 used to generate the required electrostatic forces illustrated in FIG. 4. NT-on-Source schematic 7000 forms the basis of a non-volatile 2T/2NT storage (memory) cell. The non-volatile 2T/2NT memory cell may be switched between storage state “1” and storage state “0”, which means the controllable sources may be written to an unlimited number of times as desired, and that the memory cell will retain stored information if power is removed (or lost). In this way, the device may be used as a basis for a non-volatile nanotube random access memory, which is referred to here as a NRAM array, with the ‘N’ representing the inclusion of nanotubes. FIG. 54 represents an NRAM array system 7700, according to preferred embodiments of the invention. Under this arrangement, an m×n cell array is formed, with only an exemplary 3×2 potion of non-volatile cells ranging from cell C0,0 to cell C2,1 being shown. To access selected cells, array 7700 uses read and write word lines (WL0 and WL1), read and write bit lines (BL0, BL1, and BL2) and read and write complementary bit lines (BLb0, BLb1, and BLb2. Reference lines REF are all at the same reference voltage, zero volts in this example. Non-volatile cell C0,0 includes select devices T0,0 and T′0,0, and non-volatile storage elements NT0, and NT′0,0. The gates of T0,0 and T′0,0 are coupled to WL0, the drain of T0,0 is coupled to BL0, and the drain of T′0,0 is coupled to BLb0. NT0, is the non-volatilely switchable storage element where the NT0, switch-plate is coupled to the source of T0,0, the switching NT element is coupled to REF, and the release-plate is coupled to the source of T′0,0. NT′0,0 is the non-volatilely switchable storage element where the NT′0,0 switch-plate is coupled to the source of T′0,0, the switching NT element is coupled to REF, and the release-plate is coupled to the source of T0,0. Word and bit decoders/drivers, sense amplifiers, and controller circuits are explained further below. Under preferred embodiments, nanotubes in array 7700 may be in the “ON”, “1” state or the “OFF”, “0” state. The NRAM memory allows for unlimited read and write operations per bit location. A write operation includes both a write function to write a “1” and a release function to write a “0”. By way of example, a write “1” to cell C0,0 and a write “0” to cell C1,0 is described. For a write “1” operation to cell C0,0, select devices T0,0 and T′0,0 are activated when WL0 transitions from 0 to VSW+VFET-TH, after BL0 has transitioned to VSW volts and after BL0b has transitioned to zero volts. REF voltage is at zero volts. The NT0, switch element release-plate is at zero volts, the switch-plate is at VSW volts, and the NT switch is at zero volts. The NT′0,0 switch element release-plate is at VSW volts, the switch-plate is at zero volts, and the NT′ switch is at zero volts. The BL0 VSW voltage is applied to the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT0, and the release-plate of non-volatile storage element NT′0,0 by the controlled source of select device T0,0. The zero BL0b voltage is applied to the release-plate of non-volatile storage element NT0,0, and to the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT′0,0, by the controlled source of select device T′0,0. The difference in voltage between the NT0, switch-plate and NT switch is VSW and generates an attracting electrostatic force. The voltage difference between the release-plate and NT switch is zero so there is no electrostatic force. The difference in voltage between NT′0,0 release-plate and NT′ switch is VSW and generates an attracting electrostatic force. The voltage difference between the switch-plate and NT′ switch is zero so there is no electrostatic force. If VSW exceeds the nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH, the nanotube structure switches to “ON” state or logic “1” state, that is, the nanotube NT switch and switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT0, are electrically connected as illustrated in FIG. 53B, and the nanotube NT switch and release-plate dielectric of non-volatile storage element NT′0,0 are in contact as illustrated in FIG. 53B. The near-Ohmic connection between switch-plate 7120 and NT switch 7140 in position 7140S1 represents the “ON” state or “1” state. If the power source is removed, cell C0,0 remains in the “ON” state. For a write “0” operation to cell C1,0, select devices T1,0 and T′1,0 are activated when WL0 transitions from 0 to VSW+VFET-TH, after BL1 has transitioned to zero volts and after BL1b has transitioned to VSW volts. REF voltage is at zero volts. The NT1,0 switch element release-plate is at VSW volts, the switch-plate is at zero volts, and the NT switch is at zero volts. The NT′1,0 switch element release-plate is at zero volts, the switch-plate is at VSW volts, and the NT′ switch is at zero volts. The BL1 zero volts is applied to the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT1,0 and the release-plate of non-volatile storage element NT′1,0 by the controlled source of select device T1,0. The VSW BL0b voltage is applied to the release-plate of non-volatile storage element NT1,0, and to the switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT′1,0, by the controlled source of select device T′1,0. The difference in voltage between the NT1,0 switch-plate and NT switch is zero and generates no electrostatic force. The voltage difference between the release-plate and NT switch is VSW so there is an attracting electrostatic force. The difference in voltage between NT′1,0 release-plate and NT′ switch is zero volts and generates no electrostatic force. The voltage difference between the switch-plate and NT′ switch is VSW so there is an attracting electrostatic force. If VSW exceeds the nanotube threshold voltage VNT-TH, the nanotube structure switches to “OFF” state or logic “0” state, that is, the nanotube NT′ switch and switch-plate of non-volatile storage element NT′1,0 are electrically connected as illustrated in FIG. 53C, and the nanotube NT switch and release-plate dielectric of non-volatile storage element NT1,0 are in contact as illustrated in FIG. 53C. The near-Ohmic connection between switch-plate 7120‘and NT’ switch 7140′ in position 7140′S1 represents the “OFF” state or “0” state. If the power source is removed, cell C1,0 remains in the “ON” state. An NRAM read operation does not change (destroy) the information in the activated cells, as it does in a DRAM, for example. Therefore the read operation in the NRAM is characterized as a non-destructive readout (or NDRO) and does not require a write-back after the read operation has been completed. For a read operation of cell C0,0, BL0 and BL0b are driven high to VDD and allowed to float. WL0 is driven high to VDD+VFET-TH and select devices T0,0 and T′0,0 turn on. REF0 is at zero volt. If cell C0,0 stores an “ON” state (“1” state) as illustrated in FIG. 53B, BL0b remains unchanged, and BL0 discharges to grounded REF line through a conductive path that includes select device T0,0 and non-volatile storage element NT0,0, the BL0 voltage drops, and the “ON” state or “1” state is detected by a sense amplifier/latch circuit (shown further below) that records the voltage drop of BL0 relative to BL0b by switching the latch to a logic “1” state. BL0 is connected by the select device T0,0 conductive channel of resistance RFET to the switch-plate of NT0,0. The switch-plate of NT0,0 is in contact with the NT switch with a contact resistance RSW and the NT switch contacts reference line REF0 with contact resistance RC. The total resistance in the discharge path is RFET+RSW+RC. Other resistance values in the discharge path, including the resistance of the NT switch, are much small and may be neglected. For a read operation of cell C1,0, BL1 and BL1b are driven high to VDD and allowed to float. WL0 is driven high to VDD+VTH and select devices T1,0 and T′1,0 turn on. REF1 is at zero volts. If cell C1,0 stores an OFF state (“0” state) as illustrated in FIG. 53C, BL1 remains unchanged, and BL1b discharges to grounded REF line through a conductive path that includes select device T′1,0 and non-volatile storage element NT′1,0, the BL1b voltage drops, and the OFF state or “0” state is detected by a sense amplifier/latch circuit (shown further below) that records the voltage drop of BL1b relative to BL1 by switching the latch to a logic “0” state. BL1b is connected by the select device T′1,0 conductive channel of resistance RFET to the switch-plate of NT′1,0. The switch-plate of NT′1,0 is in contact with the NT′ switch with a contact resistance RSW and the NT′ switch contacts reference line REF0 with contact resistance RC. The total resistance in the discharge path is RFET+RSW+RC. Other resistance values in the discharge path, including the resistance of the NT switch, are much small and may be neglected. FIG. 55 illustrates the operational waveforms 7800 of memory array 7700 shown in FIG. 54 during read “1”, read “0”, write “1”, and write “0” operations for selected cells, while not disturbing unselected cells (no change to unselected cell stored logic states). Waveforms 7800 illustrate voltages and timings to write logic state “1” in cell C0,0, write a logic state “0” in cell C1,0, read cell C0,0 which is in the “1” state, and read cell C1,0 which is in the “0” state. Waveforms 7800 also illustrate voltages and timings to prevent disturbing the stored logic states (logic “1” state and logic “0” state) along selected word line WL0 in this example. Word line WL0 turns on transistors T2,0 and T′2,0 of cell C2,0 after bit lines BL2 and BL2b have been set to zero volts. No voltage difference exists between NT and NT′ switches and corresponding switch-plates and release-plates because REF is also at zero volts, and the stored state of cell C2,0 is not disturbed. All other unselected cells along active word line WL0 are also not disturbed. Word line WL1 is not selected and is held at zero volts, therefore all select transistors along word line WL1 are in the OFF state and do not connect bit lines BL and BL′ to corresponding source terminals. Therefore, cells C0,1, C1,1, C2,1, and any other cells along word line WL1 are not disturbed. Cells in memory array 7700 tolerate unlimited read and write operations at each memory cell location with no stored state disturbs, and hold information in a non-volatile mode (without applied power). Non-volatile NT-on-source NRAM memory array 7700 with bit lines parallel to reference lines is shown in FIG. 54 contains 6 bits, a subset of a 2N×2M array 7700, and is a subset of non-volatile NRAM memory system 7810 illustrated as memory array 7815 in FIG. 56A. NRAM memory system 7810 may be configured to operate like an industry standard asynchronous SRAM or synchronous SRAM because nanotube non-volatile storage cells 7000 shown in FIG. 53A, in memory array 7700, may be read in a non-destructive readout (NDRO) mode and therefore do not require a write-back operation after reading, and also may be written (programmed) at CMOS voltage levels (5, 3.3, and 2.5 volts, for example) and at nanosecond and sub-nanosecond switching speeds. NRAM read and write times, and cycle times, are determined by array line capacitance, and are not limited by nanotube switching speed. Accordingly, NRAM memory system 7810 may be designed with industry standard SRAM timings such as chip-enable, write-enable, output-enable, etc., or may introduce new timings, for example. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 7810 may be designed to introduce advantageous enhanced modes such as a sleep mode with zero current (zero power—power supply set to zero volts), information preservation when power is shut off or lost, enabling rapid system recovery and system startup, for example. NRAM memory system 7810 circuits are designed to provide the memory array 7700 waveforms 7800 shown in FIG. 55. NRAM memory system 7810 accepts timing inputs 7812, accepts address inputs 7825, and accepts data 7867 from a computer, or provides data 7867 to a computer using a bidirectional bus sharing input/output (I/O) terminals. Alternatively, inputs and outputs may use separate (unshared) terminals (not shown). Address input (I/P) buffer 7830 receives address locations (bits) from a computer system, for example, and latches the addresses. Address I/P buffer 7830 provides word address bits to word decoder 7840 via address bus 7837; address I/P buffer 7830 provides bit addresses to bit decoder 7850 via address bus 7852; and address bus transitions provided by bus 7835 are detected by function generating, address transition detecting (ATD), timing waveform generator, controller (controller) 7820. Controller 7820 provides timing waveforms on bus 7839 to word decoder 7840. Word decoder 7840 selects the word address location within array 7815. Word address decoder 7840 is used to decode word lines WL and drives word line (WL) using industry standard circuit configurations resulting in NRAM memory system 7810 on-chip WL waveforms for both write-one, write-zero, read-one, and read-zero operations as illustrated by waveforms 7800′ shown in FIG. 57. FIG. 57 NRAM memory system 7810 waveforms 7800′ correspond to memory array 7700 waveforms 7800 shown in FIG. 55. Bit address decoder 7850 is used to decode bit lines BL. Controller 7820 provides timing waveforms on bus 7854 to bit decoder 7850. BL decoder 7850 uses inputs from bus 7854 and bus 7857 to generate data multiplexer select bits on bus 7859. The output of BL decoder 7850 on bus 7859 is used to select control data multiplexers using combined data multiplexers & sense amplifiers/latches (MUXs & SAs) 7860. Controller 7820 provides function and timing inputs on bus 7857 to MUXs & SAs 7860, resulting in NRAM memory system 7810 on-chip BL waveforms for both write-one, write-zero, read-one, and read-zero operations as illustrated by waveforms 7800′ shown in FIG. 57 corresponding to memory array 7700 waveforms 7800 shown in FIG. 55. MUXs & SAs 7860 are used to write data provided by read/write buffer 7865 via bus 7864 in array 7815, and to read data from array 7815 and provide the data to read/write buffer 7865 via bus 7864 as illustrated in waveforms 7800′. Sense amplifier/latch 7900 is illustrated in FIG. 56B. Flip flop 7910, comprising two back-to-back inverters is used to amplify and latch data inputs from array 7815 or from read/write buffer 7865. Transistor 7920 connects flip flop 7910 to ground when activated by a positive voltage supplied by control voltage VTIMING 7980, which is provided by controller 7820. Gating transistor 7930 connects a bit line BL to node 7965 of flip flop 7910 when activated by a positive voltage. Gating transistor 7940 connects a bit line BLb to flip flop node 7975 when activated by a positive voltage. Transistor 7960 connects voltage VDD to flip flop 7910 node 7965, transistor 7970 connects voltage VDD to flip flop 7910 node 7975, and transistor 7950 ensures that small voltage differences are eliminated when transistors 7960 and 7970 are activated. Transistors 7950, 7960, and 7970 are activated (turned on) when gate voltage is low (zero, for example). In operation, VTIMING voltage is at zero volts when sense amplifier 7900 is not selected. NFET transistors 7920, 7930, and 7940 are in the “OFF” (non-conducting) state, because gate voltages are at zero volts. PFET transistors 7950, 7960, and 7970 are in the “ON” (conducting) state because gate voltages are at zero volts. VDD may be 5, 3.3, or 2.5 volts, for example, relative to ground. Flip flop 7910 nodes 7965 and 7975 are at VDD. If sense amplifier/latch 7900 is selected, VTIMING transitions to VDD, NFET transistors 7920, 7930, and 7940 turn “ON”, PFET transistors 7950, 7960, and 7970 are turned “OFF”, and flip flop 7910 is connected to bit line BL and to bit line BLb. As illustrated by waveforms BL0, BL0b, BL1, and BL1b of waveforms 7800′, bit line BL and BLb are pre-charged prior to activating a corresponding word line (WL0 in this example). If cell 7000 of memory array 7700 (memory system array 7815) stores a “1”, then bit line BL and BLb in FIG. 56B correspond to BL0 and BLb, respectively, in FIG. 54. BL is discharged by cell 7000, voltage droops below VDD, BLb is not discharged, and sense amplifier/latch 7900 detects a “1” state. If cell 7000 of memory array 7700 (memory system array 7815) stores a “0”, then bit line BL and BLb in FIG. 20B corresponds to BL1 and BL1b, respectively, in FIG. 54. BLb is discharged by cell 7000, voltage droops below VDD, BL is not discharged, and sense amplifier/latch 7900 detect a “0” state. The time from sense amplifier select to signal detection by sense amplifier/latch 7900 is referred to as signal development time. Sense amplifier/latch 7900 typically requires 75 to 100 mV difference voltage in order to switch. It should be noted that cell 7000 requires a nanotube “OFF” resistance to “ON” resistance ratio of greater than 10 to 1 for successful operation. A typical bit line BL has a capacitance value of 250 fF, for example. A typical nanotube storage device (switch) or dimensions 0.2 by 0.2 um typically has 8 nanotube filaments across the suspended region, for example, as illustrated further below. For a combined contact and switch resistance of 50,000 ohms per filament, as illustrated further below, the nanotube “ON” resistance of cell 7000 is 6,250 ohms. For a bit line of 250 fF, the time constant RC=1.6 ns. The sense amplifier signal development time is less than RC, and for this example, is between 1 and 1.5 nanoseconds. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 7810 operation may be designed for high speed cache operation at 5 ns or less access and cycle time, for example. Non-volatile NRAM memory system 7810 may be designed for low power operation at 60 or 70 ns access and cycle time operation, for example. For low power operation, address I/P buffer 7830 operation requires 8 ns; controller 7820 operation requires 16 ns; bit decoder 7850 plus MUXs & SA 7860 operation requires 12 ns (word decoder 7840 operation requires less than 12 ns); array 7815 delay is 8 ns; sensing 7900 operation requires 8 ns; and read/write buffer 7865 requires 12 ns, for example. The access time and cycle time of non-volatile NRAM memory system 7810 is 64 ns. The access time and cycle time may be equal because the NDRO mode of operation of nanotube storage devices (switches) does not require a write-back operation after access (read). Method of Making Two FED Device NT-on-Source Memory System and Circuits Two FED4 80 (FIG. 2D) controllable source devices are interconnected to form a non-volatile two transistor, two nanotube (2T/2NT) NRAM memory cell that is also referred to as a two device NT-on-source memory cell. The 2T/2NT NT-on-source NRAM memory array is fabricated using the same method steps used to fabricate 1T/1NT NT-on-source memory structure 3225 shown in FIG. 30M′. FIG. 22 describes the basic method 3000 of manufacturing preferred embodiments of the invention. In general, preferred methods first form 3002, a base structure including field effect devices similar to a MOSFET, having drain, source, gate nodes, and conductive studs on source and drain diffusions for connecting to additional layers above the MOSFET device that are used to connect to the nanotube switch fabricated above the MOSFET device layer, bit lines, and other structures. Base structure 8102 with surface 8104 illustrated in FIG. 58A is similar to base structure 3102′ with surface 3104′ shown in FIG. 30M′ with transistors, except source diffusions have been elongated to accommodate connection to a NT-on-source nanotube switch structure 8233 and a cell interconnect structure 8235. The cell interconnect structure 8235 contacts source diffusion region 8124 and is formed in the same way as drain contact structure 8118 and 8118A, and is used for internal (local) cell wiring as is explained further below. Once base structure 8102 is defined, then methods of fabricating 2T/2NT NT-on-source memory arrays is the same as methods of fabricating 1T/1NT NT-on-source memory arrays already described. Preferred methods 3004 shown in FIGS. 23, 23′, and 23″ and associated figures; methods 3036 shown in FIG. 26 and associated figures; methods 3006 shown in FIGS. 27 and 27′ and associated figures; and methods 3008 shown in FIGS. 28 and 28′ and associated figures. Conductors, semiconductors, insulators, and nanotubes are formed in the same sequence and are in the same relative position in the structure. Length, width, thickness dimensions may be different and the choice of conductor material may be different reflecting differences in design choices. Also, interconnections may be different because of cell differences. The function of electrodes are the same, however, interconnections may be different. FIGS. 58A and 58B cross sections illustrated further below correspond to FIG. 30M′ of 1T/1NT NT-on-source cross section. FIG. 58A illustrates cross section A-A′ of array 8000 taken at A-A′ of the plan view of array 8000 illustrated in FIG. 58D, and shows FET device region 8237 in the FET length direction, elongated source 8124 to accommodate nanotube switch structure 8233 and cell interconnect region 8235. Bit line 8138 contacts drain 8126 through contact 8140, conducting studs 8118A and 8118, and contact 8123. When FET device region 8237 FET channel is formed in substrate 8128 below FET gate 8120, bit line 8138 is electrically connected to elongated source diffusion 8124, which connects to switch-plate 8106 through contact 8121, conducting stud 8222, and contact 8101, and to release-plate extension 8205R through contact 8340, conducting studs 8300 and 8300A, and contact 8320, as illustrated in 54A. Nanotube switch structure 8233 corresponds to nanotube switch structure 3133 in FIG. 30M′ with switch-plate 8106, dielectric layer 8108 between nanotube 8114 layer and switch plate 8106, combined conductors 8119 and 8117 forming a picture frame region contacting nanotube 8114 layer, insulator 8203 insulates the underside of release-plate 8205. Nanotube reference (picture-frame) region extension 8119R contacts and is a part of reference array line 8400 shown in FIG. 58D. Structures are embedded in dielectric layer 8116, SiO2 for example, except for gap regions above and below nanotube layers in the nanotube switching region. FIG. 58B illustrates cross section B-B′ of array 8000 taken at B-B′ of the plan view of array 8000 illustrated in FIG. 58D, and shows FET device region 8237′ in the FET length direction, elongated source 8124′ to accommodate nanotube switch structure 8233′ and cell interconnect region 8235′. Bit line 8138′ contacts drain 8126′ through contact 8140′, conductive studs 8118A′ and 8118′, and contact 8123′. When FET device region 8237′ FET channel is formed in substrate 8128 below FET gate 8120, bit line 8138′ is electrically connected to elongated source diffusion 8124′, which connect to switch-plate 8106′ through contact 8121′, conducting stud 8222′, and contact 8101′, and to release-plate extension 8205R′ through contact 8340′, conductive studs 8300′ and 8300A′, and contact 8320′, as illustrated in FIG. 58B. Nanotube switch structure 8233′ corresponds to nanotube switch structure 8233 and structure 3133 in FIG. 30M′. Nanotube reference (picture-frame) region extension 8119R′ contacts and is a part of reference array line 8400 shown in FIG. 58D. FIG. 58C illustrates cross section C-C′ of array 8000 taken at C-C′ of plan view of array 8000 illustrated in FIG. 58D, and shows nanotube switch structure 8233 with switch-plate 8106 connected to source diffusion 8124 as further described with respect to FIG. 58A. Release-plate 8205 extension 8205R connects release-plate 8205 to source diffusion 8124′ through contact 8320′, conducting studs 8300A′ and 8300′, and contact 8340′, all within cell 8500 boundaries. Thus, source 8124 diffusion is electrically connected to switch-plate 8106 of nanotube switch structure 8233, and source 8124′ diffusion is electrically connected to release-plate 8205 of nanotube switch structure 8233 as illustrated in FIG. 58C, and FIG. 58D. A corresponding interconnection means is used to electrically connect source 8124′ to switch-plate 8106′ of nanotube switch structure 8233′, and also to electrically connect source 8124 to release plate 8205′ of nanotube switch structure 8233′ as illustrated in FIG. 58D. FIG. 58D illustrates a plan view of non-volatile 2T/2NT NT-on-source array 8000 including two interconnected NT-on-source FED4 80 structures having two transistor regions 8237 and 8237′ and two nanotube switch structures 8233 and 8233′; two cell interconnect regions 8235 and 8235′ including release-plate interconnect extensions 8205R and 8205R′, and nanotube reference (picture-frame) region extensions 8119R and 8119R′ contacting array reference line REF 8400; array word line 8120A forms gates 8120 and 8120′ of the FET select devices; bit line BL 8138 contacting drain 8126 through contact 8140 and underlying stud and contact shown in FIG. 58A; bit line BLb 8138′ contacting drain 8126′ through contact 8140′ and underlying stud and contact shown in FIG. 58B; in terms of minimum technology feature size, 2T/2NT NT-on-source cell 8500 area is approximately 45 F2. If sub-minimum technology features are used in the NT switch structure (not shown), the minimum cell 8500 area in terms of minimum technology feature size is 30 F2. Nanotube-on-source array 8000 structures illustrated in FIGS. 58A, 58B, 58C, and 58D correspond to 2T/2NT nanotube-on-source array 7700 schematic representations illustrated in FIG. 54. Bit line 3138 structures correspond to any of bit lines BL0 to BL2 schematic representations; bit line 8138′ structures correspond to any of bit lines BL0b to BLb2 schematic representations; common reference line 8400 structures correspond to common reference lines REF schematic representations; word line 3120A structures correspond to any of word lines WL0 and WL1 schematic representations; nanotube switch structures 3233 and 3233′ correspond to any of NT0, to NT2,1 and NT′0,0 to NT′2,1 schematic representations, respectively; FET 3237 and 3237′ structures correspond to any of FETs T0,0 to T2,1 and T′0,0 to T′2,1 schematic representations, respectively; and exemplary cell 8500 corresponds to any of cells C0,0 to cell C2,1 schematic representations. Methods to increase the adhesion energies through the use of ionic, covalent or other forces may be used to alter the interactions with the electrode surfaces. These methods can be used to extend the range of stability within these junctions. Nanotubes can be functionalized with planar conjugated hydrocarbons such as pyrenes which may then aid in enhancing the internal adhesion between nanotubes within the ribbons. The surface of the substrate used can be derivatized/functionalized to create a more hydrophobic or hydrophilic environment to promote better adhesion of nanotubes. The nature of the substrate allows control over the level of dispersion of the nanotubes to generate monolayer nanotube fabric. Preferred nanofabrics have a plurality of nanotubes in contact so as to form a non-woven fabric. Gaps in the fabric, i.e., between nanotubes either laterally or vertically, may exist. The fabric preferably has a sufficient amount of nanotubes in contact so that at least one electrically conductive, semi-conductive or mixed conductive and semi-conductive pathway exists from a given point within a ribbon or article to another point within the ribbon or article (even after patterning of the nanofabric). Though certain embodiments prefer single-walled nanotubes in the nanofabrics, multi-walled nanotubes may also be used. In addition, certain embodiments prefer nanofabrics that are primarily a monolayer with sporadic bilayers and trilayers, but other embodiments benefit from thicker fabrics with multiple layers. It will be further appreciated that the scope of the present invention is not limited to the above-described embodiments but rather is defined by the appended claims, and that these claims will encompass modifications and improvements to what has been described. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Technical Field The present invention relates to field effect devices having non-volatile behavior as a result of control structures having nanotube components and to methods of forming such devices. 2. Discussion of Related Art Semiconductor MOSFET transistors are ubiquitous in modern electronics. These field effect devices possess the simultaneous qualities of bistability, high switching speed, low power dissipation, high-reliability, and scalability to very small dimensions. One feature not typical of such MOSFET-based circuits is the ability to retain a digital state (i.e. memory) in the absence of applied power; that is, the digital state is volatile. FIG. 1 depicts a prior art field effect transistor 10 . The transistor 10 includes a gate node 12 , a drain node 14 , and a source node 18 . Typically, the gate node 12 is used to control the device. Specifically, by applying an adequate voltage to the gate node 12 an electric field is caused that creates a conductive path between the drain 14 and source 18 . In this sense, the transistor is referred to as switching on. Currently, most memory storage devices utilize a wide variety of energy dissipating devices which employ the confinement of electric or magnetic fields within capacitors or inductors respectively. Examples of state of the art circuitry used in memory storage include FPGA, CPLD, ASIC, CMOS, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, DRAM, MRAM and FRAM, as well as dissipationless trapped magnetic flux in a superconductor and actual mechanical switches, such as relays. An FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) or a CPLD (Complex Programmable Logic Device) is a programmable logic device (PLD), a programmable logic array (PLA), or a programmable array logic (PAL) with a high density of gates, containing up to hundreds of thousands of gates with a wide variety of possible architectures. The ability to modulate (i.e. effectively to open and close) electrical circuit connections on an IC (i.e. to program and reprogram) is at the heart of the FPGA (Field programmable gate array) concept. An ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) chip is custom designed (or semi-custom designed) for a specific application rather than a general-purpose chip such as a microprocessor. The use of ASICs can improve performance over general-purpose CPUs, because ASICs are “hardwired” to do a specific job and are not required to fetch and interpret stored instructions. Important characteristics for a memory cell in electronic device are low cost, nonvolatility, high density, low power, and high speed. Conventional memory solutions include Read Only Memory (ROM), Programmable Read only Memory (PROM), Electrically Programmable Memory (EPROM), Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM), Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) and Static Random Access Memory (SRAM). ROM is relatively low cost but cannot be rewritten. PROM can be electrically programmed but with only a single write cycle. EPROM (Electrically-erasable programmable read-only memories) has read cycles that are fast relative to ROM and PROM read cycles, but has relatively long erase times and reliability only over a few iterative read/write cycles. EEPROM (or “Flash”) is inexpensive, and has low power consumption but has long write cycles (ms) and low relative speed in comparison to DRAM or SRAM. Flash also has a finite number of read/write cycles leading to low long-term reliability. ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM are all non-volatile, meaning that if power to the memory is interrupted the memory will retain the information stored in the memory cells. DRAM (dynamic random access memory) stores charge on capacitors but must be electrically refreshed every few milliseconds complicating system design by requiring separate circuitry to “refresh” the memory contents before the capacitors discharge. SRAM does not need to be refreshed and is fast relative to DRAM, but has lower density and is more expensive relative to DRAM. Both SRAM and DRAM are volatile, meaning that if power to the memory is interrupted the memory will lose the information stored in the memory cells. Consequently, existing technologies are either non-volatile but are not randomly accessible and have low density, high cost, and limited ability to allow multiple writes with high reliability of the circuit's function, or they are volatile and complicate system design or have low density. Some emerging technologies have attempted to address these shortcomings. For example, magnetic RAM (MRAM) or ferromagnetic RAM (FRAM) utilizes the orientation of magnetization or a ferromagnetic region to generate a nonvolatile memory cell. MRAM utilizes a magnetoresistive memory element involving the anisotropic magnetoresistance or giant magnetoresistance of ferromagnetic materials yielding nonvolatility. Both of these types of memory cells have relatively high resistance and low-density. A different memory cell based upon magnetic tunnel junctions has also been examined but has not led to large-scale commercialized MRAM devices. FRAM uses circuit architecture similar to DRAM but which uses a thin film ferroelectric capacitor. This capacitor is purported to retain its electrical polarization after an externally applied electric field is removed yielding a nonvolatile memory. FRAM suffers from a large memory cell size, and it is difficult to manufacture as a large-scale integrated component. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,853,893; 4,888,630; 5,198,994, 6,048,740; and 6,044,008. Another technology having non-volatile memory is phase change memory. This technology stores information via a structural phase change in thin-film alloys incorporating elements such as selenium or tellurium. These alloys are purported to remain stable in both crystalline and amorphous states allowing the formation of a bi-stable switch. While the nonvolatility condition is met, this technology appears to suffer from slow operations, difficulty of manufacture and poor reliability and has not reached a state of commercialization. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,448,302; 4,845,533; and 4,876,667. Wire crossbar memory (MWCM) has also been proposed. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,128,214; 6,159,620; and 6,198,655. These memory proposals envision molecules as bi-stable switches. Two wires (either a metal or semiconducting type) have a layer of molecules or molecule compounds sandwiched in between. Chemical assembly and electrochemical oxidation or reduction are used to generate an “ON” or “OFF” state. This form of memory requires highly specialized wire junctions and may not retain non-volatilely owing to the inherent instability found in redox processes. Recently, memory devices have been proposed which use nanoscopic wires, such as single-walled carbon nanotubes, to form crossbar junctions to serve as memory cells. See WO 01/03208, Nanoscopic Wire-Based Devices, Arrays, and Methods of Their Manufacture; and Thomas Rueckes et al., “Carbon Nanotube-Based Nonvolatile Random Access Memory for Molecular Computing,” Science, vol. 289, pp. 94-97, 7 July, 2000. Electrical signals are written to one or both wires to cause them to physically attract or repel relative to one another. Each physical state (i.e., attracted or repelled wires) corresponds to an electrical state. Repelled wires are an open circuit junction. Attracted wires are a closed state forming a rectified junction. When electrical power is removed from the junction, the wires retain their physical (and thus electrical) state thereby forming a non-volatile memory cell. The use of an electromechanical bi-stable device for digital information storage has also been suggested (c.f. U.S. Pat. No. 4,979,149: Non-volatile memory device including a micro-mechanical storage element). The creation and operation of a bi-stable nano-electro-mechanical switches based on carbon nanotubes (including mono-layers constructed thereof) and metal electrodes has been detailed in a previous patent application of Nantero, Inc. (U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,574,130, 6,643,165, 6,706,402; U.S. patent apl. Ser. Nos. 09/915,093, 10/033,323, 10/033,032, 10/128,117, 10/341,005, 10/341,055, 10/341,054, 10/341,130, 10/776,059, and 10/776,572, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties). | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The invention provides circuit arrays having cells with combinations of transistors and nanotube switches. Under one aspect of the invention, a circuit array includes a plurality of cells arranged in an organization of words, each word having a plurality of bits. Each cell is responsive to a bit line, word line, reference line, and release line. Bit lines are arranged orthogonally relative to word lines and each word line and bit line are shared among a plurality of cells. Each cell is selectable via the activation of the bit line and word line. Each cell includes a field effect transistor coupled to a nanotube switching element. The nanotube switching element is switchable to at least two physical positions at least in part in response to electrical stimulation via the reference line and release line. Information state of the cell is non-volatilely stored via the respective physical position of the nanotube switching element. Under another aspect of the invention, the nanotube switching element includes a nanotube article positioned between a set electrode and a release electrode. The set electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article into contact with the set electrode and the release electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article out of contact with the set electrode. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a source that is coupled to the nanotube switching element to act as the set electrode and wherein the release line is coupled to the release electrode. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a gate that is coupled to the word line, and includes a drain that is coupled to the bit line. Under another aspect of the invention, the reference line is coupled to the nanotube article. Under another aspect of the invention, an individual selected cell is readable via a time varying decay of a pre-charged bit line to the selected cell. Under another aspect of the invention, the word line and release line are arranged to extend in parallel. Under another aspect of the invention, adjacent cells have drains coupled together to share a bit line. Under another aspect of the invention, the array uses a single word line decoder and a single bit line decoder. Under another aspect of the invention, the array further includes logic to select corresponding word lines or release lines. Under another aspect of the invention, the array further includes logic to select corresponding bit lines or reference lines. Under another aspect of the invention, the word line and reference line are arranged to extend in parallel. Under another aspect of the invention, adjacent cells have drains coupled together to share a bit line. Under another aspect of the invention, bit line and reference line are arranged to extend in parallel. Under another aspect of the invention, the bit line and release line are arranged to extend in parallel. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a drain that is coupled to the nanotube switching element to act as the set electrode and wherein the release line is coupled to the release electrode. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a gate that is coupled to the word line, and includes a source that is coupled to the reference line. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a gate that is coupled to the nanotube switching element to act as the set electrode and wherein the release line is coupled to the release electrode. Under another aspect of the invention, the field effect transistor in each cell includes a source that is coupled to the reference line, and includes a drain that is coupled to the bit line. Under another aspect of the invention, a circuit array includes a plurality of cells arranged in an organization of words, each word having a plurality of bits. Each cell is responsive to a bit line, word line, and reference line. Each word line and bit line are shared among a plurality of cells. Each cell is selectable via the activation of the bit line and word line. Each cell includes a field effect transistor and a nanotube switching element. Each nanotube switching element includes a nanotube article positioned between a set electrode and a release electrode. The set electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article into contact with the set electrode and the release electrode may be electrically stimulated to electro-statically attract the nanotube article out of contact with the set electrode. Information state of the cell is non-volatilely stored via the respective physical position of the nanotube switching element. Cells are arranged as pairs with the nanotube switching elements of the pair being cross coupled so that the set electrode of one nanotube switching element is coupled to the release electrode of the other and the release electrode of the one nanotube switching element being coupled to the set electrode of the other. The nanotube articles are coupled to the reference line, and the source of one field effect transistor of a pair is coupled to the set electrode to one of the two nanotube switching elements and the source of the other field effect transistor of the pair is coupled to the release electrode to the one of the two nanotube switching elements. Under another aspect of the invention, the release electrodes are covered with a dielectric on the surface facing the nanotube switching element. | 20040609 | 20071127 | 20050317 | 93937.0 | 0 | HU, SHOUXIANG | CIRCUIT ARRAYS HAVING CELLS WITH COMBINATIONS OF TRANSISTORS AND NANOTUBE SWITCHING ELEMENTS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,864,712 | ACCEPTED | Torque-limited drive system, method, and apparatus for a fluid screening system | A drive system for driving a screen in a fluid screening system comprises an electric gear motor equipped with a mechanical torque limited coupling. The system is sized to provide the torque required to drive the screen throughout the desired speed range, as well as providing additional torque as required to free lodged solids from the screen field. The mechanical torque limited coupling provides overload protection when lodged solids block the rotating rake bar. The coupling operates up to a predetermined torque value before the overload protection is activated. The drive system may be operated in either a manual mode or an automatic mode. | 1. A drive system for driving a screen in a fluid screening system, comprising: an electric gear motor having a mechanical torque limited coupling that is installed between an output shaft of a motor and an input shaft of a gear box; and the electric gear motor is sized to provide a torque required to drive the screen throughout a desired speed range, and provides additional torque as required to free lodged solids from the screen, such that the mechanical torque limited coupling provides overload protection required when lodged solids block a rake bar of the fluid screening system. 2. The drive system of claim 1, wherein the mechanical torque limited coupling operates up to a predetermined torque value before the overload protection is activated. 3. The drive system of claim 1, wherein torque is transmitted through mechanical torque limited coupling by frictional force applied to a driven disc by action of two cup springs and an adjusting pressure nut, such that when the drive system encounters torque that exceeds the predetermined torque value, the mechanical torque limited coupling has portions that slip relative to each other. 4. The drive system of claim 3, wherein when this slippage occurs, a pulse counting proximity sensor that is monitoring a driven portion of the mechanical torque limited coupling begins to produce fewer pulses, such that a pulse train is compared to a second pulse train from a second proximity sensor, and when a difference in detected in the pulse trains, the speed monitoring controller gives a relay output that is used to stop the screen. 5. The drive system of claim 1, wherein the motor is supplied with power through one of a two-speed, reversing motor starter arrangement, in which case the motor is a two-speed type, and a variable frequency drive that requires only an inverter duty motor. 6. A method of driving a screen with a drive system in a fluid screening system, comprising: (a) selecting a direction for driving the screen; (b) selecting a speed of operation for the screen; (c) moving the screen in the selected direction at the selected speed; (d) encountering an obstruction with the screen that causes an applied torque that is greater than a mechanical torque limited coupling of the drive system allows; (e) stopping the drive system; (f) resetting a screen control panel; (g) clearing the obstruction; and then (h) restarting the drive system. 7. The method of claim 6, further comprising operating the drive system in a manual mode that requires manual intervention. 8. The method of claim 6, further comprising operating the drive system in an automatic mode that does not require manual intervention. 9. The method of claim 6, wherein step (c) comprises continuing to run the drive system at the selected speed until such time as a different level input is received. 10. The method of claim 6, further comprising selecting a high speed operating mode by one of energizing a second set of windings in a two-speed motor, and selecting a higher preset run speed in a variable frequency drive. 11. The method of claim 6, further comprising operating the drive system with no input, such that the screen operates for a brief time to clear the obstruction, and then shuts down. 12. The method of claim 6, further comprising not selecting an input level during an adjustable time period, and automatically starting and running the screen for an adjustable time period to exercise the drive system. 13. The method of claim 6, further comprising, after an adjustable delay, operating the screen in an opposite direction at a low speed mode for an adjustable time period to remove the obstruction. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein, if no excessive torque is required to dislodge the obstruction in the opposite direction, then, after an adjustable time period, stopping the screen and running the screen in an original direction. 15. The method of claim 13, wherein, if excessive torque is required to dislodge the obstruction in the opposite direction, stopping the screen once again and, after the adjustable time period, moving the screen in an original direction. 16. The method of claim 15, repeating reversal of the direction of the screen for several iterations to attempt to clear the obstruction, and, after a selected maximum number of attempts, shutting down the drive system. | This patent application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/494,292, filed on Aug. 11, 2003, which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Technical Field The present invention relates in general to an improved drive system in a fluid screening operation and, in particular, to an improved system, method, and apparatus for mechanically driving a fluid screening system as well as sensing and correcting an overload in the fluid screening system. 2. Background of the Invention Bar screens are used for screening solids and debris from flowing liquid streams. An example of such a bar screen system can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,730,862. In such systems, a series of rakes pass over parallel screen bars, which make up a bar screen field and remove the debris collected from the flowing stream. Occasionally, large pieces of debris can clog and even damage the bar screen field by either bending or breaking one or more bars within the bar screen field. Furthermore, such blockage can cause the fluid to overflow the filter system. When damage does occur, the screen system must be repaired by typically cutting out the affected bars and welding new bars in their place. These repairs are time consuming, potentially hazardous, and expensive. The screen system is typically taken out of service for a relatively long period of time in order to make such repairs, which also adds significantly to the costs of the repairs. Some prior art systems have tried to address this problem by using nozzles to spray the debris off of the rakes and screen, or either reversing the direction of travel for the rakes until the impediment has been removed from the screen. However, these attempts are not always successful at clearing the screen enough to continue operation of the system, especially when the debris is relatively large size. Thus, a need exists for an improved screen system, and preferably one that can prevent or avoid such extensive damage and repairs. Ideally, such a system should be capable of being adapted to the specific fluid applications and also be able to be used on existing screen system equipment with minimal modification. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One embodiment of a drive system for driving a screen in a fluid screening system comprises an electric gear motor equipped with a mechanical torque limited coupling. The coupling comprises an adapter with a torque limiting coupling. The coupling is installed between the output shaft of the motor and the input shaft of the gear box. The mechanical torque limited gear motor drive system is sized to provide the torque required to drive the screen throughout the desired speed range, as well as providing additional torque as required to free lodged solids from the screen field. It is the mechanical torque limited coupling that provides the overload protection required when the lodged solids block the rotating rake bar. The coupling operates up to a predetermined torque value before the overload protection is activated. Torque is transmitted through the coupling by frictional force applied to a driven disc by the action of two cup springs and an adjusting pressure nut. When the drive system encounters torque that exceeds the predetermined torque value, the coupling halves slip relative to each other. When this slippage occurs, a pulse counting proximity sensor that is monitoring the driven half of the coupling begins to produce fewer pulses. This “pulse train” is compared to a second pulse train that is generated by a second proximity sensor that is monitoring the motor half of the coupling. When the controller detects a difference in these two pulse trains (indicating slippage), it will close a relay contact and stop the screen. The drive system may be operated in either a manual mode or an automatic mode. In the manual operation mode, the drive system operates in forward or reverse when power is supplied. The drive system can be operated at a low speed or a high speed operating mode. The screen rotates in the selected direction at the selected speed. When the screen encounters an obstruction that causes an applied torque that is greater than the torque limited coupling allows, the drive system stops. This condition must be manually acknowledged or reset at the screen control panel. After resetting and clearing the obstruction, the drive system can be restarted. In the automatic operating mode, the drive system runs forward at a selected speed mode in response to a respective level input received at the screen control panel. The drive system will continue to run at the selected speed until such time as a different level input is received. Selection of the other level input causes the drive system to shift to the other speed operating mode. The high speed operating mode may be accomplished either by energizing a second set of windings in the two-speed motor or by selecting the higher preset run speed in the variable frequency drive. The drive system runs in the high speed mode until the high level input is removed, at which time it slows to the low speed mode until that input is also removed. The screen operates for a brief time to clear the solids remaining on the rakes, and then shut down. If the input level is not selected during an operator adjustable time period, the screen automatically runs for an adjustable time period to exercise the system. The foregoing and other objects and advantages of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art, in view of the following detailed description of the present invention, taken in conjunction with the appended claims and the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS So that the manner in which the features and advantages of the invention, as well as others which will become apparent are attained and can be understood in more detail, more particular description of the invention briefly summarized above may be had by reference to the embodiment thereof which is illustrated in the appended drawings, which drawings form a part of this specification. It is to be noted, however, that the drawings illustrate only an embodiment of the invention and therefore are not to be considered limiting of its scope as the invention may admit to other equally effective embodiments. FIG. 1 is a schematic, side elevational view of the bar screen assembly constructed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a front elevational view thereof; FIG. 3 is a partial, top plan view of a rake assembly of the present invention; FIG. 3A is an enlarged view of a portion of the rake assembly; FIG. 4 is a side elevational view thereof; FIG. 5 is a side elevational view of a bottom portion of the bar screen assembly; FIG. 6 is a top plan view of a holding plate for the vertical screen bars; FIG. 7 is a front elevational view of the screen, illustrating only a few screen bars; FIG. 8 is a diagrammatic side view of the top portion of the bar screen assembly, showing the scraper mechanism; FIG. 9 is a circuit diagram showing one embodiment of an overload control system for the screen assembly; FIG. 10 is a schematic sectional view of one embodiment of a torque limiting coupling for a fluid screening system and is constructed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 11 is an enlarged sectional view of an interior portion of the torque limiting coupling of FIG. 10; and FIG. 12 is a flowchart of one embodiment of a method in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION U.S. Pat. No. 5,730,862, assigned to Headworks, Inc., is incorporated herein by reference. Referring now to all of the figures and particularly to FIG. 1, a water channel 1 is shown in which water flows in the direction of the arrow. Solids are collected at a screen 2 and the screenings are raked upwardly from the screen with a plurality of rakes 3. The screen 2 makes an angle of approximately 15 degrees with respect to a vertical line. The rakes 3 are disposed on an endless chain 4 that travels about sprocket wheels 5, which rotate in a clockwise direction. The upper sprocket wheel 5 is driven by a drive system 6, which will be described below in greater detail. The screenings that are raked from the screen 2 are lifted upwardly by a respective rake 3. When the rake 3 reaches a scraper mechanism (FIG. 8), the screenings are brushed from the rake 3 and fall through chutes 7, 8 into a screenings bale press 9. The bale press 9 (e.g., a screw press or a snail press) is used for dewatering the screenings and for reducing the volume of the collected material. Referring now to FIG. 3, the rake 3 has a multiplicity of tines 10 that are formed directly from a rake plate 11. Depending on the spacing of the screen 2, the tines 10 have a typical width of between 4 mm and 8 mm. These small measurements make it virtually impossible to attach tines to the rake plate 11 and still obtain the necessary accuracy and rigidity. Accordingly, the tines 10 of this invention are laser or plasma-machined from the rake plate 11, with a plasma cutter, a water cutter, or still other means. Either side of the rake 3 is attached to the side walls or rake cheeks 12. The chain 4 travels in chain guide rails. In order to obtain the required accuracy, the chain 4 should be a precision transport chain. As shown in FIG. 4, the rake plate 11 is profiled such that it forms an upward bend of about 45 degrees. A U-rail 13 is provided at the back of the rake plate 11, as seen in the rake travel direction (to the right in FIG. 3). The U-rail 13 is welded to the rake plate 11. Referring now to FIGS. 5-7, the screen 2 comprises a multiplicity of vertical screen bars 14. The cross-section of the screen bars 14 may be, for example, trapezoidal, forming a leading edge that is approximately twice the width of the trailing edge, with reference to the water flow direction. Alternatively, the screen bars 14 may be provided with rectangular or still other cross-sectional shapes as well, such as a teardrop shape. The screen bars 14 are welded to a sole plate or bottom plate 15 and into an upper screening retention plate or top plate 16. The bottom and top plates are bolted to a screen frame 17. Depending on the width of the water channel, it is possible use several screen modules, which are formed by the plates 15, 16 and the screen bars 14. If the channel depth exceeds a given material limit with regard to the free length of the screen bars 14, it is possible to add horizontal reinforcement bars extending between the plates 15, 16. As indicated by the downward arrow in FIG. 5, the chain 4 travels about the lower sprocket wheel 5 in a counter-clockwise direction. The travel speeds are approximately 0.11 m/s minimum speed, and 0.22 m/s maximum speed. The drive system 6 is preferably a 3-phase motor. The gear box, such as a helical worm gear unit may be used. Referring now to FIG. 8, when the rake 3 reaches the height of the discharge chute 7, the screenings are scraped from the rake 3 by means of a scraper mechanism. The scraper mechanism comprises a pendulum arm 18 and a plunger plate 19. The pendulum arm 18 swivels freely in a bearing 20. By way of example, the frame 17 is preferably formed entirely from a 4 mm thick plate and is recessed to accommodate the scraping mechanism, chain guides and idler sprockets in order to maintain the full channel width through the plane of the screen. The frame is accurately set into position into the necessary recesses in the channel walls and it is grouted securely into place. No fixing bolts are used. The screen may be set, for example, at 75 degrees relative to horizontal. The screen may be set at other angles as well. The frame is fully welded to the sole plate, the screen plane, and to the rear screenings retention plate. It is also fully welded to the head plate, the discharge chute, and the closure plate between the underside of the discharge chute and the top of the channel. At the upstream face of the screen assembly, box section cross members are securely welded to the side members or the frame at regular intervals between a point above the maximum top water level and the head of the screen. These cross members form the supports for non-illustrated removable transparent cover panels. The upper section of the frame incorporates the screening's washwater spray bar and the necessary shrouding to eliminate the aerosol effect of the washwater system. In one embodiment, the bars are selected by the bar spacing from three different sizes. In another embodiment, the bars are approximately 25 mm deep and 5 mm thick for screens for water depths up to about 1500 mm. For water depths in excess of about 1500 mm, the screen bars are approximately 40 mm deep and 8 mm thick. In both cases the bars have a tapered cross section as illustrated. The bars extend from the sole plate, to which they may be individually welded or otherwise joined, such as with bolts and clips, to a point that is approximately 200 mm above maximum possible top water level. At that point they are individually joined or welded, for example, to the upper screening retention plate. Intermediate stiffening supports are welded to the screen bars as necessary for screens to accommodate water depths in excess of about 2000 mm. These stiffening bars are of rectangular cross sections and they are oriented so as to present the minimum cross-sectional area against the flow in the channel. The screen bars shall be individually welded to each stiffening support. The bottom plate is profiled to induce screenings and debris in the lower level of the flow to be directed onto the lower portion of the screen bars and no to be accumulated at the foot of the screen. The leading edge of the sole plate is at the same level as the channel floor. Raking bars and tines are formed from single continuous bars of sufficient depth to ensure complete stiffness across the full width of the bar. The bar has a minimum thickness of 8 mm and has tines of the appropriate profile to suit the screen bar spacings milled from the leading edge of the same. The raking bar tines penetrate to within 3 mm of the root of the screen bars and leaving a gap of 7 mm between the leading edge of the screen bars and to root of the raking tines. The tines form an angle of 5 degrees to the normal to the screen bars while engaged with the same, with the ends of the tines trailing the remainder of the raking bar. The raking bars are attached to the drive chains within the side members of the screen frame utilizing suitably fabricated links. The raking bars are accurately aligned to ensure that for the full width of each bar the tines penetrate the screen bars to the correct amount of the full extent of travel of the tines while engaged within the screen bars. Stainless steel or polypropylene chain guides are securely fixed to the side members of the screen frame for the full height of travel of the chains. The guides are designed to ensure that the majority of the chains are kept out of contact with the main flow as far as possible, while giving sufficient clearance for the connecting links for each raking bar. Idler sprockets are located at the lower end of each side member of the screen frame and have a minimum thickness of about 20 mm. A bush housing is contiguously welded on both faces to the sprocket. The sprockets are retained on their stub axles by a suitable, easily removable mechanism to ensure ease of replacement of the bearing if necessary. Alternatively, a turn-around guide may be used at the bottom of the assembly instead of sprockets. The turn-around guide may be formed from steel, plastic (e.g., HDPE), or other suitable materials. The drive shaft at the head of the screen frame has two chain sprockets mounted thereon generally as described above, but they are securely keyed to the shaft. The bearing for the shaft within the screen frame may be, for example, self-lubricating polypropylene. The bearing between the drive unit and the screen frame is a conventional roller ball-race type. The raking mechanism is designed to ensure that any part of the screen is cleaned at least once every five seconds. The drive unit is suitably continuously rated and is selected to match the duty of the particular screen. The drive unit is directly coupled to the screen drive shaft through the gearbox. A facility is incorporated within the drive mechanism mounting arrangement to enable the scraping mechanism drive chains to be correctly tensioned and the raking bars to be accurately positioned across the screen face. Such adjustments are possible without the dismantling of any part of the screen frame and without the necessity for any special tools. A current sensing overload device with a built-in intelligent control facility is incorporated within the screen starter compartment in the motor control center. The device is capable of reverse the direction of travel of the scraping mechanism, should a blockage occur on the screen and cause the overload device to trip the normal operation of the screen rake. The device is also capable of enabling this reversing action to be affected for a maximum of, for example, five times for any one occurrence. Further, the device either resets automatically if the blockage causing the initial overload conditions is cleared, or, should the blockage remain upon the completion of the fifth attempt at automatic clearance of the same, the alarm is generated. The scraper bar is fabricated and mounted so that it efficiently cleans the full width of each raking bar. The bearing for the scraper bar is self-lubricating polypropylene. For screens which are wider than about 2000 mm, the damping effect of the bearings are insufficient to permit the scraper bar to return to its rest position in a smooth, steady motion without inducing any shock into the mechanism and a purpose-made and efficient hydraulic damping unit is affixed to either end of the scraper bar shaft to ensure that the returning scraper bar does not suddenly drop back into its rest position. The assembly may further incorporate a washwater spray bar in the head of the screen to aid the cleaning of the scraper bar/raking bar interaction and also to ensure that the maximum amount of organic material is returned to the main flow of sewage. The spray bar spans the full width of the screen and has individual nozzle jets set into its at least 150 mm centers. The jets produce a wide angle of spray in the same plane as that in which the spray bar lies and is aligned to maximize the washing of the screenings as they are scraped off each raking bar. Washwater is delivered to the spray bar at a pressure of 16 bar and at the rate of 21/min/nozzle. A solenoid valve is fitted to the washwater line feeding the spray bar to ensure that the flow to the screen is isolated when the screen is not being operated. The washwater system should operate continuously during the operation of the screen. A complete shroud may be fitted to the screen head to ensure that the aerosol effect of the spraying system is adequately contained. The discharge chute is set to guide all the screening removed by the screen as efficiently as possible into the screening handling system. The chutes form an integral part of the screen assembly and also forms part of the washwater shrouding system. Referring now to FIG. 9, one embodiment of the overload control device, mentioned above, is described. The reference characters outside the main box are as follows: E1 is a main switch; S1 are main fuses; S2 are component input fuses; STR is a transformer; H1 is an indicator light showing operation; H2 is an indicator light showing an error; MS is a motor protector; C1 and C2 refer to protectors for the voltages of forward and reverse operation, respectively. C1 and C2 must be mechanically coupled to one another. The control device may be, for example, microprocessor controlled. In an alternate embodiment, PLC and VFD devices are utilized, or relay logic to accomplish the control goals and allow the sensors to interface with the logic in the control panel. Referring now to FIGS. 1 and 10-12, one embodiment of the drive system 6 for driving the screen 2 comprises an electric gear motor 101 equipped with a mechanical torque limited coupling 103. The coupling 103 may comprise, for example, an adapter with a torque limiting coupling. The coupling 103 is installed between the output shaft of motor 101 and the input shaft of the gear box 104. The motor 101 is installed on the screen 2 using a shaft-mounted approach. In one embodiment, the motor 101 is supplied with power either through a two-speed, reversing motor starter arrangement, in which case the motor 101 is a two-speed type, or by a variable frequency drive that requires only an inverter duty motor. The mechanical torque limited gear motor drive system 6 is sized to provide the torque required to drive the screen 2 throughout the desired speed range. The drive system 6 is also capable of providing additional torque as required to free lodged solids from the screen field. It is the mechanical torque limited coupling 103 that provides the overload protection required when the lodged solids block the rotating rake bar. The coupling 103 operates up to a predetermined torque value before the overload protection is activated. Torque is transmitted through coupling 103 by frictional force applied to a driven disc 105 (FIG. 11) by the action of two cup springs 107 and an adjusting pressure nut 109. When the drive system 6 encounters torque that exceeds the predetermined torque value, the coupling halves 111, 113 slip relative to each other. When this slippage occurs, a pulse counting proximity sensor 115a that is monitoring the driven half of the coupling 103 begins to produce fewer pulses. This “pulse train” is compared (in a speed monitoring controller 117) to a second pulse train that is generated by a second proximity sensor 115b (FIG. 10) that is monitoring the motor half of the coupling. The second sensor 115b is provided for two-speed and infinitely variable speed operation. When the controller 117 detects a difference in these two pulse trains (indicating slippage), it will close a relay contact and stop the screen 2. Alternatively, when the actual torque increases above the predetermined torque value, the controller 117 gives a relay output that is used to stop the screen 2. In operation, the drive system 6 may be operated in either a manual mode or an automatic mode, as selected at an overall screen control panel, as depicted at step 201 (FIG. 12). In the manual operation mode 203, the drive system 6 operates in forward or reverse (step 205) when power is supplied. The drive system 6 can be operated at a low (normal) speed or a high speed operating mode, as depicted at step 207. The screen 2 then rotates (step 209) in the selected direction at the selected speed. In the event that the screen 2 encounters an obstruction (step 211) that causes an applied torque that is greater than the torque limited coupling 103 allows, the drive system 6 stops immediately, as illustrated at step 213. In the manual operation mode, this condition must be manually acknowledged or reset (step 215) at the screen control panel by depressing a reset button. After resetting and clearing the obstruction, the drive system 6 can be restarted, as shown at step 201. In the automatic operating mode (step 221), the drive system 6 runs forward at a selected speed mode (step 223) in response to a respective level input received at the screen control panel. In one embodiment, the drive system 6 will continue to run at the selected speed until such time as a different level input is received. Selection of the other level input causes the drive system 6 to shift to the other speed operating mode. The high speed operating mode may be accomplished, for example, either by energizing a second set of windings in the two-speed motor 101 or, alternately, by selecting the higher preset run speed in the variable frequency drive. In one embodiment, the drive system 6 will run in the high speed mode until the high level input is removed, at which time it slows to the low speed mode until that input is also removed. With no input (step 225), the screen 2 will operate for a brief time (i.e., adjustable off delay) to clear the solids remaining on the rakes, and then shut down (step 227). If the input level is not selected during an operator adjustable time period (also step 225), the screen 2 will automatically start and run for an adjustable time period to exercise the system. During operation (step 228), an obstruction on the screen 2 may be encountered (step 229) while operating in either the high or low speed mode. The obstruction leads to excessive torque requirements, which stops the screen (step 231), as described above. After an adjustable delay, the screen begins rotating in reverse (step 233) in the low speed mode. Rotation continues for an adjustable time period to allow the rake bar to fully sweep the screen field to remove the solid(s) that caused the jam to occur. If the obstruction dislodges easily (i.e., no excessive torque occurs) when the reversing rake makes contact (step 235), then, after an adjustable time period, the screen stops (step 237) and then runs forward again (step 239). However, if the obstruction does not dislodge easily and obstructs the reverse motion of the screen to cause excessive torque (step 241), the screen stops once again (step 231). After the adjustable time period, the screen begins rotating back in the forward direction (step 233) in the appropriate speed mode. These forward/reverse cycles continue until, in one embodiment, four attempts (e.g., four excessive torque conditions) have been made to clear the obstruction. On the fifth attempt (step 243), the drive system shuts down immediately (step 245). More or fewer attempts may be performed, depending on the application. The present invention has several advantages. The drive system uses a mechanical torque limited coupling to provide the torque required to drive the screen throughout the desired speed range, as well as providing additional torque as required to free lodged solids from the screen field. The mechanical torque limited coupling provides overload protection when the lodged solids block the rotating rake bar. The coupling operates up to a predetermined torque value before the overload protection is activated. Another advantage is that the drive system may be operated in either a manual mode or an automatic mode. While the invention has been shown or described in only some of its forms, it should be apparent to those skilled in the art that it is not so limited, but is susceptible to various changes without departing from the scope of the invention. For example, the present invention may employ a clutch-based system for accomplishing the same purpose and function. In addition, the motor may be controlled with a reversing motor starter instead of the variable frequency drive. Current may be monitored using a current sensing relay. The control system may use high current input in the same way that the “current attained” output from the variable frequency drive is used. The system also may be varied by substituting a power monitor for the system using current monitoring. A power monitor that senses changes in motor power output (phase relationships in the voltage feed to the motor) may be substituted to give a “high power used” input to the controller. A motion sensing approach may be used to determine the machine has been stopped or is being overloaded. This system would use a controller similar to the one used with the torque limited coupling. The rotational speed of the system may be monitored using a proximity sensor that outputs pulses. The controller looks for a pulse count that remains in a preprogrammed range. If the machine slows or is stopped, the controller provides a contact closure to the control system that would be the same as the standard “current attained” input. Furthermore, motion sensing may be used on the rakes themselves but would expose the electronics to the atmosphere more than the approach above. If the rake fails to pass in a preset time period then the machine has been overloaded. The proximity sensor pulse train drop described above is instantaneous. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Technical Field The present invention relates in general to an improved drive system in a fluid screening operation and, in particular, to an improved system, method, and apparatus for mechanically driving a fluid screening system as well as sensing and correcting an overload in the fluid screening system. 2. Background of the Invention Bar screens are used for screening solids and debris from flowing liquid streams. An example of such a bar screen system can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,730,862. In such systems, a series of rakes pass over parallel screen bars, which make up a bar screen field and remove the debris collected from the flowing stream. Occasionally, large pieces of debris can clog and even damage the bar screen field by either bending or breaking one or more bars within the bar screen field. Furthermore, such blockage can cause the fluid to overflow the filter system. When damage does occur, the screen system must be repaired by typically cutting out the affected bars and welding new bars in their place. These repairs are time consuming, potentially hazardous, and expensive. The screen system is typically taken out of service for a relatively long period of time in order to make such repairs, which also adds significantly to the costs of the repairs. Some prior art systems have tried to address this problem by using nozzles to spray the debris off of the rakes and screen, or either reversing the direction of travel for the rakes until the impediment has been removed from the screen. However, these attempts are not always successful at clearing the screen enough to continue operation of the system, especially when the debris is relatively large size. Thus, a need exists for an improved screen system, and preferably one that can prevent or avoid such extensive damage and repairs. Ideally, such a system should be capable of being adapted to the specific fluid applications and also be able to be used on existing screen system equipment with minimal modification. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>One embodiment of a drive system for driving a screen in a fluid screening system comprises an electric gear motor equipped with a mechanical torque limited coupling. The coupling comprises an adapter with a torque limiting coupling. The coupling is installed between the output shaft of the motor and the input shaft of the gear box. The mechanical torque limited gear motor drive system is sized to provide the torque required to drive the screen throughout the desired speed range, as well as providing additional torque as required to free lodged solids from the screen field. It is the mechanical torque limited coupling that provides the overload protection required when the lodged solids block the rotating rake bar. The coupling operates up to a predetermined torque value before the overload protection is activated. Torque is transmitted through the coupling by frictional force applied to a driven disc by the action of two cup springs and an adjusting pressure nut. When the drive system encounters torque that exceeds the predetermined torque value, the coupling halves slip relative to each other. When this slippage occurs, a pulse counting proximity sensor that is monitoring the driven half of the coupling begins to produce fewer pulses. This “pulse train” is compared to a second pulse train that is generated by a second proximity sensor that is monitoring the motor half of the coupling. When the controller detects a difference in these two pulse trains (indicating slippage), it will close a relay contact and stop the screen. The drive system may be operated in either a manual mode or an automatic mode. In the manual operation mode, the drive system operates in forward or reverse when power is supplied. The drive system can be operated at a low speed or a high speed operating mode. The screen rotates in the selected direction at the selected speed. When the screen encounters an obstruction that causes an applied torque that is greater than the torque limited coupling allows, the drive system stops. This condition must be manually acknowledged or reset at the screen control panel. After resetting and clearing the obstruction, the drive system can be restarted. In the automatic operating mode, the drive system runs forward at a selected speed mode in response to a respective level input received at the screen control panel. The drive system will continue to run at the selected speed until such time as a different level input is received. Selection of the other level input causes the drive system to shift to the other speed operating mode. The high speed operating mode may be accomplished either by energizing a second set of windings in the two-speed motor or by selecting the higher preset run speed in the variable frequency drive. The drive system runs in the high speed mode until the high level input is removed, at which time it slows to the low speed mode until that input is also removed. The screen operates for a brief time to clear the solids remaining on the rakes, and then shut down. If the input level is not selected during an operator adjustable time period, the screen automatically runs for an adjustable time period to exercise the system. The foregoing and other objects and advantages of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art, in view of the following detailed description of the present invention, taken in conjunction with the appended claims and the accompanying drawings. | 20040609 | 20070522 | 20050217 | 65892.0 | 0 | SAVAGE, MATTHEW O | TORQUE-LIMITED DRIVE SYSTEM, METHOD, AND APPARATUS FOR A FLUID SCREENING SYSTEM | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,864,881 | ACCEPTED | Method of production of nano particle dispersed composite material | A method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material capable of controlling a particle size and a three dimensional arrangement of the nanoparticles is provided. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material of the present invention includes a step (a) of arranging a plurality of core fine particle-protein complexes having a core fine particle, which comprises an inorganic material, internally included within a protein on the top surface of a substrate, a step (b) of removing the protein, a step (c) of conducting ion implantation from the top surface of the substrate, and a step (d) of forming nanoparticles including the ion implanted by the ion implantation as a raw material, inside of the substrate. | 1. A method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material, said method comprising the steps of: a step (a) of arranging a plurality of core fine particle-protein complexes having a core fine particle, which comprises an inorganic material, internally included within a protein on the top surface of a substrate, a step (b) of removing said protein, a step (c) of conducting ion implantation from the top surface of said substrate, and a step (d) of forming nanoparticles including the ion implanted by said ion implantation as a raw material, inside of said substrate by a thermal treatment. 2. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to claim 1 wherein said protein is removed by a thermal treatment in said step (b). 3. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to claim 1 wherein said protein is apoferritin, and said core fine particle comprises iron. 4. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to claim 1 wherein said nanoparticle is any one of a semiconductor, a compound semiconductor, or a metal. 5. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to claim 1 wherein said nanoparticle is any one of GaAs, CdS, or Cu. 6. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to claim 1 wherein the ion implantation is conducted at an accelerating voltage of 5 kV or greater in said step (c). 7. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to claim 6 wherein the ion implantation is conducted at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV or greater in said step (c). 8. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to claim 1 wherein the mean range in the lateral direction of the implanted ion is equal to or less than the center-to-center dimension of said core fine particles in said step (c). 9. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to claim 8 wherein the mean range in the lateral direction of the implanted ion is equal to or less than ½ of the center-to-center dimension of said core fine particles in said step (c). 10. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to claim 1 wherein the core fine particles having an approximately identical value of the diameter within the range of 2 nm or greater and 50 nm or less are regularly arranged with the center-to-center dimension thereof falling within the range of 4 nm or greater and 70 nm or less in said step (b). 11. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to claim 1 wherein the layer of said substrate where said nanoparticles are formed comprises SiO2 or Al2O3. 12. The method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to claim 1 wherein the dose amount of the implanted ion is within the range of 1×1015/cm2 or greater and 1×1017/cm2 or less in said step (c). | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material having nanoparticles within a substrate. 2. Description of the Related Art In recent years, nanoparticle dispersed composite materials having nanoparticles formed on the surface of a substrate or within a base board have drawn great attention in the fields of material science as semiconductor quantum dot materials, metal nanoparticle dispersed composite materials and the like. The semiconductor quantum dot materials have a structure in which semiconductor quantum dots comprising semiconductor single crystals are formed in a base board comprising other semiconductor single crystals. According to the materials having such a structure, manifestation of various physical properties or functions which can not be expected for conventional three dimensional semiconductors in a bulk state has been predicted. According to the metal nanoparticle dispersed composite material, dispersed metal nanoparticles exhibit specific electronic properties, and photophysical properties, magnetism, conductive phenomenon of the metal nanoparticle interact mutually, therefore, manifestation of functions of the material having prominent added value has been expected utilizing such various properties. In future, whether or not desired nanoparticle dispersed composite materials can be produced will be the key of development of the nanoparticle dispersed composite materials. Methods of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material that have been conventionally known are described below. FIG. 21 is a top perspective view schematically illustrating the first step of the most advanced method of the production of a semiconductor quantum dot material subjected to news release on 29, July 2002 by Fujitsu Research Institute, and also reported in the 26th International congress on semiconductor physics (ICPS2002). First, as is shown in FIG. 21, a voltage is applied on a GaAs base board 51 by bringing a probe 52 of an atomic force microscope (AFM) into contact therewith. Such application of a voltage results in decomposition of the moisture included in the atmosphere into H+ and OH− by a local electric field formed by the probe 52, and the OH− leads to oxidation of a part of the base board 51 immediately below the probe 52 in a dot shape. Thus, n oxidized product 53 having the dot shape is formed on the base board 51. The diameter of the oxidized product 53 in the dot shape can be controlled by a time period of the oxidation, i.e., application time period of the voltage. FIG. 22 is a cross sectional view schematically illustrating steps following FIG. 21 according to the method of the production described above. As is shown in FIG. 22(a), the oxidized product 53 in the dot shape is removed by etching or the like (St 10), and as is shown in (b), recessions 54 are formed on the surface of the base board 51. Next, self organization of GaAs quantum dots 55 is allowed at only the recessions 54 by growth control that is referred to as Stranski-Krastanov mode (S-K mode) of a molecular beam epitaxy growth method (MBE method), as is shown in (c) (St 11). It is reported that production of semiconductor quantum dots with an arrangement of semiconductor quantum dots having a minimum diameter of 20 nm at intervals of several 10 nm is permitted, according to this method. Appl. Phys. Lett., 75, (1999) 3488-3490, S. Kohmoto, et al., reported that production of semiconductor quantum dot materials with an arrangement of semiconductor quantum dots having a diameter of 30 nm at intervals of 45 nm is permitted by lithography on a GaAs base board in which a probe of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is used, and self organization growth of InAs using an MBE method. Phys. Rev. B, 62, (2000) 16820-16825, S. Takeoka, et al., reported that semiconductor nanocrystals (Si, Ge, SiGe or the like) having a diameter of 2.5 to 9 nm are formed as a guest substance within a solid matrix thin membrane (SiO2, GeO2, Al2O3 or the like) by a simultaneous radio frequency sputtering method and a thermal treatment. JP-A No. 11-45990 describes that a quantum device having only metal nanoparticles arranged on a base board is formed by arranging a protein internally including a metal nanoparticle on a base board followed by burning of the protein. Furthermore, a technique in which formation of nanoparticles is allowed inside of a base board by ion implantation has been known. In such a technique, for example, masking is executed except for an opened region to which subjecting to ion implantation is intended on the surface of the base board, and an accelerated ion is implanted on the surface of the base board. For the formation of masking, a technique of photolithography is generally employed. According to the method of the production in FIG. 21 and FIG. 22, the diameter of thus resulting semiconductor quantum dot is 20 nm at the minimum. According to the process for the production of dots, particle size, pitch and the like of the semiconductor quantum dot are dependent on precise control of the probe, therefore, it is difficult obtain semiconductor quantum dots having a particle size of 10 nm or less, or to obtain semiconductor quantum dots arranged at pitches of 10 nm or less. In addition, possible manufacture was limited only to a 100 nm square, therefore, there existed a restriction of extremely low throughput. Further, because the dot shape according to the S-K mode growth is in a pyramid type or a dome type having a shorter height in comparison with the length of the bottom, a problem was raised of the aspect ratio being provided at most approximately fifth. According to the method described in Appl. Phys. Lett., S. Kohmoto, et al., supra, there exists a limitation for the formation of a nanostructure, and it was impossible to obtain a semiconductor quantum dot material with semiconductor quantum dots having a diameter of, for example, 10 nm or less, which are arranged at intervals of, for example, 10 nm or less. According to the method described in Phys. Rev., S. Takeoka, et al., supra, although the particle size of nanoparticles was reported as being 9.0 nm±1.8 nm, it was difficult to control and manufacture the particle size and arrangement essentially as the design of the device by the control of the concentration, temperature of the thermal treatment and time in such a method. According to the method described in JP-A No. 11-459901, production of the nanoparticle dispersed composite material having nanoparticles within a base board was difficult. Further, in the method according to the ion implantation, formation of the mask is generally conducted by photolithography, however, there exists limitation for the formation of the nanostructures. Thus, it was impossible to obtain semiconductor quantum dots with nanoparticles having a diameter of, for example, 10 nm or less, which are arranged at intervals of, for example, 10 nm or less. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention was accomplished taking into account of the problems as described above, and an object thereof is to provide a method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material capable of controlling a particle size and a three dimensional arrangement of nanoparticles in the nanoparticle dispersed composite material. In particular, an object of the invention is to provide a method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material which allows for the production even if the particle size of the nanoparticle is 10 nm or less, and the intervals among respective nanoparticles is 10 nm or less. The method of the production of the nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to the present invention comprises a step (a) of arranging a plurality of core fine particle-protein complexes having a core fine particle, which comprises an inorganic material, internally included within a protein on the top surface of a substrate, a step (b) of removing the protein, a step (c) of conducting ion implantation from the top surface of the substrate, and a step (d) of forming nanoparticles including the ion implanted by the ion implantation as a raw material, inside of the substrate by a thermal treatment. In the aforementioned step (b), the protein is preferably removed by a thermal treatment. As the aforementioned protein, apoferritin may be used. Further, the aforementioned complex in which a core fine particle comprising iron is internally included within apoferritin can be used. The aforementioned nanoparticle may be preferably any one of a semiconductor, a compound semiconductor, or a metal. The aforementioned nanoparticle may be preferably any one of GaAs, CdS, or Cu. In the step (c), the ion implantation is conducted at an accelerating voltage of, preferably 5 kV or greater, and more preferably 10 kV or greater. In the aforementioned step (c), the mean range in the lateral direction of the implanted ion is preferably equal to or less than the center-to-center dimension of the aforementioned core fine particles, and more preferably equal to or less than ½ of the value. In the aforementioned step (b), preferably, the core fine particles having an approximately identical value of the diameter within the range of 2 nm or greater and 50 nm or less are regularly arranged with the center-to-center dimension thereof falling within the range of 4 nm or greater and 70 nm or less. The layer of the aforementioned substrate in which the aforementioned nanoparticles are formed comprises, for example, SiO2 or Al2O3. In the aforementioned step (c), a dose amount of the implanted ion is, preferably within the range of 1×1015/cm2 or greater and 1×1017/cm2 or less. Foregoing object, other object, features, and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a cross sectional view schematically illustrating the first step according to this embodiment. FIG. 2 is a cross sectional view and a top perspective view schematically illustrating the step depicted in FIG. 1 (a). FIG. 3 is a cross sectional view schematically illustrating a step of ion implantation according to this embodiment. FIG. 4 is a schematic view illustrating the structure of apoferritin. FIG. 5 is a top view illustrating the appearance of the arrangement of core fine particles according to Example 3. FIG. 6 is a cross sectional view illustrated along a cutting plane line A in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a view showing the results of calculation of distribution C, distribution D and distribution E when a Ga+ ion was implanted at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV, and a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2. FIG. 8 is a view showing the results of calculation of distribution C and distribution D when a Ga+ ion was implanted at an accelerating voltage of 5 kV, and a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2. FIG. 9 is a view showing the results of calculation of distribution C and distribution D when a Ga+ ion was implanted at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV, and a dose amount of 1×1016/Cm2. FIG. 10 is a view showing the results of calculation of distribution C and distribution D when a Ga+ ion was implanted at an accelerating voltage of 100 kV, and a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2. FIG. 11 is a view showing the results of calculation when an S+ion and a Cd+ ion were implanted into an Al2O3 layer. FIG. 12 is a view showing the results of calculation of distribution C and distribution D when an S+ ion is implanted into an Al2O3 layer at a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2, and an accelerating voltage of 15 kV. FIG. 13 is a view showing the results of calculation of distribution C and distribution D when a Cd+ ion is implanted into an Al2O3 layer at a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2, and an accelerating voltage of 40 kV. FIG. 14 is a view showing the results of calculation of distribution C and distribution D when a Cu+ ion is implanted into an SiO2 layer at a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2, and an accelerating voltage of 5 kV. FIG. 15 is a view showing the results of calculation of distribution C, distribution D and distribution G when a Cu+ ion is implanted into an SiO2 layer at a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2, and an accelerating voltage of 10 kV. FIG. 16 is a view showing the results of calculation of distribution C and distribution D when a Cu+ ion is implanted into an SiO2 layer at a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2, and an accelerating voltage of 50 kV. FIG. 17 is a view virtually illustrating the two dimensional distribution and shape of nanoparticles formed when core fine particles are not arranged on a base board. FIG. 18 is a view virtually illustrating the two dimensional distribution and shape of nanoparticles formed when core fine particles are amorphously arranged on a base board. FIG. 19 is a view virtually illustrating the two dimensional distribution and shape of nanoparticles formed when core fine particles are regularly arranged on a base board. FIG. 20 is a block diagram illustrating the method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material. FIG. 21 is a top perspective view schematically illustrating a conventional method of the production of semiconductor quantum dots. FIG. 22 is a is a cross sectional view illustrating steps following FIG. 21. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Hereinafter, the method of the production of the nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to this embodiment is explained with reference to drawings. FIG. 20 is a block diagram illustrating the method of the production of the nanoparticle dispersed composite material of this embodiment. As is shown in FIG. 20, the method of the production of the nanoparticle dispersed composite material of this embodiment includes a step of arranging a plurality of core fine particle-protein complexes having a core fine particle, which comprises an inorganic material, internally included within a protein on the top surface of a substrate (St1), a step of removing the protein (St2), a step of conducting ion implantation from the top surface of the substrate (St3), and a step of forming nanoparticles including the ion implanted by the ion implantation as a raw material, inside of the substrate (St4). FIG. 1 is a cross sectional view schematically illustrating the St 1 and St 2 according to this embodiment. First, as shown in FIG. 1(a), core fine particle-protein complexes (hereinafter, also may be merely referred to as complex) 150 are arranged on the top surface of a base board 130 (step (a)). Next, core fine particle 104 are arranged on the top surface of the base board 130 by removing the protein 140 constituting the complex 150 to leave only the core fine particle 104 (step (b)), as shown in FIG. 1(b). Specific process of the steps depicted in FIG. 1(a) is explained now with reference to FIG. 2. FIG. 2 includes cross sectional views ((a) to (d)) and a top perspective view ((e)) schematically illustrating the process for arranging the complexes 150 on the surface of the base board 130. First, as shown in FIG. 2(a), a liquid 160 including complexes 150 dispersed therein is provided. In this embodiment, a liquid including the complexes 150 dispersed in a mixed liquid (pH 5.8) of a 20 mM NaCl solution and a 20 mM MES buffered solution is used as the liquid 160. MES means 2-morpholinoethanesulfonic acid. Subsequently, as is shown in FIG. 2(b), PBLH (Poly-1-Benzil-L-Histidine) is gently developed on the surface of the liquid 160 with a syringe 180 or the like. Polypeptide membrane 170 which is composed of PBLH is thereby formed on the surface of the liquid 160. Thereafter, the pH of the liquid 160 is adjusted. In a time dependent manner, the complexes 150 are adhered on the polypeptide membrane 170 as shown in FIG. 2(c). This is caused by the positively charged polypeptide membrane 170, contrary to the negatively charged complexes 150. Next, as is shown in FIG. 2(d), adhesion of the polypeptide membrane 170 to the base board 130 is rendered by placing (floating) the base board 130 on the polypeptide membrane 170. Next, by recovering the base board 130 as is shown in FIG. 2(e), the base board 130 with the complexes 150 adhered in a two dimensional fashion via the polypeptide membrane 170 can be obtained. Next, the step depicted in FIG. 1(b) is explained in more detail. Because a protein is generally weak against heat, removal of the protein 140 in the complex 150 is carried out by a thermal treatment. For example, by standing still in an inert gas such as nitrogen or the like at 400-500° C. for about 1 hour, the protein 140 and the polypeptide membrane 170 are burnt out, and thus core fine particles 104 are regularly arranged on the base board 130 in a two dimensional fashion at a high density and with high accuracy. The process for arranging the complexes 150 on the base board is not limited to the process as explained above, but any other known process can be also applied. FIG. 3 is a cross sectional view schematically illustrating a step following the steps depicted in FIG. 1. As is shown in FIG. 3, ion implantation is conducted from the top surface of the base board 130 having the core fine particles 104 arranged on the top surface thereof (step (c)), followed by a thermal treatment of the base board 130. The thermal treatment results in formation of nanoparticles 190 including the ion implanted by the aforementioned ion implantation as a raw material, inside of the aforementioned base board 130 (step (d)). Accordingly, a nanoparticle dispersed composite material is formed. In FIG. 3, an instance is shown in which a Ga+ ion and an As+ ion are implanted from the top surface of an Si base board 130 of which uppermost layer being an SiO2 layer 131 to form the nanoparticles 190 comprising GaAs crystals within the SiO2 layer 131. The ion implantation refers to a technique in which an atom or a molecule is ionized, accelerated at several kV to several MV (106 V) to execute addition by throwing onto a sample surface of. When the ion implantation is conducted, the ion is implanted inside of the base board in the vicinity of the surface of the base board, whereby forming particles including the implanted ion as a raw material by a thermal treatment. In the ion implantation, depth for formation of the nanoparticles 190 can be controlled by the accelerating voltage of the implanted ion. In addition, according to this embodiment, the core fine particles 104 are arranged on the face of the ion implantation, therefore, the two dimensional distribution of the nanoparticles 190 formed by such an arrangement can be controlled. Prospection of the grounds therefor is described in Example 3 below. Moreover, particle diameter of the nanoparticles 190 can be controlled by the dose amount upon the ion implantation, and the particle size and arrangement of the core fine particles 104. Alternatively, interaction may vary depending on the type of the ion and base board, therefore, the particle diameter of the nanoparticles 190 can be also controlled through utilizing such difference in interaction. Therefore, according to the method of this embodiment, the three dimensional distribution and particle diameter of the nanoparticles 190 in the nanoparticle dispersed composite material can be controlled. In this embodiment, any one of known ion implantation apparatuses may be used for the ion implantation. In this embodiment, ferritin is used as the core fine particle-protein complex 150. Ferritin is a complex of a core fine particle comprising iron or an iron compound, and apoferritin. FIG. 4 is a schematic view illustrating the structure of apoferritin. As is shown in FIG. 4, apoferritin 1 is a spherical protein having a molecular weight of about 460,000 with 24 monomer subunits, which are formed from a single polypeptide chain, being assembled via noncovalent bonds, and the diameter of the molecule is about 12 nm. There is a cavity-like holding part 4 having a diameter of about 7 nm at the center of apoferritin 1, and the outside and the holding part 4 are connected via a channel 3. For example, when a bivalent iron ion is incorporated into apoferritin 1, the iron ion enters from the channel 3, and reaches to the holding part 4 after being oxidized in a place which is present within a part of the subunits and is referred to as a ferrooxidase center (iron oxidation active center). The iron ion is thereafter concentrated at a negatively charged region on the inner surface of the holding part 4. Then, the iron atoms assemble by the number of 3000 to 4000, and held in the holding part 4 in the form of a ferrihalide (5Fe2O3.9H2O) crystal. Diameter of the core fine particle being held in the holding part 4 and comprising the metal atom is nearly equal to the diameter of the holding part 4, which is about 7 nm. The core fine particle formed within the holding part 4 of apoferritin 1 is not perfectly spherical having a distorted shape to some extent. The particle size falls within the range of about 6 to 7 nm depending on the site of the measurement. According to this embodiment, ferritin is used as the complex, therefore, the core fine particles 104 having a diameter of about 7 nm are aligned on the top surface of the base board 130 such that the center-to-center dimension becomes about 12 nm by the aforementioned step. According to this embodiment, apoferritin has been used as the protein, however, core fine particles having a particle size of 4 nm can be manufactured when Dps protein (a protein in the shape of a spherical shell having a diameter of 9 nm, and having a holding part with a diameter of 4 nm inside thereof) is used in stead of apoferritin. Therefore, the core fine particles having a diameter of 4 nm can be arranged on the base board. Moreover, use of a viral protein such as CCMV, TMV and the like, or Listeria ferritin in stead of apoferritin can also lead to manufacture of the core fine particle commensurate with the shape of the holding part carried by each protein inside thereof, and thus manufactured core fine particles can be arranged on the base board. The shape of the holding part of a protein is not limited, but for example, a cylindrical protein such as tobacco mosaic virus may also be used. Further, the core fine particle internally included within the protein is not particularly limited as long as it comprises an inorganic material. It is desired that the core fine particles having an approximately identical value of the diameter within the range of 2 nm or greater and 50 nm or less are regularly arranged with the center-to-center dimension thereof falling within the range of 4 nm or greater and 70 nm or less. According to this arrangement, it is desired that core fine particles having an approximately identical value of the diameter within the range of 2 nm or greater and 50 nm or less are regularly arranged with the center-to-center dimension thereof falling within the range of 4 nm or greater and 70 nm or less. This arrangement enables the production of the nanoparticle dispersed composite material with nanoparticles having a diameter of 2 nm or greater and 50 nm or less, with the center-to-center dimension thereof falling within the range of 4 nm or greater and 70 nm or less. Such a nanoparticle dispersed composite material can be utilized for a variety of usage on behalf of the quantum effect thereof. Additionally, according to this embodiment, use of an ion of an atom such as Si, Ge or the like for the ion implantation enables the formation of a semiconductor nanoparticle, while use of an ion of an atom such as Ga, As, Cd, S, Zn, Se or the like enables the formation of a compound semiconductor nanoparticle such as GaAs, CdS, CdSe, ZnS or the like, and use of an ion of a metal atom such as Cu, W, Sn, Au or the like enables the formation of a metal nanoparticle. Example 1 This Example corresponds to the aforementioned embodiment, and relates to the method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material having a plurality of GaAs nanoparticles 190 formed in an SiO2 layer 131 that is formed on the surface of an Si base board 130. First, an Si base board 130 having an SiO2 layer 131 on the surface thereof was provided. Thickness of the SiO2 layer 131 of such an Si base board was 100 nm. The thickness of the SiO2 layer 131 is not particularly limited as long as nanoparticles 190 can be formed inside thereof, and for example, an Si base board 130 having a thickness of 10 nm or greater and 100 nm or less can be used. Ferritin 150 was arranged in a two dimensional fashion on the surface of the SiO2 layer 131 of the aforementioned Si base board 130. (Purification of Apoferritin) From equine spleen ferritin (Sigma) was purified the 24-mer alone. Specifically, dialysis was performed using 0.5 mM EDTA, 10 mM Tris (pH 8.5) at 4° C. overnight. Thereafter, using a G4000SWXL PEEK column (TOSOH) which had been sufficiently equilibrated with 10 mM Tris HCl (pH 8.5) and 150 mM NaCl, only the 24-mer was collected by fractionation. Ferritin was further dialyzed using 1 wt % thioglycolic acid, 0.1M acetate buffer (pH 5.6) at 4° C. for 3 hrs, and then dialyzed using 0.1 M acetate buffer (pH 5.6) at 4° C. for 4 hrs to change into apoferritin, followed by dialysis against 50 mM Tris HCl (pH 8.5). Eventually, a solution of apoferritin dissolved in 150 mM NaCl was obtained. (Internal Inclusion of Iron Ion) To a solution of 100 μM iron sulfate was added a solution of apoferritin dissolved to give the final concentration of 0.1 μM. After adjusting the pH of the solution of 7.0 to 7.5 and allowing for a reaction at room temperature for 60 min, the product was recovered by centrifugation. Accordingly, a solution containing iron-apoferritin complexes 150 having core fine particles 104 comprising iron within the cavity part inside thereof was obtained. The iron core fine particles 104 within the complex 150 had a diameter of approximately 7 nm, with the external diameter of the complex being approximately 12 nm. (Alignment and Fixation on the Surface of the Base Board) According to the procedure explained in the aforementioned embodiment, core fine particles 104 were fixed on the surface of the SiO2 layer 131 of the Si base board 130. First, according to the procedure depicted in FIG. 2, the aforementioned complexes 150 were fixed on the base board 130, and thereafter, it was left to stand in a nitrogen gas atmosphere at a temperature of 400 to 500° C. for about 1 hour. Accordingly, apoferritin 140 thus disappeared, as is shown in FIG. 1(b), to leave the internal iron particles 104 on the SiO2 layer 131. Thus, a plurality of iron particles 104 were formed on the SiO2 layer 131. Since the procedure shown in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 was explained in detail in the aforementioned embodiment, detailed description is now omitted. (Ion Implantation) Next, as is shown in FIG. 3, ion implantation was conducted against the SiO2 layer 131 under the condition of the accelerating voltage being 10 to 80 kV, more preferably 10 to 50 kV, with the dose amount of Ga+ being 1×1015 to 1×1016/cm2, and the dose amount of As+ being 1×1015 to 1×1016/cm2. (Annealing) Next, in an atmosphere of vacuum (or in an Ar gas atmosphere containing several % H2), annealing was performed by placing the Si base board 130 in an electric furnace at an annealing temperature of 900° C. (acceptable as long as it is 800° C. or greater and 1000° C. or less), and the treatment time period of 60 min (acceptable as long as it is 30 min or greater and 60 min or less). Accordingly, nanoparticles 190 comprising GaAs crystals were formed within the SiO2 layer 131, thereby yielding a nanoparticle dispersed composite material. Example 2 In Example 2, a base board 130 having the uppermost layer comprising an Al2O3 layer 131 was provided. Use of a base board having a layer 131 formed with α-Al2O3 single crystals in stead of the Al2O3 layer 131 also allows for the manufacture of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material, similarly to this Example. First, similarly to Example 1, a plurality of core fine particles 104 were formed on the Al2O3 layer 131. Next, as is shown in FIG. 3, ion implantation was conducted against the Al2O3 layer 131 under the condition of the accelerating voltage for Cd+ being 20 to 600 kV, the accelerating voltage for S+ being 10 to 200 kV, and with the dose amount of Cd+ being 1×1015 to 1×1016/cm2 and the dose amount of As+ being 1×1015 to 1×1016/cm2. In connection with the accelerating voltage, it is desired that the accelerating voltage for Cd+ is set to be about 2.0 to 3.0 times, or 2.5 to 3.0 times higher compared to the accelerating voltage for S+. The grounds therefor are set forth in Example 3. Next, in an atmosphere of Ar+4% H2 gas, annealing was performed by placing the base board in an electric furnace at an annealing temperature of 900° C. (acceptable as long as it is 800° C. or greater and 1000° C. or less), and the treatment time period of 60 min (acceptable as long as it is 30 min or greater and 90 min or less). Accordingly, nanoparticles 190 comprising Cds crystals were formed within the Al2O3 layer 131, thereby yielding a nanoparticle dispersed composite material. Example 3 In this Example, profile calculation of ion implantation by the method described in the aforementioned embodiment was carried out. For the calculation, scattering calculation by a Monte Carlo method was used. In FIG. 5 and FIG. 6, a base board having core fine particles 104 arranged thereto, which is intended by this Example is illustrated. FIG. 5 is a top view illustrating the state of the arrangement of the core fine particles on the base board. FIG. 6 shows a cross sectional view (a) illustrated along a cutting plane line A in FIG. 5, and the shape of a graph of the peak density (b) of an atom distribution for the site of the cross section. In this Example, a base board is intended having an insulation layer 131, which comprises SiO2, formed as the uppermost layer, with the top surface of the insulation layer 131 having core fine particles 104, of which diameter being 7 nm, arranged such that the center-to-center dimension between the core fine particles 104 becomes 12 nm. In FIG. 7, lower part of the base board than the insulation layer 131 is omitted. As is shown in FIG. 6, when ion implantation is conducted from the upside of the insulation layer 131 of the base board, the ions implanted directly into the insulation layer 131 at a region without the core fine particle 104 form the distribution C. On the other hand, the ions implanted to the central part of the core fine particles 104 form the distribution D. FIG. 7 shows the results of calculation of the distribution C and distribution D when a Ga+ ion was implanted into the insulation layer 131 at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV and a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2. In either one, the mean range of the ion in the lateral direction (Rr=Σi (yi2+zi2)1/2/N, wherein yi, zi represents a coordinate in the lateral direction viewed from the implantation point of the “i”th atom, and N represents total number of the atom) is 6 nm, and the mean range at the in-depth direction of the distribution C and distribution D (Rp=Σi xi /N, wherein xi represents a coordinate in the in-depth direction of the “i”th atom) is 20 nm and 10 nm, respectively. For a reference, also in cases where implantation was conducted to the central part of the core fine particles 104, a part of the ions stop in the core fine particles 104, however, due to the small particle size of the core fine particle 104, many ions penetrate to reach to the insulation layer 131. As a matter of fact, also in cases where the implantation is conducted via the core fine particles 104, the distance of passage of the ion through the core fine particle 104 may vary upon implantation at each position that is away from the center of the core fine particles 104. Therefore, as is shown by the dotted line in FIG. 6(a), an atom distribution is formed in each in-depth region between the distribution C and distribution D, depending on the distance of passage through the core fine particles 104. Further, because the implanted ions diffuse not only in the longitudinal direction but also in the lateral direction, the atomic concentration at each position in the insulation layer 131 becomes the summation of the atom distribution formed by the ions implanted to the adjacent region. In particular, influence of distribution of the implanted ion having the distance in the lateral direction viewed from each position of within the range of Rr (in this case, 6 nm) or less becomes great. The radius of the core fine particle is then 3.5 nm, which is smaller than Rr, therefore, the distribution of the atomic concentration immediately below the core fine particle 104 is affected by not only the ion passing through the center of the core fine particle 104, but also the ion implanted to the adjacent region thereof or the region without the core fine particle 104. The atom distribution yielded by the overlap of these distributions becomes expanded through being averaged as is shown in distribution E in FIG. 7, and thus, the atomic concentration at the peak position becomes low in comparison with the original distribution. Similarly, also in the area without the core fine particle 104 viewed from above, influence of the distribution of the implanted ion via the core fine particles 104 becomes significant as the ion gets close to the core fine particles 104, leading to occurrence of expansion of the distribution and reduction of the peak density. Moreover, actually, upon implantation to the position away from the center of the core fine particles 104, oblique incidence, or scattering or reflection due to charge up may occur (see, FIG. 6(a)). Any of these operates, leading to expansion of the implantation profile. As a consequence, the atom distribution profile inside of the insulation layer 131 is modulated to give a pattern correlating to the two dimensional sequence of the core fine particles 104. In other words, despite the event that total atomic number obtained by integration in an in-depth direction of each region is almost unchanged, the peak density thereof is modulated to be low below the core fine particles 104, while to be high in the region among the core fine particles 104, as shown in FIG. 6(b). In FIG. 5, since every center of the core fine particle 104 is apart by 6 nm or greater at the position B, the atom distribution is approximate to the distribution C shown in FIG. 6(a), and thus, the peak density reaches to the maximum. Subsequently, when an As+ ion is implanted under the same condition to that for Ga+ ion, a similarly modified atom distribution is obtained also for the As atom. Additionally, when a thermal treatment is carried out at 900° C. for 60 min, crystallization of GaAs is initiated in the region with high atomic concentration of Ga and As (position B in FIG. 5), followed by growing of the crystal through diffusion and absorption of surrounding implanted ions. Consequently, GaAs nanoparticles having a particle size of about 2 nm or greater and 10 nm or less are obtained. According to the manufacture of nanoparticles by conventional ion implantation and thermal treatment, slight fluctuation of the atomic concentration within a base board is amplified by thermodynamic instability to initiate the core formation (phase separation). Therefore, position of the nanoparticles can not be controlled, and also, the variation of the size becomes great. To the contrary, according to the present invention, core fine particles 104 can be regularly arranged in a two dimensional fashion on the surface of the base board 130 through using the complex 150 of a protein having a cavity part, and a core fine particle 104 internally included within the cavity part, such as ferritin or the like. Use of this core fine particle 104 enables modulation of the atom distribution of the atom previously in a two dimensional fashion, and allows for the core formation at a position having high a peak density (position B in FIG. 5). This effect is responsible for control of the two dimensional position of the produced nanoparticles. More regular alignment of the cores results in uniformity of the amount of atoms supplied during the growth of the nanoparticles, and is also effective in uniformity of the particle size of the produced nanoparticles. Additionally, by accelerating voltage applied upon the ion implantation, the depth of the produced nanoparticles can be controlled. FIG. 8 to FIG. 10 show the results of calculation of distribution C and distribution D when a Ga+ ion was implanted with acceleration at 5 kV, 20 kV, 100 kV, respectively, at a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2. As is also clear from the results of calculation shown in FIG. 8 to FIG. 10, when the accelerating voltage applied upon the implantation of an ion is lowered, the depth of the nanoparticles 190 produced in the insulation layer 131 can be reduced. Further, when the accelerating voltage applied upon the implantation of an ion is lowered, lateral direction range is shortened, therefore, much sharper alteration of the peak density is enabled. Accordingly, nanoparticles 190 with a smaller diameter and a high density can be produced. However, when the accelerating voltage is less than 5 kV, implantation efficiency may be reduced due to reevaporation or the surface charge, or removal of the core fine particles 104 on the surface may involve difficulties without damaging the particles 190 that were produced inside, following the thermal treatment. Further, when the accelerating voltage is less than 10 kV, efficiency of recovery of the ion in the ion implantation apparatus is deteriorated, thereby involving difficulties in securing a sufficient dose amount for permitting deposition of the nanoparticles 190 inside of the insulation layer 131. Therefore, the accelerating voltage is preferably 5 kV or greater, and more preferably 10 kV or greater. Although the depth of the implantation for the accelerating voltage varies depending on the kind of the implanted ion as well as on the material of the base board for the implantation, the grounds as described above comply with any conditions. Therefore, the accelerating voltage is preferably 5 kV or greater, and more preferably 10 kV or greater irrespective of the kind of the ion and the material of the base board. On the other hand, when the accelerating voltage employed upon the ion implantation is elevated, as is also clear from the results of calculation shown in FIG. 8 to FIG. 10, the depth of the nanoparticles 190 deposited in the insulation layer 131 can be increased. However, the range in a lateral direction range becomes so great, and the distribution in an in-depth direction upon the ion implantation becomes broad. For example, Rp of the distribution C and distribution D shown in FIG. 10 upon implantation of a Ga+ ion accelerated at 100 kV is about 75 nm and about 64 nm, respectively. Because the original atom distribution is broad, less reduction of the peak density due to averaging among them is achieved. Further, although Rr for both of the distribution C and distribution D is 22 nm, this is great enough in comparison with the distance of 12 nm, which is a center-to-center dimension between the core fine particles 104. As a consequence, the influence by the core fine particles 104 on the surface of the insulation layer 131 is averaged inside of the insulation layer 131, leading to the reduction of the ratio of modulation of the peak density. Therefore, there exists a possibility that cores are not regularly formed at a position with a high peak density. On the grounds as described above, it is desired that Rr of the implanted ion is at least two times or less of the center-to-center dimension of the core fine particles 104. In this range, expansion of the atom distribution in a longitudinal direction is also suppressed. The value of Rr can be calculated from the accelerating voltage when the atomic species of the implanted ion and the material of the insulation layer are revealed. As the method of the calculation, any kinds of simulation soft or published code can be utilized. For example, a relationship between an accelerating voltage and an atom distribution upon implantation of a Ga+ ion into an SiO2 layer is presented in Table 1, which was calculated through the use of a general Monte Carlo method. TABLE 1 Accelerating voltage (kV): 5 10 20 50 80 100 Rp (nm): 8 13 20 41 61 75 Rr (nm): 3 4 6 12 18 22 When core fine particles were arranged using equine ferritin having a diameter of 12 nm, the center-to-center dimension of the core fine particles becomes 12 nm. For the implantation of a Ga+ ion into SiO2, the range of the accelerating voltage is 50 kV or less for satisfying the aforementioned requirement that Rr of the implanted ion is at least the center-to-center dimension of the core fine particles 104. It is more preferred that Rr is ½ or less of the center-to-center dimension of the core fine particles 104 because a high peak density alteration can be achieved. In the aforementioned Ga+ ion implantation, the range of the accelerating voltage which satisfies this requirement is 20 kV or less. It is preferred that the dose amount of the implanted ion is within the range of 1×1015/cm2 or greater and 1×1017/cm2 or less, because deposition of nanoparticles having a particle size of about 2 nm or greater and 20 nm or less can be executed by the thermal treatment. Further, the dose amount within the range of 1×1015/cm2 or greater and 1×1016/cm2 or less permits the deposition of fine nanoparticles having a particle size of about 2 nm or greater and 10 nm or less, which is suited for application for a quantum effect device or the like. FIG. 11 shows the results of calculation of the distribution C when an S+ ion was implanted into an Al2O3 layer at a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2 and an accelerating voltage of 15 kV; and the distribution C when a Cd+ ion was implanted at a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2 and an accelerating voltage of 15 kV and 40 kV following the implantation of the S+. The mass and the scattering cross section area of the Cd+ ion are greater in comparison with those of the S+ ion, therefore, the shape of the atom distribution greatly varies when the implantation is conducted at the same accelerating voltage. Accordingly, formation of the compound particle becomes difficult at a position controlled during the thermal treatment. Due to the different distribution in both instances, deposition or phase splitting as the elemental form may occur, or desired characteristics may not be achieved by way of the particle composition departing from the stoichiometric ratio. Although it is difficult to render the atom distribution completely identical, in this Example, the shape of the atom distribution can be greatly approximate by setting the accelerating voltage of Cd+ to be about 2.7 times of the accelerating voltage of S+. It is preferred that the accelerating voltage of Cd+ is within the range of from about 2.0 times or greater to 3.0 times of the accelerating voltage of S+. FIG. 12 shows the results of calculation of distribution C and distribution D when an S+ ion is implanted into an Al2O3 layer at a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2 and an accelerating voltage of 15 kV. Further, FIG. 13 shows the results of calculation of distribution C and distribution D when a Cd+ ion is implanted into an Al2O3 layer at a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2 and an accelerating voltage of 15 kV. As is clear from FIG. 11, FIG. 12 and FIG. 13, by setting the accelerating voltage of the S+ ion being 15 kV, and the accelerating voltage of the Cd+ ion being 40 kV, uniform depth of the peak of the atomic concentration can be provided, thereby capable of forming nanoparticles comprising CdS crystals in the following step. FIG. 14 to FIG. 16 show the results of calculation of distribution C and distribution D when a Cu+ ion is implanted into an SiO2 layer at a dose amount of 1×1016/cm2, and an accelerating voltage of 5 kV, 10 kV and 50 kV, respectively. The distribution D is a result of calculation of ions passing through the center of the core fine particles 104 having a diameter of 7 nm (i.e., travel distance of the core fine particle 104 is 7 nm). In FIG. 15, distribution of the ions with a travel distance of the core fine particles 104 being 5 nm is illustrated as a distribution G together with the distribution C and distribution D. On the grounds as described above, the accelerating voltage of the Cu+ ion is preferably 5 kV or greater, and more preferably 10 kV or greater. Moreover, it is preferably 45 kV or less which results in Rr being equal to or less than the center-to-center dimension of the core fine particles 104, and still more, it is preferably 15 kV or less which results in Rr being equal to or less than ½ of the center-to-center dimension of the core fine particles. (Discussion on Example 3) On the basis of the results in Example 3, FIG. 17 to FIG. 19 virtually illustrate the two dimensional distribution and shape of nanoparticles formed, through the arrangement of the core fine particles on a base board. FIG. 17 shows the instance where no core fine particle 104 is present. In this instance, the two dimensional distribution and shape of the nanoparticles 190 shall have a great fluctuation. Because the two dimensional concentration distribution of the implanted ion is not controlled, it is expected that the great fluctuation may be generated. FIG. 18 shows the instance where the arrangement of the core fine particles 104 follows an amorphous arrangement lacking regularity. In this instance, although there exists fluctuation in the two dimensional distribution of the nanoparticles, fluctuation of the size of the nanoparticles is expected to be reduced in comparison with the instance as shown in FIG. 17. FIG. 19 shows the instance where the arrangement of the core fine particles 104 follows an arrangement with regularity. In this instance, the position where the two dimension of the nanoparticles 190 is formed can be controlled, therefore, it is believed that the two dimensional distribution and the size of the nanoparticles 190 shall be reduced. As described hereinabove, according to the present invention, two dimensional arrangement of the core fine particles 104 can be controlled by using the complex 150, therefore, the two dimensional distribution and the particle size of the formed nanoparticles can be controlled with high accuracy. According to the method of the present invention, because three dimensional position of nanoparticles formed within a substrate can be controlled with high accuracy, a nanoparticle dispersed composite material having nanoparticles regularly formed can be provided. Also, the particle diameter of the nanoparticles can be controlled with high accuracy, and for example, it is also possible to form nanoparticles of 10 nm or less. The nanoparticle dispersed composite material produced according to the present invention is useful as an information communication device such as quantum dot computers, quantum dot memories and the like. Moreover, it is also useful for applications to quantum dot lasers and identification bar codes in a living body. From the description hereinabove, many improvements and other embodiments of the present invention will be apparent to persons skilled in the art. Therefore, the foregoing description should be construed as merely an illustrative example, which is provided for the purpose of teaching the best embodiment for carrying out the present invention to the persons skilled in the art. Details of the structure and/or function can be substantially altered without departing from the spirit of the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material having nanoparticles within a substrate. 2. Description of the Related Art In recent years, nanoparticle dispersed composite materials having nanoparticles formed on the surface of a substrate or within a base board have drawn great attention in the fields of material science as semiconductor quantum dot materials, metal nanoparticle dispersed composite materials and the like. The semiconductor quantum dot materials have a structure in which semiconductor quantum dots comprising semiconductor single crystals are formed in a base board comprising other semiconductor single crystals. According to the materials having such a structure, manifestation of various physical properties or functions which can not be expected for conventional three dimensional semiconductors in a bulk state has been predicted. According to the metal nanoparticle dispersed composite material, dispersed metal nanoparticles exhibit specific electronic properties, and photophysical properties, magnetism, conductive phenomenon of the metal nanoparticle interact mutually, therefore, manifestation of functions of the material having prominent added value has been expected utilizing such various properties. In future, whether or not desired nanoparticle dispersed composite materials can be produced will be the key of development of the nanoparticle dispersed composite materials. Methods of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material that have been conventionally known are described below. FIG. 21 is a top perspective view schematically illustrating the first step of the most advanced method of the production of a semiconductor quantum dot material subjected to news release on 29, July 2002 by Fujitsu Research Institute, and also reported in the 26th International congress on semiconductor physics (ICPS2002). First, as is shown in FIG. 21 , a voltage is applied on a GaAs base board 51 by bringing a probe 52 of an atomic force microscope (AFM) into contact therewith. Such application of a voltage results in decomposition of the moisture included in the atmosphere into H + and OH − by a local electric field formed by the probe 52 , and the OH − leads to oxidation of a part of the base board 51 immediately below the probe 52 in a dot shape. Thus, n oxidized product 53 having the dot shape is formed on the base board 51 . The diameter of the oxidized product 53 in the dot shape can be controlled by a time period of the oxidation, i.e., application time period of the voltage. FIG. 22 is a cross sectional view schematically illustrating steps following FIG. 21 according to the method of the production described above. As is shown in FIG. 22 ( a ), the oxidized product 53 in the dot shape is removed by etching or the like (St 10 ), and as is shown in (b), recessions 54 are formed on the surface of the base board 51 . Next, self organization of GaAs quantum dots 55 is allowed at only the recessions 54 by growth control that is referred to as Stranski-Krastanov mode (S-K mode) of a molecular beam epitaxy growth method (MBE method), as is shown in (c) (St 11 ). It is reported that production of semiconductor quantum dots with an arrangement of semiconductor quantum dots having a minimum diameter of 20 nm at intervals of several 10 nm is permitted, according to this method. Appl. Phys. Lett., 75, (1999) 3488-3490, S. Kohmoto, et al., reported that production of semiconductor quantum dot materials with an arrangement of semiconductor quantum dots having a diameter of 30 nm at intervals of 45 nm is permitted by lithography on a GaAs base board in which a probe of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is used, and self organization growth of InAs using an MBE method. Phys. Rev. B, 62, (2000) 16820-16825, S. Takeoka, et al., reported that semiconductor nanocrystals (Si, Ge, SiGe or the like) having a diameter of 2.5 to 9 nm are formed as a guest substance within a solid matrix thin membrane (SiO 2 , GeO 2 , Al 2 O 3 or the like) by a simultaneous radio frequency sputtering method and a thermal treatment. JP-A No. 11-45990 describes that a quantum device having only metal nanoparticles arranged on a base board is formed by arranging a protein internally including a metal nanoparticle on a base board followed by burning of the protein. Furthermore, a technique in which formation of nanoparticles is allowed inside of a base board by ion implantation has been known. In such a technique, for example, masking is executed except for an opened region to which subjecting to ion implantation is intended on the surface of the base board, and an accelerated ion is implanted on the surface of the base board. For the formation of masking, a technique of photolithography is generally employed. According to the method of the production in FIG. 21 and FIG. 22 , the diameter of thus resulting semiconductor quantum dot is 20 nm at the minimum. According to the process for the production of dots, particle size, pitch and the like of the semiconductor quantum dot are dependent on precise control of the probe, therefore, it is difficult obtain semiconductor quantum dots having a particle size of 10 nm or less, or to obtain semiconductor quantum dots arranged at pitches of 10 nm or less. In addition, possible manufacture was limited only to a 100 nm square, therefore, there existed a restriction of extremely low throughput. Further, because the dot shape according to the S-K mode growth is in a pyramid type or a dome type having a shorter height in comparison with the length of the bottom, a problem was raised of the aspect ratio being provided at most approximately fifth. According to the method described in Appl. Phys. Lett., S. Kohmoto, et al., supra, there exists a limitation for the formation of a nanostructure, and it was impossible to obtain a semiconductor quantum dot material with semiconductor quantum dots having a diameter of, for example, 10 nm or less, which are arranged at intervals of, for example, 10 nm or less. According to the method described in Phys. Rev., S. Takeoka, et al., supra, although the particle size of nanoparticles was reported as being 9.0 nm±1.8 nm, it was difficult to control and manufacture the particle size and arrangement essentially as the design of the device by the control of the concentration, temperature of the thermal treatment and time in such a method. According to the method described in JP-A No. 11-459901, production of the nanoparticle dispersed composite material having nanoparticles within a base board was difficult. Further, in the method according to the ion implantation, formation of the mask is generally conducted by photolithography, however, there exists limitation for the formation of the nanostructures. Thus, it was impossible to obtain semiconductor quantum dots with nanoparticles having a diameter of, for example, 10 nm or less, which are arranged at intervals of, for example, 10 nm or less. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention was accomplished taking into account of the problems as described above, and an object thereof is to provide a method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material capable of controlling a particle size and a three dimensional arrangement of nanoparticles in the nanoparticle dispersed composite material. In particular, an object of the invention is to provide a method of the production of a nanoparticle dispersed composite material which allows for the production even if the particle size of the nanoparticle is 10 nm or less, and the intervals among respective nanoparticles is 10 nm or less. The method of the production of the nanoparticle dispersed composite material according to the present invention comprises a step (a) of arranging a plurality of core fine particle-protein complexes having a core fine particle, which comprises an inorganic material, internally included within a protein on the top surface of a substrate, a step (b) of removing the protein, a step (c) of conducting ion implantation from the top surface of the substrate, and a step (d) of forming nanoparticles including the ion implanted by the ion implantation as a raw material, inside of the substrate by a thermal treatment. In the aforementioned step (b), the protein is preferably removed by a thermal treatment. As the aforementioned protein, apoferritin may be used. Further, the aforementioned complex in which a core fine particle comprising iron is internally included within apoferritin can be used. The aforementioned nanoparticle may be preferably any one of a semiconductor, a compound semiconductor, or a metal. The aforementioned nanoparticle may be preferably any one of GaAs, CdS, or Cu. In the step (c), the ion implantation is conducted at an accelerating voltage of, preferably 5 kV or greater, and more preferably 10 kV or greater. In the aforementioned step (c), the mean range in the lateral direction of the implanted ion is preferably equal to or less than the center-to-center dimension of the aforementioned core fine particles, and more preferably equal to or less than ½ of the value. In the aforementioned step (b), preferably, the core fine particles having an approximately identical value of the diameter within the range of 2 nm or greater and 50 nm or less are regularly arranged with the center-to-center dimension thereof falling within the range of 4 nm or greater and 70 nm or less. The layer of the aforementioned substrate in which the aforementioned nanoparticles are formed comprises, for example, SiO 2 or Al 2 O 3 . In the aforementioned step (c), a dose amount of the implanted ion is, preferably within the range of 1×10 15 /cm 2 or greater and 1×10 17 /cm 2 or less. Foregoing object, other object, features, and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments with reference to the accompanying drawings. | 20040610 | 20060509 | 20050224 | 60478.0 | 0 | GURLEY, LYNNE ANN | METHOD OF PRODUCTION OF NANO PARTICLE DISPERSED COMPOSITE MATERIAL | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,864,888 | ACCEPTED | Baking oven charging arrangement and baking system comprising such charging arrangement and baking oven | A charging arrangement for a baking oven (8) is provided with a supply arrangement (9) for dough pieces (4) and a lifting and delivery device (34) for the dough pieces (4). The supply arrangement (9) is provided with a charging inlet, at least one supply bin (10, 23) and a supply outlet arranged underneath the charging inlet. A delivery inlet portion (37) of the lifting and delivery device (34) that is located at the bottom is in delivery engagement with the outlet of the supply arrangement under the influence of gravity. A baking system (1) with such a charging arrangement (9) can be easily operated and does not require the continuous presence of an operator. Furthermore, it can have an optically attractive design. | 1. Baking oven (8) charging arrangement with at least one supply arrangement (9; 75; 116) for dough pieces (4) comprising a supply inlet for charging (3; 77), at least one supply bin (10; 23; 76; 121), a supply outlet (32a; 99; 169a) arranged below the supply inlet for charging (3; 77) in the area of the bottom of the supply arrangement (9; 75; 116), with a lifting and delivery device (34; 170) for dough pieces (4) comprising a delivery inlet portion (37) arranged below which is in delivery engagement with the supply outlet (32a; 172a) of the supply arrangement (9; 75; 116) in such a manner that the dough pieces (4) are conveyed from the supply outlet (32a; 99; 172a) to the delivery inlet portion (37) at least to some extent under the influence of gravity, a driven lifting and delivery device (170) between the delivery inlet portion (37) and a delivery outlet portion (43). 2. Charging arrangement according to claim 1 wherein the supply arrangement (9; 75; 116) is provided with a plurality of supply bins (10; 23; 76; 121) which are in delivery engagement with each other in such a way that the dough pieces (4) are conveyed under the influence of gravity to a supply bin (23; 100; 143) which is arranged below. 3. Charging arrangement according to claim 1 wherein the supply arrangement (9; 75; 116) comprises a driven supply and delivery arrangement (28, 29; 98; 130) for the conveyance of the dough pieces (4) to the supply outlet (32a; 99; 172a) and for the separation of the dough pieces (4). 4.-11. (Cancelled) 12. Charging arrangement according to claim 1 wherein the supply arrangement (75; 116) is provided with a plurality of individually controlled supply bins which can be emptied (76; 121) which are arranged floor-like on top of each other. 13. (Cancelled) 14. Charging arrangement according to claim 1 wherein the bottom (78a; 123) of a supply bin (76; 121) is provided as a roller path. 15. Charging arrangement according to claim 3 wherein the supply and delivery arrangement (98; 130) for the conveyance of the dough pieces (4) to the supply outlet (99; 169a) comprises: a delivery bin (100; 143) with a bin bottom (103; 144) which is sub-divided into a round inner portion (105; 148) and into an in particular ring-shaped outer portion (106; 149) which at least partially surrounds the same, and wherein the outer portion (106; 149) is rotatably drivable relative to the inner portion (105; 148) around an axis of rotation (107) which is vertically standing at the bin bottom level and is in delivery engagement with the supply outlet (99; 169a). 16. Charging arrangement according to claim 15 wherein the inner portion (105; 148) is rotatably drivable around the axis of rotation (107) independent of the outer portion (106; 149). 17. Charging arrangement according to claim 15 wherein the delivery bin (100; 143) is provided with a rigid baffle plate (110; 158) which is shaped in such a way that due to a relative movement between the baffle plate (110; 158) and the inner portion (105; 148) pieces of dough (4) which initially are located on the inner portion (105; 148) are deflected to the outer portion (106; 149). 18. Charging arrangement according to claim 15 wherein the inner portion (105; 148) can be driven around the axis of rotation (107) with alternating direction of rotation. 19. Charging arrangement according to claim 1 having a sensor (115; 162; 165) for counting the conveyed dough pieces (4). 20. Charging arrangement according to claim 1 wherein the supply arrangement (116) comprises at least one mobile bin support (117). 21. Charging arrangement according to claim 20 having a dimensioning of a receptacle for the mobile bin support (117) in such a manner that the bin support (117) when inserted in the charging position is aligned relative to the downstream delivery components of the charging arrangement. 22. Charging arrangement according to claim 1 with reference to claim 12 wherein an outlet sliding wall (124, 125) which can be controllably shifted between an open position and a closed position is associated with at least one supply bin (121). 23. Charging arrangement according to claim 22 wherein the outlet sliding wall (124, 125) is provided in the form of an articulated link wall that can be rolled up. 24. Charging arrangement according to claim 22 wherein the outlet sliding wall (124, 125) is associated with a plurality of supply bins (121). 25. Charging arrangement according to claim 3 wherein an intermediate bin (129) is provided in the conveyance path between at least one supply bin (121) and the supply and delivery arrangement (130) which is designed in such a manner that a partial quantity of dough pieces (4) is discharged from the intermediate bin (129) to the downstream components of the supply delivery arrangement (130). 26. Charging arrangement according to claim 25 wherein the intermediate bin (129) is provided with an outlet (141) the width of which can be adjusted. 27. Charging arrangement according to claim 26 wherein the intermediate bin (129) is provided with an intermediate bin bottom (134) which is adjustable around an off-center axis (136) between at least one open position and a closed position and which determines in the respective set position the width of the outlet (141). 28. Charging arrangement according to claim 15 wherein the supply and delivery arrangement (130) is provided with an outer portion (149) in the form of a slat conveyor belt (150). 29. Charging arrangement according to claim 15 having a separation deflector (159) which cooperates with at least one separation sensor (162) and which conveys, depending upon a signal of the separation sensor (162), the dough pieces (4) which follow a first dough piece (4) conveyed on the outer portion (149) from the outer portion (149) back to the inner portion (148). 30. Charging arrangement according to claim 29 wherein a further sensor (165) downstream of the separation deflector (159) in the conveyance direction of the outer portion (149) for recording dough pieces (4) which are conveyed on the outer portion (14) after the separation deflector (159). 31. Charging arrangement according to claim 29 wherein the supply and delivery arrangement (130) is provided with an outlet pusher (167) which is associated with an outlet hoistway (166) of the outer portion (149) after the separation deflector (159) and which conveys dough pieces (4) transversely to the delivery direction of the outlet hoistway (166) from the same to the delivery inlet portion (172a) of the lifting and delivery device (170). 32. Charging arrangement according to claim 1 having a positioning arrangement (167, 169) for a set of dough pieces (4) which comprises: a charging portion (169) which is in delivery engagement with a delivery outlet portion (166) of the supply delivery arrangement in such a manner that the dough pieces are conveyed from the delivery outlet portion (166) to the charging portion (169) under the influence of gravity, a positioning device (167) which determines individual positions of dough pieces (4) of a set of dough pieces, where the charging portion (169) is part of the lifting and delivery device (170). 33. Charging arrangement according to claim 31 wherein the outlet pusher (167) is the positioning device and is adjustable for providing the set of dough pieces (4) over the length of the outlet hoistway (166). 34. Charging arrangement according to claim 1 wherein the lifting and delivery arrangement (170) is provided as a driven continuous conveyor belt (171) rotating around horizontally arranged deflection rollers (172) with support troughs (169) for every set of dough pieces (4) being arranged on the outer side of the continuous conveyor belt (171) so that the support troughs (16) constitute the charging portions of the positioning device (167, 169). 35. Baking system (1) with a charging arrangement according to claim 1 and a baking oven (8). 36. Baking system according to claim 35 having an extraction bin (174) downstream of the baking oven (8) which is provided with a switch element (176) which can be switched to at least two switch positions and where the switch element (176) determines in each switch position a transport path for dough pieces (4) from the baking oven (8) to an extraction shelf (177) of the extraction bin (174) that is associated with the switch position. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to a baking oven charging arrangement and a baking system comprising such charging arrangement and a baking oven. 2. Background Art Baker's shops need baking systems which can be operated as easily and conveniently as possible, offering accessibility of the baking operation even to customers. The baking systems presently used in bakeries are still in need of improvement in at least one of the above aspects. For example, charging a bakery oven is often complicated, requiring an operator to be permanently available. Moreover, familiar baking systems are not always optically attractive. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to develop a baking system, and in particular a charging arrangement therefor, in such way that on the one hand a baking oven of the system can be operated efficiently and that there is a possibility of having an aesthetically attractive baking system on the other hand. According to the invention, this object is attained in a baking oven charging arrangement with at least one supply arrangement for dough pieces comprising a supply inlet for charging, at least one supply bin, a supply outlet arranged below the supply inlet for charging in the area of the bottom of the supply arrangement, with a lifting and delivery device for dough pieces comprising a delivery inlet portion arranged below which is in delivery engagement with the supply outlet of the supply arrangement in such a manner that the dough pieces are conveyed from the supply outlet to the delivery inlet portion at least to some extent under the influence of gravity, a driven lifting and delivery device between the delivery inlet portion and a delivery outlet portion. The idea of the invention resides in that charging a baking oven can be simplified by the charging arrangement being provided with a lifting and delivering device. This ensures moderate charging height, overhead charging no longer being necessary. Moreover, the supply arrangement ensures prolonged operation of a baking system with a charging arrangement of the species, there being no need of an operator being permanently available. Frequently, delivery elements for conveyance under gravity are constructionally less complicated than delivery elements that abandon the effect of gravity upon delivery. Delivery under gravity need not exclusively rely on gravity, this meaning that the effect of gravity can also be used for support of the conveying function of the delivery element. A plurality of supply bins which are in delivery engagement with each other in such a way that the dough pieces are conveyed under the influence of gravity to a supply bin which is arranged below constitute a high capacity supply arrangement, there being no need of too high a filling level within a supply bin. Any damages to dough pieces by the load of dough pieces placed on top will thus be precluded. A supply and delivery arrangement for the conveyance of the dough pieces to the supply outlet and for the separation of the dough pieces ensures defined delivery of the dough pieces from the supply arrangement to the lifting and delivering device. A supply bin according having a cylindrical shape and being sub-divided into a plurality of supply sectors offers the possibility of defined filling and emptying. Parting walls which separate the supply sectors from each and which are rotatably driven around a central longitudinal axis of the supply bin help implement easy conveyance of the dough pieces within the supply bin. Provision of at least one supply bin being replaceably attached facilitates charging of the supply arrangement. Dough pieces need not be charged from one bin to another; the entire supply bin can be exchanged instead. A feed screw with flights being located from each other at a distance which corresponds to a typical expansion of a dough piece ensures defined delivery of the dough pieces, which works in favor of separation. It is conceivable to use other conveying means as a lifting and delivering unit by alternative to a feed screw. An example for conveying means of the generic type may be a circulating conveyor belt, the conveying surface of which is inclined so that the dough pieces overcome a difference of level between the delivery inlet portion and the delivery outlet portion. In this case, the conveying surface may for example be a brush surface. The conveying surface may in particular be inclined by 90° towards a horizontal line i.e., it may be vertical. In such a case, provision must be made for the dough pieces to rest safely on the conveying surface during delivery. This can be implemented by a rigid baffle plate which is in contact with the conveyed dough pieces on the side opposite the conveying surface. Instead of the baffle plate, provision may be made for a second conveyor belt, the conveying surface of which and that of the lifting and delivery device being synchronous so that the dough pieces are conveyed vertically between the two conveying surfaces. Prior to lifting delivery, separation of the dough pieces is possible for example by a centrifuge. The charging arrangement may have a positioning arrangement for a set of dough pieces comprising a feed portion which is in delivery engagement with the delivery outlet portion of the lifting and delivery arrangement in such a manner that the dough pieces are conveyed under the influence of gravity from the delivery outlet portion to the feed portion, a positioning arrangement which determines individual positions of dough pieces of a set of dough pieces, an outlet portion which is in delivery engagement with a charging inlet of the baking oven in such a manner that the dough pieces are conveyed from the outlet portion to a receptacle of the baking oven for the set of dough pieces located underneath the charging inlet under the influence of gravity and retaining the relative individual positions of the dough pieces of the set of dough pieces. This ensures automatic and defined charging of receptacles of the baking oven. Producing a positioning frame being formed as a positioning frame with a plurality of positioning receptacles for each one of the dough pieces is not very complicated constructionally. Moreover, it ensures reliable separation of the dough pieces in the corresponding receptacles of the baking oven. The positioning arrangement may be driven by a driving motor in such a manner that it can be switched between a positioning setting where the dough pieces of a set of dough pieces from the feed portion are separated into individual positions and a transfer setting where the positioning arrangement is in delivery engagement with a charging inlet of the baking oven. This offers the possibility of the positioning unit simultaneously serving as a delivery outlet portion. This simplifies the design of the charging arrangement. In addition to switching from the positioning to the transfer position, a driving motor shifting the positioning arrangement in the positioning setting between individual positioning settings in which one positioning receptacle is associated with the charging portion for transferring a piece of dough serves for positioning the dough pieces, which simplifies the design of the charging arrangement. A charging arrangement wherein the supply arrangement is provided with a plurality of individually controlled supply bins which can be emptied which are arranged floor-like on top of each other can be designed in a modular system. The storing volume of the individual supply bins can be dimensioned such that stored dough pieces will not be damaged by dough pieces that are on top of them. An outlet flap which can be controllably shifted between an open and a closed position being associated with each supply bin with the outlet flap being biased in particular in the closed position ensures emptying control by simple means. A supply bin with a bottom being provided as a roller path ensures safe and gentle conveyance of stored dough pieces. A supply and delivery arrangement for the conveyance of the dough pieces to the supply outlet may comprise: a delivery bin with a bin bottom which is sub-divided into a round inner portion and into an in particular ring-shaped outer portion which at least partially surrounds the same, and wherein the outer portion is rotatably drivable relative to the inner portion around an axis of rotation which is vertically standing at the bin bottom level and is in delivery engagement with the supply outlet. Such an arrangement provides for operationally safe separation of the dough pieces. A drive of the inner portion around the axis of rotation independent of the outer portion and a baffle plate which is shaped in such a way that due to a relative movement between the baffle plate and the inner portion pieces of dough which initially are located on the inner portion are deflected to the outer portion ensure defined delivery of the dough pieces as far as to the supply outlet. A supply and delivery arrangement which comprises an internal portion which can be driven around the axis of rotation with alternating direction of rotation precludes the risk of dough pieces jamming in the delivery bin. A sensor for counting the conveyed dough pieces permits the throughput of the charging arrangement to be measures, it being possible that the throughput is evaluated in a central control unit for controlled supply. A mobile bin support being part of the supply arrangement simplifies the charging job of the supply arrangement. This need not take place at the site of the rest of the baking system. Moreover, a greater number of bin supports can be provided so that replacing an empty bin support by a charged one can take place rapidly. A charging arrangement having a dimensioning of a receptacle for the mobile bin support in such a manner that the bin support when inserted in the charging position is aligned relative to the downstream delivery components of the charging arrangement will lead to simplified handling of the supply arrangement. An outlet sliding wall which can be controllably shifted between an open position and a closed position is associated with at least one supply bin ensures simple and safe emptying of the supply bins. An outlet sliding wall being provided in the form of an articulated link wall that can be rolled up can be moved between the open and the closed position in a space-saving way. An outlet sliding wall being associated with a plurality of supply bins enables a a bin support of compact design to be have a plurality of supply bins. The charging arrangement may have an intermediate bin being provided in the conveyance path between at least one supply bin and the supply and delivery arrangement and being designed in such a manner that a partial quantity of dough pieces is discharged from the intermediate bin to the downstream components of the supply delivery arrangement. Such an intermediate bin precludes any undesirable overloading of the supply and delivery arrangement. Jams in the supply and delivery arrangement are thus prevented. An intermediate bin being provided with an outlet the width of which can be adjusted serves to easily predetermine the quantity delivered thereby. A bottom of an intermediate bin adjustable around an off-center axis between at least one open position and a closed position and determining in the respective set position the width of the outlet can be produced without any complicated requirements. A supply and delivery arrangement being provided with an outer portion in the form of a slat conveyor belt ensures safe delivery of separated dough pieces. The charging arrangement may have a separation deflector which cooperates with at least one separation sensor and which conveys, depending upon a signal of the separation sensor, the dough pieces which follow a first dough piece conveyed on the outer portion from the outer portion back to the inner portion separating deflector. Such a leads to reliable separation of dough pieces, which is accomplished even if the individual pieces tend to sticking together. A sensor downstream of the separation deflector in the conveyance direction of the outer portion for recording dough pieces which are conveyed on the outer portion after the separation deflector further improves the reliability of separation. The supply and delivery arrangement may have an outlet pusher which is associated with an outlet hoistway of the outer portion after the separation deflector and which conveys dough pieces transversely to the delivery direction of the outlet hoistway from the same to the delivery inlet portion of the lifting and delivery device. Such a separating deflector leads to safe conveyance of the dough pieces to the lifting and delivering device. The charging arrangement may include a positioning arrangement for a set of dough pieces which comprises: a charging portion which is in delivery engagement with a delivery outlet portion of the supply delivery arrangement in such a manner that the dough pieces are conveyed from the delivery outlet portion to the charging portion under the influence of gravity, a positioning device which determines individual positions of dough pieces of a set of dough pieces, where the charging portion is part of the lifting and delivery device. Such a positioning device produces a set of dough pieces prior to lifting delivery, putting into practice a lifting and delivering device of increased delivering capacity. Advantageously the outlet pusher is the positioning device and is adjustable for providing the set of dough pieces over the length of the outlet hoistway. This enables the dough pieces that belong to a set to be safely positioned. The charging arrangement may have a lifting and delivery arrangement lifting and delivering device can be implemented comparatively easily, ensuring gentle delivery of the dough pieces. The advantages of a baking system with a charging arrangement according to the invention and a baking oven correspond to the advantages mentioned above in connection with the charging arrangement. The baking system may have an extraction bin downstream of the baking oven which is provided with a switch element which can be switched to at least two switch positions and where the switch element determines in each switch position a transport path for dough pieces from the baking oven to an extraction shelf of the extraction bin that is associated with the switch position. Such a discharge bin allows various types of baked articles, which have been produced in the baking oven, to be sorted into the respective discharge shelves. Regardless of the design of the charging arrangement, another essential aspect of the invention resides in an improvement of a baking system in such a way that accurate consumption data, for example the amount of rolls processed per day or week in the baking system, the distribution of processed amounts and types of dough pieces, and the entire economic use of the baking system can be determined and handled. Details of the invention will become apparent from the ensuing description of exemplary embodiments of the invention, taken in conjunction with the drawing, in which: BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a baking system with a baking oven and a charging arrangement; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the baking system of FIG. 1 with the housing removed; FIG. 3 is another perspective view of the baking system; FIG. 4 is a perspective, vertical sectional view of the baking system perpendicular to the axis of rotation of a baking cylinder of the baking oven; FIG. 5 is a section side view analogous to FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is another perspective view of the baking oven, with a separating and positioning unit being displaced from a position of positioning into a position of transfer; FIG. 7 is a perspective view of an alternative supply arrangement for the baking system of FIGS. 1 to 6; FIG. 8 is a vertical sectional view of the supply arrangement according to FIG. 7 parallel to a center plane of the supply arrangement that is perpendicular to shelves of supply bins; FIG. 9 is a perspective view of a supply and delivery arrangement of the supply arrangement of FIGS. 7 and 8 for delivery of dough pieces towards the supply outlet; FIG. 10 is a sectional view, perpendicular to the cutting plane of FIG. 8, of the supply and delivery arrangement of FIG. 9; FIG. 11 is another perspective view of the supply and delivery arrangement of FIGS. 9 and 10; FIG. 12 is a plan view of the supply and delivery arrangement of FIGS. 9 to 11; and FIG. 13 is a view from below of the supply and delivery arrangement of FIGS. 9 to 12; FIG. 14 is a perspective view of an alternative baking system with a baking oven, a charging arrangement therefor, and a discharge bin downstream of the baking oven; FIG. 15 is another perspective view of the baking system of FIG. 14 with an open front door that includes the discharge bin; FIG. 16 is a view of the baking system similar to FIG. 14, with the front door and a movable bin support of a supply arrangement of the baking system being omitted; FIG. 17 is a vertical longitudinal view of the baking system according to FIG. 14; FIG. 18 is a view of the baking system similar to FIG. 16 without a bin support and with the side walls omitted; FIG. 19 is a sectional view of details of an illustration similar to FIG. 18 in the vicinity of a supply and delivery arrangement; FIG. 20 is a perspective view of one of the two bin supports of the baking system of FIG. 14 with the charging inlets closed; FIG. 21 is a view, similar to FIG. 19, with a charging flap of a charging inlet in an open position; FIG. 22 is a vertical longitudinal sectional view of the bin support of FIG. 20; FIG. 23 is a perspective view of a supply and delivery arrangement of the baking system according to FIGS. 14 to 21, illustrating an alternative of the supply and delivery arrangement of FIG. 9; FIG. 24 is a plan view of the supply and delivery arrangement of FIG. 23, with an intermediate bin being omitted and a separating deflector being shown in a through position; FIG. 25 is a view, similar to FIG. 24, of the supply and delivery arrangement with the separating deflector in a position of deflection; FIGS. 26 and 27 are perspective views of the intermediate bin of the supply and delivery arrangement of FIG. 23 in two differing positions of discharge of an intermediate bottom; FIG. 28 is a view of details of FIG. 10 on an enlarged scale, with support troughs of a conveyor belt being illustrated in a bottom position of delivery; FIG. 29 is an enlarged view of a separating deflector of the supply and delivery arrangement of FIG. 23; FIG. 30 is an enlarged view of a discharge slide of the supply and delivery arrangement of FIG. 23. DESCRIPTION OF A PREFERRED EMBODIMENT FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a baking system 1. A housing 2 of the baking system 1 has an inlet 3 for charging the baking system 1 with dough pieces 4, for example deep frozen or initially baked rolls, as well as an outlet 5 for discharge of baked dough pieces 4. The housing 2 further comprises a window 6 with a view of a horizontal baking drum 7 of a baking oven 8 of the baking system 1. The inlet 3 has a height convenient and suitable for the baking system 1 to be charged by an operator. The baked dough pieces 4 will drop from the outlet 5 into a carrier (not shown). FIGS. 2 to 6 illustrate internal details of the baking system 1, the housing 2 being omitted. A supply arrangement 9 of the baking system 1 is disposed downstream of the inlet 3; it is embodied as a supply carrousel. The supply arrangement 9 can be insulated or cooled so that the dough pieces 4 are for example kept frozen in the supply arrangement 9. Preferably, such a cooled supply arrangement 9 is dimensioned for the baking system 1 to be run for at least an hour without the help of an operator. A first top cylindrical supply container 10, which is open upwards, is disposed directly downstream of the inlet 3. By a total of four parting walls 11 to 14 which extend radially from a central longitudinal axis of the supply bin 10, the first supply bin 10 is divided into four supply sectors 15 to 18. The parting walls 11 to 14 are non-rotatably joined to each other by way of a driving shaft 19 which extends along the longitudinal axis of the supply bin 10 and which is set rotating by a driving motor 20, part of which is seen in FIG. 3. In the vicinity of the supply sector 18 that faces horizontally away from the inlet 3, a bottom 21 of the supply bin 10 comprises a passageway 22 in the shape of a sector. The bottom 21 is stationary in relation to the housing 2 of the baking system 1; it does not co-rotate upon rotation of the driving shaft 19. The passageway 22 provides for a passage from the first supply bin 10 to a second, bottom cylindrical supply bin 23 of the supply arrangement 9. The second supply bin 23 is in alignment with the first supply bin 10 and structured in the same way. FIG. 5 illustrates that the bottom supply bin 23 too has parting walls for division into supply sectors, only two of the total of four parting walls, namely the parting walls 24, 25, being shown in FIG. 5. The parting walls of the second supply bin are non-rotatably joined to the driving shaft 19, engaging and disengaging by way of a magnetic clutch (not shown). The four parting walls of the bottom supply bin 23 are directly below i.e., in alignment with, the parting walls 11 to 14 of the top supply bin 10. Consequently, the supply sectors 15 to 18 of the top supply bin 10 are in alignment with those of the bottom supply bin 23. Corresponding couplings will ensure rotatability of the four parting walls of the bottom supply bin 23 irrespective of the rotatability of the parting walls 11 to 14 of the top supply bin 10. The bottom supply bin 23 too has a bottom 26 with a passageway 26a in the shape of a sector, which is roughly outlined by dashes in FIG. 2. The passageway 22 in the bottom 21 of the top supply bin 10 is displaced from the passageway 26a of the bottom supply bin 23 by a supply sector in the direction of rotation of the driving shaft 19. The passageway 26a in the bottom supply bin 23 provides for connection thereof with a delivery bin 27 of the supply arrangement 9. The delivery bin 27 of substantially cylindrical shape is disposed below the bottom supply bin 23. Two plane delivery blades 28, 29 run in the delivery bin 27; they extend radially of a longitudinal axis of the delivery bin 27 and are non-rotatably joined to another driving shaft 30 that extends along this longitudinal axis. This shaft 30 can be set rotating by a driving motor 31. A deflection cone 32, which expands towards the bottom of the delivery bin 27, is mounted on the driving shaft 30 in the delivery bin 27. An outlet 32a, which is roughly outlined by dashes in FIG. 2, is provided in the bottom of the delivery bin 27; it is followed by a chute 33 which constitutes a delivery connection of the supply arrangement 9 with a lifting and delivering device 34. The lifting and delivering device 34 comprises an inclining upright feed screw 35, the flights 36 of which are spaced from each other, corresponding to some typical dimensioning of dough pieces 4. The distance between two adjacent flight 36 slightly exceeds the typical dimensions of the dough pieces 4, ensuring that a dough piece 4 can be safely transported, however precluding that two dough pieces 4, which lie one on top of the other along the longitudinal axis of the feed screw 35, are transported between two adjacent flights 36. Consequently, the dough pieces 4 are successively conveyed in the lifting and delivering device 34 along the spiral delivery path given by the feed screw 35. For support of the delivery function of the feed screw 35, a brush surface 36a cooperates therewith, preventing further rotation of the dough pieces 4. A bottom delivery inlet portion 37 is disposed at the bottom end of the chute 33. At the opposite end, the feed screw 35 is provided with a gearwheel 38. Via the gearwheel 38, a driving chain 39 and another gearwheel 40, the feed screw 35 is driven for rotation about its longitudinal axis by a driving motor 41. At the top end of the lifting and delivering device 34, a housing 42, which partially encloses the feed screw 35, comprises a recess 43 that constitutes a delivery outlet portion of the lifting and delivering device 34. The recess 43 is followed by a chute 44 comprised of a vertically upright baffle plate 45 which is integrally molded on the housing 42, and of an equally integral, inclined plane 46 which descends towards the baking oven 8. The chute 44 constitutes a feed portion of a positioning device 47 for a set of a total of five dough pieces 4. The positioning device 47 has a positioning frame 48 as a positioning unit; this frame 48 is illustrated in FIGS. 2 to 5 in a position of positioning and in FIG. 6 in a position of transfer. When moving along the chute 44, the individual dough pieces 4 pass a light barrier 47a with a counter so that a complete set of dough pieces 4 is reliably delivered to the positioning frame 48. Once the last dough piece 4 that completes such a set has passed the light barrier 47a, a control unit that is connected with the light barrier 47a automatically stops the drive of the feed screw 35. The positioning frame 48 comprises a plurality of positioning receptacles 49 which are separated from each other by positioning and parting walls 50, each receptacle accommodating a dough piece. The positioning frame is non-rotatably connected with a rotary table 51 which is parallel to a top wall 52 of an interior casing 53 of the baking oven 8. The rotary table 51 is again non-rotatably connected with a driving shaft 54 which extends along the central axis thereof and is actuated by a driving motor 55. This motor 55 is tightly joined to a frame of the baking system 1 (which is not shown). The positioning receptacles 49 do not possess a bottom. In the position of positioning, the bottom of the positioning receptacles 49 is formed by a second rotary table 54a between the first rotary table 51 and the wall 52. The second rotary table 54a is rotatable about the longitudinal axis of the driving shaft 54 independently of the first rotary table 51. The second rotary table 54a is joined to the driving shaft 54 by means of a magnetic coupling (not shown). In the position of transfer of FIG. 6, an inlet 56 in the second rotary table 54a and in the top housing wall 52 is in alignment with the positioning frame 48. In the position of transfer, the inlet 56 is in alignment with a passage 57 in an outer defining wall 58 of the baking drum 7. Receptacles 59 for individual sets of dough pieces 4 are defined inwards i.e., towards the longitudinal axis of the baking drum 7, by an inner defining wall 60 in the cross-sectional shape of a star. The defining walls 58, 60 are of air permeable stainless steel wire fabric. The baking drum 7 comprises a total of eleven receptacles 59. The extension of the passage 57 in the outer defining wall 58 in the circumferential direction about the longitudinal axis of the baking drum 7 corresponds to the extension of a receptable 59 in the circumferential direction. The outer defining wall 58 and the inner defining wall 60 are drivable in rotation about the longitudinal axis of the baking drum 7 independently of each other. To this end a central driving shaft 61, non-rotatably along the longitudinal axis of the baking drum 7, is connected to a gearwheel 62 and, via a driving belt 63 and another gearwheel 64, to a driving motor 65. The driving motor 65 actuates the inner defining wall 60 as well as the outer defining wall 58. To this end, another driving shaft (not shown) with two clutches is installed underneath the baking oven 8 parallel to the driving shaft 61. The first of these couplings serves as a locking brake for the outer defining wall 58, for example when the baking drum 7 is charged or emptied. During the baking job, both defining walls 58, 60 run synchronously i.e., the first clutch disengages and a second clutch in the driving shaft underneath the baking oven 8 engages. In this way, the turning moment can be conferred to both defining walls 58, 60 by this second driving shaft and the driving shaft 61. The interior of the interior casing 53 constitutes a baking chamber of the baking oven 8, heated with circulating air that has a given path through the baking chamber. A fan rotor 66 in a rotor casing 67 serves for generating the circulating air; the rotor casing 67 continues the interior casing 53 towards the supply arrangement 9. The fan rotor 66 is actuated by a driving motor 68 about a horizontal axis. A heating spiral 69, which coaxially encircles the fan rotor 66 from outside, serves for heating the circulating air. A bottom gate 71 is formed in a wall 70 of the interior casing 53, extending across the width of the interior casing 53 parallel to the receptacles 59; it can be closed by a flap 72. The flap 72 serves for heat insulation of the interior casing 53 to the outside. A discharging passageway 73 is disposed underneath the gate 71, leading to the outlet 5. The interior casing 53 is supported by a frame with four sustainers 74. The baking system 1 is operated as follows: At first packing drums of dough pieces 4 are placed in readiness, which may contain for example 100 dough pieces 4. Through the inlet 3, the top supply bin 10 is filled with dough pieces 4 from the packing drums, the dough pieces 4 being distributed in the supply sectors 15 to 18 or dropping through the passageway 22 into the second supply bin 23. Then the dough pieces 4 are delivered from the supply arrangement 9 via the lifting and delivering device 34 and the positioning device 47 to the baking oven 8. To this end, the driving motor 20 is activated so that the parting walls 11 to 14 transport dough pieces 4 from the top supply bin 10 through the passageway 22 into the bottom supply bin 23. Since the parting walls of the two supply bins 10, 23, due to the couplings, can be rotated independently from one another, it is possible in this way to re-load dough pieces at any time prior to the supply bins 10, 23 being completely emptied. As soon as the top supply bin 10 has been emptied appreciably, it can be recharged through the inlet 3. Dough pieces 4 which drop through the passageway 22 into the bottom supply bin 23 are conveyed by the parting walls in the bottom supply bin 23 towards the passageway 26a in the bottom 26 of the bottom supply bin 23 and drops into the delivery bin 27. The displaced arrangement of the passageways 22, 26a in the bottoms 21 and 26 ensures that a great number of dough pieces 4 may be stored in the supply arrangement 9, it being possible to load both supply bins 10, 23 by at least three quarters, namely three of four supply sectors in the supply bins 10 and 23. Dividing the supply arrangement 9 into the two supply bins 10, 23 and the delivery bin 27 serves for limiting the maximum dumping height of the dough pieces 4. This precludes any damaging of lowermost dough pieces 4 by dough pieces that lie on top of them. The delivery blades 28, 29 transport the dough pieces 4 in the delivery bin 27 towards the bottom passageway 32a in the delivery bin 27. In doing so, the delivery blades 28, 29 rotate slowly so that only small doses of dough pieces 4 approach the delivery inlet portion 37. The deflection cone 32 ensures that the dough pieces 4 are sufficiently spaced radially from the driving shaft 30 in the bottom area of the delivery bin 27 so that it is moved by the action of gravity via the chute 33 towards the delivery inlet portion 37 of the lifting and delivering device 34. Feeding the dough pieces to the lifting and delivering device 34 takes place in such a way that dough pieces 4 first filled into the supply bins 10, 23 will be the first to be fed to the feed screw 35. This works in favour of hygiene and quality of the baked articles. By the aid of the feed screw 35 of the lifting and delivering device 34, the dough pieces 4 are then transported at an angle upwards and separated until reaching the chute 44 through the recess 43. Controlled by the counter and the light barrier 47a, the feed screw 35 is stepwise actuated by the driving motor 41 so that a set of five dough pieces 4 at a time moves via the chute 44 to the positioning frame 48. The positioning frame 48 is positioned in relation to the bottom end of the chute 44 for the first dough piece 4 of a set to reach one of the outermost positioning receptacles 49, for example the one that leads clockwise. This associated position constitutes a single positioning position of the positioning device 47. The dough piece 4 housed in this positioning receptacle 49 at first constitutes a barrier preventing further dough pieces 4 of a set from following up. In the positioning position, the second rotary table 54a is positioned relative to the first rotary table 51 in such a way that the second rotary table 54a forms the bottom of the positioning receptacle 49. By actuation of the driving motor 55, the positioning frame 48 is then rotated a bit further clockwiseabout the driving shaft 54 so that the next positioning receptacle 49 is allocated to the end portion of the chute 44. The second rotary table 54a co-rotates synchronously. The next dough piece 4 of the set of dough pieces moves from the chute 44 into this second positioning receptacle 49. The driving motor 55 is activated stepwise sufficiently long for each positioning receptacle 49 of the positioning frame 48 to hold a dough piece 4 of the set. In this way, the dough pieces 4 can be arranged in parallel to a receptacle 59. Then the driving motor 55 is actuated until the positioning frame 48 has been conferred from the position of positioning into the position of transfer. The second rotary table 54a at first co-rotates synchronously. After the first rotary table 51 has reached the position of transfer, the second rotary table 54a is rotated by approximately 90° so that the inlets 56 provided in the second rotary table 54a and in the top housing wall 52 are flush. The dough pieces 4 then drop through the inlet 56 and through the passageway 57, in alignment therewith, of the outer wall 58 of the baking drum 7 and into a first receptacle 59. In the baking system 1, the positioning frame 48 simultaneously constitutes a positioning unit giving positions relative to each other of the dough pieces 4 of the set and an outlet portion for transfer of the dough pieces 4 from the positioning device 47 to the baking oven 8. Then, by activation of the driving motor 65, the inner wall 60 of the baking drum 7 is rotated by another step so that the next receptacle 59 is allocated to the passageway 57. The outer wall 58 remains stationary. By parallel action, the positioning frame 48 is returned into the position of positioning and the feed screw 35 is actuated so that the next set of dough pieces 4 is provided via the chute 44. The second rotary table 54a is in a position relative to the first rotary table 51 in which it defines a bottom for the receptacles 59. This process is repeated sufficiently long for ten of the eleven receptacles 59 to be filled with a set of dough pieces 4. Then the outer wall 58 is rotated in relation to the inner wall 60 so that the passageway 57 is allotted to the receptacle 59 that is still empty. The baking process now starts, with the two walls 58, 60 of the baking drum 7 rotating synchronously and heated recirculating air flowing around the dough pieces. By the aid of vaporization means (not shown), the dough pieces can be treated with vapour during a baking process. The temperature in the baking oven 8 during the baking process is regulated by a baking program. After the end of the baking process, which may for example take 10 to 12 minutes, the baking drum 7 is rotated such that the passageway 57 is located above the passageway 71 of the housing wall 70. The flap 72 is opened and the inner wall 60 is rotated while the outer wall 58 is stationary, with the dough pieces 4 dropping from the receptacles 59 through the passage way 71. The inner wall 60 continues to rotate until all the receptacles 59 are empty. Then the flap 72 is shut again. The baked dough pieces 4, by the action of gravity, slip through the discharge passageway 73 and the outlet 5, dropping into the carrier. In a varied embodiment of the baking system 1 which is not illustrated, the supply arrangement is equipped with supply bins that are replaceable for charging the supply arrangement 9. They may be designed for example in the way of the supply bin 10, with the parting walls 11 to 14, for replacement of the supply bin 10, being removable together with the upper portion of the driving shaft 19. Of course, in this alternative embodiment, the inlet 3 must be dimensioned such that the supply bin can be withdrawn. Upon operation of this embodiment of the baking system, the operator waits until the supply bin has been emptied in the course of the baking process. Then this emptied supply bin is replaced by a filled supply bin. Re-charging may take place at any time, for example even during operation of the baking oven 8. A vibrating surface may take the place of a feed screw in the lifting and delivering device 34. Vibrating feed surfaces of this type are known to those skilled in the art. Instead of the feed screw 35, the lifting and delivering device 34 may also have a circulating conveyor belt which is inclined for conveyance of the dough pieces 4, overcoming a difference of level. In particular, a conveyor belt of this type may incline by 900 towards a horizontal line i.e., it can be vertical. A conveying surface of the inclined conveyor belt may be embodied as a brush face for good frictionally engaging contact with the dough pieces 4 to be produced. In the case of a vertical conveying surface, a rigidly mounted baffle plate is allocated at a distance therefrom, with the conveyed dough pieces, by a surface opposite the conveying surface, being in contact with the baffle plate so that the dough pieces 4 are prevented from dropping off the conveying surface. Instead of a baffle plate, which may also be used for conveying surfaces of slopes other than 90°, a second guide belt can be employed, which is also a continuously encircling belt, running synchronously with the first conveyor belt. The dough pieces 4 transported in this alternative lifting and delivering device run between the conveying surface on the one hand and the guide belt on the other. The lifting and delivering device can be designed for provision of the set of dough pieces in a position of the dough pieces relative to each other that is suitable for take-up by the baking oven. A positioning device, such as the positioning device 47, can then be omitted. Separation upstream thereof can take place for example by a centrifugal separator, in particular a centrifuge. The above baking system may be equipped in such a way that the kind and number of baked dough pieces in the baking oven 8, for subsequent evaluation, can be determined during a certain baking period that may include several baking jobs. To this end, the packing drums, in which the dough pieces 4 are provided for charging the top supply bin 10, or the supply bins themselves—in the case of replaceable supply bins—have labels containing information on the nature and number of dough pieces in the respective drum. This information can be applied to the packing drums or the replaceable supply bins for example in the form of a bar code such as an EAN code. Instead of a bar code, this information may also be placed on an RFID chip, which may in particular be a flat chip. Chips of this type for radio frequency identification (RFID) are commercial. When the baking system 1 is charged, the label information, in addition to the instant of charging, is transmitted to a control computer of the baking system 1. This can take place for example automatically by the aid of a computer clock and by the aid of a scanner for bar code detection, for example a laser scanner attached to the baking system 1. By alternative, the label information may be available in plain text, with the operator, when charging the baking system 1, passing this information and the time of charging via a corresponding input unit to the control computer of the baking system. After the baking system 1 has been charged, the dough pieces are delivered to the baking oven 8 where they are baked as specified above. The label information detected by the control computer is collected and coordinated for a baking period of several baking processes, for instance for a day or a week. The label information thus obtained is then evaluated for optimization of baking-system operation. To this end, the type of dough pieces frequently baked in the oven 8 is for example detected so that a corresponding quantity of these dough pieces can be kept in store. Types of dough pieces that are baked less frequently must be stored in lower numbers. Long-term evaluation may serve for determination of for example a weekly cycle of customer behaviour. It is for example possible, by evaluation of label information, to find out whether the demand for certain types of baked articles is higher at weekends than on working days. To this end, use is also made of the evaluation of information as to when precisely a certain packing drum has been charged, for example on which day of the week and at which time. In addition to a weekly cycle, detection of a daily rhythm is conceivable just as well. Via the outlet 5, finished baked articles 4 arrive in the carrier. This carrier may be provided with an instrument that determines the quantity it holds, for example scales. Operation of the baking oven 8 is controlled by way of the quantity of baked dough pieces 4 collected in the carrier. This takes place by a given minimum amount of baked dough pieces 4. As soon as the quantity falls short of this minimum amount, the baking system 1 is set to work. This takes place as long as dough pieces 4 are available in the supply arrangement 9. When the supply arrangement 9 is empty, the baking system 1 emits for example an optical or acoustic signal for renewed charging of the supply arrangement 9. It is also conceivable to replace the carrier at the outlet 5 by a withdrawal container that is accessible to the customers. FIGS. 7 to 13 illustrate a supply arrangement 75 for dough pieces 4 that may be used alternatively of the supply arrangement 9 in the baking system 1. The supply arrangement 75 comprises a total of sixteen shelves 76 as a supply bin. Each shelf 76 has a bottom 78a that inclines downwards from an outer inlet portion 77 to an inner outlet portion 78. The shelves 76 are supported by a supporting frame 79 of a movable supply transport carriage 80, which has four sustainers 81 each with a caster 82. The transport carriage 80 has a handle 83 of being moved by an operator. The outlet portions 78 of eight of the 16 shelves 76 are open towards two opposite front sides of the transport carriage 80. The eight shelves 76, which are allocated to one of these two front sides of the transport carriage 80, are provided in the form of two times four side by side shelves i.e., they are arranged in two side by side groups of four. The side by side shelves 76 have continuous bottoms 78a and are separated by a vertical, continuous central parting wall 84. The shelf area of the supply arrangement 75 is disposed in symmetry to the parting wall 84. The outlet portions 78 of the shelves 76 are closable by the aid of outlet flaps 85 which are pivotable, by way of a horizontal pivot joint 86, between a closed position in which they shut the outlet portion 78, and an open position in which discharge from the respective shelf 76 is possible. By the aid of a spring, the outlet flaps 85 are pre-loaded in the closed position. FIG. 8 illustrates the outlet flap 85 of the shelf 76 that is shown at the bottom right in the open position, and the other outlet flaps 85 in the closed position. In prolongation of the pivot joints 86 of each outlet flap 85, an operating lever 87 is non-rotatably allocated to each of the outlet flaps 85. The total of sixteen operating levers 87 pass through opposite side walls 88, 89 of the transport carriage 80 that are parallel to the parting wall 84 so that actuation of the operating levers 87 takes place through the side walls 88, 89 and separated from the shelves 76. In a closed position, the operating levers 87 are pre-loaded by springs 90 which are held by the respective side wall 88, 89. As a result of the arrangement of the shelves 76, the operating levers 87 which pass through one of the side walls 88, 89 are provided in two groups of four one on top of the other. An entrainer 91 serves for dislocation of the operating levers 87 of one of these groups of four so that two entrainers 91 are provided for the operating levers 87 of one side wall 88, 89. The two entrainers 91 that are allocated to one side wall 88, 89 are rigidly connected with a continuous driving chain 92 which is led along two deflection pinions 93, 94 one arranged on top of the other. They are supported by the side wall 88, 89 allocated to them. The respective bottom deflection pinion 94 is driven by way of another continuous driving chain 95 and a driving pinion 96 of a driving motor 97. FIG. 7 shows the operating lever 87 of the shelf 76 on the bottom left that is turned towards a viewer in an open position and the other operating lever 87 in the closed position. In the supply arrangement 75, a supply and delivery arrangement 98 is disposed downstream of the outlet portions 78 of the shelves 76, delivering the dough pieces towards a supply outlet 99. In the supply arrangement 75, the supply and delivery arrangement 98, details of which are seen in FIGS. 9 to 13, replaces the delivery bin 27 with the delivery blades 28, 29 of the supply arrangement 9 of the embodiment according to FIGS. 1 to 6. The supply and delivery arrangement 98 comprises a substantially round delivery bin 100 which is supported by two opposed, U-shaped supporting sections 101, 102 which are again fixed to the sustainers 81 of the transport carriage 80. The delivery bin 100 has a round bottom 103 and a substantially hollow cylindrical wall 104. The bottom 103 is divided into a round inner portion 105 and an annular outer portion 106 encircling the latter. The inner portion 105 and the outer portion 106 are independently drivable in the way of a turntable about a common central axis of rotation 107 which is perpendicular to the plane formed by the bottom 103. The inner portion 105 is rotatable about the axis of rotation by the aid of a driving motor 108 which is fixed underneath the bottom 103 to the supporting frame 79 of the transport carriage 80. A driving motor 109, which is also disposed underneath the bottom 103 and fixed to the supporting frame 79, serves for rotating the outer portion 106. To this end the driving motor 109 actuates a driving pinion 109a which actuates a transmission pinion 109b via a driving chain (not shown). The transmission pinion 109b is rotatable about the axis of rotation 107, mounted by way of an axial radial bearing 109c that is also fixed to the supporting frame 79. By way of extension arms 109d, the transmission pinion 109b is non-rotatably joined to the outer portion 106. A baffle plate 110 is rigidly connected to the wall 104, having a first curved baffle portion 111 and a second, straight baffle portion 112 that is short as compared to the first portion. Both baffle portions 111, 112 extend closely above the bottom 103 so that they are able to direct any dough pieces 4 disposed thereon. As seen in particular in the plan view of FIG. 12, the longer baffle portion 111, proceeding from the wall 104, extends in a bow of clockwise increasing curvature as far as to the area above the center of the inner portion 105. The short baffle portion 112 substantially covers the entire width of the outer portion 106. In the vicinity of the short baffle portion 112, the wall 104, which is otherwise closed, is interrupted, with an outlet portion 113 of the supply and delivery arrangement 98 being contiguous thereto. The outlet portion 113 at first continues the bottom 103 outside the outer portion 106 for a bit, then the supply outlet 99 adjoins. A sensor element 114 of a sensor 115 projects into the supply outlet 99, counting the dough pieces 4 that pass the supply outlet 99. The sensor 115 may for example be a light barrier. The supply arrangement 75 and the supply and delivery arrangement 98 is used as described below in exchange for the supply arrangement 9 of FIGS. 1 to 6: In a charging station, all the shelves 76 of the transport carriage 80 are filled, with all the outlet flaps 85 being in the closed position. Then the transport carriage 80 is positioned in the baking system 1 in such a way that the supply outlet 99 is located above the chute 33 that leads to the lifting and delivering device 34. The position of the supply outlet 99 corresponds to that of the supply outlet 32a of the embodiment of the supply arrangement 9 according to FIGS. 1 to 6. Upon operation of the baking system 1, separated dough pieces 4 are fed as required via the supply and delivery arrangement 98 from the shelves 76 to the lifting and delivering device 34. To this effect, the driving motors 97, controlled by the central control unit of the baking system 1, are triggered so that the entrainers 91 sequentially displace the operating levers 87 from the closed position into the open position, with the associated outlet flaps 85 opening and the dough pieces stored in the respective shelves 76 being transferred from the respective outlet portion 78 towards the delivery bin 100 of the supply and delivery arrangement 98. The respectively actuated driving motor 97 stops as soon as the outlet flap 85 is entirely open. At first, the dough pieces 4 drop predominantly on the inner portion 105 of the bottom 103 of the delivery bin 100. Triggered by the driving motor 108, the inner portion 105 is rotated for a short time, for example for 5 seconds, counter-clockwise in accordance with the plan view of FIG. 12. The baffle portion 111 of the baffle plate 110 transports the dough pieces from the inner portion 105 onto the outer portion 106, owing to the motion of the inner portion 105 relative to the baffle plate 110. Simultaneously, the outer portion 106, driven by the driving motor 109, rotates clockwise in FIG. 12 so that any dough pieces 4 on the outer portion 106 are conveyed towards the outlet portion 113, guided by the outer portion 106 of the short baffle portion 112 of the baffle plate 110. For jam of the dough pieces 4 in the delivery bin 100 in the vicinity of the baffle portion 111 to be avoided, the sense of rotation of the inner portion 105 is changed from time to time. From the outlet portion 113, the dough pieces 4 drop through the supply outlet 99 and, in doing so, is counted by the sensor 115. The sensor 115, which is connected with the central control unit of the baking system 1, passes feedback to the control unit on the extent to which the required demand of dough pieces 4 is met. When the required number of dough pieces 4 has dropped through the supply outlet 99, the central control unit stops the driving motors 108 and 109, also stopping any further actuation of the driving motors 97 so that no further outlet flap 85 will be opened. The dough pieces that drop through the supply outlet 99 moves via the chute 33 towards the lifting and delivering device 34 and is further processed as described in connection with FIGS. 1 to 6. The supply arrangements 9, 75 specified may also be used in a baking system without lifting delivery. FIGS. 14 to 27 illustrate another embodiment of a baking system with a charging arrangement and components thereof. Components that correspond to those described above in connection with FIGS. 1 to 13 have the same reference numerals and will not be explained in detail again. In the baking system 1 according to FIGS. 14 to 27, a supply arrangement 116 for dough pieces 4 comprises two side by side movable bin supports 117, only one of which is seen in FIG. 16. The second bin support 117 can be inserted into the receptacle on the right of the bin support 117 seen in FIG. 16. FIG. 20 shows one of the bin supports 117. It comprises a supporting frame 118 which is approximately C-shaped in a side view. The bottom leg of the supporting frame 118 is provided with four casters 119, rendering the bin support 117 movable. A bin casing 120 is placed on the top C leg of the supporting frame 118, having a plurality of shelves 121 which serve as supply bins for dough pieces 4. The division of the bin casing 120 into shelves 121 corresponds to the division of the supply arrangement 75 seen in FIG. 8. The inlet portions 77 of the shelves 121 can be closed by charging flaps 122. FIGS. 21 and 22 show the charging flap 122 on the top left in an open position. Otherwise the charging flaps 122 are shown in a closed position. The charging flaps 122 have a bottom 122a, in the open position defining a charging chamber in the form of a quartered hollow cylinder. The bottom of the shelves 121 that incline downwards towards the outlet portion 78 is formed by roller paths 123. In the bin support 117 of the embodiment according to FIGS. 14 to 27, the shelves 121 are closed by two outlet sliding walls 124, 125 in the form of articulated link walls instead of outlet flaps. The four shelves 121 on the left in FIG. 22 are closed by the outlet sliding wall 124 and the four shelves 121 on the right in FIG. 22 by the outlet sliding wall 125. The outlet sliding walls 124, 125 can slide on driven rolls 126, 127 that are diagrammatically outlined in FIG. 22. The outlet portions 78 of the shelves 121 discharge into a central well 128. With the bin supports 117 being positioned within the casing 2, an intermediate bin 129 of a supply and delivery arrangement 130 is arranged below the same. In conformity with the supply and delivery arrangement 98 of the embodiment according to FIG. 7 to FIG. 13, the latter also has the function of the conveyance of the dough pieces to a supply outlet of the supply arrangement 116. The intermediate bin 129 which is open at the top is laterally defined by two opposite side walls 131, 132 which are mounted on a supporting frame 133. Furthermore, the intermediate bin 129 is laterally defined between the side walls 131, 132 by opposing roller paths 135 sloping towards an intermediate bin bottom 134. The intermediate bin bottom 134 is about semi-circular and pivotable around a vertical axis 136 which runs through the circle center of this semi-circle. Consequently, the pivot axis is off-center relative to the area of the intermediate bin bottom 134. For the pivot drive, a driving pinion 137 of a driving motor 138 mounted on the supporting frame 133 engages a complementary counterpart in the intermediate bin bottom 134. The instantaneous position of the intermediate bin bottom 134, i.e. its instantaneous pivot position around the pivot axis 136 is recorded by sensors 139, 140. The angle sensor 139 records here the instantaneous pivot angle of the intermediate bin bottom 134 around the pivot axis 136. Sensor 140 in the form of a light barrier records whether the intermediate bin bottom 134 is in a closed position, for instance shown in FIG. 23, in which it completely closes the intermediate bin 129 or in an outlet position deviated around axis 136 relative to the closed position. In the closed position, the light barrier of sensor 140 is not interrupted by intermediate bin bottom 134 which is, however, the case in the outlet positions. Two outlet positions of the intermediate bin bottom 134 are shown by way of example in FIG. 26 and FIG. 27. In the outlet position according to FIG. 26, the intermediate bin bottom 134 is completely pivoted by 180° out of the closed position so that intermediate bin 129 is open at the bottom. In the outlet position according to FIG. 27, the intermediate bin bottom 134 is pivoted out of the closed position by about 60° anti-clockwise around pivot axis 136 resulting in a supply outlet 141 the width of which is about one quarter of the completely opened supply outlet 141 according to FIG. 26. Underneath the supply outlet 141 a separating unit 142 of the supply and delivery arrangement 130 is provided as is shown, for example, in FIG. 23. It comprises a delivery bin 143 with a function comparable to that of the delivery bin 100 of the embodiment according to FIG. 7 to FIG. 13. Intermediate bin 129 and the delivery bin 143 are supported by supporting sections 144a which in turn are mounted on the supporting frame 79 of the baking system 1. Delivery bin 143 is provided with an essentially round bin bottom 144 and an essentially cylindrical bin wall 145 with a first bin wall portion 146 as shown on the right side of FIG. 24 and with a second bin wall portion 147, shown on the left side of FIG. 24, which in comparison to the first bin wall portion 146 has a smaller radius of curvature. Bin bottom 144 is provided with a round inner portion 148 of the type of the inner portion 105 of the embodiment according to FIG. 7 to FIG. 13 and a partially ring-shaped outer portion 149 externally surrounding part of the same. The latter is a conveyor belt 150 in the form of a slat conveyor which in the top view of FIG. 24 runs clockwise. Conveyor belt 150 enters the delivery bin 143 in FIG. 24 at the top through an inlet 151 defined between the bin wall portions 146, 147 and exits delivery bin 143 through an outlet 152 between the bin wall portions 146, 147 shown at the bottom of FIG. 24. The conveyor belt 150 is supported by a conveying chain 153. The latter is guided in the area of the outer portion 149 in a guiding section 154 in the form of a graduated circle (see FIG. 17). The portion of the conveyor belt 150 outside delivery bin 143, i.e. between outlet 152 and inlet 151 is guided by further guiding sections 155 and is deflected by two pinions 156 engaging conveying chain 153 with one of the pinions 156 being driven by a motor 157. The inner portion 148 is rotatable via a driving motor 108 around the central, vertical axis of rotation 107 as is described in connection with the embodiment according to FIG. 7 to FIG. 13. Rigidly connected to the first bin wall portion 146, a baffle plate 158 is rigidly connected in the area of inlet 151 to the second bin wall portion 147. Relative to the delivery direction of conveyor belt 150 upstream of outlet 152, a separation deflector 159 is arranged adjoining conveyor belt 150 at its outside. The same is provided with a deflector flap 160 which can be switched by a driving unit 161 between a through position shown in FIG. 24 to a deflecting position shown in FIG. 25. In the latter position, the deflector flap 160 blocks the conveyor belt 150 in front of the outlet 152. Relative to the delivery direction of conveyor belt 150 downstream, a separation sensor 162 formed as a light barrier is assigned to the separation deflector 159. Within the area of the outlet 152, the conveyor belt 150 is defined inwardly by a guide roller 163 and outwardly by a limiting wall portion 164 which runs parallel to the conveyor belt 150. Downstream of the limiting wall portion 164, another light barrier sensor 165 is arranged next to conveyor belt 150. A straight portion of the conveyor belt between the two deflection pinions 156 represents an outlet hoistway 166 of conveyor belt 150, i.e. a delivery outlet portion of the same. Along this outlet hoistway 166, an outlet pusher 167 is switchably arranged and driven as a positioning unit (see FIG. 19). The switching movement of the outlet pusher 167 is guided via a guide rail 168 which is connected to the supporting frame of the backing system 1. In the instantaneous position shown in FIG. 19, one of a total of ten support troughs 169 is adjoining the outlet hoistway 166. As feed sections, support troughs 169 are part of a lifting and delivery device 170 which constitutes an alternative to the lifting and delivery device 34 of the embodiments pursuant to FIG. 1 to FIG. 13. The lifting and delivery device 170 comprises a continuous conveyor belt 171 which runs around horizontally arranged deflection rollers 172 one of which is driven. FIG. 17 shows the lifting and delivery device 170 in an outlet position. The support troughs 169 reach here at the top turning point of the continuous conveyor belt 171 in a position in which they are arranged above the charging inlet 56 of the baking oven 8. A charging position of the support troughs 169 in which one of the support troughs 169 is adjoining the outlet hoistway 166 for receiving dough pieces 4 from the outlet hoistway is shown in FIG. 28. On the left side of FIG. 17 underneath baking drum 7, an outlet chute 173 is arranged which slopes downward to outlet 5. Downstream of the same is an extraction bin 174 of the baking system 1 according to FIG. 14 to FIG. 27. The latter is housed in a front door 175 which is mounted on housing 2 pivotably around a vertical axis. The window 6, too, is part of front door 175. With the front door 175 closed, a switching element 176 is arranged next to outlet portion 5 (see FIG. 15). The latter is driven pivotably around a pivot axis 176a which runs horizontally and vertically to the level of front door 175. In the several switch positions of switching element 176 which can be set via the pivot position, a respective transport path from the baking oven 8 to one extraction shelf 177 of extraction bin 174 which is associated with one of these switch positions is pre-set. The extraction bin 174 is provided with a total of two extraction shelves 177 which are accessible via six outlet flaps. In the lower portion of extraction bin 174, several brake-guide elements 178 are arranged the function of which will still be described. FIG. 29 shows separation deflector 159 in detail. Portions of the deflector flap 160 are formed as a roller train with a plurality of rollers 179 arranged next to each other and rotatable around a vertical axis of rotation. FIG. 30 shows the outlet pusher 167 in an enlarged representation. The pushing portion of it is—comparable to deflector flap 160—formed as a roller train with a plurality of rollers 180 which are arranged next to each other and are rotatable around a vertical axis of rotation. When baking system 1 according to FIG. 14 to FIG. 27 is operated, the shelves 121 of the two bin supports 117 are filled first. When doing so, the bin supports 117 may well be arranged at a distance from the rest of the baking system 1. More than two bin supports 117 may also be provided the contents of which are alternately processed in the baking system 1. When the shelves 121 are filled, the outlet sliding walls 124 are completely in the down position so that the outlet portions of the shelves 121 are closed. During filling, the charging flap 122 is first switched to the open position which is shown in FIG. 22. Now, the charging space defined by the charging flap 122 is filled with pieces of dough. After filling, the two filled bin supports 117 are brought next to each other in a position relative to the housing 2 of the baking system 1 which corresponds to the position in FIG. 16. Owing to the C-shaped supporting frame and the dimensions of the respective receptacle in housing 2 for the bin support 117 the same is—when brought into the charging position which is shown in FIG. 16—aligned relative to the downstream delivery components, in particular to the intermediate bin 129. Thereafter, the outlet sliding walls 124, 125 are raised so that a lot of about 60 dough pieces 4 falls from the shelves 121 through the well 128 into the intermediate bin 129. When the intermediate bin 129 is filled, the intermediate bin bottom 134 is in the closed position which is shown in FIG. 23. When the intermediate bin 129 has been filled, the intermediate bin bottom 134 is brought into a first outlet position according to FIG. 27. Part of the dough pieces inside the intermediate bin 129 falls then from the intermediate bin 129 into the delivery bin 143. The outlet position is chosen in such a way that not more than 25 dough pieces fall at once into the delivery bin 143. Thereafter the dough pieces are separated by means of the separating unit 142 of the supply and delivery arrangement 130. For this purpose, the inner portion 148 of the bin bottom 144 rotates anti-clockwise so that the dough pieces deflected by baffle plate 158 within the delivery bin 143 reach the area of inlet 141 of the conveyor belt 150. There, the dough pieces are transported by the conveyor belt 150 up to outlet 152. In order to facilitate the transfer of the dough pieces from the inner portion 148 to the conveyor belt 150 within the area of inlet 151, the level of the conveyor belt 150 in the area of inlet 151 can be somewhat lower than that of the inner portion 148. In turn, the level of conveyor belt 150 can be somewhat higher in the area of outlet 152 than that of the inner portion 148. In order to avoid a jam of the dough pieces within the area of inlet 151, the inner portion 148 rotates time and again briefly also clockwise. The inner portion 148 does, however, mainly rotate anti-clockwise. As soon as the first dough piece on the conveyor belt 150 has passed the separation sensor 162, a respective signal sent out by the separation sensor 162 actuates the separation deflector 159. The deflector flap 160 then switches from the through position according to FIG. 24 to the deflector position according to FIG. 25 and deflects the dough pieces which follow the first dough piece from the conveyor belt 150 to the inner portion 148. When the dough piece is deflected, it rolls from the rollers 179 of the deflector flap 160. In this way, the dough piece is treated with care and a sticking of the dough pieces to the deflector flap 160 is prevented. When the level of conveyor belt 150 in the area of outlet 152 is somewhat higher than that of the inner portion 148, this deflection process is facilitated even more due to the influence of gravity. In this way, only the individual, first dough piece on the conveyor belt 150 passes outlet 152. The passage of the first dough piece 4 through outlet 152 is facilitated by guide roller 163 and the limiting wall portion 164. The guide roller 163 ensures that the dough pieces are in any case transported away from the area of outlet 152. The light barrier sensor 165 checks in the further course of conveyor belt 150 whether the separation was actually successful, i.e. whether the first dough piece has actually passed outlet 152. It is being checked here whether the light barrier sensor 165 reacts or does not react during a pre-set period of time after the switching of the separation deflector 159. When the separation was not successful, the separation deflector 159 is switched back to the through position, and the sequence which is described above which begins with the reaction of the separation sensor 162 starts again. When the separation was successful, the first dough piece is conveyed further on the conveyor belt 150 up to the outlet hoistway 166. For the first dough piece 4, the outlet pusher 167 is in the discharge position that is farthest downstream of conveyor belt 150. The first dough piece 4 is then transferred from the outlet pusher 167 under the influence of the retainer movement by the conveyor belt 150 and under the influence of gravity up to a portion of the support trough 169 adjacent to the outlet hoistway 166 which is next to the outlet pusher 167. During this discharge operation through the outlet pusher 167, the separated dough piece 4 rolls down from the rollers 180 of outlet pusher 167. This ensures a careful handling of the dough piece 4 and prevents its sticking to the outlet pusher 167. During the discharge operation, the support trough 169 is shown in a charging position near the lower reversal point of conveyor belt 171 as shown in FIG. 28. When the separated dough pieces 4 are transferred from the discharge hoistway 166 into the support trough 169, the dough pieces 4 pass a supply discharge outlet 172a. The latter is defined by the discharge hoistway 166, on the one hand, and by the continuous conveyor belt 171, on the other hand. While the first dough piece 4 is transferred into the support trough 169, the separation of the following dough piece 4 can already be carried out by means of the separation deflector 159 and the sensors 162 and 165, as described above. For the discharge of the second dough piece 4, the outlet pusher 167 moves a little bit along the discharge hoistway 166 upstream so that the next separated dough piece 4 is being discharged by means of the outlet pusher 167 up to a position of the support channel 167 which is adjacent to the position of the first separated dough piece upstream. This operation is now repeated while the outlet pusher 167 is continuously moved over a certain distance upstream of the discharge hoistway 166 until a set of dough pieces 4 is positioned on the support trough 169. A set may, for instance, consist of six or eight dough pieces 4. As soon as such a set is complete, the continuous conveyor belt 171 of the lifting and delivery device 170 is moved a little bit further until the following support channel is positioned next to the discharge hoistway 166. Thereafter, a second set of dough pieces 4 is placed on the second support trough 169, as described in connection with the first, the leading support trough 169. This operation is repeated until all the ten support troughs 169 have been charged with a set of dough pieces 4. Thereafter, the sets of dough pieces which were positioned in this manner are conveyed upwards by means of the lifting and delivery device 170 along the rear wall of housing 2 until the first, the leading support trough 169 charged with dough pieces has reached a position in the area of the uppermost reversing shaft 172 of the lifting and delivery device 170. When the leading support trough 169 is transported further, the set of dough pieces 4 placed on the same falls through the opened charging inlet 56 and the bottom gate 57 into the uppermost receptacle 59 of baking oven 8. As soon as this receptacle 59 has been charged with the set of dough pieces 4, the internal limiting wall 60 of the baking drum 7 turns until the next receptacle 59 moves to the position of the receptacle that has just been filled. Thereafter, the continuous conveyor belt 171 is driven once again until the next set of dough pieces 4 is discharged from the next support trough 169 through the charging inlet 56 and the bottom gate 57 into the next receptacle 59. This operation as a whole is repeated another eight times until all ten sets of dough pieces 4 have been placed in ten of the eleven receptacles 59. Thereafter, the baking oven 8 is operated as described above in connection with the embodiments according to FIG. 1 to FIG. 13. Already during the baking process, the continuous conveyor belt 171 can be moved back until the first support trough 169 is located once again next to the delivery hoistway 166 so that already during the baking process a new separation sequence, as described above, can take place. When the baking process is completed, the baking drum 7 is turned in such a way that the bottom gate 57 is placed directly above the outlet chute 173. Thereafter, the baking drum 7 is emptied, as described above in connection with the embodiment according to FIG. 1 to FIG. 13. The baked dough pieces 4 fall through outlet 5 into the extraction bin 174. By means of switch element 176, they are emptied into one or several pre-determined extraction shelves 177. The fall of the baked dough pieces 4 from outlet 5 into the extraction shelves 177 is delayed by several brake-guide elements 178 which are arranged in the extraction bin 174 in such a manner that damage to the dough pieces 4 is prevented. The baked dough pieces can now be taken out of the extraction shelves 177. If during the next baking charge another type of dough pieces is baked, the baked dough pieces 4 are conveyed via switch element 176 into different extraction shelves 177. Filling level sensors which are not shown and which are associated with the individual extraction shelves 177 ensure that a new automatic baking process as described above is started when a certain filling level in the extraction shelves 177 has not been reached. The operations as described above for the baking system according to FIG. 14 to FIG. 30 are controlled by the central control unit according to the explanation given above in connection with the baking systems according to FIG. 1 to FIG. 13. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to a baking oven charging arrangement and a baking system comprising such charging arrangement and a baking oven. 2. Background Art Baker's shops need baking systems which can be operated as easily and conveniently as possible, offering accessibility of the baking operation even to customers. The baking systems presently used in bakeries are still in need of improvement in at least one of the above aspects. For example, charging a bakery oven is often complicated, requiring an operator to be permanently available. Moreover, familiar baking systems are not always optically attractive. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the present invention to develop a baking system, and in particular a charging arrangement therefor, in such way that on the one hand a baking oven of the system can be operated efficiently and that there is a possibility of having an aesthetically attractive baking system on the other hand. According to the invention, this object is attained in a baking oven charging arrangement with at least one supply arrangement for dough pieces comprising a supply inlet for charging, at least one supply bin, a supply outlet arranged below the supply inlet for charging in the area of the bottom of the supply arrangement, with a lifting and delivery device for dough pieces comprising a delivery inlet portion arranged below which is in delivery engagement with the supply outlet of the supply arrangement in such a manner that the dough pieces are conveyed from the supply outlet to the delivery inlet portion at least to some extent under the influence of gravity, a driven lifting and delivery device between the delivery inlet portion and a delivery outlet portion. The idea of the invention resides in that charging a baking oven can be simplified by the charging arrangement being provided with a lifting and delivering device. This ensures moderate charging height, overhead charging no longer being necessary. Moreover, the supply arrangement ensures prolonged operation of a baking system with a charging arrangement of the species, there being no need of an operator being permanently available. Frequently, delivery elements for conveyance under gravity are constructionally less complicated than delivery elements that abandon the effect of gravity upon delivery. Delivery under gravity need not exclusively rely on gravity, this meaning that the effect of gravity can also be used for support of the conveying function of the delivery element. A plurality of supply bins which are in delivery engagement with each other in such a way that the dough pieces are conveyed under the influence of gravity to a supply bin which is arranged below constitute a high capacity supply arrangement, there being no need of too high a filling level within a supply bin. Any damages to dough pieces by the load of dough pieces placed on top will thus be precluded. A supply and delivery arrangement for the conveyance of the dough pieces to the supply outlet and for the separation of the dough pieces ensures defined delivery of the dough pieces from the supply arrangement to the lifting and delivering device. A supply bin according having a cylindrical shape and being sub-divided into a plurality of supply sectors offers the possibility of defined filling and emptying. Parting walls which separate the supply sectors from each and which are rotatably driven around a central longitudinal axis of the supply bin help implement easy conveyance of the dough pieces within the supply bin. Provision of at least one supply bin being replaceably attached facilitates charging of the supply arrangement. Dough pieces need not be charged from one bin to another; the entire supply bin can be exchanged instead. A feed screw with flights being located from each other at a distance which corresponds to a typical expansion of a dough piece ensures defined delivery of the dough pieces, which works in favor of separation. It is conceivable to use other conveying means as a lifting and delivering unit by alternative to a feed screw. An example for conveying means of the generic type may be a circulating conveyor belt, the conveying surface of which is inclined so that the dough pieces overcome a difference of level between the delivery inlet portion and the delivery outlet portion. In this case, the conveying surface may for example be a brush surface. The conveying surface may in particular be inclined by 90° towards a horizontal line i.e., it may be vertical. In such a case, provision must be made for the dough pieces to rest safely on the conveying surface during delivery. This can be implemented by a rigid baffle plate which is in contact with the conveyed dough pieces on the side opposite the conveying surface. Instead of the baffle plate, provision may be made for a second conveyor belt, the conveying surface of which and that of the lifting and delivery device being synchronous so that the dough pieces are conveyed vertically between the two conveying surfaces. Prior to lifting delivery, separation of the dough pieces is possible for example by a centrifuge. The charging arrangement may have a positioning arrangement for a set of dough pieces comprising a feed portion which is in delivery engagement with the delivery outlet portion of the lifting and delivery arrangement in such a manner that the dough pieces are conveyed under the influence of gravity from the delivery outlet portion to the feed portion, a positioning arrangement which determines individual positions of dough pieces of a set of dough pieces, an outlet portion which is in delivery engagement with a charging inlet of the baking oven in such a manner that the dough pieces are conveyed from the outlet portion to a receptacle of the baking oven for the set of dough pieces located underneath the charging inlet under the influence of gravity and retaining the relative individual positions of the dough pieces of the set of dough pieces. This ensures automatic and defined charging of receptacles of the baking oven. Producing a positioning frame being formed as a positioning frame with a plurality of positioning receptacles for each one of the dough pieces is not very complicated constructionally. Moreover, it ensures reliable separation of the dough pieces in the corresponding receptacles of the baking oven. The positioning arrangement may be driven by a driving motor in such a manner that it can be switched between a positioning setting where the dough pieces of a set of dough pieces from the feed portion are separated into individual positions and a transfer setting where the positioning arrangement is in delivery engagement with a charging inlet of the baking oven. This offers the possibility of the positioning unit simultaneously serving as a delivery outlet portion. This simplifies the design of the charging arrangement. In addition to switching from the positioning to the transfer position, a driving motor shifting the positioning arrangement in the positioning setting between individual positioning settings in which one positioning receptacle is associated with the charging portion for transferring a piece of dough serves for positioning the dough pieces, which simplifies the design of the charging arrangement. A charging arrangement wherein the supply arrangement is provided with a plurality of individually controlled supply bins which can be emptied which are arranged floor-like on top of each other can be designed in a modular system. The storing volume of the individual supply bins can be dimensioned such that stored dough pieces will not be damaged by dough pieces that are on top of them. An outlet flap which can be controllably shifted between an open and a closed position being associated with each supply bin with the outlet flap being biased in particular in the closed position ensures emptying control by simple means. A supply bin with a bottom being provided as a roller path ensures safe and gentle conveyance of stored dough pieces. A supply and delivery arrangement for the conveyance of the dough pieces to the supply outlet may comprise: a delivery bin with a bin bottom which is sub-divided into a round inner portion and into an in particular ring-shaped outer portion which at least partially surrounds the same, and wherein the outer portion is rotatably drivable relative to the inner portion around an axis of rotation which is vertically standing at the bin bottom level and is in delivery engagement with the supply outlet. Such an arrangement provides for operationally safe separation of the dough pieces. A drive of the inner portion around the axis of rotation independent of the outer portion and a baffle plate which is shaped in such a way that due to a relative movement between the baffle plate and the inner portion pieces of dough which initially are located on the inner portion are deflected to the outer portion ensure defined delivery of the dough pieces as far as to the supply outlet. A supply and delivery arrangement which comprises an internal portion which can be driven around the axis of rotation with alternating direction of rotation precludes the risk of dough pieces jamming in the delivery bin. A sensor for counting the conveyed dough pieces permits the throughput of the charging arrangement to be measures, it being possible that the throughput is evaluated in a central control unit for controlled supply. A mobile bin support being part of the supply arrangement simplifies the charging job of the supply arrangement. This need not take place at the site of the rest of the baking system. Moreover, a greater number of bin supports can be provided so that replacing an empty bin support by a charged one can take place rapidly. A charging arrangement having a dimensioning of a receptacle for the mobile bin support in such a manner that the bin support when inserted in the charging position is aligned relative to the downstream delivery components of the charging arrangement will lead to simplified handling of the supply arrangement. An outlet sliding wall which can be controllably shifted between an open position and a closed position is associated with at least one supply bin ensures simple and safe emptying of the supply bins. An outlet sliding wall being provided in the form of an articulated link wall that can be rolled up can be moved between the open and the closed position in a space-saving way. An outlet sliding wall being associated with a plurality of supply bins enables a a bin support of compact design to be have a plurality of supply bins. The charging arrangement may have an intermediate bin being provided in the conveyance path between at least one supply bin and the supply and delivery arrangement and being designed in such a manner that a partial quantity of dough pieces is discharged from the intermediate bin to the downstream components of the supply delivery arrangement. Such an intermediate bin precludes any undesirable overloading of the supply and delivery arrangement. Jams in the supply and delivery arrangement are thus prevented. An intermediate bin being provided with an outlet the width of which can be adjusted serves to easily predetermine the quantity delivered thereby. A bottom of an intermediate bin adjustable around an off-center axis between at least one open position and a closed position and determining in the respective set position the width of the outlet can be produced without any complicated requirements. A supply and delivery arrangement being provided with an outer portion in the form of a slat conveyor belt ensures safe delivery of separated dough pieces. The charging arrangement may have a separation deflector which cooperates with at least one separation sensor and which conveys, depending upon a signal of the separation sensor, the dough pieces which follow a first dough piece conveyed on the outer portion from the outer portion back to the inner portion separating deflector. Such a leads to reliable separation of dough pieces, which is accomplished even if the individual pieces tend to sticking together. A sensor downstream of the separation deflector in the conveyance direction of the outer portion for recording dough pieces which are conveyed on the outer portion after the separation deflector further improves the reliability of separation. The supply and delivery arrangement may have an outlet pusher which is associated with an outlet hoistway of the outer portion after the separation deflector and which conveys dough pieces transversely to the delivery direction of the outlet hoistway from the same to the delivery inlet portion of the lifting and delivery device. Such a separating deflector leads to safe conveyance of the dough pieces to the lifting and delivering device. The charging arrangement may include a positioning arrangement for a set of dough pieces which comprises: a charging portion which is in delivery engagement with a delivery outlet portion of the supply delivery arrangement in such a manner that the dough pieces are conveyed from the delivery outlet portion to the charging portion under the influence of gravity, a positioning device which determines individual positions of dough pieces of a set of dough pieces, where the charging portion is part of the lifting and delivery device. Such a positioning device produces a set of dough pieces prior to lifting delivery, putting into practice a lifting and delivering device of increased delivering capacity. Advantageously the outlet pusher is the positioning device and is adjustable for providing the set of dough pieces over the length of the outlet hoistway. This enables the dough pieces that belong to a set to be safely positioned. The charging arrangement may have a lifting and delivery arrangement lifting and delivering device can be implemented comparatively easily, ensuring gentle delivery of the dough pieces. The advantages of a baking system with a charging arrangement according to the invention and a baking oven correspond to the advantages mentioned above in connection with the charging arrangement. The baking system may have an extraction bin downstream of the baking oven which is provided with a switch element which can be switched to at least two switch positions and where the switch element determines in each switch position a transport path for dough pieces from the baking oven to an extraction shelf of the extraction bin that is associated with the switch position. Such a discharge bin allows various types of baked articles, which have been produced in the baking oven, to be sorted into the respective discharge shelves. Regardless of the design of the charging arrangement, another essential aspect of the invention resides in an improvement of a baking system in such a way that accurate consumption data, for example the amount of rolls processed per day or week in the baking system, the distribution of processed amounts and types of dough pieces, and the entire economic use of the baking system can be determined and handled. Details of the invention will become apparent from the ensuing description of exemplary embodiments of the invention, taken in conjunction with the drawing, in which: | 20040610 | 20070724 | 20050203 | 94388.0 | 0 | ALEXANDER, REGINALD | BAKING OVEN CHARGING ARRANGEMENT AND BAKING SYSTEM COMPRISING SUCH CHARGING ARRANGEMENT AND BAKING OVEN | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,864,967 | ACCEPTED | pH-modified latex comprising a synergistic combination of biocides | A stabilized latex with improved antimicrobial features is disclosed. In preferred embodiments, this latex comprises a mixture of 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol and 4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine or 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol and 1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride. | 1. A pH stabilized latex, comprising a mixture of 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol and 4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine, wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity. 2. The latex of claim 1 wherein the latex is an acrylic latex. 3. The latex of claim 2 wherein the latex comprises acid functional monomers. 4. The latex of claim 1, wherein 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol is between 0.12% (360 ppm active ingredient) and 0.16% (480 ppm active ingredient) of the latex. 5. The latex of claim 1, wherein 4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine is between 0.3% and 0.5% of the latex. 6. The latex of claim 1, wherein the latex is incorporated in a product selected from the group consisting of coatings, films, polishes, varnishes, paints, inks, adhesives and floor finishes. 7. A pH stabilized latex comprising a mixture of 1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride and 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity. 8. The latex of claim 7 wherein the latex is an acrylic latex. 9. The latex of claim 7 wherein the latex comprises acid functional monomers. 10. The latex of claim 7, wherein 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol is between 0.12% (360 ppm active ingredient) and 0.16% (480 ppm active ingredient) of the latex. 11. The latex of claim 7, wherein 1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride is between 0.3% and 0.5% of the latex. 12. The latex of claim 7, wherein the latex is incorporated in product selected from the group consisting of coatings, films, polishes, varnishes, paints, inks, adhesives and floor finishes. 13. A method of stabilizing a latex comprising the steps of creating a pH stabilized latex additionally comprising the step of adding a mixture of 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol and 4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine, wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity. 14. The method of claim 13 wherein the latex is an acrylic latex. 15. A method of stabilizing a latex comprising the steps of creating a pH stabilized latex, additionally comprising the step of adding of a mixture of 1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride and 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity. 16. The method of claim 15 wherein the latex is an acrylic latex. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to stable, aqueous latexes having biocidal properties and to methods for their preparation. Specifically, the present invention provides a combination of biocides to provide antimicrobial protection that individual biocides cannot provide. The combination is especially suitable where latexes have been pH adjusted into a pH range that provides thermostability but provides a more susceptible environment for microbial attack. Aqueous dispersions of polymers, which are referred to as “latexes” in the art, are generally known to be useful, both alone and in a variety of coatings, including films, polishes, varnishes, paints, inks, and adhesives. A wide variety of latexes of various homopolymeric and copolymeric compositions (such as styrene-butadiene copolymers, acrylic homopolymers and copolymers, vinylidene chloride homopolymers and copolymers, etc.) have been developed having specific chemical and/or mechanical properties for particular end use applications. For example, the stabilized latex emulsion described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,081,166 and 4,894,397 is a stabilized latex emulsion produced by: (i) reacting latex-forming monomers under emulsion-polymerization reaction conditions to form a hydrophilic first-stage polymeric precursor; (ii) contacting the first-stage polymeric precursor with at least one hydrophobic latex-forming monomer under emulsion-polymerization reaction conditions to form a hydrophobic second-stage polymeric precursor such that a portion of the second-stage hydrophobic polymeric precursor partitions into the first-stage hydrophilic polymeric precursor thereby producing an inverted core-shell latex emulsion polymeric precursor; and (iii) adjusting the pH of the inverted core-shell latex emulsion polymeric precursor to dissolve at least a portion of the first stage hydrophilic polymeric precursor thereby producing a stabilized latex emulsion including a continuous aqueous phase containing the first-stage hydrophilic polymeric precursor and a discontinuous phase containing discrete, stabilized particles of the second-state hydrophobic polymeric precursor. The resulting stabilized emulsion can be used to produce a variety of coatings including films, polishes, varnishes, paints, inks, and adhesives. In the process of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,081,166 and 4,894,397, the step of adjusting the pH of the inverted core-shell latex emulsion for dissolving the hydrophilic polymer is particularly advantageous as it serves to produce a stabilized latex emulsion. If acidic functional group monomers are selected for the first-stage polymer used in producing the inverted core-shell latex, addition of a suitable base is appropriate for adjusting the pH of the inverted core-shell latex emulsion toward or to a neutral pH. It has been discovered, however, that raising the pH has drawbacks in certain applications of latexes. Specifically, raising the pH has the effect of reducing the number of acid groups which are known to have bactericidal or bacteriostatic properties. In environments where the latex is prone to bacterial growth, the elimination of acid groups may lead to bacterial growth in the latex. Therefore, it would be beneficial to provide a latex having the dual advantages of stabilization through pH adjustment and bactericidal or bacteriostatic properties. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one embodiment, the present invention is a pH stabilized latex, comprising a mixture of 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol and 4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine, wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity, particularly synergistic anti-fungal activity. Preferably, the latex is an acrylic latex and the latex comprises acid functional monomers. In another embodiment, the present invention is the latex described above, wherein 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol is between 0.12% (360 ppm active ingredient) and 0.16% (480 ppm active ingredient) of the latex and wherein 4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine is between 0.3% and 0.5% of the latex. In another embodiment, the latex is incorporated in a product selected from the group consisting of coatings, films, polishes, varnishes, paints, inks, adhesives and in floor finishes. In another embodiment, the present invention is a pH stabilized latex comprising a mixture of 1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride and 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol, wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity. Preferably, the latex is an acrylic latex and comprises acid functional monomers. In another embodiment, 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol is between 0.12% (360 ppm active ingredient) and 0.16% (480 ppm active ingredient) of the latex and 1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride is between 0.3% and 0.5% of the latex. In another embodiment, this latex is incorporated in product selected from the group consisting of coatings, films, polishes, varnishes, paints, inks, adhesives and floor finishes. In another embodiment, the invention is a method of stabilizing a latex comprising the steps of creating a pH stabilized latex with the addition of a mixture of 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol and 4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine, wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity or a mixture of 1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride and 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity. Other objects, features or embodiments of the present invention will be apparent to one of skill in the art after examination of the specification, claims and drawings. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In General Latexes are typically used as a component in many commercial and industrial products, such as coatings, films, polishes, varnishes, paints, inks, adhesives and floor finishes. In many instances, these latexes do not require further antimicrobial or preservative additions. For example, many of these acrylic latexes, such as acrylic latex A (described below), may have a pH between 2-3 and need no preservative. However, these latexes are not stable to hot or cold temperature. One typical way to stabilize latexes is by partial or optimal neutralization with ammonia. When we refer to a “stabilized acrylic latex” we mean to encompass an acrylic latex that has been pH adjusted so that the latex is stable. In the Examples below the pH was adjusted to pH 6-7. However, once one has neutralized the latex, one must address the need for antimicrobial or biocidal additives. (By the terms “antimicrobial” and “biocidal” we mean to include anti-fungal, anti-yeast and anti-bacterial properties.) Our challenge test results initially showed that the maximum allowable level for BRONOPOL (2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol, BNPD) failed to control the growth of Aspergillus niger and the maximum allowable level for BIOBAN CS-1135 (4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine) failed to control Candida albicans in a test stabilized acrylic latex. Similarly, the maximum allowable level for DOWICIL 75 (1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride) failed to control Candida albicans in the test stabilized acrylic latex. Surprisingly, we found that a combination of BRONOPOL and BIOBAN CS-1135 and a combination of BRONOPOL and DOWICIL 75 provided synergistic fungal enhancement of biocidal activity. Therefore, a fully stabilized latex would comprise both pH modification and a synergistic combination of biocides. In one embodiment, the present invention is a combination of BRONOPOL and BIOBAN CS-1135 in a stabilized latex, preferably an acrylic latex. The Examples below disclose that the combination of 0.16% BRONOPOL and 0.5% BIOBAN CS-1135 showed the synergistic result of killing both Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans in the test stabilized acrylic latex A. In another version, the present invention is a combination of BRONOPOL and DOWICIL 75 in a stabilized latex, preferably an acrylic latex. The combination of 0.16% BRONOPOL and 0.15% DOWICIL 75 also gave a similar synergistic result in the stabilized latex A. These two combinations were also found to work effectively in controlling the fungal growth in another test latex described below (acrylic latex B). Suitable Latexes We envision that the present invention would be suitable for a wide variety of latexes. Latex generated by polymerization of acrylic esters would be especially preferred for the present invention. For example, acrylic monomers suitable for latexes of the present invention would include ethyl, butyl and 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, as well as methyl and butyl methacrylate. Styrene is typically copolymerized with these acrylic monomers, although other copolymerizations may be used. The examples in this case represent state of the art surfactant-supported acrylic latexes made by the semicontinuous batch process where the monomers are added at a controlled rate so the reaction exotherm can be controlled. In addition, they have an acid functional monomer, MAA (methacrylic acid), incorporated into the polymer backbone, which can provide additional ionic stabilization when partially or totally neutralized with a base to form a carboxyl salt. In some cases, although not used with these examples, the semi-continuous process involves a precharge of a small amount of the monomer into the reactor to form a seed latex prior to the addition of the remainder of the monomers. The number of latex particles in the seed is a tool to help control the final particle size of the finished batch. The first latex (latex A) also represents a latex that can go from the colloidal dispersion form when not neutralized to a water-soluble polymer when fully neutralized. This solubility is accomplished by the proper level of acid functionality, and the use of a chain transfer agent (IOMPA) to lower the molecular weight. This latex was made without any base (such as ammonia) and it has a pH<3. At this pH, it is in the colloidal form, but it is not stable to freeze-thaw or elevated temperatures. It will also gel at extended times (about 1 year) at room temperature. However, it is relatively resistant to microbes when it is at an acidic pH. This latex can be stabilized to hot and freezing temperatures, and remain in colloidal form, by partial neutralization of the acid. However, this brings the pH into the 6-7 pH range and the latex is much more susceptible to microbial attack. This latex cannot be fully neutralized (at the weight solids at which it was made) or it will go into solution and the viscosity will be too high to be useful. The second latex (latex B) will not go into solution when all the acid is neutralized because the acid functionality is lower and the molecular weight is very high since a chain transfer agent was not used. Ammonia is added at the end of the reaction to provide carboxyl groups to help stabilize the latex. Its pH is also in the near neutral range and susceptible to microbial attack. This latex was also well protected by the combination of biocides. Other types of “state of the art” latices or latexes are made by varying the rates and composition of monomer addition. For example, “core-shell” latexes are made by adding a blend of monomers from the first monomer tank to the reactor. These form the core or the latex particles. A second, and different blend, of monomers is then fed into the reactor to form the shell of the latex particles. A variation of this process called a “linear power feed,” simultaneously feeds a second tank of well-mixed monomers into the first tank of well-mixed monomers as the first tank is being fed into the reactor. This results in a continuous change from the composition of the first tank to the composition of the second tank during the polymerization process. Resin supported latexes, such as exemplified in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,839,413 and 5,216,064 and U.S. application 2004/0044124 A1, are also suitable latexes for the present invention. We emphasized acrylic latexes, but the biocidal protection is expected to be effective with other types of latices or latexes, such as ethylene-vinyl acetate, vinyl acetate (and other vinyl esters), styrene butadiene, polyurethane dispersions and vinylidene chloride-acrylate. We expect the protection to be effective with other types of latexes as long as the biocides are stable at the desired pH. Suitable Preparation Steps The Examples below describe one typical way of incorporating the biocides into the stabilized acrylic latex. Other ways of incorporating the biocides would be apparent to one of skill in the art. The biocide is typically added at the completion of the emulsion procedure. Suitable Biocides The present invention involves the incorporation of BRONOPOL, BIOBAN CS-1135 and DOWICIL 75 in stabilized acrylic latexes. These biocides can be purchased commercially, typically from The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Mich.; BASF Biocides Limited, Mount Olive, N.J.; and Avecia Biocides, Wilmington, Del. The Examples below disclose that a combination of 0.16% BRONOPOL (30% active) and 0.5% BIOBAN CS-1135 is effective and a combination of 0.16% BRONOPOL (30% active) and 0.15 DOWICIL 75 is effective. We believe that the following range of biocide concentration would be suitable for the present invention: One would use between 0.12% and 0.16% BRONOPOL (30% active) and between 0.3% and 0.5% BIOBAN CS-1135 or 0.12% and 0.16% BRONOPOL (30% active) and 0.15% to 0.3% DOWICIL 75. EXAMPLES Introduction Test acrylic latex A (defined below) has a pH between 2-3 and needs no preservative. However, the latex is not stable to hot or cold temperature. One way to stabilize acrylic latex A is by raising the pH with ammonia into the “DN” range of 12-34. (DN is “Degree of Neutralization,” or the % of acid groups neutralized by ammonia, and is a preferred calculation of the number of moles of acid that are reacted with ammonia). Having a more neutral pH, addition of preservative is needed to prevent microbial contamination in the stabilized acrylic latex A. To screen for effective preservatives, the desired preservative is required to pass the Antimicrobial Effectiveness Test or Challenge Test in the laboratory. We describe below the results to testing combinations of BRONOPOL, BIOBAN CS-1135 and DOWICIL 75 with test polymers in our laboratory. Materials and Methods Microorganisms The following cultures were obtained from American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) at 10801 University Boulevard, Manassas, Va. 20110-2209: Escherichia coli #11229, Pseudomonas aeruginosa #15442, Candida albicans #10231, Aspergillus niger #6275. Inocula Preparation The bacterial inoculum was 0.10 ml of a 1:1 mixture of the 24-hr±4 hr culture of E. coli and P. aeruginosa in 25 grams of sample to give approximately 4×106 CFU/g. Both E. coli culture and the P. aeruginosa culture were grown in Nutrient Broth (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Mich.) at 35° C. The yeast inoculum was 0.10 ml of a 72-hr±4 hr culture of C. albicans in 25 grams of sample to give approximately 2×105 CFU/g. The C. albicans culture was grown in Potato Dextrose Broth (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Mich.) at 28° C. The mold inoculum was 0.10 ml of a A. niger culture suspension in 25 grams of sample to give approximately 2×105 CFU/g. The culture suspension was obtained from 7-day-old A. niger culture grown on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Mich.) with 0.2% Triton X-100 in 0.85% saline. Challenge Test Method Each of the 25-g samples were inoculated or challenged with 0.10 ml of the bacterial inoculum, the yeast inoculum, and the mold inoculum respectively on day-0 and day-14. All samples were stored at ambient temperature. Each sample (10 microliter) was streaked on appropriate agar plates (bacteria on Tryptic Soy Agar (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Mich.) plates with neutralizer and yeast/mold on Potato Dextrose Agar (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Mich.) plates with neutralizer) on day-1, day-2, day-3, day-7, day-14, day-15, day-16, day-17, day-21, and day-28 to test for survivors. Streaked plates were incubated at appropriate temperature and time (48-hr at 35±2° C. for bacteria and 72-hr at 28±2° C. for yeast/mold). On day-14, each sample was re-inoculated with appropriate inoculum after streaking on agar plates. Plates were read after incubation time. Recovery of surviving organisms at 14 days was a failing result for the challenge test. Polymer Emulsions We performed our experiments on test samples of acrylic latex. The two sample acrylic latexes we used are described below. ACRYLIC LATEX A Ingredient Name Percentage Deionized Water 67.777000 Methyl Methacrylate 22.729000 Methacrylic Acid 250 PPM MEHQ 5.682000 Abex JKB (ether sulfate, anionic 2.870000 surfactant, Rhone-Poulenc, Cranberry, NJ) Isooctyl Mercaptopropionate 0.371000 Disulfonated Anionic Surfactant 0.317000 Ammonium Persulfate 0.284000 Total Percent: 100.000000 ACRYLIC LATEX B Ingredient Name Percentage Deionized Water 64.294000 Methyl Methacrylate 11.270000 Butyl Acrylate, 20 PPM MEHQ Inhibited 9.660000 Styrene, 10-15 PPM P-5-Butyl Catechol 8.050000 Methacrylic Acid 250 PPM MEHQ 3.220000 Abex JKB (ether sulfate, anionic 2.150000 surfactant, Rhone-Poulenc, Cranberry, NJ) GEMTEX 691-40 (anionic surfactant, 0.805000 Fentex, NJ) Ammonia 20% 21 Degrees BE 0.251000 Deionized water 0.150000 Ammonium Persulfate 0.150000 Total Percent: 100.000000 Both acrylic latex A and acrylic latex B are made by the semi-continuous batch process, where the surfactants and initiator are precharged to the reactor and held at a specified time and temperature, and then the monomers are fed into the reactor by a controlled addition rate. The following process instructions were followed for acrylic latex A: DI water (deionized water) is charged into the semicontinuous batch process production reactor (minus about 3% for flushes, etc.) and heated to 79-81° C. The reactor is a standard reactor used to make latex polymers comprising a stirrer and various feed tanks. Methyl methacrylate (MMA), methacrylic acid (MAA), and isooctyl mercaptopropionate (IOMPA) are charged into the monomer tank and blended thoroughly. Note monomer temperature should be between 4 and 21° C.; the material must be cooled or warmed accordingly. The surfactants (Abex JKB and disulfonated anionic surfactant) are charged into the reactor. The reactor is purged with 100% nitrogen for 3 minutes and then reduced to a 20% rate for the remainder of the run. The ammonium persulfate (APS) is charged into the reactor and the reactor is sealed. Note: monomer addition must begin within 10 minutes of the APS addition. Monomer charge is begun at a steady rate so that all the monomer is added in 50 minutes. After monomer addition has been completed, the batch is held at 80° C. for 30 minutes and then cooled to 30-40° C. The batch is then filtered. The following process instructions were followed for acrylic latex B: DI water is charged (minus about 3% for flushes, etc.). The surfactants (Abex JKB and Gemtex 691/40) are then charged into the reactor. The reactor is purged with 100% nitrogen and agitation is begun. The reactor is heated to 79-81° C. Methyl methacrylate (MMA), methacrylic acid (MMA), styrene (STY), and butyl acrylate (BA) are charged into the monomer tank and agitation is begun. Note that monomer temperature should be between 5 and 22° C.; cool or warm accordingly. Into a small tank, the ammonium persulfate (APS) is charged along with 0.6% of the Di water and mixed. This is charged into the reactor, which is at 80° C. The reactor is sealed. Agitated for 2-3 minutes (no more than 10 minutes). The monomer charge is begun at a steady rate so that all the monomer is added in 60 minutes while holding the temperature at 80° C. After monomer addition has been completed, the batch is heated to 85° C. in the reactor and held 60 minutes to react all the monomers. Cooled to 45° C. and slowly added a 5:1 mixture of DI water:ammonia (20%) with vigorous agitation. Cooled to 30-40° C. and then batch is filtered. The biocides were added to the polymers in the following way: Biocides were always added after the reaction has been completed and after the batch has been cooled to <50° C. The desired temperature was dependent on the specific biocide. Many biocides become deactivated if exposed to high temperatures for an extended time. Each biocide was diluted with about 5× its weight with DI water and slowly added to the batch with good agitation. The dilution is to prevent the biocide from shocking the latex. The batch was mixed for a minimum of 20 minutes after the biocide was added to ensure good incorporation. If any temporary destabilization to the latex had occurred, it had time to recover prior to filtration. The biocide is generally added last, after the pH adjustment, so that the biocide does not have to go through a pH change. Results and Discussion Challenge Test The Challenge Test is a qualitative laboratory procedure used to differentiate poorly and marginally preserved products from well-preserved products. Products are intentionally inoculated with test organisms and then evaluated by use of streak plating technique to determine if microbial reduction has been attained. Challenge test results from Table 1 showed that 2.0% Bioban CS-1135 was required to kill all organisms in the stabilized acrylic latex A and BRONOPOL at 0.5% was required to kill all organisms in the stabilized acrylic latex A. We are interested in lowering the concentration of BRONOPOL and BIOBAN CS-1135 due to regulatory concerns. The highest recommended concentration for BIOBAN CS-1135 is 5000 ppm (0.5%) and the maximum level for BRONOPOL is 500 ppm as an active ingredient. BRONOPOL (Bioban BP-30) used in the study is 30% active. Therefore the highest concentration for the 30% active BRONOPOL is 0.16% (500 ppm as active ingredient). Results from Table 1 showed that BIOBAN CS-1135 at 1.2% failed to kill yeast (C. albicans) and 0.2% BRONOPOL failed to kill the mold (A. niger) in acrylic latex A. However, the combination of 0.5% BIOBAN CS-1135 and 0.16% BRONOPOL showed surprising synergistic results of killing both the yeast (C. albicans) and the mold (A. niger). Results from Table 3 showed that 0.4% DOWICIL 75 failed to kill the yeast (C. albicans) in the stabilized acrylic latex A with DN at 17%. The highest concentration for DOWICIL 75 allowed by US EPA is 0.3%. Surprising synergistic results of killing both the yeast (C. albicans) and the mold (A. niger) in polymer acrylic latex A were observed with the combination of DOWICIL 75 (0.15%/0.3%) and 0.16% BRONOPOL. The combination of BIOBAN CS-1135 was found to control the fungal growth in another test latex, acrylic latex B. The same result was found with the combination of DOWICIL 75 and BRONOPOL in acrylic latex B. (Tables 2 and 4) TABLE 1 Challenge Test Results of Bioban CS-1135 & Bronopol (30% Active) in Stabilized Acrylic Latex A Compound A Compound B Yeast Mold Bacteria Degree of Bioban CS-1135 Bronopol C. albicans A. niger E. coli & P. aeruginosa Neutralization PH 0.10% 0.00% Fail Fail Pass 22% 6.68 0.20% 0.00% Fail Pass Pass 22% 6.69 0.80% 0.00% Fail Pass Pass 22% 6.62 1.20% 0.00% Fail Pass Pass 22% 6.64 2.00% 0.00% Pass Pass Pass 22% 6.82 0.00% 0.10% Fail Fail Pass 22% 6.64 0.00% 0.20% Pass Fail Pass 22% 6.65 0.00% 0.50% Pass Pass Pass 22% 6.58 0.00% 0.80% Pass Pass Pass 22% 6.57 0.00% 1.20% Pass Pass Pass 22% 6.57 0.50% 0.50% Pass Pass Pass 22% 6.62 0.50% 0.16% Pass Pass Pass 22% 6.62 TABLE 2 Challenge Test Results of Bioban CS-1135 and Bronopol (30% Active) in Stabilized Acrylic Latex B Compound A Bacteria Bioban Compound B Yeast Mold E. coli and CS-1135 Bronopol C. albicans A. niger P. aeruginosa 0.50% 0.15% Pass Pass Pass TABLE 3 Fungal Challenge Test Results of Dowicil 75 and Bronopol (30% Active) in Stabilized Acrylic Latex A Compound A Compound B Yeast Mold Bacteria Degree of Dowicil 75 Bronopol C. albicans A. niger E. coli & P. aeruginosa Neutralization PH 0.20% 0.00% Fail Pass Pass 12% 6.3 0.30% 0.00% Pass Pass Pass 4% 5.7 0.40% 0.00% Pass Pass Pass 4% 5.75 0.40% 0.00% Fail Pass Pass 17% 6.5 0.00% 0.10% Pass Fail Pass 22% 6.64 0.00% 0.20% Pass Fail Pass 22% 6.65 0.00% 0.50% Pass Pass Pass 22% 6.58 0.00% 0.80% Pass Pass Pass 22% 6.57 0.00% 1.20% Pass Pass Pass 22% 6.57 0.30% 0.16% Pass Pass Pass 22% 6.73 0.15% 0.16% Pass Pass Pass 22% 6.73 TABLE 4 Challenge Test Results of Dowicil 75 and Bronopol (30% Active) in Acrylic Latex B Bacteria Compound A Compound B Yeast Mold E. coli and Dowicil 75 Bronopol C. albicans A. niger P. aeruginosa 0.15% 0.15% Pass Pass Pass Synergy Index Synergism was determined by the method described by F. C. Kull, P. C. Eisman, H. D. Sylwestrowicz, and R. L. Mayer in Applied Microbiology, Volume 9, pages 538-541, 1961 using the ratio determined by Synergy Index (SI)=Qa/QA+Qb/QB=1 is additivity, <1 is synergism, and >1 is antagonism where, Qa=concentration of compound A, in the mixture, producing an end point QA=concentration of compound A, acting alone, producing an end point Qb=concentration of compound B, in the mixture, producing an end point QB=concentration of compound B, acting alone, producing an end point According to Kull's synergy method, synergy index <1 means synergism has occurred. Table 5 shows that the 0.5% Bioban CS-1135 and the 0.16% Bronopol combination had the synergy index of 0.57 which meant synergism has occurred. Table 6 showed that the combination of 0.15% Dowicil 75 and 0.16% Bronopol had the synergy index of <0.70, which also meant synergism has occurred. TABLE 5 Synergy Index of Bioban CS-1135 and Bronopol (30% Active) in Test Stabilized Acrylic Latex A Compound A end- Compound B end- Organisms point in % point in % Qa/QA Qb/QB Synergy Index C. albicans 2 0 & A. niger 0.5 0.16 0.25 0.32 0.57 0 0.5 0 0.8 0 1.2 Compound A = Bioban CS-1135 (4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine) Compound B = Bronopol (2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol, 30% active) TABLE 6 Synergy Index of Dowicil 75 and Bronopol (30% Active) in Test Stabilized Acrylic Latex A Compound A end- Compound B end- Organisms point in % point in % Qa/QA Qb/QB Synergy Index C. albicans >0.4 0 & A. niger 0.3 0.16 0.75 0.32 <1.07 0.15 0.16 0.38 0.32 <0.70 0 0.5 0 0.8 0 1.2 Compound A = Dowicil 75 [(1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride] Compound B = Bronopol (2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol, 30% active) | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates to stable, aqueous latexes having biocidal properties and to methods for their preparation. Specifically, the present invention provides a combination of biocides to provide antimicrobial protection that individual biocides cannot provide. The combination is especially suitable where latexes have been pH adjusted into a pH range that provides thermostability but provides a more susceptible environment for microbial attack. Aqueous dispersions of polymers, which are referred to as “latexes” in the art, are generally known to be useful, both alone and in a variety of coatings, including films, polishes, varnishes, paints, inks, and adhesives. A wide variety of latexes of various homopolymeric and copolymeric compositions (such as styrene-butadiene copolymers, acrylic homopolymers and copolymers, vinylidene chloride homopolymers and copolymers, etc.) have been developed having specific chemical and/or mechanical properties for particular end use applications. For example, the stabilized latex emulsion described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,081,166 and 4,894,397 is a stabilized latex emulsion produced by: (i) reacting latex-forming monomers under emulsion-polymerization reaction conditions to form a hydrophilic first-stage polymeric precursor; (ii) contacting the first-stage polymeric precursor with at least one hydrophobic latex-forming monomer under emulsion-polymerization reaction conditions to form a hydrophobic second-stage polymeric precursor such that a portion of the second-stage hydrophobic polymeric precursor partitions into the first-stage hydrophilic polymeric precursor thereby producing an inverted core-shell latex emulsion polymeric precursor; and (iii) adjusting the pH of the inverted core-shell latex emulsion polymeric precursor to dissolve at least a portion of the first stage hydrophilic polymeric precursor thereby producing a stabilized latex emulsion including a continuous aqueous phase containing the first-stage hydrophilic polymeric precursor and a discontinuous phase containing discrete, stabilized particles of the second-state hydrophobic polymeric precursor. The resulting stabilized emulsion can be used to produce a variety of coatings including films, polishes, varnishes, paints, inks, and adhesives. In the process of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,081,166 and 4,894,397, the step of adjusting the pH of the inverted core-shell latex emulsion for dissolving the hydrophilic polymer is particularly advantageous as it serves to produce a stabilized latex emulsion. If acidic functional group monomers are selected for the first-stage polymer used in producing the inverted core-shell latex, addition of a suitable base is appropriate for adjusting the pH of the inverted core-shell latex emulsion toward or to a neutral pH. It has been discovered, however, that raising the pH has drawbacks in certain applications of latexes. Specifically, raising the pH has the effect of reducing the number of acid groups which are known to have bactericidal or bacteriostatic properties. In environments where the latex is prone to bacterial growth, the elimination of acid groups may lead to bacterial growth in the latex. Therefore, it would be beneficial to provide a latex having the dual advantages of stabilization through pH adjustment and bactericidal or bacteriostatic properties. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one embodiment, the present invention is a pH stabilized latex, comprising a mixture of 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol and 4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine, wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity, particularly synergistic anti-fungal activity. Preferably, the latex is an acrylic latex and the latex comprises acid functional monomers. In another embodiment, the present invention is the latex described above, wherein 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol is between 0.12% (360 ppm active ingredient) and 0.16% (480 ppm active ingredient) of the latex and wherein 4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine is between 0.3% and 0.5% of the latex. In another embodiment, the latex is incorporated in a product selected from the group consisting of coatings, films, polishes, varnishes, paints, inks, adhesives and in floor finishes. In another embodiment, the present invention is a pH stabilized latex comprising a mixture of 1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride and 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol, wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity. Preferably, the latex is an acrylic latex and comprises acid functional monomers. In another embodiment, 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol is between 0.12% (360 ppm active ingredient) and 0.16% (480 ppm active ingredient) of the latex and 1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride is between 0.3% and 0.5% of the latex. In another embodiment, this latex is incorporated in product selected from the group consisting of coatings, films, polishes, varnishes, paints, inks, adhesives and floor finishes. In another embodiment, the invention is a method of stabilizing a latex comprising the steps of creating a pH stabilized latex with the addition of a mixture of 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol and 4,4-dimethyl-oxazolidine, wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity or a mixture of 1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride and 2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol wherein the mixture provides synergistic biocidal activity. Other objects, features or embodiments of the present invention will be apparent to one of skill in the art after examination of the specification, claims and drawings. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20040610 | 20100518 | 20051215 | 73902.0 | 0 | CHUI, MEI PING | PH-MODIFIED LATEX COMPRISING A SYNERGISTIC COMBINATION OF BIOCIDES | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,865,027 | ACCEPTED | Electrochemical-mechanical polishing system | Provided is a polishing apparatus and polishing pad, intended for polishing a substrate, and designed for improved flow and distribution of a polishing composition to the area of interaction between the pad and substrate. In one aspect, a polishing pad is provided having first and second pluralities of unidirectional pores configured to communicate polishing composition between the top and bottom surfaces of the pad. A cyclic flow of composition is established to continuously renew composition to the area of interaction between the pad and the substrate. In another aspect, a polishing apparatus is provided having a polishing composition transfer region between a polishing pad and a platen. Pores disposed through the pad communicate composition from the transfer region to the top surface. To facilitate directing the composition into the pores, the apparatus includes a plurality of protrusions protruding into the transfer region that are aligned with the pores. | 1. A polishing pad for use with a polishing composition, the polishing pad comprising: (a) a top surface; (b) an opposing bottom surface; (c) a first plurality of unidirectional pores disposed between the top and bottom surfaces adapted to communicate the polishing composition from the bottom surface to the top surface; and (d) a second plurality of unidirectional pores disposed between the top and bottom surfaces adapted to communicate the polishing composition from the top surface to the bottom surface, at least one of the pores of the first and the second plurality having a non-cylindrical cross-section. 2. The polishing pad of claim 1, wherein at least one of the pores of the first plurality tapers between the bottom surface and the top surface. 3. The polishing pad of claim 2, wherein at least one of the pores of the second plurality tapers between the top surface and the bottom surface. 4. The polishing pad of claim 1, wherein the intersection of the pores of the first plurality and the top surface forms a first plurality of apertures, and the intersection of the pores of the second plurality and the top surface forms a second plurality of apertures, an average diameter of the apertures of the first plurality being smaller than an average diameter of the apertures of the second plurality. 5. The polishing pad of claim 4, wherein the intersection of the pores of the first plurality and the bottom surface forms a third plurality of apertures, and the intersection of the pores of the second plurality and the bottom surface forms a fourth plurality of apertures, an average diameter of the apertures of the third plurality being larger than an average diameter of the apertures of the fourth plurality. 6. The polishing pad of claim 5, wherein the apertures of the first and third pluralities have a combined average diameter of about 50 micrometers or less. 7. The polishing pad of claim 5, wherein the apertures of the second and fourth pluralities have a combined average diameter of about 20 micrometers or less. 8. The polishing pad of claim 1, wherein at least one of the pores of the first plurality is helically disposed between the top and bottom surface. 9. The polishing pad of claim 1, wherein at least one of the pores of the second plurality is helically disposed between the top and bottom surface. 10. The polishing pad of claim 1, wherein at least one of the pores of the first plurality comprises a series of frusto-conical sections arranged between the top and bottom surface. 11. The polishing pad of claim 10, wherein the frusto-conical sections are axially aligned. 12. The polishing pad of claim 1, wherein at least one of the pores of the second plurality comprises a series of frusto-conical sections arranged between the bottom surface and the top surface. 13. The polishing pad of claim 12, wherein the frusto-conical sections are axially aligned. 14. The polishing pad of claim 1, wherein the top surface includes at least one groove intersecting at least one pore of the first plurality. 15. The polishing pad of claim 14, wherein the groove is V-shaped. 16. The polishing pad of claim 14, wherein the groove intersects at least one pore of the second plurality. 17. The polishing pad of claim 1, wherein the polishing pad is conductive and comprises a maximum resistance value of about 10 ohms. 18. The polishing pad of claim 17, wherein the polishing pad comprises a conductive polymer. 19. The polishing pad of claim 1, wherein the polishing pad has an average thickness between the top surface and the bottom surface of about 0.1 mm to 10 mm. 20. The polishing pad of claim 1, wherein the polishing pad is a multi-layered polishing pad having at least a top layer and a bottom layer, the top layer including the top surface, the bottom surface, and the first and second pluralities of pores. 21. A polishing apparatus for polishing a substrate with a polishing composition, the polishing apparatus comprising: (a) a polishing pad having a top surface, an opposing bottom surface, and a plurality of pores disposed between the top surface and the bottom surface; (b) a platen assembly supporting the polishing pad, the platen assembly including a first surface opposing the bottom surface and defining a composition transfer region therebetween; (c) a plurality of protrusions protruding into the composition transfer region, at least one said protrusion aligned with at least one said pore; (d) a carrier located to hold the substrate adjacent the top surface; and (e) a composition inlet disposed to deposit composition to the composition transfer region. 22. The polishing apparatus of claim 21, wherein the composition transfer region is defined by a first plurality of channels between the platen assembly and the polishing pad, the first plurality of channels in fluid communication with the composition inlet, wherein at least one channel is in fluid communication with the at least one aligned pore and protrusion. 23. The polishing apparatus of claim 22, wherein the channels are arranged substantially parallel to one another. 24. The polishing apparatus of claim 22, wherein the bottom surface includes a plurality of ducts, each duct defining at least a portion of at least one of said channels. 25. The polishing apparatus of claim 22, wherein the first surface includes a plurality of ducts, each duct defining at least a portion of at least one of said channels. 26. The polishing apparatus of claim 23, wherein the composition transfer region is further defined by a second plurality of channels between the platen assembly and the polishing pad, the second plurality of channels in fluid communication with the composition inlet, wherein the channels of the second plurality are arranged substantially parallel one to another, and substantially normal to the channels of the first plurality. 27. The polishing apparatus of claim 26, wherein an intersection of a channel of the first plurality and a channel of the second plurality corresponds to the at least one aligned protrusion and pore. 28. The polishing apparatus of claim 22, wherein the top surface comprises at least one groove intersecting at least one of said pores. 29. The polishing apparatus of claim 27, wherein the groove is V-shaped. 30. The polishing apparatus of claim 22, wherein the composition inlet is adapted to deposit a chemical-mechanical polishing composition. 31. The polishing apparatus of claim 22, wherein the polishing pad is electrically conductive and comprises a maximum resistance value of about 10 ohms. 32. The polishing apparatus of claim 31, wherein the carrier is adapted to apply an electrochemical potential to the substrate. 33. The polishing apparatus of claim 22, wherein at least one of the plurality of pores tapers between at least one of the bottom and top surfaces or the top and bottom surfaces. 34. The polishing apparatus of claim 22, wherein at least one of the plurality of pores are helically disposed between the top and bottom surfaces. 35. The polishing apparatus of claim 22, wherein at least one of the plurality of pores comprise a series of frusto-conical sections arranged between at least one of the top and bottom surfaces or the top and bottom surfaces. 36. The polishing apparatus of claim 22, wherein the composition transfer region is defined by a network of capillary tubes between the platen assembly and the polishing pad, the composition tubes comprising an inner surface, an outer surface, and a plurality of openings disposed between the inner and outer surfaces, at least one opening aligned with at least one pore. 37. The polishing apparatus of claim 36, wherein the plurality of protrusions project from the inner surface, at least one protrusion extending towards and substantially in alignment with at least one opening. 38. The polishing apparatus of claim 37, wherein the network of composition tubes includes a first plurality of substantially parallel composition tubes oriented in a first direction and a second plurality of substantially parallel composition tubes oriented in a second direction that is substantially normal to the first direction. 39. The polishing apparatus of claim 38, wherein at least one opening is located at an intersection between a composition tube of the first plurality and a composition tube of the second plurality. 40. The polishing apparatus of claim 22, wherein the polishing pad is adapted to move in an orbital rotation. 41. A method of polishing a substrate using a polishing composition comprising: (i) providing a polishing apparatus including a polishing pad having a top and an opposing bottom surface, and a platen assembly supporting the polishing pad; (ii) supplying a polishing composition to the top surface via a first plurality of unidirectional pores disposed between the top and bottom surfaces adapted to communicate polishing composition between the bottom and the top surfaces; (iii) contacting the top surface with the substrate; (iv) moving the top surface with respect to the substrate so as to polish at least a portion of the substrate; and (v) removing the polishing composition from the top surface via a second plurality of unidirectional pores disposed between the top and bottom surfaces adapted to communicate polishing composition between the top and bottom surfaces, at least one of the pores of the first plurality and the pores of the second plurality having a non-cylindrical cross-section. 42. The method of claim 41, further comprising the steps of: (vi) adapting the polishing composition to act as an electrolytically conductive fluid, said fluid comprising a maximum resistance value of about 100 ohms; and (vii) applying an electrochemical potential to the substrate. 43. The method of claim 42, further comprising the steps of: (viii) injecting the polishing composition between the platen assembly and the bottom surface. 44. The method of claim 41, wherein the moving step comprises orbiting the polishing pad about a fixed point. 45. The method of claim 41, wherein the polishing composition comprises a chemical-mechanical polishing composition. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention pertains to a polishing pad and a polishing apparatus for use generally in polishing a substrate and particularly in electrochemical-mechanical polishing of a substrate. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Polishing processes are used in the manufacturing of microelectronic devices to form flat surfaces on semiconductor wafers, field emission displays, and other microelectronic substrates. For example, the manufacture of semiconductor devices generally involves the formation of various process layers, selective removal or patterning of portions of those layers, and deposition of yet additional process layers above the surface of a semiconducting substrate to form a semiconductor wafer. The process layers can include, by way of example, insulation layers, gate oxide layers, conductive layers, and layers of metal or glass, etc. It is generally desirable in certain steps of the wafer process that the uppermost surface of the process layers be planar, i.e., flat, for the deposition of subsequent layers. Polishing processes such as chemical-mechanical polishing (“CMP”) are used to planarize process layers wherein a deposited material, such as a conductive or insulating material, is polished to planarize the wafer for subsequent process steps. In a typical CMP process, a wafer is mounted upside down on a carrier in a CMP tool. A force pushes the carrier and the wafer downward toward a polishing pad supported on the CMP tool's polishing table or platen. The carrier and the wafer are rotated above the rotating polishing pad on the polishing table or platen. A polishing composition (also referred to as a polishing slurry) generally is introduced between the rotating wafer and the rotating polishing pad during the polishing process. The polishing composition typically contains a chemical that interacts with or dissolves portions of the uppermost wafer layer(s) and an abrasive material that physically removes portions of the layer(s). The wafer and the polishing pad can be rotated in the same direction or in opposite directions, whichever is desirable for the particular polishing process being carried out. The carrier also can oscillate across the polishing pad on the polishing table or platen. To reduce rapid wearing of the polishing pad, improve polishing uniformity, and facilitate slurry introduction between the rotating polishing pad and the wafer, conventional CMP processes use a polishing pad and polishing table that are much larger in size than the wafer to be polished. For example, to polish a 12 inch (about 30 centimeters) wafer, a 34 inch (about 86 centimeters) polishing pad is typically employed. Recently, a new polishing process referred to as electrochemical-mechanical polishing (“ECMP”) has come into common use. ECMP can remove conductive material from a substrate surface by electrochemical dissolution in addition to performing the chemical and mechanical abrasion removal techniques common to CMP processes. The electrochemical dissolution is performed by applying an electrical bias between a cathode and a substrate surface to remove conductive materials from the substrate surface and into a surrounding electrolyte solution. However, conventional polishing pads often restrict the flow of electrolyte solution to the surface of the wafer, resulting in non-uniformity of the applied electric bias and hindering the polishing process. Furthermore, the addition of electrochemical dissolution in the ECMP process allows for reduction of the oscillating motion of the polishing pad and the associated energy expenditure required, as well as allowing reduction of the polishing pad and polishing table size. Accordingly, there is a need for an improved polishing system that facilitates the introduction of electrolyte solution to the surface of the substrate to be polished. There is also a need for an improved polishing system that enables realization of the advantages of the ECMP process. The invention provides such a polishing system. These and other advantages of the invention, as well as additional inventive features, will be apparent from the description of the invention provided herein. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention is directed to improving the communication and flow of polishing composition in the polishing system, thereby resulting in renewing the polishing composition at the area of interaction between a polishing pad and a substrate. In ECMP systems, renewing the polishing composition also promotes ion conduction between the electrodes, thereby improving the electrical bias applied and resulting in a more uniform removal of conductive material from the substrate. Realization in reducing the size of the polishing system's components is also promoted by improving the polishing composition flow. However, while aspects of the invention are directed toward improving ECMP systems, the invention is not intended to be limited to such systems. In accordance with one aspect of the invention, there is provided a polishing pad having a top surface and a bottom surface that is configured for improved flow of a polishing composition in a polishing process. The polishing composition, for example, may be an electrolyte solution, a polishing slurry, or a combination thereof. The polishing pad includes a first plurality of unidirectional pores disposed therethrough that communicates the polishing composition from the bottom surface to the top surface. Also included is a second plurality of unidirectional pores that communicates the polishing composition from the top surface to the bottom surface. The directionality of the pores is provided by configuring the pores with non-cylindrical cross-sections. Accordingly, when the polishing pad is installed on a polishing apparatus, the polishing composition from a reservoir can be introduced between the polishing table or platen and the polishing pad and then communicated through the unidirectional pores of the first plurality to the top surface the polishing pad that is adjacent the substrate. The polishing composition can then be removed from the top surface via the unidirectional pores of the second plurality. In accordance with another aspect, the invention provides a polishing apparatus configured for improved flow of a polishing composition. The polishing apparatus includes a polishing pad supported by a platen assembly so as to define a composition transfer region therebetween. The polishing pad includes a top and a bottom surface and a plurality of pores disposed therebetween. Protruding into the composition transfer region is a plurality of protrusions, each aligned with at least one pore. Accordingly, when the polishing composition is introduced into the composition transfer region, the flow of the composition is redirected by the protrusions into the pores and through the polishing pad. The composition can be used to polish a substrate held adjacent the top surface of the polishing pad by a carrier. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view of a polishing apparatus with a polishing composition and a polishing pad intended for use in polishing a substrate. FIG. 2 is a top perspective view of an embodiment of the polishing pad with a first and a second plurality of pores. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the polishing pad including the first and second plurality of pores each having a tapered shape with arrows indicating the direction of polishing composition flow into the pores. FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the polishing pad including a first and a second plurality of pores each formed as a series of aligned frusto-conical sections with arrows indicating the direction of polishing composition flow into the pores. FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the polishing pad including a first and a second plurality of pores each formed as a helical or spiral shape with arrows indicating the direction of polishing composition flow into the pores. FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a polishing apparatus intended for use in polishing a substrate with a polishing pad overlaying a platen and defining a composition transfer region therebetween. FIG. 7(a) is a top plan cutaway view of an embodiment of the polishing pad overlaying the composition transfer region and the platen, where the composition transfer region is composed as a first series of channels and a second series of channels. FIG. 7(b) is a top plan cutaway view of an embodiment of the polishing pad overlaying the composition transfer region and the platen. FIG. 8(a) is a cross-sectional view of the polishing pad and platen showing a protrusion within a channel defining the composition transfer region. FIG. 8(b) is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the polishing pad and platen with the platen having a duct to define the channel. FIG. 8(c) is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the polishing pad and platen with the polishing pad having a duct to define the channel. FIG. 9 is a perspective cutaway view an embodiment of a polishing apparatus intended for use in polishing a substrate with a polishing pad overlaying a platen and a composition transfer region composed as a network of composition tubes. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Now referring to the drawings, wherein like numerals refer to like elements, there is illustrated in FIG. 1 an example of a polishing apparatus 100 for use in electrochemical-mechanical polishing. The polishing apparatus can include a polishing table or platen 102, a polishing pad 104 supported on the platen 102, and a carrier 106 supported above the platen and polishing pad for mounting a substrate to. To engage the polishing operation, the carrier 106 can be rotated and/or orbited with respect to the platen 102, the platen rotated and/or orbited with respect to the carrier, or both can be rotated and/or orbited simultaneously. For storing and delivering the polishing composition 108 to the area of interaction between the polishing pad 104 and the carrier 106, the polishing apparatus can include a chamber or reservoir 10 and a polishing composition delivery system 112 for introducing the polishing composition between the platen and polishing pad. In the illustrated embodiment, the platen 102 and polishing pad 104 are immersed in the polishing composition 108 held within the reservoir 110. However, in other embodiments it is contemplated that the platen and polishing pad are removed from the composition in the reservoir. Furthermore, in other embodiments, the polishing apparatus 100 can be adapted to operate as a chemical-mechanical polishing apparatus with the polishing composition delivery system 112 adapted to deliver a chemical mechanical polishing composition. In an embodiment wherein the polishing apparatus 100 is configured to operate as an ECMP apparatus, the exemplary polishing apparatus can also include a cathode 116, an anode 118, and a reference electrode 120. The cathode 116 can be positioned at the bottom of the reservoir 110 and is immersed in the polishing composition 108. It will be appreciated that in this embodiment the polishing composition should at least function as an electrolytically conductive fluid, preferably with a maximum resistance value of about 1000 ohms. The anode 118 can concurrently function as the platen 102, as the polishing pad 104, or be positioned at some other location. The reference electrode 120 is also preferably disposed within the polishing composition 108. In order to provide the appropriate electrical bias for carrying out the ECMP process, the cathode, anode, and electrode are in electrical communication with a suitable power source. Referring to FIG. 2, there is illustrated a polishing pad 104 intended for use with the polishing apparatus 100. The polishing pad 104 includes a top surface 140 and an opposing bottom surface 142. The top surface 140 can function as a polishing surface against which a substrate can be urged and the bottom surface 142 is intended to be supported by the polishing table or the platen. The illustrated polishing pad 104 is shown with a circular outline, but, as will be appreciated, other shapes and outlines can readily be used and the inventive polishing pad is not limited to any particular shape or outline. As illustrated in FIG. 2, the polishing pad 104 includes a first plurality of pores 146 and a second plurality of pores 148 that are disposed between the top and bottom surfaces 140, 142. In a typical polishing operation, liquid polishing composition is introduced between the bottom surface 142 and the polishing table or platen on which the bottom surface is supported. The polishing composition is introduced under pressure via the delivery system 112 illustrated in FIG. 1, though, in other embodiments, the polishing composition may be un-pressurized. Referring to FIG. 2, in accordance with an aspect of the invention, to supply polishing composition to the top surface that may be adjacent a substrate, the pores of the first plurality 146 are physically configured to communicate the composition from the bottom surface 142 to the top surface 140 in a unidirectional manner. To remove the polishing composition from the top surface 140, the pores of the second plurality 148 are physically configured to communicate polishing composition from the top surface 140 to the bottom surface 142, also in a unidirectional manner. Thus, the pores of the first and second plurality 146, 148 promote a cyclic flow of polishing composition through the polishing pad, thereby facilitating renewal of the polishing composition at the area of interaction between the top surface and the substrate. Additionally, in ECMP processes, this promotes uniform ion conduction between the anode and the cathode thereby facilitating the ECMP dissolution of conductive materials from the substrate. For purposes of the inventive polishing pad, the term unidirectional means that the particular pore is physically configured to encourage communication of the polishing composition from one surface of the pad towards the opposite surface while substantially impeding communication in the reverse direction. It is not necessary that the unidirectional pores absolutely prevent all flow in any direction other than the intended direction. Furthermore, referring to FIG. 2, the pores of the first and second pluralities 146, 148 are illustrated in an alternating, grid-like pattern. However, the pores can be arranged in any suitable manner and the illustrated grid-like pattern is not intended as a limitation. To physically configure the pores to provide unidirectional communication, the pores have a non-cylindrical cross-section or shape. For example, referring to FIG. 3, at least one of the pores of the first plurality 146, and preferably more than one pore (e.g. about 5% or more of the total first plurality of pores, about 10% or more of the total first plurality of pores, about 25% or more of the total first plurality of pores, about 50% or more of the total first plurality of pores, about 75% or more of the total first plurality of pores, or about 90% or more of the total first plurality of pores), taper inwardly as the pore or pores are disposed between bottom surface 142 and the top surface 140. At least one of the pores of the second plurality 148, and preferably more than one pore (e.g. about 5% or more of the total second plurality of pores, about 10% or more of the total second plurality of pores, about 25% or more of the total second plurality of pores, about 50% or more of the total second plurality of pores, about 75% or more of the total second plurality of pores, or about 90% or more of the total second plurality of pores), is oppositely oriented so that it tapers outwardly as the pore or pores are disposed between the bottom surface 142 and the top surface 140. Accordingly, the intersection of the first pores 146 with the top surface 140 forms smaller first apertures 150 while the intersection of the second pores 148 and the top surface 140 forms larger second apertures 152. Similarly, the intersection of the first pores 146 with the bottom surface 142 forms larger third apertures 154 while the intersection of the second pores 148 with the bottom surface 142 forms smaller fourth apertures 156. As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, the fluid polishing composition introduced at the bottom surface 142 will more likely pass into the larger third apertures 154 than the smaller fourth apertures 156. Similarly, polishing composition at the top surface 140 will more likely pass into the larger second apertures 152 than the smaller first apertures 150. Polishing composition is therefore encouraged to flow from the bottom surface 142 to the top surface 140 via the first plurality of pores 146 and from the top surface to the bottom surface via the second plurality of pores 148. Thus the pores of the first and second pluralities promote renewal of the polishing composition at the top surface. The size of the pores and the associated large and small apertures can be any suitable size for communicating polishing composition. Preferably, the pores have an average diameter of 200 micrometers or less and, more preferably, have an average diameter of 50 micrometers or less. For example, in a preferred embodiment, the average diameter of the smaller apertures of the first and fourth pluralities is about 10 micrometers or less while the larger apertures of the second and third pluralities is about 30 micrometers or less. By way of example only, and not as a limitation in any sense, the following calculations are used to develop a series of specifications for a polishing pad that is capable of renewing the polishing composition at the area of interaction between a 200 millimeters diameter substrate and the polishing pad: 1. Calculate the flow necessary to renew the composition film at the area of interaction between the substrate and the polishing pad: Wafer area=π*(10 cm)2=314 cm2; Film Vol. (assuming 1 μm film thickness)=314 cm2*0.0001 cm=0.0314 cm3; Flow Rate=1.4 cm3/sec (to renew the composition every second) (note: flow rate for typical CMP apparatus is approximately 1.67 cm3/sec.) 2. Calculate the number of pores necessary to provide the 0.0314 cm3/sec flow rate (assuming 100 μm diameter pores (i.e., 7.9 e−5 cm2) and 0.15 cm thick polishing pad): No. of Pores Required=0.0314 cm3/(7.9 e−5 cm2*0.15 cm)=approx. 2650 pores; 3. Calculate the total area of the pores required: Area of pores required=2650*7.9 e−5 cm2=0.20935 cm2; Area of 200 mm substrate=314 cm2; % of wafer corresponding to pores=0.20935 cm2/314 cm2=0.067%; 4. Calculate the pressure drop (ΔP) generated by pores: (note: use Hagen-Poisseulle law: ΔP=q*8*n*L/(Rc)**2; where ΔP=pressure drop; q=flow volume; n=fluid viscosity; L=pad thickness; Rc=pore radius) ΔP from pores=0.0314 cm3/sec.*8*1.0 cp*0.15 cm/(0.005 cm)**2=1507 dynes/cm2; (assuming additional pressure drop from gravity=147 dynes/cm2) total ΔP=1507 dynes/cm2+147 dynes/cm2=1654 dynes/cm2=165.4 N/m2˜0.001654 atm (or about 0.168 kPa) From the foregoing, 0.001654 atm (which is about 0.168 kPa) is a minimal pressure drop for a polishing system to overcome, thereby indicating that the pores can adequately renew the polishing composition at the area of interaction between the substrate and the polishing pad. The pores of the first and second pluralities need not be tapered in shape to have a unidirectional effect on fluid communication. For example, in the embodiment of the polishing pad 160 illustrated in FIG. 4, at least one of the pores of the first plurality 162, and preferably more than one pore (e.g. about 5% or more of the total first plurality of pores, about 10% or more of the total first plurality of pores, about 25% or more of the total first plurality of pores, about 50% or more of the total first plurality of pores, about 75% or more of the total first plurality of pores, or about 90% or more of the total first plurality of pores), are formed as a series of frusto-conical sections 165 arranged in axial alignment as disposed between the bottom surface 168 and the top surface 166. A base portion of each frusto-conical section 165 of the first plurality of pores 162 is aligned toward the bottom surface 168 while a topmost portion of each frusto-conical section is oriented toward the top surface 166. At least one of the pores of the second plurality 164, and preferably more than one pore (e.g. about 5% or more of the total second plurality of pores, about 10% or more of the total second plurality of pores, about 25% or more of the total second plurality of pores, about 50% or more of the total second plurality of pores, about 75% or more of the total second plurality of pores, or about 90% or more of the total second plurality of pores), are similarly formed by a series of similar frusto-conical sections 165 arranged in an opposing alignment. Preferably, the larger second and fourth apertures 172, 176 are formed by a base portion of a frusto-conical sections 165 while the smaller first and third apertures 170, 174 are formed by a topmost portion of a frusto-conical sections. As will be apparent to those of skill in the art, the arrangement of the frusto-conical sections in the first pores 162 encourages flow from the bottom surface 168 to the top surface 166 while substantially impeding flow in the opposite direction. The arrangement of the frusto-conical sections in the second pores 164 similarly encourages flow from the top surface 166 to the bottom surface 168. Thus, the pores of the first and second pluralities formed with the frusto-conical sections promote renewal of the polishing composition at the top surface. In the embodiment of the polishing pad 180 illustrated in FIG. 5 at least one of the pores of the first plurality 182 and at least one of the pores of the second plurality 184, and preferably more than one pore of each of the first and second pluralities (e.g. about 5% or more, about 10% or more, about 25% or more, about 50% or more, about 75% or more, or about 90% or more of each of the respective total first and second pluralities of pores), are formed as helixes disposed between the bottom surface 188 and the top surface 186. The helical first pores 182 intersecting with the top surface 186 forms the smaller first apertures 190 while the helical first pores intersecting with the bottom surface 188 forms the larger third apertures 194. Likewise, the intersection of the helical second pores 184 with the top surface 186 forms the larger second apertures 192 while the intersection of the helical second pores 184 with the bottom surface 188 forms the smaller fourth apertures 196. The combination of helical paths and the location of the larger and smaller apertures provides the unidirectional character of the pores. The polishing pad can be made from any suitable material. Typically, polishing pads are made from a polymer resin. Preferably, the polymer resin is selected from the group consisting of thermoplastic elastomers, thermoplastic polyurethanes, thermoplastic polyolefins, polycarbonates, polyvinylalcohols, nylons, elastomeric rubbers, elastomeric polyethylenes, polytetrafluoroethylenes, polyethyleneterephthalates, polyimides, polyaramides, polyarylenes, polyacrylates, polystyrenes, polymethylmethacrylates, copolymers thereof, and mixtures thereof. More preferably, the polymer resin is a thermoplastic polyurethane resin. The polishing pad can be adapted for CMP processes that utilize chemical-mechanical polishing compositions or the polishing pad can be adapted for use in ECMP processes. When used in ECMP process, the polishing pad can be made from a conductive polymer or, in some embodiments, made from a non-conductive polymer having conductive elements inner-dispersed or embedded therein. The conductive polymer and conductive elements can be formed from any suitable materials. For example, the conductive elements can take the form of particles, fibers, wires, coils, or sheets and made from materials such a carbon and conductive metals such as copper, platinum, platinum-coated copper, and aluminum. Conductive polishing pads can have a maximum resistance value of, for example, 10 ohms. To provide the pores of the first and second pluralities, any suitable formation method can be employed. For instance, the pores can be formed during the manufacturing process of the polishing pad itself, such as during the molding process of the polymer resin used to produce the polishing pad. Special blowing agents or micro-spheres may be employed to assist in the formation of the pores. The pores can also be formed by any other suitable molding or casting technique. Furthermore, the pores can be formed after molding of the polishing pad through any number of various machining processes and techniques. Referring to FIG. 2, to further improve the distribution of composition along the top surface 140 of the polishing pad 104, a groove or series of grooves can be formed into the top surface that intersects at least one of the pores. For instance, in the illustrated embodiment, a first series of grooves 158 can be formed that intersect with the first plurality of pores 146 while a second series of grooves 159 can be formed that intersect with the second plurality of pores 148. The grooves 158, 159 assist in transferring the composition to and from the pores to the area of interaction between the top surface and the substrate. The grooves 158, 159 can have any suitable cross-section, such as a V-shaped cross-section. Other possible cross-sections include U-shaped cross-sections and truncated V-shaped cross-sections. The width of the cross-section can be any suitable width and typically about 0.1 mm to 2 mm. The width of the cross-section may correspond to the average diameters of the apertures with which a particular groove intersects. The depth of the groove can be any suitable depth and may be dependent upon the thickness of the polishing pan and flow rate of the composition. A typical thickness of a polishing pad between the top and bottom surfaces is about 0.1 mm to 10 mm. The grooves 158, 159 can also be formed in any suitable pattern on the top surface 140, such as the alternating series of parallel grooves illustrated in FIG. 2. Other possible patterns include concentric circle patterns or curved patterns. The polishing pad can be a multi-layered pad having at least a top-layer and a bottom layer. In such an embodiment, the polishing pad of the invention, e.g., polishing pad 104 illustrated in FIG. 2, including the top and bottom surfaces 140, 142 and the first and second pluralities of pores 146, 148, corresponds to the top layer of the multi-layered polishing pad. Referring to FIGS. 6 through 8, there is illustrated an example of a polishing apparatus 200 that is designed in accordance with another aspect of the invention. The polishing apparatus 200 includes a polishing table or platen 202 and a polishing pad 204 that is supported on the platen. The polishing pad 204 has a top surface 214, an opposing bottom surface 216, and a plurality of pores 210 disposed between the top and bottom surfaces. The polishing pad and the plurality of pores can be of the same construction as the polishing pad described above or of a different construction altogether. Additionally, to communicate the polishing composition to the pores 210, the bottom surface 216 of the polishing pad is positioned next to a first surface 218 of the platen 202 thereby defining a polishing composition transfer region 220 therebetween. To introduce polishing composition to the transfer region 220, the polishing apparatus 200 also includes a delivery system 206 that delivers polishing composition to a composition inlet 222 that is disposed so as to correspond to the transfer region. For mounting a substrate to be polished, there is also included as part of the polishing apparatus 200 a carrier 208 that is supported above the polishing pad 204. To impart the motion necessary for carrying out the polishing operation, the carrier 208 may be rotated and/or orbited with respect to the polishing pad 204 or the polishing pad and platen 202 may be rotated and/or orbited with respect to the carrier or a combination of both elements may be rotated and/or orbited. Illustrated in FIG. 7(a) is an embodiment of the polishing pad 204 overlaying the transfer region 220. To transfer polishing composition to the pores in an organized fashion, the transfer region 220 is composed of a first plurality of channels 226 and, preferably, a second plurality of channels 228. The first plurality of channels 226 align with pores of a first type 211 that are adapted to communicate polishing composition to the top surface of the pad while the second plurality of channels 228 align with pores of a second type 212 that are adapted to remove polishing composition from the top surface. It will be appreciated that the longitudinal axis of the channels are generally parallel to the plane of the polishing pad and generally normal to the axis of the pores. The channels 226 of the first plurality are in communication with the composition inlet and, preferably, are arranged in parallel with one another. Likewise, the channels 228 of the second plurality are also preferably arranged in parallel with each other and generally normal to the channels 226 of the first plurality. Illustrated in FIG. 7(b) is another embodiment of the polishing pad 204 overlaying the transfer region 220. The transfer region 220 includes a first plurality of generally parallel channels 226 and a second plurality of generally parallel channels 228. The channels of the first and second pluralities 226, 228 are arranged perpendicularly to each other. Located proximate to and in communication with the intersections of the first and second plurality of channels 226, 228 is a pore of the first type 211 that is adapted to communicate polishing composition to the top surface of the pad. The pores of the second plurality 212, which are adapted so that they remove polishing composition from the top surface, are disposed through the pad 204 such that they are not aligned with either the first or second pluralities of channels 226, 228. Referring to FIG. 8(a), there is illustrated in detail a channel 226 of the first plurality (corresponding in part to the transfer region) disposed between the polishing pad 204 and the platen 202. To facilitate communication of the polishing composition from the channel 226 through the pore 211 to the top surface 214 of the polishing pad 204, there is disposed within the channel a plurality of protrusions 230. Each protrusion 230 of the plurality is aligned with a pore 211 and, in the illustrated embodiment, is formed as an integral part of the platen protruding upward into the channel 226. In operation, at least a portion of the polishing composition delivered from the composition inlet is redirected by the protrusion 230 from the channel 226 into the pore 211. Redirecting the polishing composition improves the renewal of the composition at the area of interaction between the substrate and top surface of the pad and, in ECMP applications, promotes uniform ion conduction between electrodes thereby facilitating the ECMP dissolution of conductive materials from the substrate. Referring to FIG. 7(a), another advantage of redirecting the polishing composition is that, in applications in which the composition is pressurized by the delivery system, the redirected composition displaces the composition already located at the top surface of the polishing pad. The displaced polishing composition may enter the pores 212 of the second type and thereby be returned to a reservoir by the second plurality of channels 268, thus further improving renewal of the composition. Referring to FIG. 7(b) an advantage of locating the pores of the first type 211 at the intersections of the first and second pluralities of channels 226, 228 is that the amount of composition communicated to the top surface can be controlled by adjusting the composition flow rate in either of the first plurality of channels or the second plurality of channels. In essence, locating the pores of the first type 211 at the intersections of the first and second pluralities of channels 226, 228 provides for multiple degrees of control over the amount of composition communicated to the top surface. To provide the channels 226, 228 that correspond to the transfer region, referring to FIG. 8(b), there is formed into the first surface 218 of the platen 202 a plurality of ducts 240. Each duct 240 corresponds to and defines at least a portion of one channel 226, 228. Referring to FIG. 8(c), in another embodiment the channels 226, 228 are provided by forming the ducts 242 into the bottom surface 216 of the polishing pad 204. The ducts can be formed by any suitable means such as machining or, where appropriate, molding. The ducts can also be of any suitable shape and cross-section, including, as illustrated, hemispherical. Referring to FIG. 9, in another embodiment of the polishing apparatus 300, the transfer region can correspond to and be defined by a plurality of composition pipes or tubes 302 disposed between the polishing pad 306 and the platen 308. The composition tubes 302 can be formed as a hollow structure having an inner surface 312 and a corresponding outer surface 314. In the illustrated embodiment, the tubes 302 are cylindrical in shape but could in other embodiments have some other suitable shape. The composition tubes 302 can be interconnected together to form a network 310 for transferring composition between the polishing pad 306 and the platen 308. For example, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8, the tubes 302 are arranged in a first plurality of parallel tubes that interconnect with a second plurality of parallel tubes to generally form a grid. However, the tubes can be arranged in any suitable manner and the network 310 of tubes is not to be construed as limited to a grid. The network 310 can be formed as a separable element or can be mounted to either the platen 308 or the polishing pad 306. The tubes 302 forming the network 310 include a plurality of openings 316 disposed between the inner and the outer surfaces 312, 314 that correspond to the pores 320 in the polishing pad 306. In the illustrated embodiment, the openings 316 are formed at the interconnections between the first and second pluralities of tubes. However, in other embodiments the locations of the openings can vary depending upon the arrangement of the tubes and the network. Additionally, the plurality of pores 320 can be of the same construction as the unidirectional pores described above or a different construction altogether. To facilitate delivery of the polishing composition from the tubes 302 to the top surface 322 of the polishing pad 306, there is included within the tubes a plurality of protrusions 318. The protrusions 318 can be formed on the inner surface 312 of the tubes aligned opposite the openings 316. In operation, when polishing composition is introduced into the network, the protrusions 318 will redirect at least a portion of the composition through the openings 316 and into the pores 320. As mentioned above, redirecting the polishing composition improves the continuous renewal of the composition at the area of interaction between the substrate and top surface of the pad and, in ECMP applications, promotes uniform ion conduction between the anode and the cathode thereby facilitating the ECMP dissolution of conductive materials from the substrate. The composition tubes and protrusions can be of any appropriate size for communicating polishing composition in a polishing apparatus. For example, the tubes can have an inner diameter of about 10 micrometers to about 50 micrometers and the protrusions can have a height of about 2 micrometers to about 10 micrometers. Preferably, as a general rule, the height of the protrusions should be about 25% of the width of the tubes. Additionally, in ECMP applications, the composition tubes forming the network can be made of a conductive material and can serve as an electrode for generating the electrical bias necessary for ECMP applications. All references, including publications, patent applications, and patents, cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each reference were individually and specifically indicated to be incorporated by reference and were set forth in its entirety herein. The use of the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in the context of describing the invention (especially in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. The terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,” and “containing” are to be construed as open-ended terms (i.e., meaning “including, but not limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate the invention and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the invention unless otherwise claimed. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to the practice of the invention. Preferred embodiments of this invention are described herein, including the best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention. Variations of those preferred embodiments may become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading the foregoing description. The inventors expect skilled artisans to employ such variations as appropriate, and the inventors intend for the invention to be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. Accordingly, this invention includes all modifications and equivalents of the subject matter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicable law. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed by the invention unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Polishing processes are used in the manufacturing of microelectronic devices to form flat surfaces on semiconductor wafers, field emission displays, and other microelectronic substrates. For example, the manufacture of semiconductor devices generally involves the formation of various process layers, selective removal or patterning of portions of those layers, and deposition of yet additional process layers above the surface of a semiconducting substrate to form a semiconductor wafer. The process layers can include, by way of example, insulation layers, gate oxide layers, conductive layers, and layers of metal or glass, etc. It is generally desirable in certain steps of the wafer process that the uppermost surface of the process layers be planar, i.e., flat, for the deposition of subsequent layers. Polishing processes such as chemical-mechanical polishing (“CMP”) are used to planarize process layers wherein a deposited material, such as a conductive or insulating material, is polished to planarize the wafer for subsequent process steps. In a typical CMP process, a wafer is mounted upside down on a carrier in a CMP tool. A force pushes the carrier and the wafer downward toward a polishing pad supported on the CMP tool's polishing table or platen. The carrier and the wafer are rotated above the rotating polishing pad on the polishing table or platen. A polishing composition (also referred to as a polishing slurry) generally is introduced between the rotating wafer and the rotating polishing pad during the polishing process. The polishing composition typically contains a chemical that interacts with or dissolves portions of the uppermost wafer layer(s) and an abrasive material that physically removes portions of the layer(s). The wafer and the polishing pad can be rotated in the same direction or in opposite directions, whichever is desirable for the particular polishing process being carried out. The carrier also can oscillate across the polishing pad on the polishing table or platen. To reduce rapid wearing of the polishing pad, improve polishing uniformity, and facilitate slurry introduction between the rotating polishing pad and the wafer, conventional CMP processes use a polishing pad and polishing table that are much larger in size than the wafer to be polished. For example, to polish a 12 inch (about 30 centimeters) wafer, a 34 inch (about 86 centimeters) polishing pad is typically employed. Recently, a new polishing process referred to as electrochemical-mechanical polishing (“ECMP”) has come into common use. ECMP can remove conductive material from a substrate surface by electrochemical dissolution in addition to performing the chemical and mechanical abrasion removal techniques common to CMP processes. The electrochemical dissolution is performed by applying an electrical bias between a cathode and a substrate surface to remove conductive materials from the substrate surface and into a surrounding electrolyte solution. However, conventional polishing pads often restrict the flow of electrolyte solution to the surface of the wafer, resulting in non-uniformity of the applied electric bias and hindering the polishing process. Furthermore, the addition of electrochemical dissolution in the ECMP process allows for reduction of the oscillating motion of the polishing pad and the associated energy expenditure required, as well as allowing reduction of the polishing pad and polishing table size. Accordingly, there is a need for an improved polishing system that facilitates the introduction of electrolyte solution to the surface of the substrate to be polished. There is also a need for an improved polishing system that enables realization of the advantages of the ECMP process. The invention provides such a polishing system. These and other advantages of the invention, as well as additional inventive features, will be apparent from the description of the invention provided herein. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention is directed to improving the communication and flow of polishing composition in the polishing system, thereby resulting in renewing the polishing composition at the area of interaction between a polishing pad and a substrate. In ECMP systems, renewing the polishing composition also promotes ion conduction between the electrodes, thereby improving the electrical bias applied and resulting in a more uniform removal of conductive material from the substrate. Realization in reducing the size of the polishing system's components is also promoted by improving the polishing composition flow. However, while aspects of the invention are directed toward improving ECMP systems, the invention is not intended to be limited to such systems. In accordance with one aspect of the invention, there is provided a polishing pad having a top surface and a bottom surface that is configured for improved flow of a polishing composition in a polishing process. The polishing composition, for example, may be an electrolyte solution, a polishing slurry, or a combination thereof. The polishing pad includes a first plurality of unidirectional pores disposed therethrough that communicates the polishing composition from the bottom surface to the top surface. Also included is a second plurality of unidirectional pores that communicates the polishing composition from the top surface to the bottom surface. The directionality of the pores is provided by configuring the pores with non-cylindrical cross-sections. Accordingly, when the polishing pad is installed on a polishing apparatus, the polishing composition from a reservoir can be introduced between the polishing table or platen and the polishing pad and then communicated through the unidirectional pores of the first plurality to the top surface the polishing pad that is adjacent the substrate. The polishing composition can then be removed from the top surface via the unidirectional pores of the second plurality. In accordance with another aspect, the invention provides a polishing apparatus configured for improved flow of a polishing composition. The polishing apparatus includes a polishing pad supported by a platen assembly so as to define a composition transfer region therebetween. The polishing pad includes a top and a bottom surface and a plurality of pores disposed therebetween. Protruding into the composition transfer region is a plurality of protrusions, each aligned with at least one pore. Accordingly, when the polishing composition is introduced into the composition transfer region, the flow of the composition is redirected by the protrusions into the pores and through the polishing pad. The composition can be used to polish a substrate held adjacent the top surface of the polishing pad by a carrier. | 20040610 | 20081021 | 20051215 | 72089.0 | 0 | SMITH, NICHOLAS A | ELECTROCHEMICAL-MECHANICAL POLISHING SYSTEM | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,865,039 | ACCEPTED | Multi-channel power amplifier with channels independently self-configuring to a bridge or single-ended output, particularly for audio applications | A multi-channel power amplifier for driving a plurality of loads, each associated with a respective channel, each channel comprising a pair of operational amplifiers, first and second, one operational amplifier of each channel being connectable by configuring switches either in a bridge configuration with the other operational amplifier or in single-ended configuration to a constant reference voltage output by a dedicated voltage buffer of the multi-channel amplifier for driving the respective load of the channel, comprises a window comparator for monitoring the level of the input signal of the channel and producing a logic control signal for the configuring switches. Each channel has a dedicated window comparator monitoring the level of the input signal of the channel that generates a logic signal for positioning the switches that configure the output power structure of the channel in single-ended or bridge configuration. Moreover, instead of configuring one of the operational amplifiers to function as a reference voltage buffer when switching to a single-ended configuration, a distinct voltage reference buffer is employed, to which any single-ended channel of the multi-channel amplifier is connected. | 1. A multi-channel power amplifier for driving a plurality of loads, each associated to a respective channel, each channel comprising a pair of operational amplifiers, first and second, one operational amplifier of each channel being connectable through switches either in a bridge configuration with the other operational amplifier or in single-ended configuration to a constant reference voltage (VREF) for driving the load of the respective channel, the amplifier further comprising at least a window comparator for monitoring the signal level and outputting a logic control signal for said switches, wherein the power amplifier comprises: a unique voltage buffer (VREF BUFFER), distinct from said operational amplifiers, outputting said constant reference voltage (VREF); the output of each channel is configurable independently from the output of the other channels; each channel includes a dedicated window comparator monitoring the level of the signal input to the channel and generating logic control signals for positioning the output configuring switches of the channel. 2. The multi-channel power amplifier of claim 1, further comprising at least a channel comprising an operational amplifier always connected in single-ended configuration. 3. The multi-channel power amplifier of claim 1, wherein said operational amplifiers are all of class AB. 4. The multi-channel power amplifier of claim 1, wherein at least said other operational amplifiers of the channels have a normal functioning state in which they deliver current to the respective load and a high impedance functioning state in which their output current is substantially null, said windows comparators switching to a high impedance state said other operational amplifiers for configuring the output of the respective channels in a single-ended configuration. 5. The multi-channel power amplifier for stereo applications according to claim 1 and comprising four channels: first, second, third and fourth, respectively driving a front right loudspeaker, a rear right loudspeaker, a front left loudspeaker and a rear left loudspeaker, wherein to the said one operational amplifier of the pair of said channels first and fourth are fed respective audio signals on either an inverting input node or on a non inverting input node, while to the said one operational amplifier of the pairs of said channels third and second are fed respective audio signals on either a non inverting input node or on an inverting input node. 6. A power amplifier for driving multiple loads each having two respective terminals, the amplifier comprising: multiple respective channels each operable to drive a respective one of the loads in a differential manner and in a single-ended manner during differential and single-ended operating modes, respectively; and a reference circuit coupled to the channels and operable to maintain at a reference voltage a terminal of each load that a respective one of the channels is driving in a single-ended manner. 7. The power amplifier of claim 6 wherein each of the channels is operable to receive a respective input signal having a parameter and includes a respective mode circuit operable to switch the channel between the differential and single-ended modes based on the parameter of the input signal. 8. The power amplifier of claim 6 wherein each of the channels comprises: a first drive stage having a first drive node coupled to a first node of a respective load; a second drive stage having a second drive node; and a respective mode circuit coupled to the reference circuit and operable to, couple the second drive node to a second node of the respective load while the channel is operating in the differential mode, and uncouple the second drive node from and couple the reference voltage to the second node of the load while the channel is operating in the single-ended mode. 9. The power amplifier of claim 6 wherein each of the channels comprises: a first drive stage having a first drive node coupled to a first node of a respective load; a second drive stage having a second drive node coupled to a second node of the load; and a respective mode circuit coupled to the reference circuit and operable to cause the second drive node to electrically float and to couple the reference voltage to the second node of the load while the channel is operating in the single-ended mode. 10. An electronic system, comprising: multiple loads each having two respective terminals; multiple respective channels each operable to drive a respective one of the loads in a differential manner and in a single-ended manner during differential and single-ended operating modes, respectively; and a reference circuit coupled to the channels and operable to maintain at a reference voltage a terminal of each load that a respective one of the channels is driving in a single-ended manner. 11. The electronic system of claim 10 wherein: the loads comprise respective speakers; four of the channels each include, first-polarity and second-polarity input nodes, a respective first drive stage coupled to one of the input nodes and having a first drive node coupled to a first node of a respective load, a second drive stage coupled to the other input node and having a second drive node coupled to a second node of the load, and a respective mode circuit coupled to the reference circuit and operable to couple the reference voltage to the second node of the load while the channel is operating in the single-ended mode; the first-polarity input node of a first one of the four channels is operable to receive a front right signal and is coupled to the first drive stage of the first channel; the first-polarity input node of a second one of the channels is operable to receive a rear left signal and is coupled to the first drive stage of the second channel; the second-polarity input node of a third one of the channels is operable to receive a rear right signal and is coupled to the first drive stage of the third channel; and the second-polarity input node of a fourth one of the channels is operable to receive a front left signal and is coupled to the first drive stage of the fourth channel. 12. An electronic system, comprising: four speakers each having two respective terminals; four channels each operable to drive a respective one of the speakers in a differential manner and in a single-ended manner during differential and single-ended operating modes, respectively, the channels each including, first-polarity and second-polarity input nodes, a first drive stage coupled to one of the input nodes and having a first drive node coupled to a first node of a respective load, and a second drive stage coupled to the other input node and having a second drive node coupled to a second node of the load, and a mode circuit operable to couple a reference voltage to the second node of the load while the channel is operating in the single-ended mode; the first-polarity input node of a first one of the four channels operable to receive a front right signal and coupled to the first drive stage of the first channel; the first-polarity input node of a second one of the channels operable to receive a rear left signal and coupled to the first drive stage of the second channel; the second-polarity input node of a third one of the channels operable to receive a rear right signal and coupled to the first drive stage of the third channel; and the second-polarity input node of a fourth one of the channels operable to receive a front left signal and coupled to the first drive stage of the fourth channel. 13. A method, comprising: generating a reference signal with a generator; driving a first load differentially and with a first circuit other than the generator during a first differential mode; driving the first load single-endedly with the first circuit and coupling the reference signal to a terminal of the first load during a first single-ended mode; driving a second load differentially and with a second circuit other than the generator during a second differential mode; and driving the second load single-endedly with the second circuit and coupling the reference signal to a terminal of the second load during a second single-ended mode. 14. The method of claim 13, further comprising: uncoupling the reference signal from the terminal of the first load during the first differential mode; and uncoupling the reference signal from the terminal of the second load during the second differential mode. 15. A method, comprising: differentially amplifying a front right audio signal having a first amplitude if the first amplitude exceeds a first threshold and single-endedly amplifying the front right signal with a first phase shift if the first amplitude is less than the first threshold; differentially amplifying a rear left audio signal having a second amplitude if the second amplitude exceeds a second threshold and single-endedly amplifying the rear left signal with the first phase shift if the second amplitude is less than the second threshold; differentially amplifying a rear right audio signal having a third amplitude if the third amplitude exceeds a third threshold and single-endedly amplifying the rear right signal with a second phase shift if the third amplitude is less than the third threshold; and differentially amplifying a front left audio signal having a fourth amplitude if the fourth amplitude exceeds a fourth threshold and single-endedly amplifying the front left signal with the second phase shift if the fourth amplitude is less than the fourth threshold. 16. The method of claim 15 wherein the first phase shift equals the second phase shift plus or minus 180 degrees. 17. The method of claim 15 wherein the first, second, third, and fourth thresholds are equal to one and other. 18. The method of claim 15, further comprising respectively driving first, second, third, and fourth speakers with the amplified front right, rear right, rear left, and front left audio signals. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ entitled MULTI-CHANNEL POWER AMPLIFIER SELF-CONFIGURING TO A BRIDGE OR SINGLE-ENDED OUTPUT, PARTICULARLY FOR AUDIO APPLICATIONS (Attorney Docket No. 2110-120-3), which has a common filing date and owner, and which is incorporated by reference. PRIORITY CLAIM This application claims priority from European patent application No. 03425358.3, filed Jun. 9, 2003, which is incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates in general to amplifiers and in particular to amplifiers with a reduced power consumption specially for car audio and HI-FI audio applications. BACKGROUND In many applications and primarily in audio reproduction systems, for example in car audios, HI-FI audio systems and similar apparatuses that are intrinsically compact because of stringent installation requirements, as well as in portable apparatuses, power dissipation in final power stages, often quadrupled in order to drive a pair of loudspeakers (front and rear) for each stereo channel, may create heat balance problems. For example, four 20 W amplifiers may have a power dissipation of about 4×12=48 W and because of the limited space available in certain apparatuses, such a relatively large power may be difficult to dissipate without a significant increase of temperature within the apparatus. On the other hand, a relatively high temperature of operation may degrade the magnetic tape of cassettes or optical disks (CD), the drives of which are often tightly fitted inside a single apparatus case. The so-called D-type switching amplifiers are highly efficient and are considered the most appropriate type for these applications. Unfortunately, switching amplifiers generate electromagnetic emissions that in compact apparatuses may interfere with the correct functioning of other systems, reducing their performances. For these reasons, audio signals are frequently amplified using a pair of class AB power amplifiers, operating in single-ended or in bridge configuration depending on the level of the processed signal. In fact, class AB power amplifiers are less efficient than switching amplifiers and a common technique for reducing power consumption of class AB amplifiers consists in configuring them in single-ended instead of in bridge configuration, whenever it is possible to do so. In fact, these amplifiers dissipate more power in bridge configuration than in single-ended configuration as long as the amplitude of the output signal remains smaller than the positive supply voltage. Unfortunately, it is not possible to use single-ended class AB amplifiers if the output surpasses this voltage because the output signal would be severely distorted by clipping. Techniques for automatically switching from one configuration to the other in function of the monitored level of the signal are implemented in the commonly owned patents U.S. Pat. No. 5,194,821, U.S. Pat. No. 5,365,188 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,654,688. The patent U.S. Pat. No. 5,194,821 discloses a bridge amplifier using a positive and a negative supply voltage sources, that may function in single-ended or in differential or bridge output configuration, depending on the level of the output signal. Substantially, a comparator changes the output circuital configuration of the amplifier from a bridge configuration to a single-ended configuration or vice versa by closing or opening configuring switches, when the output signal becomes smaller than or greater than a certain threshold voltage. The patents U.S. Pat. No. 5,365,188 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,654,688 disclose a single supply dual bridge power amplifier, having a window comparator for sensing the level of input signals fed to the amplifier and driving the switches that coordinately configure the amplifier in either a bridge or in a single-ended configuration. A system of the type disclosed in the above mentioned patents is schematically shown in FIG. 1. Four operational amplifiers OP1+, OP1−, OP2+, OP2− are respectively input with the signals Ch1 and Ch2 for driving two loudspeakers. A window comparator is input with the two signals Ch1 and Ch2 and positions the switches that connect the loudspeaker of the channel Ch2 either to the output of the operational amplifier (OP2+) or to a certain reference voltage VREF. The operational amplifier OP1− is configured by the window comparator that positions the path-selector shown within the dotted perimeter for functioning as a voltage buffer outputting the reference voltage VREF, by coupling an input thereof to a fixed voltage VF. In the scheme of FIG. 1, the switches of the power amplifier are shown in the position that configures the amplifier with two single-ended channels driving the respective loudspeakers. In car audio systems two or more pairs of amplifiers of this kind are often used for driving four loudspeakers FR (Front Right), FL (Front Left), RR (Rear Right) and RL (Rear Left) through independently equalizable channels. Surprisingly, it has been noticed that frequently the efficiency of this multi-channel power amplifier inexplicably drops and crosstalk effects increase. SUMMARY By investigating the possible causes of these baffling occurrences, it has been noticed that in most recently developed Hi-Fi car audio systems, correlation among the processed audio signals fed to the four channels FR, FL, RR and RL of the power amplifier may significantly decrease because of the different equalizations that may independently be set by the user and consequently of different delays of propagation of the signals through the respective channels. It has been assumed that a probable cause of the loss of performance is the fact that the channels of the power amplifier according to the known practice function either all in bridge or all in single-ended configuration. This restraints means in practice that it may happen, for example, that the front right channel of a car audio system be switched from a single-ended to a bridge configuration (or vice versa) even if it would not be efficient for the channel to do so, because the change of configuration has become necessary for the rear right channel. This important drawback is solved by the multi-channel power amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention. According to this embodiment, each channel has a dedicated window comparator monitoring the level of the input signal of the channel that generates a logic signal for positioning the switches that configure the output power structure of the channel in single-ended or bridge configuration. Moreover, instead of configuring one of the operational amplifiers to function as a reference voltage buffer when switching to a single-ended configuration, a distinct voltage reference buffer is employed, to which any single-ended channel of the multi-channel amplifier may be connected. It has been proven that the performance in terms of power dissipation of this architecture of a multi-channel amplifier go well beyond the normally expected power saving by virtue of the fact that the channels may independently assume a single-ended configuration using the same dedicated voltage buffer. More precisely, a multi-channel power amplifier for driving a plurality of loads, each associated with a respective channel, each channel comprising a pair of operational amplifiers, first and second, one operational amplifier of each channel being connectable by configuring switches either in a bridge configuration with the other operational amplifier or in single-ended configuration to a constant reference voltage output by a dedicated voltage buffer of the multi-channel amplifier for driving the respective load of the channel, and further comprising a window comparator for monitoring the level of the input signal of the channel and producing a logic control signal for the configuring switches. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Different aspects and advantages of this invention will appear even more clear through the following non-limiting description of several embodiments and by referring to the annexed drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 shows a typical two channel self-configuring power amplifier of the prior art; FIG. 2 depicts a pair of two channel power amplifiers of the prior art; FIG. 3 depicts a two channel self-configuring power amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention; FIG. 4 depicts a four channel amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention connectable in single-ended or bridge configuration; FIG. 5 depicts an amplifier having four channels connectable in single-ended or bridge configuration and a fifth single-ended channel according to an embodiment of this invention; FIG. 6 depicts an amplifier having five channels connectable in single-ended or bridge configuration according to an embodiment of this invention; FIG. 7 shows an embodiment of a four channel power amplifier of this invention for car audio applications; FIG. 8 shows comparison curves of power dissipation of a standard four bridge amplifier, of a known high efficiency self-configuring bridge amplifier, and of a configurable amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention; FIG. 9 shows comparison curves of temperature increases over room temperature reached by the heat sink of the power amplifiers of FIG. 8; FIG. 10 shows comparison curves of the temperature increase over room temperature of the heat sink of a power amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention for car audio applications, when the right and left audio signals are in-phase and out-phased by 180°. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A basic scheme of a self-configuring two channel power amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention is depicted in FIG. 3. It includes beside two independently configurable output bridge structures for driving respective loads, which in this example are two loudspeakers, a dedicated unique voltage buffer Vref_BUFFER, distinct from the operational amplifiers, that outputs a reference voltage VREF, and a dedicated window comparator sensing the level of the signal input to the channel and controlling the switches that configure the output of the channel in a bridge or single-ended configuration with the voltage buffer. The output power structure of each channel comprises a pair of operational amplifiers, preferably functioning in class AB for keeping as low as possible electromagnetic emissions, that may be independently connected in a configuration equivalent to a bridge power amplifier or in a configuration equivalent to a single-ended power amplifier. When the operational amplifiers of the same channel are connected in a single-ended configuration, according to the positioning of the configuring switches depicted in FIG. 3, the respective load is connected between the output of an operational amplifier and the output node at the constant reference voltage VREF of the voltage buffer Vref_BUFFER. The second operational amplifier is inactive. Conversely, the two operational amplifiers of a channel are connected in a bridge configuration when the positions of the respective configuring switches are inverted. Instead of employing a switch for disconnecting the load from the output of the second operational amplifier, it is also possible to use an operational amplifier that may be placed in a high impedance output state (tristate). In this case, the relative window comparator commands the second operational amplifier of the channel to tristate when the load of the channel is driven in single-ended configuration, and releases the second operational amplifier from tristate when the load is driven through an output bridge. The novel power amplifier of this embodiment of the invention is particularly advantageous in applications that require more than two channels, such as in advanced car audio applications. While according to prior art approaches, realizing a window comparator for each channel and a dedicated voltage reference buffer and making each channel independently configurable from the others was regarded only as a waste of silicon area, it will be demonstrated hereinafter that a power amplifier made according to an embodiment of this invention is noticeably less power consuming than a comparable known power amplifier. A multi-channel power amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention may have any number of channels, as shown in FIGS. 4, 5 and 6, that may be independently switched from a single-ended to a bridge configuration and vice versa, if not designed specifically to function always in single-ended configuration, like channel Ch5 of the amplifier of FIG. 5. The fact that all single-ended channels are connected to the same voltage reference buffer produces a sensible reduction of power dissipation, because the current absorbed by the buffer Vref_BUFFER when the channels are all single-ended configured, is lower than the sum of the currents absorbed by the buffers of the amplifier of FIG. 2. In fact, the net current flowing in the voltage buffer of a four channel power amplifier of FIG. 4 is |Ich1−Ich2+Ich3−Ich4| (1) while in two dual channel power amplifiers of FIG. 2, the net currents absorbed by the operational amplifiers OP1− and OP3− are |Ich1−Ich2| (2) and |Ich3−Ich4| (3) respectively. Therefore the total current absorbed in the voltage buffers OP1− and OP3−, when all four channels are single-ended, is |Ich1−Ich2|+|Ich3−Ich4| (4) which is greater than or at most equal to the net current, given by eq. (1). In practice, in the power amplifier of this embodiment of the invention the current absorption of a single-ended channel is balanced by all other channels, and not only by the single-ended channel connected to it, as in the power amplifier of FIG. 2. A power amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention particularly suited for car audio applications is depicted in FIG. 7. It is substantially composed of four channels ChFR, ChRR, ChRL and ChFL driving a front right, rear right, rear left and front left loudspeakers, respectively. In order to minimize power consumption, audio signals are fed to the inverting (or non inverting) inputs of the first operational amplifiers of the pairs of the front right and rear left channels that are always connected to the respective loads, while the audio signals are fed to the non inverting (or inverting) inputs of the operational amplifiers of the rear right and front left channels. It has been found that this configuration statistically provides the lowest power dissipation because the currents absorbed by the operational amplifiers of the four channels tend to compensate each other, thus reducing the current absorbed by the voltage buffer. This fact may be demonstrated mathematically as follows. For sake of simplicity, let us suppose that the front channels are both single-ended, though the same considerations apply even when all four channels are single-ended. The front right and front left audio signals ChFR and ChFL, respectively, are substantially two random variables whose mean values are null. In the power amplifier of FIG. 7 a current I1 corresponding to the difference between these two audio signals, that is I1=ChFR−ChFL (5) flows in the voltage buffer. If the first amplifier of the front left channel received the audio signal ChFL on its non inverting input, a current I2 corresponding to the sum of these two audio signals I2=ChFR+ChFL (6) would flow in the buffer Vref_BUFFER. The mean values of currents I1 and I2 are both null (because the mean values of the audio signals ChFR and ChFL are null) but their variances are different and are given by the following equation Var(ChFR±ChFL)=Var(ChFR)+Var(ChFL)±2Cov(ChFR,ChFL) (7) wherein 2Cov(ChFR,ChFL)=2ρ{square root}{square root over (Var(ChFR)·Var(ChFL))} (8) being ρ the correlation coefficient between the audio signals ChFR and ChFL. In general, the right signals are substantially in phase with the corresponding left signals, thus it is possible to state that the correlation coefficient ρ is positive. Therefore, Var(I2)=Var(ChFR+ChFL)≧Var(ChFR−ChFL)=Var(I1) which means that the current I2 is more likely to be greater than the current I1. For this reason the configuration of FIG. 7 statistically provides the lowest power dissipation in the voltage buffer Vref_BUFFER. FIGS. 8, 9, and 10 show results of simulations of a four channel power amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention with a standard four bridge power amplifier, that is a four bridge power amplifier composed of standard class AB operational amplifiers, and with a high efficiency self-configuring power amplifier according to the prior art, carried out with the software program MATLAB™. More specifically, in FIG. 8 are shown the power consumption characteristics of the compared power amplifiers in function of the power delivered to the load for certain values of phase difference. The power amplifiers have four channels driven with sine signals of the same amplitude and each supplying four loads of 4Ω. The first curve, identified with the symbol “⋄”, refers to a four channel standard power amplifier (SPA) regardless of what the phase difference between the input audio signals of the channels is. The same curve also refers to a self-configuring four channels high efficiency power amplifier (HI_EFF) of the prior art, as depicted in FIG. 2 when the front and rear channels are outphased by 180°. The second curve, identified with the symbol “•”, refers to the same self-configuring four channel high efficiency power amplifier (HI_EFF) of FIG. 2, when the front and rear channels are outphased by 90°. Finally, the third curve, identified with the symbol “□”, refers to the same four channel high efficiency power amplifier (HI_EFF) of the prior art when the input audio signals of the rear and front channels are in phase. The same curve also refers to the self-configuring four channel power amplifier (INV) as depicted in FIG. 7 regardless of what the phase difference between the input audio signals of the front and rear channels is. In practice, in the self-configuring power amplifier of the prior art of FIG. 2, the current absorbed by a front (rear) channel may be compensated only by the current flowing in the rear (front) channel connected to it when it is in phase thereto, but when the currents in the front and rear channels are in phase opposition, the total current absorbed by each voltage buffer OP1− and OP3− is twice the current circulating in each channel. By contrast, in a power amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention, when the front and rear channels are in phase-opposition, the current in the front (rear) left channel compensates the current in the front (rear) right channel, and thus even in this case the current absorbed by the voltage buffer Vref_BUFFER is practically null. In FIG. 9, the temperature increases in the heat sink of a standard four channel power amplifier (SPA), of a known self-configuring four channel high efficiency power amplifier (HI_EFF), and of a self-configuring four channel power amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention (INV) are shown. The supplied loads were four loudspeakers and the audio signals input to the front and rear channels were outphased by 3 ms. Even in this case, it is evident that the power dissipation of the power amplifier of this invention is significantly lower than that of known amplifiers. Finally, in FIG. 10, are shown the performances of the power amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention as depicted in FIG. 7 when the audio signals input to the (front and rear) left channels are in phase with the audio signals input to the (front and rear) right channels and when there is a phase difference of 180°. For this test the front and rear channels were outphased by 3 ms and each channel had a 4Ω load. Once again the results confirm that connecting all the channels to the same voltage buffer produces a sensible power saving, because the current absorbed by a single-ended channel is balanced by the currents absorbed by other single-ended channels and not only by the current flowing in the respective front or rear channel connected to it, as in the known power amplifier of FIG. 2. The circuits of FIGS. 4-7 may be disposed on one or more respective integrated circuits, which may be incorporated in electronic systems such as a car radio. From the foregoing it will be appreciated that, although specific embodiments of the invention have been described herein for purposes of illustration, various modifications may be made without deviating from the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In many applications and primarily in audio reproduction systems, for example in car audios, HI-FI audio systems and similar apparatuses that are intrinsically compact because of stringent installation requirements, as well as in portable apparatuses, power dissipation in final power stages, often quadrupled in order to drive a pair of loudspeakers (front and rear) for each stereo channel, may create heat balance problems. For example, four 20 W amplifiers may have a power dissipation of about 4×12=48 W and because of the limited space available in certain apparatuses, such a relatively large power may be difficult to dissipate without a significant increase of temperature within the apparatus. On the other hand, a relatively high temperature of operation may degrade the magnetic tape of cassettes or optical disks (CD), the drives of which are often tightly fitted inside a single apparatus case. The so-called D-type switching amplifiers are highly efficient and are considered the most appropriate type for these applications. Unfortunately, switching amplifiers generate electromagnetic emissions that in compact apparatuses may interfere with the correct functioning of other systems, reducing their performances. For these reasons, audio signals are frequently amplified using a pair of class AB power amplifiers, operating in single-ended or in bridge configuration depending on the level of the processed signal. In fact, class AB power amplifiers are less efficient than switching amplifiers and a common technique for reducing power consumption of class AB amplifiers consists in configuring them in single-ended instead of in bridge configuration, whenever it is possible to do so. In fact, these amplifiers dissipate more power in bridge configuration than in single-ended configuration as long as the amplitude of the output signal remains smaller than the positive supply voltage. Unfortunately, it is not possible to use single-ended class AB amplifiers if the output surpasses this voltage because the output signal would be severely distorted by clipping. Techniques for automatically switching from one configuration to the other in function of the monitored level of the signal are implemented in the commonly owned patents U.S. Pat. No. 5,194,821, U.S. Pat. No. 5,365,188 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,654,688. The patent U.S. Pat. No. 5,194,821 discloses a bridge amplifier using a positive and a negative supply voltage sources, that may function in single-ended or in differential or bridge output configuration, depending on the level of the output signal. Substantially, a comparator changes the output circuital configuration of the amplifier from a bridge configuration to a single-ended configuration or vice versa by closing or opening configuring switches, when the output signal becomes smaller than or greater than a certain threshold voltage. The patents U.S. Pat. No. 5,365,188 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,654,688 disclose a single supply dual bridge power amplifier, having a window comparator for sensing the level of input signals fed to the amplifier and driving the switches that coordinately configure the amplifier in either a bridge or in a single-ended configuration. A system of the type disclosed in the above mentioned patents is schematically shown in FIG. 1 . Four operational amplifiers OP 1 +, OP 1 −, OP 2 +, OP 2 − are respectively input with the signals Ch 1 and Ch 2 for driving two loudspeakers. A window comparator is input with the two signals Ch 1 and Ch 2 and positions the switches that connect the loudspeaker of the channel Ch 2 either to the output of the operational amplifier (OP 2 +) or to a certain reference voltage V REF . The operational amplifier OP 1 − is configured by the window comparator that positions the path-selector shown within the dotted perimeter for functioning as a voltage buffer outputting the reference voltage V REF , by coupling an input thereof to a fixed voltage V F . In the scheme of FIG. 1 , the switches of the power amplifier are shown in the position that configures the amplifier with two single-ended channels driving the respective loudspeakers. In car audio systems two or more pairs of amplifiers of this kind are often used for driving four loudspeakers FR (Front Right), FL (Front Left), RR (Rear Right) and RL (Rear Left) through independently equalizable channels. Surprisingly, it has been noticed that frequently the efficiency of this multi-channel power amplifier inexplicably drops and crosstalk effects increase. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>By investigating the possible causes of these baffling occurrences, it has been noticed that in most recently developed Hi-Fi car audio systems, correlation among the processed audio signals fed to the four channels FR, FL, RR and RL of the power amplifier may significantly decrease because of the different equalizations that may independently be set by the user and consequently of different delays of propagation of the signals through the respective channels. It has been assumed that a probable cause of the loss of performance is the fact that the channels of the power amplifier according to the known practice function either all in bridge or all in single-ended configuration. This restraints means in practice that it may happen, for example, that the front right channel of a car audio system be switched from a single-ended to a bridge configuration (or vice versa) even if it would not be efficient for the channel to do so, because the change of configuration has become necessary for the rear right channel. This important drawback is solved by the multi-channel power amplifier according to an embodiment of this invention. According to this embodiment, each channel has a dedicated window comparator monitoring the level of the input signal of the channel that generates a logic signal for positioning the switches that configure the output power structure of the channel in single-ended or bridge configuration. Moreover, instead of configuring one of the operational amplifiers to function as a reference voltage buffer when switching to a single-ended configuration, a distinct voltage reference buffer is employed, to which any single-ended channel of the multi-channel amplifier may be connected. It has been proven that the performance in terms of power dissipation of this architecture of a multi-channel amplifier go well beyond the normally expected power saving by virtue of the fact that the channels may independently assume a single-ended configuration using the same dedicated voltage buffer. More precisely, a multi-channel power amplifier for driving a plurality of loads, each associated with a respective channel, each channel comprising a pair of operational amplifiers, first and second, one operational amplifier of each channel being connectable by configuring switches either in a bridge configuration with the other operational amplifier or in single-ended configuration to a constant reference voltage output by a dedicated voltage buffer of the multi-channel amplifier for driving the respective load of the channel, and further comprising a window comparator for monitoring the level of the input signal of the channel and producing a logic control signal for the configuring switches. | 20040609 | 20101012 | 20050203 | 92470.0 | 0 | PAUL, DISLER | MULTI-CHANNEL POWER AMPLIFIER WITH CHANNELS INDEPENDENTLY SELF-CONFIGURING TO A BRIDGE OR SINGLE-ENDED OUTPUT, PARTICULARLY FOR AUDIO APPLICATIONS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,865,095 | ACCEPTED | 1-Calcium phosphate-uracil and method for preparing thereof | The present invention provides a medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil and method for preparing thereof. The method comprises mixing Na2HPO4.12H2O with H3PO4, adding uracil to said phosphoric acid working solution for dissolution, pouring obtained solution into reactor, adding creatine kinase, i.e. CPK, agitating, incubating, and standing at room temperature; filtering, pouring the filtrate into reactor, and disposing in a water tank; adding aqueous CaCl2 solution, agitating, incubating, and standing at room temperature; filtering the above material with clean silk cloth, discarding the filtrate, soaking in distilled water, drying. The medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil has efficacy on auto-selected target. It can improve immunity and has a broad therapeutic spectrum. The medicament selectively works on target by self-catalysis and self-assemble effect of high energy phosphate, thus achieves broad-spectrum and safe therapeutic effect. The medicament has significant effect on anti-viral infection; anti-tumor; improvement of immunity and kidney function; functions of neural regulation, abatement of fever, analgesic and treatment of constipation and has no drug dependence and adverse effect. The medicament is a flavourless, white crystal or crystalline powder with a molecular weight of 216.1276. | 1. A medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil, having a structure of following formula: 2. The medicament according to claim 1 which is a flavourless, white crystal or crystalline powder with a molecular weight of 216.1276. 3. A method for the preparation of the medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil according to claim 1, comprising: preparing phosphoric acid working solution: mixing 38.8-41.2 g of Na2HPO4.12H2O with 3.90-4.14 ml of 85% aqueous H3PO4 solution, controlling the pH of mixed solution to a range between 5.92 and 6.28; adding 3.88-4.12 g uracil to 1164-1236 ml of said phosphoric acid working solution for dissolution, pouring obtained solution into reactor, disposing the reactor in a water tank of 38° C.-39° C. without contacting with water, adding 31.04-32.96 mg of creatine kinase, i.e. CPK with a code of 2.7.3.2, agitating for 60-70 minutes, incubating for 30-40 minutes at 38° C.-39° C., and standing at room temperature; filtering the above solution with filter, pouring the all of 1130-1195 ml filtrate obtained into reactor, and disposing in a water tank of 38° C.-39° C.; adding 41.71-44.29 ml of 4.8-5.2% aqueous CaCl2 solution, agitating for 22-27 minutes, incubating at 38° C.-39° C., and standing at room temperature; filtering the above material with clean silk cloth, discarding the filtrate, soaking in distilled water for 8-15 hours, drying, thus obtaining the medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil as white crystal or crystalline powder. 4. A method for treatment of viral infection, tumor, fever, ache, and constipation, and improvement of immunity, kidney function, neural regulation and physical recovery, which comprises administrating the medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil according to claim 1 to patients. 5. The use of the medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil according to claim 1 for treatment of viral infection, tumor, fever, ache, and constipation, improvement of immunity, kidney function, neural regulation and physical recovery. 6. 1-calcium phosphate-cytosine having a structure of following formula: 7. A method for the preparation of 1-calcium phosphate-cytosine according to claim 6, comprising substituting position 1 of the pyrimidine with H3PO4. 8. 1-calcium phosphate-thymine having a structure of following formula: 9. A method for the preparation of 1-calcium phosphate-thymine according to claim 8, comprising substituting position 1 of the pyrimidine with H3PO4. 10. 9-calcium phosphate-guanine having a structure of following formula: 11. A method for the preparation of 9-calcium phosphate-guanine according to claim 10, comprising substituting position 9 of the purine with H3PO4. 12. 9-calcium phosphate-adenine having a structure of following formula: 13. A method for the preparation of 9-calcium phosphate-adenine according to claim 12, comprising substituting position 9 of the purine with H3PO4. 14. 9-calcium phosphate-hypoxanthine having a structure of following formula: 15. A method for the preparation of 9-calcium phosphate-hypoxanthine according to claim 14, comprising substituting position 9 of the purine with H3PO4. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to uracil and uracil-derived medicament, in particularly medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Uracil-derived medicaments of prior art are mono-type medicines and have a certain degree of side effect. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION The objective of the present invention is to overcome disadvantage that one compound only works on one type of disease. The present invention provides a medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil. The medicament has an efficacy on auto-selected targets. The medicament is used for treatment of both symptom and pathogenic factor of different diseases and improvement of immunity. The present invention provides a medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil having a structure of following formula: The 1-calcium phosphate-uracil is a flavourless, white crystal or crystalline powder with a molecular weight of 216.1276. The present invention also provides a method for the preparation of the medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil, comprising: 1. preparing phosphoric acid working solution: mixing 38.841.2 g of Na2HPO4.12H2O with 3.90-4.14 ml of 85% aqueous H3PO4 solution, controlling the pH of mixed solution to a range between 5.92 and 6.28; 2. adding 3.88-4.12 g uracil to 1164-1236 ml of said phosphoric acid working solution for dissolution, pouring obtained solution into reactor, disposing the reactor in a water tank of 38° C.-39° C. without contacting with water, adding 31.04-32.96 mg of creatine kinase, i.e. CPK with a code of 2.7.3.2, agitating for 60-70 minutes, incubating for 30-40 minutes at 38° C.-39° C., and standing at room temperature; 3. filtering the above solution with filter, pouring the all of 1130-1195 ml filtrate obtained into reactor, and disposing in a water tank of 38° C.-39° C.; 4. adding 41.71-44.29 ml of 4.8-5.2% aqueous CaCl2 solution, agitating for 22-27 minutes, incubating at 38° C.-39° C., and standing at room temperature; 5. filtering the above material with clean silk cloth, discarding the filtrate, soaking in distilled water for 8-15 hours, drying, thus obtaining the medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil as white crystal or crystalline powder. The present invention also provides a method for treatment of viral infection, tumor, AIDS, fever, ache, and constipation, and improvement of immunity, kidney function, neural regulation and physical recovery, which comprises administrating the medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil to patients. The present invention also provides the use of the medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil for treatment of viral infection, tumor, AIDS, fever, ache, and constipation, improvement of immunity, kidney function, neural regulation and physical recovery. The present invention also provides 1-calcium phosphate-cytosine having a structure of following formula: The present invention also provides a method for the preparation of 1-calcium phosphate-cytosine, comprising substituting position 1 of the pyrimidine with H3PO4. The present invention also provides 1-calcium phosphate-thymine having a structure of following formula: The present invention also provides a method for the preparation of 1-calcium phosphate-thymine, comprising substituting position 1 of the pyrimidine with H3PO4. The present invention also provides 9-calcium phosphate-guanine having a structure of following formula: The present invention also provides a method for the preparation of 9-calcium phosphate-guanine, comprising substituting position 9 of the purine with H3PO4. The present invention also provides 9-calcium phosphate-adenine having a structure of following formula: The present invention also provides a method for the preparation of 9-calcium phosphate-adenine, comprising substituting position 9 of the purine with H3PO4. The present invention also provides 9-calcium phosphate-hypoxanthine having a structure of following formula: The present invention also provides a method for the preparation of 9-calcium phosphate-hypoxanthine, comprising substituting position 9 of the purine with H3PO4. The medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil has an efficacy on auto-selected target. It improves immunity and has a broad therapeutic spectrum. The medicament selectively works on target by self-catalysis and self-assemble effect of high energy phosphate, thus achieves broad-spectrum and safe therapeutic effect. In particularly, the medicament has following effects: 1. significant effect of anti-viral infection; 2. improvement of immunity and kidney function; 3. anti-AIDS effect (based on structure illation). It has significantly synergic effect when in combination with anti-AIDS drugs (AZT) azidothymidine zidovudine and (3Tc) lamivudine alternatively. FIG. 7 shows Structure formula of anti-AIDS drug AZT azidothymidine zidovudine of prior art and FIG. 8 shows Structure formula of anti-AIDS drug 3Tc lamivudine of prior art. 4. anti-tumor; 5. functions of neural regulation, abatement of fever, analgesic and treatment of constipation; 6. without drug dependence and adverse effect. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 shows structure formula of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil. FIG. 2 shows structure formula of 1-calcium phosphate-cytosine. FIG. 3 shows structure formula of 1-calcium phosphate-thymine. FIG. 4 shows structure formula of 9-calcium phosphate-guanine. FIG. 5 shows structure formula of 9-calcium phosphate-adenine. FIG. 6 shows structure formula of 9-calcium phosphate-hypoxanthine. FIG. 7 shows structure formula of anti-AIDS drug AZT azidothymidine zidovudine of prior art. FIG. 8 shows Structure formula of anti-AIDS drug 3Tc lamivudine of prior art. EXAMPLES Example 1 A Method for the Preparation of the Medicament of 1-Calcium Phosphate-Uracil, Comprising Following Steps 1. phosphoric acid working solution was prepared: 38.8 g of Na2HPO4.12H2O was mixed with 3.90 ml of 85% aqueous H3PO4 solution, the pH of mixed solution was controlled to 5.92; 2. 3.88 g uracil was added to 1164 ml of said phosphoric acid working solution for dissolution, obtained solution was poured into reactor, the reactor was disposed in a water tank of 38° C. without contacting with water, 31.04 mg of creatine kinase, i.e. CPK with a code of 2.7.3.2 was added, agitated at 115-125 rpm for 60 minutes, incubated for 30 minutes, and standed at room temperature for 50-70 minutes; 3. the above solution was filtered with filter, the all of 1132 ml filtrate obtained was poured into reactor, and disposed in a water tank of 38° C.; 4. 41.71 ml of 4.8% aqueous CaCl2 solution was added, agitated at 165-180 rpm for 13-17 minutes, then agitated at 110-120 rpm for 7-9 minutes and stopping, incubated for 38 minutes, and standed at room temperature for 70 minutes; 5. the above material was filtered with clean silk cloth, discarded the filtrate, soaked in distilled water for 8 hours, dried at 55° C. for 20 hours to obtain 2.1065 g medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil as white crystal or crystalline powder. The structure formula of medicament is showed in FIG. 1. Example 2 A Method for the Preparation of the Medicament of 1-Calcium Phosphate-Uracil, Comprising Following Steps 1. phosphoric acid working solution was prepared: 41.2 g of Na2HPO4.12H2O was mixed with 4.14 ml of 85% aqueous H3PO4 solution, the pH of mixed solution was controlled to 6.28; 2. 4.12 g uracil was added to 1236 ml of said phosphoric acid working solution for dissolution, obtained solution was poured into reactor, the reactor was disposed in a water tank of 39° C. without contacting with water, 32.96 mg of creatine kinase, i.e. CPK with a code of 2.7.3.2 was added, agitated at 115-125 rpm for 70 minutes, incubated for 40 minutes, and standed at room temperature for 50-70 minutes; 3. the above solution was filtered with filter, the all of 1198 ml filtrate obtained was poured into reactor, and disposed in a water tank of 39° C.; 4. 44.29 ml of 5.2% aqueous CaCl2 solution was added, agitated at 165-180 rpm for 13-17 minutes, then agitated at 110-120 rpm for 7-9 minutes and stopped, incubated for 40 minutes at 39° C., and standed at room temperature for 90 minutes; 5. the above material was filteredg with clean silk cloth, discarded the filtrate, soaked in distilled water for 15 hours, dried at 65° C. for 28 hours to obtain 2.2367 g medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil as white crystal or crystalline powder. The structure formula of medicament was showed in FIG. 1. Example 3 A Method for the Preparation of the Medicament of 1-Calcium Phosphate-Uracil, Comprising Following Steps 1. phosphoric acid working solution was prepared: 40 g of Na2HPO4.12H2O was mixed with 4.022 ml of 85% aqueous H3PO4 solution, the pH of mixed solution was controlled to 6.1; 2. 4 g uracil was added to 1200 ml of said phosphoric acid working solution for dissolution, obtained solution was poured into reactor, the reactor was disposed in a water tank of 39° C. without contacting with water, 32 mg of creatine kinase, i.e. CPK with a code of 2.7.3.2 was added, agitated at 120 rpm for 60 minutes and stopped, incubated for 30 minutes, and standed at room temperature for 30 minutes; 3. the above solution was filtered with filter, the all of 1175 ml filtrate obtained was poured into reactor, and disposed in a water tank of 39° C.; 4. 43 ml of 5% aqueous CaCl2 solution was added, agitated at 180 rpm for 15 minutes, then agitated at 120 rpm for 8 minutes and stopped, incubated for 40 minutes at 39° C., and standed at room temperature for 80 minutes; 5. the above material was filtered with clean silk cloth, discarded the filtrate, soaked in distilled water for 15 hours, dried at 55-65° C. for 24 hours to obtain 2.1716 g medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil as white crystal or crystalline powder. The structure formula of medicament is showed in FIG. 1. Example 4 Preparation of 1-calcium phosphate-cytosine (FIG. 2) Analogous to the method of Example 1, 1-calcium phosphate-cytosine was prepared, wherein position 1 of the pyrimidine was substituted with H3PO4. Example 5 Preparation of 1-calcium phosphate-thymine (FIG. 3) Analogous to the method of Example 1, 1-calcium phosphate-thymine was prepared, wherein position 1 of the pyrimidine was substituted with H3PO4. Example 6 FIG. 4: Preparation of 9-calcium phosphate-guanine (FIG. 4) Analogous to the method of Example 1, 9-calcium phosphate-guanine was prepared, wherein position 9 of the purine was substituted with H3PO4. Example 7 Preparation of 9-calcium phosphate-adenine (FIG. 5) Analogous to the method of Example 1, 9-calcium phosphate-adenine was prepared, wherein position 9 of the purine was substituted with H3PO4. Example 8 Preparation of 9-calcium phosphate-hypoxanthine (FIG. 6) Analogous to the method of Example 1, 9-calcium phosphate-hypoxanthine was prepared, wherein position 9 of the purine was substituted with H3PO4. Clinical Examples Therapeutic Effect of the Medicament of 1-Calcium Phosphate-Uracil Case 1 A 47 years old woman, who had been suffering from a continued bad cough for 2 months and not susceptive to antibiotics therapy, was administrated orally with medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil for 5 days, 15 mg per day. Therapeutic effect: The symptom of cough was cured completely, and the symptom of incontinence of urine disappeared at the same time. Case 2 A 78 years old man, who had been suffering from cough for about 50 years and hyperplasia of prostate for 7 years and recently relapsed into continued cough for 15 days and constipation, was administrated orally with medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil for 5 days, 15 mg per day. Therapeutic effect: cough symptom was alleviated, constipation disappeared and the frequency of nocturia decreased significantly. Case 3 A 20 years old man, who had caught a cold and had a fever of 39° C., was administrated orally with medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil for 1 day, 15 mg per day. Therapeutic effect: fever was allayed after 1 day and symptom of cough disappeared after 2 days. Case 4 A 21 years old woman, who had a fever of 40.5° C., was administrated orally with medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil for 1 day, one time per day, 15 mg each time. Therapeutic effect: fever was allayed after 1 day and symptom of cough disappeared after 3 days. Case 5 During the period of influenza taking place at Chengdu in December, 2001, 2 persons among 8 persons in an undergraduate dormitory of Sichuan Normal University was administrated orally in advance with medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil for 1 day, one time per day, 15 mg each time, and consequently were not infected with influenza; all of other 6 persons, however, were infected with influenza because of not being administrated in advance with medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil. One day after infection, 2 of 6 infected persons were administrated orally with medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil for 3 day, one time per day, 15 mg each time. Therapeutic effect: fever was allayed after 1 day and symptom of cough faded away after 3 days. Instead of being administrated with medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil, the other 4 infected persons were treated according to conventional therapeutic regimen, recovered until after 15 days. Case 6 4 persons, who had suffered from constipation for about 10 years, defecated 1-2 times a week when administrated with conventional drugs. After oral administration of medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil for 1 day, one time per day, 12 mg˜15 mg each time, they defecated smoothly, once a day. Case 7 A 43 years old woman, who had suffered from frequent premature beat, cardiac distress for 3 years and constipation for 5 years, was administrated orally with medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil for 20 days, 13 mg per day. The therapeutic effect: the symptoms of palpitation premature beat and cardiac distress disappeared completely after 20 days from administration and constipation symptom disappeared after 1 day from administration. Case 8 The medicament can ameliorate sleeping and supplement stamina. 20 persons aging 12˜70 years old were tested and administrated for only one day, 15 mg per day, and had a good sleeping on the same day and all of them were full of vigor in the next day. Case 9 A 65 years old man, who suffered liver cancer in a most serious stage, was administrated orally with medicament of 1-calcium phosphate-uracil for 10 months, one time per day, 15 mg each time. Therapeutic effect: liver tumor was disappeared upon the examination of CT. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Uracil-derived medicaments of prior art are mono-type medicines and have a certain degree of side effect. | 20040610 | 20070710 | 20051215 | 62164.0 | 0 | SHIAO, REI TSANG | 1-CALCIUM PHOSPHATE-URACIL AND METHOD FOR PREPARING THEREOF | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
||||
10,865,137 | ACCEPTED | Deionization filter for fuel cell vehicle coolant | A novel deionization filter for removing ions from a coolant in an electric fuel cell vehicle cooling system is disclosed. The deionization filter includes a filter housing having a coolant inlet port, through which the coolant enters the filter housing; and a coolant outlet port, through which the coolant exits the filter housing. An ion exchange bed having positively-charged and negatively-charged ion exchange resin beads is provided in the filter housing for removing negative and positive ions, respectively, from the coolant. At least one filter assembly is typically provided in the filter housing for filtering particles from the coolant. | 1. A deionization filter for de-ionizing a coolant in a vehicle, comprising: a filter housing having a coolant inlet port and a coolant outlet port; at least one filter assembly provided in said filter housing for filtering particles from the coolant; an ion exchange bed provided in said filter housing for removing ions from the coolant; and a conductivity meter system comprising a first conductivity meter confluently connected to said coolant inlet port, a second conductivity meter confluently connected to said coolant outlet port and a conductivity analyzer box operably connected to said first conductivity meter and said second conductivity meter for determining said ion-removing efficiency of said ion exchange bed. 2. The deionization filter of claim 1 further comprising a visual meter connected to said conductivity analyzer box for indicating an ion-removing-efficiency of said ion exchange bed. 3. The deionization filter of claim 1 wherein said at least one filter assembly comprises a first filter assembly provided adjacent to said coolant inlet port and a second filter assembly provided adjacent to said coolant outlet port. 4. The deionization filter of claim 3 further comprising a visual meter connected to said conductivity analyzer box for indicating an ion-removing-efficiency of said ion exchange bed. 5-6. (canceled) 7. The deionization filter of claim 1 wherein said at least one filter assembly comprises an outer filter and an inner filter provided adjacent to said outer filter. 8. The deionization filter of claim 7 further comprising a visual meter connected to said conductivity analyzer box for indicating an ion-removing-efficiency of said ion exchange bed. 9. The deionization of claim 7 wherein said at least one filter assembly comprises a first filter assembly provided adjacent to said coolant inlet port and a second filter assembly provided adjacent to said coolant outlet port. 10. The deionization filter of claim 9 further comprising a visual meter connected to said conductivity analyzer box for indicating an ion-removing-efficiency of said ion exchange bed. 11-12. (canceled) 13. A deionization filter for de-ionizing a coolant in an electric fuel cell vehicle, comprising: a filter housing; a coolant inlet port including an inlet port end cap carried by said filter housing and an inlet conduit provided in, fluid communication with said inlet port end cap; a coolant outlet port including an output port end cap carried by said filter housing and an outlet conduit provided in fluid communication with said outlet port end cap; at least one filter assembly provided in said filter housing for filtering particles from the coolant; an ion exchange bed provided in said filter housing for removing ions from the coolant; and a conductivity meter system comprising a first conductivity meter confluently connected to said coolant inlet port, a second conductivity meter confluently connected to said coolant outlet port, a conductivity analyzer box operably connected to said first conductivity meter and said second conductivity meter for determining said ion-removing efficiency of said ion exchange bed, and a visual meter operably connected to said conductivity analyzer box. 14-15. (canceled) 16. The deionization filter of claim 13 wherein said at least one filter assembly comprises a first filter assembly provided adjacent to said coolant inlet port and a second filter assembly provided adjacent to said coolant outlet port, and wherein said first filter assembly and said second filter assembly each comprises an outer filter and an inner filter provided adjacent to said outer filter. 17. A method of removing ions from a coolant in a vehicle coolant system of a vehicle, comprising: providing a deionization filter having an ion exchange bed in said vehicle; distributing said coolant through said deionization filter; and monitoring an opening efficiency of said deionization filter by connecting conductivity meters to inlet and outlet ends, respectively, of said deionization filter and a conductivity analyzer box to said conductivity meters and determining a pre-ionization conductivity and a post-ionization conductivity of said coolant. 18. The method of claim 17 further comprising filtering particles from said coolant by providing, at least one filter assembly in said deionization filter and distributing said coolant through said at least one filter assembly. 19. The method of claim 17 further comprising visually indicating said operating efficiency of said deionization filter. 20. The method of claim 19 further comprising filtering particles from said coolant by providing at least one filter assembly in said deionization filter and distributing said coolant through said at least one filter assembly. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to cooling systems for an electric fuel cell vehicle. More particularly, the present invention relates to a deionization filter for removing ions from a liquid coolant in an electric fuel cell vehicle to lower the electrical conductivity of the coolant. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Fuel cell technology has been identified as a potential alternative for the traditional internal-combustion engine conventionally used to power automobiles. It has been found that power cell plants are capable of achieving efficiencies as high as 55%, as compared to maximum efficiency of about 30% for internal combustion engines. Furthermore, fuel cell power plants produce zero tailpipe emissions and produce only heat and water as by-products. Fuel cells include two basic components: an electrode and a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM). Hydrogen fuel flows into one electrode which is coated with a catalyst that strips the hydrogen into electrons and protons. Protons pass through the PEM to the other electrode. Electrons cannot pass through the PEM and must travel through an external circuit, thereby producing electricity, which drives an electric motor that powers the automobile. Oxygen flows into the other electrode, where it combines with the hydrogen to produce water vapor, which is emitted from the tailpipe of the vehicle. Individual fuel cells can be stacked together in series to generate increasingly larger quantities of electricity. While they are a promising development in automotive technology, fuel cells are characterized by a high operating temperature which presents a significant design challenge from the standpoint of maintaining the structural and operational integrity of the fuel cell stack. Maintaining the fuel cell stack within the temperature ranges that are required for optimum fuel cell operation depends on a highly-efficient cooling system which is suitable for the purpose. Cooling systems for both the conventional internal combustion engine and the fuel cell system typically utilize a pump or pumps to circulate a coolant liquid through a network that is disposed in sufficient proximity to the system components to enable thermal exchange between the network and the components. Internal combustion engines use coolants that are high in electrical conductivity, typically having such constituents as water, ethylene glycol and additives such as corrosion inhibitors, pH adjustors and dyes. Fuel cell vehicles, in contrast, require a coolant which has a very low electrical conductivity since the coolant passes through the high-voltage fuel cell. Fuel cell vehicle coolants typically include a mixture of de-ionized water and ethylene glycol with no additives. The high conductivity which characterizes internal combustion engine coolants may cause short-circuiting if used in a fuel cell vehicle cooling system (FCVCS), leading to vehicle failure. Due to the special low conductivity requirements of electric fuel cell vehicle cooling systems, a unique coolant having a low electrical conductivity is used in these systems. During circulation of the coolant throughout the fuel cell vehicle cooling system, however, ions are constantly leached from cooling system components such as plastic, metal and rubber hoses. Therefore, an ion-removing device is needed for removing ions from a coolant in a fuel cell vehicle cooling system in order to maintain low electrical conductivity of the coolant and prevent short-circuiting of the fuel cells which drive the vehicle. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is generally directed to a novel deionization filter for removing ions from a coolant in an electric fuel cell vehicle cooling system. The deionization filter typically includes a housing having a coolant inlet port and a coolant outlet port. A bed of negatively-charged cation and positively-charged anion exchange resin beads is contained in the housing, between the coolant inlet and outlet ports. The coolant is distributed from the vehicle cooling system and into the housing through the coolant inlet port, wherein the coolant trickles through the ion exchange resin bed. Accordingly, the positive ions in the coolant bind to the negatively-charged cation exchange beads and the negative ions in the coolant bind to the positively-charged anion exchange beads in the ion exchange resin bed. The coolant emerges from the coolant outlet port of the housing in a substantially ion-free condition and is returned to the cooling system. At least one filter assembly may be provided in the filter housing for filtering particles from the coolant. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will now be described, by way of example, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a front view of an illustrative embodiment of the deionization filter of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a bottom view of the deionization filter, more particularly illustrating a coolant outlet port of the filter; FIG. 3 is a top view of the deionization filter, more particularly illustrating a coolant inlet port of the filter; FIG. 4 is a longitudinal sectional view of the deionization filter, more particularly illustrating an ion exchange resin bed provided in the housing of the filter between the coolant inlet and outlet ports; FIG. 5 is an enlarged sectional view, taken along section line 5 in FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is an enlarged sectional view, taken along section line 6 in FIG. 4; FIG. 7 is a top view of a stainless steel filter element of the deionization filter; FIG. 8 is a top view of a nylon filter element of the deionization filter; FIG. 9 is a top view of a filter assembly of the deionization filter element, which filter assembly includes the stainless steel filter element of FIG. 7 and the nylon filter element of FIG. 8; FIG. 10 is a front view of an electric fuel cell vehicle (shown in phantom), more particularly illustrating typical placement of the deionization filter (shown in solid lines) in an accessible location in the vehicle; and FIG. 11 is a schematic illustrating a typical flow of coolant from a fuel cell vehicle cooling system and through the deionization filter, and further illustrating a conductivity meter system for measuring the pre-filter and post-filter conductivity of the coolant and a visual indicator operably connected to the conductivity meter system for indicating the approximate remaining lifetime of the deionization filter. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention contemplates a novel deionization filter for removing ions from a liquid coolant in a cooling system of an electric fuel cell vehicle. The deionization filter typically includes an elongated, cylindrical filter housing which includes a coolant inlet port, typically at the upper end of the housing, and a coolant outlet port, typically at the lower end of the housing. Between the coolant inlet port and the coolant outlet port, the housing contains an ion exchange resin bed having positively-charged anion exchange beads for binding negatively-charged anions in the coolant and negatively-charged cation exchange beads for binding positively-charged cations in the coolant. Referring initially to FIGS. 1-9, an illustrative embodiment of the deionization (DI) filter of the present invention is generally indicated by reference numeral 10. The DI filter 10 includes an elongated, typically cylindrical filter housing 12 which is typically a lightweight plastic material. The filter housing 12 is fitted with an outwardly-extending housing flange 13 at each end. As shown in FIG. 4, the filter housing 12 encloses a housing interior 14 which contains an ion exchange bed 39 including multiple negatively-charged cation exchange resin beads 40 and multiple positively-charged anion exchange resin beads 42, the purpose of which will be hereinafter described. Multiple filter mount brackets 6, each provided with a fastener opening 7, may extend from the filter housing 12 to facilitate mounting the DI filter 10 in a vehicle, as hereinafter described. The upper end of the filter housing 12 is fitted with a coolant inlet port 16 which includes an inlet port end cap 20, a top view of which is shown in FIG. 3. The inlet port end cap 20 has an inlet port end cap interior 21, as shown in FIG. 4. The inlet port end cap 20 is circumscribed by an annular, outwardly-extending cap flange 24, from which the inlet port end cap 20 tapers upwardly. As further shown in FIG. 4, an annular seal flange 26 extends downwardly from the inner diameter of the cap flange 24. An inlet conduit 18 is connected to the apex of the inlet port end cap 20 and is disposed in fluid communication with the inlet port end cap interior 21. Multiple ribs or gussets 22 may be provided between the upper surface of the inlet port end cap 20 and the inlet conduit 18 to stabilize the inlet conduit 18 on the coolant inlet port 16. As shown in FIG. 3, multiple bolt openings 25 are provided in the cap flange 24 to receive respective bolts 29 (FIG. 1) that mount the inlet port end cap 20 to the housing flange 13 at the upper end of the filter housing 12. As shown in the enlarged sectional view of FIG. 6, an annular O-ring groove 32 is typically provided in the outer surface of the annular seal flange 26 which extends from the inlet port end cap 20. An O-ring 34, which may be an ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) O-ring, for example, is provided in the O-ring groove 32 to provide a liquid-tight seal between the seal flange 26 and the housing flange 13 at the upper end of the filter housing 12. The lower end of the filter housing 12 is fitted with a coolant outlet port 36. The coolant outlet port 36 is similar in design to the coolant inlet port 16 and includes an outlet conduit 38 which is connected to the apex of a tapered outlet port end cap 20a. As shown in FIG. 4, the outlet conduit 38 is disposed in fluid communication with an outlet port end cap interior 21a. Like the inlet port end cap 20, the outlet port end cap 20a is circumscribed by an outwardly-extending, annular cap flange 24a. An annular seal flange 26a extends upwardly from the inner diameter of the cap flange 24a. Multiple ribs or gussets 22a may be,provided between the exterior surface of the outlet port end cap 20a and the outlet conduit 38 to stabilize the outlet conduit 38 in the coolant outlet port 36. As shown in FIG. 2, multiple bolt openings 25a are provided in the cap flange 24a to receive respective bolts 29a (FIG. 1) that mount the inlet port end cap 20a to the housing flange 13 at the upper end of the filter housing 12. As shown in the enlarged sectional view of FIG. 5, an annular O-ring groove 32a is typically provided in the outer surface of the annular seal flange 26a which extends from the outlet port end cap 20a. An O-ring 34a, which may be an ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) O-ring, for example, is provided in the O-ring groove 32a to provide a liquid-tight seal between the seal flange 26a and the housing flange 13 at the bottom end of the filter housing 12. As shown in FIG. 4, an upper filter assembly 27 and a lower filter assembly 27a are mounted in the respective upper and lower ends of the filter housing 12, according to the knowledge of those skilled in the art. The upper filter assembly 27 is provided between the inlet port end cap 20 and the ion exchange bed 39, whereas the lower filter assembly 27a is provided between the outlet port end cap 20a and the ion exchange bed 39. The upper filter assembly 27 and the lower filter assembly 27a may be substantially identical in construction. As shown in FIGS. 7-9, the upper filter assembly 27 and lower filter assembly 27a each includes a typically stainless steel outer filter 28 and an adjacent, typically nylon inner filter 30. The filter assembly 27 is preferably capable of removing particles of up to typically about 100 microns in diameter or width which may break off from the various cooling system components, such as hoses and reservoirs, and enter the circulating coolant. As shown in FIG. 4, in the upper filter assembly 27, the outer filter 28 is typically located above the inner filter 30, whereas in the lower filter assembly 27a, the outer filter 28 is typically located below the inner filter 30. As further shown in FIG. 4, the cation exchange resin beads 40 and the anion exchange resin beads 42 of the ion exchange bed 39 are packed between the inner filter 30 of the upper filter assembly 27 and the inner filter 30 of the lower filter assembly 27a. Preferably, the ion exchange bed 39 includes AMBERJET ® UP6150 cation exchange resin beads 40 and anion exchange resin beads 42. These resins provide a stoichiometric equivalent exchange capacity and are capable of maintaining a low coolant conductivity, less than 5 μS/cm, over a three-month period during the removal of ions from a coolant in operation of the DI filter 10, as hereinafter described. Referring next to FIG. 10, an illustrative fuel cell electric vehicle 50 is indicated in phantom in front view. The fuel cell electric vehicle 50 typically includes a chassis 52 and a cabin 54. The vehicle 50 typically includes four wheels, including a pair of spaced-apart front wheels 58, and headlights 60 at the front end of the chassis 52. A hood 56 is provided on the front end portion of the chassis 52 to provide access to the vehicle fuel cell motor (not shown) and other operational components of the vehicle 50. In FIG. 10, the DI filter 10 of the present invention is shown in a typical packaged or installed configuration in the vehicle 50. Preferably, the DI filter 10 is installed in the vehicle 50 in an easily-accessible location, such as beneath the hood 56, for example. This can be accomplished, for example, by attaching the filter mount brackets 6 to the frame (not shown) or other structural elements of the vehicle 50. The DI filter 10 is also typically located in proximity to the vehicle cooling system 64, which may also be located beneath the hood 56 along with the fuel cell motor (not shown) and other operational components of the vehicle 10. A coolant inlet line 62 connects the vehicle cooling system 64 to the coolant inlet port 16 of the DI filter 10 to distribute a liquid coolant 63 to the coolant inlet port 16. A coolant outlet line 66 connects the coolant outlet port 36 of the DI filter 10 back to the cooling system 64 to return the filtered and de-ionized coolant 63 to the cooling system 64. Referring again to FIGS. 4 and 10, in operation of the DI filter 10, ions (not shown) which inadvertently break loose from coolant distribution hoses, reservoirs and various other components (not shown) of the vehicle cooling system 64 and enter the coolant 63 during circulation of the coolant 63 through the system 64 are removed from the coolant 63. Accordingly, the coolant 63 is continually circulated from the vehicle cooling system 64 to the DI filter 10, through the coolant inlet line 62. From the coolant inlet line 62, the coolant 63 flows through the inlet conduit 18 and inlet port end cap interior 21 (FIG. 4), respectively, of the coolant inlet port 16; through the outer filter 28 and inner filter 30, respectively, of the upper filter assembly 27; and into the ion exchange bed 39 inside the filter housing 12. The outer filter 28 and inner filter 30 of the upper filter assembly 27 remove particulate debris such as particles which break loose from the transport hoses, reservoirs and various other components (not shown) of the vehicle cooling system 64. Preferably, the upper filter assembly 27 is capable of removing from the coolant 63 particles having a diameter or width of greater than typically about 100 micron. As the coolant 63 trickles downwardly through the ion exchange bed 39, both under pressure from the flowing coolant 63 and by the assistance of gravity, the positively-charged cations (not shown) in the coolant 63 are bound by the negatively-charged cation exchange resin beads 40. Conversely, the negatively-charged anions (not shown) in the coolant 63 are bound by the positively-charged anion exchange resin beads 42. Finally, the descending coolant 63 reaches and passes through the lower filter assembly 27a into the outlet port end cap interior 21a, wherein the inner filter 30 and the outer filter 28 of the lower filter assembly 27a remove any remaining particulate matter, having a size of typically about 100 microns or greater, from the coolant 63. From the outlet port end cap interior 21a, the de-ionized and filtered coolant 63 enters the outlet conduit 38 of the coolant outlet port 36. The coolant 63 is then transported back to the vehicle cooling system 64, which distributes the de-ionized and filtered coolant 63 through the fuel cell motor (not shown) of the vehicle 50. Accordingly, because most or all of the extraneous ions have been removed from the coolant 63, the coolant 63 has a substantially low electrical conductivity. Consequently, coolant-induced short-circuiting or electrical interference of the fuel cell motor in the vehicle 50 is prevented. Referring next to FIG. 11, a conductivity meter system 67 may be connected to the DI filter 10 to monitor and compare the pre-deionized and post-deionized conductivity of the coolant 63 before and after, respectively, the coolant 63 is distributed through the DI filter 10. The difference between the pre-deionized and the post-deionized conductivity of the coolant 63 provides a measure of the functional efficacy of the DI filter 10. The conductivity meter system 67 typically includes an inlet conductivity meter 68, which is provided in the coolant inlet line 62, and an outlet conductivity meter 68a, which is provided in the coolant outlet line 66. A conductivity analyzer box 70 is connected to the inlet conductivity meter 68 and the outlet conductivity meter 68a for receiving input 69 from the conductivity meters 68, 68a, respectively. The input 69 to the conductivity analyzer box 70 indicates the electrical conductivity of the coolant 63 in the coolant inlet line 62 versus the electrical conductivity of the coolant 63 in the coolant outlet line 66. The conductivity analyzer box 70 analyzes this difference in coolant conductivity and determines whether the functional efficacy of the DI filter 10 is such that the DI filter 10 is removing ions from the coolant 66 at an optimum level, is rapidly loosing ion-removing capacity, or is full of ions and requires replacement. A visual meter 72, which may be provided on the dashboard (not shown) or in some other visible location typically inside the cabin 54 of the vehicle 50, is connected to the conductivity analyzer box 70. The conductivity analyzer box 70 transmits to the visual meter 72 input 71 which indicates the functional efficacy of the DI filter 10, as determined by the conductivity analyzer box 70 as described herein above. The visual meter 72 typically includes an elongated indicator bar 74 that is divided into a first segment 74a, a second segment 74b and a third segment 74c, which segments are separately-colored or otherwise visually distinct from each other. An indicator needle 76 provided on the visual meter 72 is capable of indicating one of the first segment 74a, second segment 74b and third segment 74c of the indicator bar 74, depending on the input 71 from the conductivity analyzer box 70. On the visual meter 72, indication of the first segment 74a by the indicator needle 76 reveals a “good”operating condition of the DI filter 10, in which case the DI filter 10 is removing ions from the coolant 63 at an optimum level. Indication of the second segment 74b by the indicator needle 76 reveals a middle operating condition, in which the DI filter 10 is rapidly losing the capacity to remove ions from the coolant 63. Indication of the third segment 74c by the indicator needle 76 reveals a “service” condition, in which the DI filter 10 may be saturated with ions and thus require replacement. In that case, the driver (not shown) of the vehicle 50 can replace the ion-saturated DI filter 10 to ensure optimal removal of ions from the coolant 63 during continued operation of the vehicle 50. While the preferred embodiments of the invention have been described above, it will be recognized and understood that various modifications can be made in the invention and the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications which may fall within the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Fuel cell technology has been identified as a potential alternative for the traditional internal-combustion engine conventionally used to power automobiles. It has been found that power cell plants are capable of achieving efficiencies as high as 55%, as compared to maximum efficiency of about 30% for internal combustion engines. Furthermore, fuel cell power plants produce zero tailpipe emissions and produce only heat and water as by-products. Fuel cells include two basic components: an electrode and a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM). Hydrogen fuel flows into one electrode which is coated with a catalyst that strips the hydrogen into electrons and protons. Protons pass through the PEM to the other electrode. Electrons cannot pass through the PEM and must travel through an external circuit, thereby producing electricity, which drives an electric motor that powers the automobile. Oxygen flows into the other electrode, where it combines with the hydrogen to produce water vapor, which is emitted from the tailpipe of the vehicle. Individual fuel cells can be stacked together in series to generate increasingly larger quantities of electricity. While they are a promising development in automotive technology, fuel cells are characterized by a high operating temperature which presents a significant design challenge from the standpoint of maintaining the structural and operational integrity of the fuel cell stack. Maintaining the fuel cell stack within the temperature ranges that are required for optimum fuel cell operation depends on a highly-efficient cooling system which is suitable for the purpose. Cooling systems for both the conventional internal combustion engine and the fuel cell system typically utilize a pump or pumps to circulate a coolant liquid through a network that is disposed in sufficient proximity to the system components to enable thermal exchange between the network and the components. Internal combustion engines use coolants that are high in electrical conductivity, typically having such constituents as water, ethylene glycol and additives such as corrosion inhibitors, pH adjustors and dyes. Fuel cell vehicles, in contrast, require a coolant which has a very low electrical conductivity since the coolant passes through the high-voltage fuel cell. Fuel cell vehicle coolants typically include a mixture of de-ionized water and ethylene glycol with no additives. The high conductivity which characterizes internal combustion engine coolants may cause short-circuiting if used in a fuel cell vehicle cooling system (FCVCS), leading to vehicle failure. Due to the special low conductivity requirements of electric fuel cell vehicle cooling systems, a unique coolant having a low electrical conductivity is used in these systems. During circulation of the coolant throughout the fuel cell vehicle cooling system, however, ions are constantly leached from cooling system components such as plastic, metal and rubber hoses. Therefore, an ion-removing device is needed for removing ions from a coolant in a fuel cell vehicle cooling system in order to maintain low electrical conductivity of the coolant and prevent short-circuiting of the fuel cells which drive the vehicle. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is generally directed to a novel deionization filter for removing ions from a coolant in an electric fuel cell vehicle cooling system. The deionization filter typically includes a housing having a coolant inlet port and a coolant outlet port. A bed of negatively-charged cation and positively-charged anion exchange resin beads is contained in the housing, between the coolant inlet and outlet ports. The coolant is distributed from the vehicle cooling system and into the housing through the coolant inlet port, wherein the coolant trickles through the ion exchange resin bed. Accordingly, the positive ions in the coolant bind to the negatively-charged cation exchange beads and the negative ions in the coolant bind to the positively-charged anion exchange beads in the ion exchange resin bed. The coolant emerges from the coolant outlet port of the housing in a substantially ion-free condition and is returned to the cooling system. At least one filter assembly may be provided in the filter housing for filtering particles from the coolant. | 20040610 | 20120821 | 20051215 | 66563.0 | 0 | POPOVICS, ROBERT J | DEIONIZATION FILTER FOR FUEL CELL VEHICLE COOLANT | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,865,327 | ACCEPTED | Product stream heater | In an apparatus and a method for heating product streams, particularly food product streams containing fruits or fruit pieces, the product 47 flows through a product-carrying channel 2. The apparatus comprises means for generating high electrical alternating fields, wherein the means comprises electrodes, electrode terminals and an alternating field generator. The invention is characterized in that the electrodes are provided within the product-carrying channel. | 1. An apparatus for heating product streams, particularly food product streams containing fruit or fruit pieces, comprising: a product-carrying channel (2), through which the product passes; and means for generating high frequency electric alternating fields, said means including electrodes (8, 9), electrode terminals (10, 11, 32) and an alternating field generator (77), wherein the electrodes (8, 9) are disposed within the product-carrying channel (2). 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the electrodes (8, 9) are disposed on opposite sides of the product-carrying channel (2), whereby the apparatus (1, 31) comprises at least one electrode pair. 3. The apparatus of claim 1 or 2, wherein parts forming the product-carrying channel (2) are made of food safe dielectric material. 4. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 3, wherein the product-carrying channel (2) has a cross section of rectangular shape, the corners of which are rounded. 5. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 4, wherein the product-carrying channel (2) is formed of a plurality, particularly of two, structural parts (3, 4) having substantially the same configuration. 6. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 5, wherein the cross section of the product-carrying channel (2) is dimensioned so as to enable to move the product by means of air pressure or low pump power with up to 4 tons per hours, particularly with 3 tons per hour, and to flow the product through the apparatus, particularly from bottom to top. 7. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 6, wherein the electrodes (8, 9) are formed of stainless material, particularly high grade steel. 8. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 7, wherein the electrodes (8, 9) are area-like and have an oval shape. 9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the electrodes (8, 9) are rounded at their edges (26) at the side facing away from the channel wall (7). 10. The apparatus of claim 8 or 9, wherein the electrodes (8, 9) are thickened at their edges (27) at the side facing the channel wall (7), and whereby a recess (28, 29) corresponding to the shape of the electrode is located in the channel wall (7) of the product-carrying channel (2). 11. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 10, wherein the electrodes (8, 9) are connected with the electrode terminals (10, 11, 32) located outside of the product-carrying channel (2) by means of at least one fastening element (12, 36) and particularly by means of at least one screw (12). 12. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 11, wherein the alternating field generator (77) is configured to generate square wave alternating voltages in a frequency range of 100 kHz to 1000 kHz, particularly from 200 kHz to 500 kHz. 13. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 12, wherein the alternating field generator (77) is configured to generate voltages up to 1 kV at the electrodes (8, 9) and to generate currents up to 100 A. 14. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 13, wherein the alternating field generator (77) comprises an interface corresponding to the shape of the electrode terminal (10, 11, 32) for connection without cables. 15. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the interface of the alternating field generator (77) is configured such that the electrode terminals (10, 11, 32) may be connected without tools. 16. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 15, wherein stiffening elements (14, 15, 33, 34) are provided at the outer side of the channel as protective means against deformation. 17. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 16, wherein the product-carrying channel (2) is formed of a plurality of subunits arranged in a series along a direction of the product stream in a sealing fashion. 18. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the subunit includes on at least one of the surfaces (17) intersecting the product-carrying channel (2) a recess (18) enclosing the product-carrying channel (2), in which means sealing the interface (17) of two apparatus (1, 31) are inserted and means (21, 23) are provided that connect the apparatus in a sealing fashion. 19. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the subunit includes on one of the surfaces (17) intersecting the product-carrying channel (2) a recess (18) enclosing the product-carrying channel (2), and includes on the other surface (22) intersecting the channel (2) a protrusion corresponding to the shape of the recess, and whereby means (21, 23) are provided to connect to the apparatus in a sealing fashion. 20. The apparatus of any of claims 1 to 19, wherein the apparatus additionally comprises a cleaning module (48, 88, 89, 90). 21. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein the cleaning module (48, 88, 89, 90) comprises a product-carrying, channel (53), particularly formed of high grade steel, having substantially the same cross section as the apparatus (1, 31) and including a showerhead (57) within the product-carrying channel, said showerhead being connected to a fitting (56) attached to the outside of the cleaning module, and being configured to pass a cleaning medium, particularly water, through the showerhead (57) into the interior of the product-carrying channel (2). 22. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein the cleaning module (48, 49, 88 to 90) comprises, at least one further continuous opening (55) that is substantially parallel to the direction of the channel (2). 23. A method of heating product streams, particularly food product streams containing fruit or fruit pieces, the method comprising: flowing the product through a product-carrying channel (2); and heating the product by high-frequency electrical alternating fields applied to electrodes (8, 9), said electrodes (8, 9) being disposed within the product-carrying channel (2). | The present invention relates to an apparatus for heating product streams and, more particularly, for heating fruit or fruit pieces containing food product streams, wherein the apparatus comprises a product-carrying channel through which the product flows, and an apparatus for generating alternating fields, including electrodes, electrode terminals and an alternating field generator. Apparatus of this type are known in the art. Generally, the purpose of these apparatus is to heat products, and particularly food products, such that bacteria can be killed so as to achieve a prolonged shelf time of the product. Thereby, it is important that quality features, such as color, taste, consistency and texture do not significantly change. This is particularly important with fruit or fruit pieces containing food products as the structure of the fruits may readily be destroyed by heat. Therefore, the challenge resides in the fact that processing methods and apparatus have to be developed with which the desired characteristics of the products may be maintained as much as possible. An apparatus for heating and sterilizing of products streams is known, for example from U.S. Pat. No. 6,246,040 B1. In the apparatus described therein, product streams moving in glass or Teflon tubes are electrically heated by strong electric alternating fields. To this end, radio frequency fields are applied to electrodes located outside of the tubes. Polar, i.e. electrically asymmetric, molecules contained in the product to be heated are subjected to a motion owing to their tendency to adjust to the electric field. Hence, the motion of the molecules produces heat. Hereinafter, this method of heating will be referred to as radio frequency heating. Such an apparatus enables a rapid and homogeneous heating even in non-homogeneous product mixtures. In these systems, a large portion of the energy, however, is lost in the walls of the tubes so that the efficiency of the apparatus is low. Moreover, due to the presence of high voltages, which may be generated by means of complex power electronics only, there exists the risk of spark breakthrough. For these reasons, the productivity of apparatus of this type is low and hence, the production costs are correspondingly high. In another well known apparatus, a method of ohmic heating is used. Hereby, electric current flows through the medium to be heated. To this end, low-frequency voltage sources (up to 60 Hz) are used. The electrodes directly contact the product so that energy losses are maintained at very low levels. However, this method may successfully be used with homogeneous product streams only. Since, the product channels have to be relatively narrow (about 1 cm), this method may not easily ber usable with fluids enriched with fruit pieces and the flow rates achieved are low. Moreover, there is a risk of electrolysis, thereby producing hydrogen. This results in a relatively short lifetime of the electrodes which are mostly made of carbon. Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method that enable to safely and sparingly heat or sterilize product streams including inhomogeneous products, particularly fruit or fruit pieces containing fluids, in an efficient, energy saving and cost effective fashion at a high product yield. This object is solved by an apparatus having the features of claim 1 and by a method having the features of claim 23. In the apparatus according to the present invention, the electrodes are disposed in the interior of the channel carrying the product (hereinafter referred to as product-carrying channel), wherein a high-frequency electric field generated between the electrodes by means of an alternating field generator heats and, if necessary, sterilizes the product that is present in the channel. By high-frequency electric field, fields are meant having frequencies that are higher than the grid frequency and particularly having a frequency in the range of kHz-MHz. The electric alternating field enables an immediate and uniform heating of preferably dielectric materials, such as water molecules, with a deep penetration. Thereby, in particular, inhomogeneous products, such as food fluids enriched with fruits or fruit pieces are sparingly heated. The inventive solution avoids undue energy loss, since no additional material, such as a dielectric material, is present between the electrode and the product and hence, allows an efficient, energy saving and productive usage. Moreover, with such an apparatus, the response time is short which positively affects the temperature control. Since the electrodes are in direct contact with the product, also an ohmic heating occurs in addition to the radio frequency heating, as an electric current may flow through the product. This effect may additionally increase the efficiency of the apparatus. Preferably, the electrodes are located on opposite sides of the product-carrying channel, wherein the apparatus comprises at least one electrode pair. Oppositely arranged electrodes results in the creation of relatively homogeneous fields having substantially parallel field lines that are oriented substantially perpendicularly to the product stream. In one advantageous embodiment of the present invention, the channels may be made of food safe dielectric material, thereby also enabling the insulation of the electrodes. However, other materials, particularly, ceramic materials, may also be used for the channel. In another advantageous embodiment of the apparatus, the product-carrying channel may have a rectangular cross section. Hereby, large cross sections may be obtained, thereby ensuring a high product flow rate. Moreover, in large channels, also inhomogeneous fluids, such as food fluids enriched with fruit or fruit pieces, may be conveyed without resulting in undesirable plugging. Preferably, the corners of the channel are rounded to prevent the product from accumulating, so that the cleanliness of the product channels may be ensured for a prolonged time and the cleaning may be facilitated. Therefore, such a channel configuration is also usable for a process-internal cleaning (CIP). Advantageously, the channel carrying the product may be composed of multiple, particularly of two, channel structural parts having substantially the same configuration. In case of a square cross section, the channel may, for instance, be comprised of two substantially U-shaped channel structural parts. Such structural parts may readily be formed and also enable to open the channel and to provide for an access to the electrodes in case of maintenance. In one particularly advantageous embodiment, the cross section of the product-carrying channel is dimensioned such that by means of air pressure or a low pump power, the product may sparingly be conveyed to pass through the apparatus particularly from bottom to top. Due to the sparing transport of the product within the product-carrying channel, a high visual and flavorful quality of the product is possible, especially for transport of fruit or fruit pieces containing products. Preferably, the electrodes are made of high grade steel, however, any food friendly stainless electrically conductive material may be employed. High grade steel ensures a long lifetime, and hence long maintenance intervals and also is relatively cost effective as high grade steel is a commonly used material. The electrodes preferably have an extensive and oval shape, which is calculated such that in the interior of the channel a substantially homogeneous electric field is generated so as to enable an energy-transfer into the product stream, which corresponds to the various speeds of the product occurring within the channel. At the edge of the channel, where the product speed is lower, a correspondingly lower electric field is generated compared to the center, where the product speed is highest. By means of the electrode shape, it is therefore ensured that the energy deposition per volume element of the product and per dwell time is substantially identical for each product volume element in the apparatus so that the product stream is heated uniformly. At the same time, this results in a simplified process control. Hereby, a small product volume being present in the apparatus is to be understood as a product volume element. The sum of all product volume elements yields the total product stream. A further preferred embodiment of the electrode shape relates to the feature that the edges of the electrodes at the side facing away from the channel wall are rounded. This prevents strong local electric fields from building up, which may otherwise lead to an overheating of the product in this area. It is especially advantageous when the edges of the electrodes—particularly in combination with a channel formed of plastic or with a channel formed of a comparative material—are thickened at the side facing the channel wall, wherein the channel wall also has a recess corresponding to the thickened portion. This allows to fit in the electrode into the channel wall in a controlled fashion. Hereby, the thickened portion reproducibly fits into the corresponding recess. Thus, it is avoided, particularly by using a food safe silicone adhesive, that the product may accumulate behind the electrode. Moreover, this ensures an accurately defined position of the electrode within the channel. A further accomplishment is that the electrical field actually formed within the channel substantially corresponds to the field previously simulated. Advantageously, the electrodes are connected with the electrode terminals located outside of the product-carrying channel with at least one screw or other fastening means allowing to exert tensile force. Hereby, the force acting between an electrode and the electrode terminal enables the electrode to be pressed on the channel wall and to be fixed, whereas, on the other hand, this also ensures simple replacement, if required. The alternating field generator required for applying the alternating field voltage to the electrodes preferably generates square wave alternating voltages. Hereby, the frequency ranges from 100 kHz to 1000 kHz and particularly from 200 kHz to 500 kHz are preferable. Square wave alternating voltages have the advantage that they are composed of a superposition of many frequencies (Fourier analysis). The frequency spectrum hereby reaches from the kHz to the MHz region. Due to the presence of the frequency spectrum, long wavelength oscillations may be generated, which allow an even more homogeneous pervasion and hence, an even more uniform heating, particularly of inhomogeneous products. Moreover, the alternating field generator generates voltages up to one kV and particularly, voltages of 500 V at a current in the range of up to 100 A and in particular, in the range of 50-60 A. The relatively low voltage at simultaneously relatively high currents brings about a plurality of advantages. On the one hand, the risk of a spark breakthrough is minimized due to the low voltage. This is especially advantageous, when gas bubbles are present within the product. On the other hand, the high currents enable the transfer of high energies, thereby resulting in an efficient heating of the product. Additionally, the channel cross section may be selected sufficiently large so as to guarantee a high product throughput. At the same time, the length of the apparatus remains short, thereby rendering the apparatus compact and also the cleaning of the apparatus is facilitated. The electric characteristics described above may be achieved by standard power electronic devices, thereby enabling to realize the apparatus in a cost effective and maintenance-friendly fashion. The interface between the alternating feed generator and the electrode terminals is configured such that the alternating field generator may be connected without any additional wiring. In one especially simple and thus maintenance-friendly embodiment, the alternating field generator is attached without tools. Preferably, stiffening elements may be arranged at the outer side of the channel so as to provide protection against the deformation of the dielectric channel material. Owing to relatively high pressures in the interior of the product channel, possibly undesirable deformation of the channel may occur, thereby negatively affecting the shape of the electric fields, or the functionality of the apparatus may be limited owing to leaking portions. Stiffening elements, particularly metal plates made of, for example high grade steel, counteract such a possible deformation and hence, promote an enhanced lifetime of the apparatus. In a further inventive embodiment, the product-carrying channel is formed of a plurality of subunits that are arranged in series in a sealing fashion along the product stream direction. Each subunit comprises at least an electrode pair, corresponding electrode terminals and a number of alternating field generators corresponding to the number of electrode pairs, wherein each of the generators includes its own controller. Hence, the apparatus may be individually adapted depending on the products and depending on the required heating power. The stepwise configuration of the heating apparatus including subunits connected in series additionally offers the possibility of a precise temperature control and regulation. To this end, the subunits may advantageously be distorted with each other by appropriate means, such as screws, wherein between each two subunits sealing means may be inserted into a recess. This recess may be located on at least one of the two apparatus interfaces and may enclose the product-carrying channel. As sealing means, an O-ring may be used for example. In the case of required maintenance, such as the replacement of the electrodes, the various subunits may be dismantled in such a way that the electrodes within the channel may be manually accessed. Alternatively, the sealing may also be achieved without additional sealings, particularly by gluing, especially in the case of channels made of plastic. The glued portions may be reinforced in that the above described recess is present on one of the interfaces, whereas a sealing protrusion corresponding to the shape of the recess is provided on the interface of the subsequent subunit. By this measure, undesired lateral forces acting on the glued portions may be avoided. In a further preferred embodiment, the apparatus for heating product streams may further comprise a cleaning module. One of the maintenance operations, required on a regular basis, is the cleaning of the product-carrying channel. By means of a permanently installed cleaning equipment, this operational step may be performed without any delay, if it is required or planned. A heating apparatus or a sterilizing apparatus may, therefore, be composed of a plurality of subunits and cleaning units. An embodiment is that includes two subunits, each having five electrode pairs, wherein cleaning modules are provided between the subunits and also at the beginning and at the end of the entire heating unit. Advantageously, the cleaning module comprises a product-carrying channel, particularly made of high grade steel, which has substantially the same cross section as the apparatus and which includes, within the product-carrying channel, a showerhead which is connected with a fitting attached to the outside of the cleaning module and through which a cleaning medium, particularly water, is conveyed into the interior of the product-carrying channel through the showerhead. By means of such a cleaning module, the product-carrying channel may thoroughly be cleaned and thus, contributes to the hygienic quality of the product to be heated. In one embodiment preferred with respect to ordering, the cleaning modules comprise at least one continuous opening that is substantially parallel to the direction of the channel. By means of a tie rod having a diameter that substantially corresponds to the diameter of the opening, multiple subunits may be stringed together, centered and distorted with each other. According to the inventive method, the product being present in the channel and generally moving is heated and, as the case may be, sterilized by a high frequency electric field, which is generated between two electrodes by means of an alternating field generator. Hereby, the electrodes are located within the product-carrying channel. The electric alternating field enables an immediate and uniform sparing heating of preferably dielectric materials, while deeply penetrating the product. Particularly, the structure of solid components within the product, particularly of fruits or fruit pieces, is substantially maintained. The inventive method avoids undue energy loss, since no additional material is disposed between the electrode and the product and hence, the method is efficient, energy saving and productive. Furthermore, with this method, the response time is extremely short, which has a positive influence on the temperature control. Embodiments of the present apparatus in accordance with the invention as well as inventive methods will be described by referring to the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a first embodiment of the inventive apparatus, FIG. 2a is a detailed diagram in the form of a plan view of an electrode embedded into the channel wall, FIG. 2b is a detailed illustration in cross sectional view of an electrode embedded into the channel wall, FIG. 3 is a perspective view of a second embodiment of the inventive apparatus, FIG. 4 is a perspective overview of a product stream heater including a plurality of subunits connected in series, FIG. 5 is an embodiment of a channel-forming half shell having five electrodes, FIG. 6 is a perspective view of a cleaning module, FIG. 7 is a perspective overview of a product stream heater having a plurality of subunits connected in series and two cleaning modules, and FIG. 8 is a schematic view of a production line having a product stream heater. FIG. 1 shows in a perspective view the basic configuration of the inventive apparatus 1. The product-carrying channel 2 is composed by two structural parts 3 and 4, having substantially the same configuration. The two structural parts 3 and 4 are arranged side by side in a sealing manner and are typically adhered or glued to each other. At the interface 5 between the structural part 3 and 4, a slot/key combination 6 is provided, in the present example located at the side of the structural part facing the channel. By means of this slot/key combination 6, the adhesion strength is increased. It goes without saying that gluing is merely one possibility to connect the two channel structural parts 3 and 4 with each other, and these structural parts may also be connected with each other by means of screws 16. The channel structural parts 3 and 4 may be made of food safe dielectric material, such as PTFE, polysulfon or PEEK. Within the channel 2, two electrodes 8 and 9, having substantially the same shape, are arranged on oppositely located sidewall surfaces 7. Typically, these electrodes 8, 9 are made of high grade steel. The electrodes 8, 9 are electrically connected to electrode terminals 10 and 11 located outside and typically formed of aluminum or brass, wherein the electrical connection is provided, for example by straining screws 12. In this embodiment, the straining screws 12 also serve the purpose of fixing the electrodes 8 and 9. The electrode terminals 10 and 11 are connected with the square wave alternating field generator which is not shown here, by means of links 13 (here the link is shown for the electrode terminal 11 only). In order to prevent a deformation of the channel structural parts 3 and 4 possibly caused by relatively high pressures in the range of up to approximately 8 bar, particularly 6 bar, stiffening plates 14 and 15 are arranged on the outer side of the channel structural parts 3 and 4. The stiffening plates 14 and 15 may be fastened by the screw 16 or may be fixed by adhering to the channel structural parts 3 and 4. In the embodiment shown in which the shape of the product-carrying channel 2 is rectangular, the stiffening plate 14 or 15 covers at least a portion of the wide and narrow side of the channel structural parts 3 or 4, wherein in this example the area covered by the electrode terminal 10 or 11 is left open such that the stiffened plate and the electrode terminal do not contact each other. An appropriate material for stiffening the housing is, for example high grade steel. The apparatus described above represents a subunit. This subunit may be connected to other subunits having the same configuration so as to allow the formation of a continuous product channel of arbitrary length, depending on the desired product throughput. For this reason, the apparatus 1 includes connecting and sealing means so as to couple the subunits with each other in a sealing fashion. A recess 18 is located on the interface adjacent to the subsequent subunit 17 that encloses the product channel 2, wherein sealing means may be introduced into the recess. Appropriate sealing means may include for instance an O-ring sealing, a flat packing or silicones. In the embodiment shown, the recess is located immediately next to the product-carrying channel 2, may, however, be in principle located at an arbitrary position of the interface to the subsequent subunit 17. Alternatively, the recess 18 may be provided at one side of the subunits only, or may be provided on both sides. In order to relatively center two subunits to each other, the channel structural parts each include at least one bolt 19 and 20 protruding outwardly and being located on the interface to the subsequent subunit 17. These bolts 19 and 20 penetrate corresponding recesses (not shown herein) in the other subunit upon bringing together two subunits and, therefore, center the two subunits relatively to each other. Reference sign 21 denotes bolts that rotatively run on bearings whose rotation axis is registered to the interface 17 in a substantially parallel fashion. The support of the bolt 21 rotatably running on bearings is connected with stiffening plates 14 and is located in the vicinity of the interface 17 to the subsequent subunit. Located on the opposite side of the second interface 22 to a further subsequent subunit, there are counter pieces 23 for the bolt 21 rotatably running on bearings. These counter pieces are, as are the rotatably supported bolts 21, located on the stiffening plate 14 in the vicinity of the interface 22. Identical bolts rotatably running on bearings (not shown herein) and respective counter pieces 24 are also provided on the stiffening plate 15 of the second channel structural part 3, wherein, in this embodiment, on each cut surface 17 or 22 bolts rotatably running on bearings are provided on the one side, while the respective counter pieces are provided on the other side. Hereby, the precise arrangement of the bolts and the counter pieces is not critical for the invention. The bolts 21 rotatably running on bearings and the respective counter pieces serve the purpose to attach two subsequent subunits to each other. The mechanism is described in more detail with reference to FIG. 4. FIGS. 2a and 2b show a detailed illustration of an inventive embodiment of the electrodes. In FIG. 2a, there is shown a section along the length direction of the product stream 25 and parallel to the electrodes 8 and 9, whereas FIG. 2b shows a cross section taken laterally to the product stream 25 at the position of the straining screws 12. FIG. 2a shows a plan view of the lower portion of the apparatus 1. As is shown in FIG. 2a, the electrode 8 has an area-like or sheet-like shape, wherein the sides parallel to the flow direction of the product stream 25 and towards the channel walls are rounded. This results in an oval shape. Hereby, the radius R1 of the rounding is approximately half of the depth Y of the electrode. In FIG. 2b there is shown a rounding 26 of the electrodes 8 and 9 on their respective edges. On the side facing the channel wall 7, the electrodes 8 and 9 have a thickened portion 27, which particularly has, partly, a rounded shape having a radius R3 that approximately corresponds to the thickness Z of the electrode. On the area covered by the electrodes 8 and 9, the channel wall 7 is left open or recessed corresponding to the shape of the electrodes 8 and 9, wherein the electrodes 8 and 9 are inserted into the channel wall 7 approximately up to the half of their thickness Z. If necessary, the electrodes 8 and 9 may be entirely inserted into the structural parts 3 and 4 or the electrodes may possibly rest thereon. The electrodes 8 and 9 are connected to the respective electrode terminals 10 and 11 by means of the straining screws 12. These may establish the electrical contact and may also fix the electrodes 8 and 9 in a sealing fashion. Additionally, in portions 28 and 29 behind the electrodes, sealing means may be provided, such as for instance flat packings. Alternatively, the electrodes 8 and 9 may be adhered to the structural parts 3 and 4 by means of a food safe adhesive, such as a silicone adhesive. FIG. 2b also shows the rounded corners 30 of the channel. The rounding radius R4 is typically substantially less than half of the height H of the channel. For a liquid food product enriched with fruits or fruit pieces, for example the following dimensions of the apparatus (without alternating field generator) are usable: width B 100 mm to 600 mm, particularly B=350 mm, height H 50 mm to 250 mm, particularly H=150 mm, and depth T 50 mm to 450 mm, particularly T=250 mm, with a channel having a width b of 50 mm to 550 mm, particularly b=250 mm, a height h of 30 mm to 230 mm, particularly h=to 95 mm, and a rounding radius R4 of 0 mm to 115 mm, particularly R4=10 mm. Thereby, the electrodes 8 and 9 have a width x from 30 mm to 500 mm, particularly x=250 mm, a depth y from 20 mm to 450 mm, particularly y=135 mm, and a thickness z from 5 mm to 25 mm, particularly z=10 mm. The side rounding radius R1 of the electrodes 8 and 9 is approximately 0 mm to 225 mm, and particularly 67.5 mm, the electrode rounding radius R2 is approximately 0 mm to 12.5 mm, particularly R2=5 mm and the radius R3 of the thickened portion is approximately 0 to 25 mm, and particularly R3=10 mm. FIG. 3 shows an alternative embodiment 31 of the inventive apparatus. The embodiment having substantially the same configuration differs from the preceding embodiment by two aspects. Compared to the electrode terminal 11 of the first embodiment, the contact area of the electrode terminal 32 of the second embodiment is smaller. Towards the AC generator, which is not shown herein, the electrode terminal 32 substantially forms a U-shape and no longer rests on the channel structural part 4. Also, at the side opposite to the alternating field generator, the electrode terminal 32 is shortened compared to the electrode terminal 11 (exemplary embodiment 1). Since the support surface of the electrode terminal 32 on the channel structural part is less compared to first exemplary embodiment, the stiffening plate 33 may be provided with an increased surface, thereby resulting in an improved strength of the apparatus 31 compared to the first exemplary embodiment. It should be appreciated that the electrode terminal belonging to the second electrode 8 has a shape equivalent to the electrode terminal 32. The same holds true for the stiffening plate 34 of the second channel structural part 3. Moreover, a further difference of the embodiment 2 is a different way of attaching and contacting the electrodes with the channel structural parts and the electrode terminals, respectively, wherein the attachment of the electrodes is separated from the contacting. Hereby, the electrodes are attached to the channel structural parts 3 or 4 by means of electrode attachment screws 35, without contacting the electrode terminals 32. The electrical contact between the electrodes and the electrode terminal 33 is established by contact means, such as for instance six screws 36 in this example. This embodiment brings about the advantage that in case of defective electrode terminals, the electrodes may remain in position or vice versa, thereby facilitating maintenance operations. The dimensions substantially correspond to the dimensions of the first exemplary embodiment. FIG. 4 schematically shows an overview of three subunits 1 connected in series of the first exemplary embodiment. The three subunits 1 connected in series are completed at ends 37 and 38 by fitting tubes 39. At the interfaces 17 to the respective subsequent subunits or the fitting tube 39 it is evident, how the subunits may be attached to each other and also how the leading or trailing subunits may be connected with the respective fitting tube 39 by inserting the bolts 21 rotatably running on bearings into the corresponding counter piece 23. In the exemplary embodiment shown, three successive subunits are used, however, depending on the application of the product stream heater, an arbitrary number of subunits may be connected in series. FIG. 5 shows an alternative for connecting subunits of identical configuration in series. Depending on the number of desired electrode pairs, also the length of a channel structural part 40 may be adapted. In the exemplary embodiment shown, for example five electrodes 41 to 45 may be arranged within a single channel structural part 40. Hereby, the dimensions of the electrodes 41 to 45 correspond to the dimensions of the electrodes 8 and 9 described in FIGS. 2a and 2b. In the exemplary embodiment shown, the electrodes 41 to 45 have a spacing of approximately 50 mm. The plurality of openings or holes 46 in the wall of the channel structural part 40 are used for attaching the two required channel structural parts by means of screws. Alternatively, the channel walls may be glued together. FIG. 6 shows the application of the structural parts as described in FIG. 5 in a product stream heater. In this example, structural parts 47 having three electrodes (not shown) are used. Regarding the shape of the electrode terminals 32 and of the stiffening plate 33, the second exemplary embodiment as shown in FIG. 3 is used here. The apparatus is completed by cleaning modules 48 and 49 provided on both ends, which will be discussed in more detail with reference to the following FIG. 7. Next to the cleaning module 48, 49 the fitting tubes 39 are provided. The cleaning modules 48, 49 are distorted with each other by means of two tie rods 50 and 51. By means of this tie rod device, the three elements, the two cleaning modules and the subunit are connected with each other in a sealed and centered fashion. FIG. 7 is a perspective detailed illustration of the cleaning module 48. In the embodiment shown, the cleaning module is composed of a single structural part 52, wherein of course the possibility exists that the body of the cleaning module 48 may be composed of two or more structural parts having substantially the same configuration. The structural part 52 defines a channel 53, the shape of which substantially corresponds to the shape of the product-carrying channel 2 of the subunits 1 and 31, respectively. Reference numeral 53 denotes centering recesses serving the purpose of registering the cleaning module 48 with respect to the subsequent subunits 1 or 31, which have registered bolts 19 or 20. Guide openings 55 are formed on the sides of the structural part 52, through which the tie rods 50 or 51 are passed. A pipe conveying a cleaning fluid or a hose conveying a cleaning fluid may be connected to the fitting 56. By means of a channel (not shown) provided in the structural part 52 of the cleaning module, the cleaning agent may enter the showerhead 57 and may be sprayed through openings formed in the showerhead into the interior of the channel 53 and the product-carrying channel 2, respectively. In the exemplary embodiment, a centrally arranged showerhead is shown; however, a plurality of small showerheads may be provided, especially at the perimeter of the channel 53. For a food product enriched with fruits or fruit pieces, a product stream heater having 2×5 electrode pairs connected in series has proven to be particularly effective. Hereby, at the end of the product entry and at the end of the product exit, a cleaning module is provided and an additional cleaning module is located in the center of the apparatus, that is, after five subsequent electrode pairs. For the application, it is not critical whether the apparatus is used in a horizontal position or in a vertical position, wherein the support surface of the apparatus is reduced when using the same in the vertical position. Referring to FIG. 8, which schematically shows the entire configuration of a product stream heater, the inventive method using the inventive apparatus will now be described. The liquid food product enriched with fruits or fruit pieces that is to be heated is provided in a storage container 60. The fruit product is moved within a channel 63 by means of a pump 61 after valves 62 have been opened. After passing a curved fitting 64, the liquid enters the product stream heater 65. As shown, the product is fed into the product stream heater 65 at the bottom and then flows substantially vertically upwards through the product stream heater 65. Hereby, the product passes by, in total, ten electrode pairs 67 to 76. Each of the electrode pairs is connected to one of square wave generators 77 to 86. Typically, square wave alternating voltages of approximately 500 volts with currents of approximately 50 to 60 A and a frequency of approximately 200 to 500 kHz are applied to the electrodes 67 to 76. As a result, strong electric alternating fields are created within the product-carrying channel, thereby heating the product stream. Typically, in the example shown, heating rates of approximately 80° C. per minute and a maximum temperature of about 130° C. are achieved. After the heating step, the product stream flows into the discharge channel 87 and may be further processed in a subsequent apparatus (not shown). The apparatus may be turned off on a regular basis and the product stream heater 65 may be cleaned by means of the cleaning modules 88 to 90 provided therein. For a possible maintenance of the electrodes, the product stream heater may be dismantled relatively fast by means of the tie rods 91 and 92, in that the cleaning modules are pushed away so as to facilitate access of the electrodes. | 20040610 | 20080812 | 20050127 | 64956.0 | 0 | ROBINSON, DANIEL LEON | PRODUCT STREAM HEATER | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||||
10,865,751 | ACCEPTED | Pressure-sensitive adhesive component for ankle and use thereof | To provide a pressure-sensitive adhesive component that can be quickly and easily used to fix an ankle joint by persons having no expert knowledge on taping without causing problems such as difficulty in wearing shoes due to thickening upon application of the tape, a pressure-sensitive adhesive component includes a bottom portion; a first tape-shaped body; and a second tape-shaped body, wherein a cut is provided between the first and second tape-shaped bodies running in a longitudinal direction, the first tape-shaped body including a first front tape body and a first rear tape body, and the second tape-shaped body including a second front tape body and a second rear tape body, and wherein a ratio of a width of the front tape body to a width of the rear tape body is within the range of 5:5 to 5:3. | 1. A pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle, comprising an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component comprising: a bottom portion; a first tape-shaped body provided on the bottom portion; and a second tape-shaped body provided on the bottom portion, wherein a cut in provided between the first and second tape-shaped bodies running in a longitudinal direction with respect to the first and second tape-shaped bodies from edges of the first and second tape-shaped bodies, the first tape-shaped body including a first front tape body and a first rear tape body, and the second tape-shaped body including a second front tape body and a second rear tape body, and wherein a first ratio of a width of the first front tape body to a width of the first rear tape body and a second ratio of a width of the second front tape body to a width of the second rear tape body are independently within the range of 5:5 to 5:3. 2. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensitive adhesive component is an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component, wherein one edge of the bottom portion is concave, the one edge of the bottom portion is the edge on the side of the first and second rear tape bodies. 3. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in clam 2, wherein the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component has a length of 300 mm to 600 mm and the first and second tape-shaped bodies independently have a width of 50 mm to 150 mm. 4. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensitive adhesive component is a modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component, and wherein the first and second rear tape bodies have lengths shorter than those of the first and second front tape bodies. 5. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle an claimed in claim 4, wherein the pressure-sensitive adhesive component has a length from an edge of the first front tape body to an end of the second front tape body of 400 mm to 650 mm, and wherein the first and second tape-shaped body independently have a width of 50 mm to 150 mm. 6. The pressure-sensitive adhesive-component for an ankle as claimed in claim 4, wherein the first and second front tape bodies independently have a length of 200 mm to 270 mm. 7. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in claim 4, the first and second rear tape bodies independently have a length of 80 mm to 150 mm. 8. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle am claimed in claim 1, wherein head portions of the first rear tape body, the first front tape body, the second rear tape body, and the second front tape body are each tongue-shaped. 9. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in claim 1, wherein a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer of the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component is covered with a release liner that is provided with a back slit at several positions. 10. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in claim 9, wherein the release liner that covers the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer and is separated by a back slit has indicated thereon a character or an image thereon. 11. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in claim 10, wherein one can recognize an order from the character or image on the release liner separated by the back slit. 12. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in claim 1, wherein the substrate pressure-sensitive adhesive component includes a substrate made of one material selected from the group consisting of a high twist fabric and an elastic knitted fabric. 13. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle a claimed in claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensitive adhesive component includes a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer that is formed from one material selected from the group consisting of an acrylic pressure-sensitive adhesive and a gal pressure-sensitive adhesive. 14. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in claim 1, wherein the pressure-sensitive adhesive component includes a support and a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer, and wherein the total of a thickness of the support and a thickness of the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer is 300 μm to 1,100 μm, and wherein the pressure-sensitive adhesive component consisting of a support and a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer has an elongation of 110% or less. 15. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in claim 1, further comprising an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component in a rectangular form having a shorter side and a longer side and a curved corner, as an independent element. 16. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in claim 15, wherein the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component includes a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer having thereon a release liner, the release liner is separated by a back split at two positions. 17. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle as claimed in claim 16, wherein the pressure-sensitive adhesive component has a shorter side of 50 mm to 100 mm, a longer side of 100 mm to 350 mm. 18. A taping method of performing taping an ankle joint by using an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component, comprising: removing a release liner on a bottom portion; placing a heal such that an edge of the heel is in line with a concave edge of the bottom portion; removing a release liner on a front tape portion to be applied to an outer side of the ankle portion and applying the front tape portion with holding a head portion of a front tape body while expanding the front tape portion so as to cover a medial malleolus of the ankle portion from a heel toward a knee joint; removing a release liner on a front tape head portion and applying the front tape head portion; removing a release liner on a front tape portion to be applied to an inner aide of the ankle portion and applying the front tape portion while drawing up the front tape portion just above and expanding; removing a release liner on a front tape head portion and applying the front tape head portion; removing a release liner on a rear tape portion positioned on an outer side of the ankle portion and applying the rear tape portion by holding a bead portion of a rear tape body so as to pass along the back side of the ankle portion and cover over the medial malleolus while expanding the rear tape portion; removing a release liner of a rear tape head portion and applying the rear tape head portion; removing a release liner on a rear tape portion positioned on the inner side of the ankle portion and applying the rear tape portion by holding a head portion of a rear tape body and while expanding the rear tape portion so as to pass along the back side of the ankle portion and cover over the lateral malleolus; and removing a release liner of a rear tape head portion and applying the rear tape head portion. 19. The taping method as claimed in claim 18, wherein one edge of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive is applied onto the rear tape portion so as to cover the lateral malleolus of the ankle portion in an overlapping manner and then the other edge of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component is applied to onto the other rear tape portion so as to cover the medial malleolus of the ankle portion in an overlapping manner. 20. A taping method by using a modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component, comprising: removing a release liner of a bottom portion and placing a heel sole on the bottom portion such that a rear tape body covers a surface of malleolus when elevated vertically; removing a release liner of one of the rear tape bodies and applying the rear tape body by holding a head portion of the rear tape body to lift the rear tape body vertically while expanding the rear tape body so as to cover the lateral malleolus of the ankle portion; removing a release liner of the other rear tape body to be applied to an inner side of the ankle portion and applying the rear tape body while lifting the rear tape body vertically to expand the rear tape body so as to cover an inner side of the ankle portion; moving a release liner of one of the front tape bodies positioned on an outer side of the ankle portion and applying the front tape body while holding a head portion of the front tape body to expand the front tape body so as to pass along an entire loop from above the dorsum of foot and the ankle portion and cover over the lateral malleolus and further pass Achilles' tendon on the back side of the ankle to the lateral malleolus; and removing a release liner of the other front tape body positioned on the inner side of the ankle portion and applying the front tape body while holding a head portion of the front tape body to expand the front tape body so as to pass along an entire loop including crossing at the ankle portion above the dorsum of foot to cover over the lateral malleolus, passing the Achilles' tendon to reach the medial malleolus. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle and to a method for using it. More particularly, the present invention relates to a pressure-sensitive adhesive component used for fixing ankle joints and the like in the fields of medicine, sports, chiropractic and so on and to a method for using such a pressure-sensitive adhesive component. 2. Description of Related Art An ankle is a portion of a body that supports the body and thus is loaded with the body weight and that tends to suffer a sprained ankle in porting, daily life and so on. Since the ankle is closely involved in walking, a pain in the ankle makes daily motion difficult. Accordingly, there has been a keen desire for a countermeasure to alleviate the pain that occurs in the ankle. For example, a treatment to fix the ankle joint and the like has been performed. A method for fixing the ankle joint and the like without requiring expert knowledge includes a method of attaching a supporter around an ankle disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 10-24055. The supporter has a shin pad formed to have a large thickness and use of the pad results in thickening of the ankle so that one cannot wear shoes or the like when he or she has attached the shin pad around the ankle. This is inconvenient to daily life motions. Further, a supporter for a foot joint made of an elastic tape-shaped body, including an anchor strap that winds up around an ankle, a figure eight strap that winds up around a dorsum of the foot and a sole of the foot in the form of a figure eight (8), and a stirrup strap that winds up around the foot from a medial malleolus to a lateral malleolus through the sole is disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 10-248865. The supporter loosens with a lapse of time, thus failing to fix the ankle joint and the like sufficiently. Fixing or otherwise restricting the movement of an ankle joint by using a pressure-sensitive adhesive tape in order to alleviate the pain of the ankle (taping) is a conventional treatment performed in the fields of sports and medicine. Appropriate taping can sufficiently fix the ankle to alleviate the pain of the ankle and will not reduce the ability of the ankle and the like to move. However, the conventional treatment has the defect that appropriate taping cannot be readily performed since expert knowledge is required for performing such taping. Also, it has the problem that taping by spirally winding a pressure-sensitive adhesive tape around an ankle in an overlapping manner tends to cause local circulation disturbance and nervous disturbance due to over constriction. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been made under the above-mentioned circumstances and an object of the present invention is to provide a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle portion with which a person having no expert knowledge on taping can fix the ankle quickly and easily and which causes no problems such as failure to wear shoes due to the attachment of a fixing member or the like and thickening of the ankle an a result of application of the tape. Another object of the present invention is to provide a method for fixing an ankle joint and the like by using the pressure-sensitive adhesive opponent for an ankle portion. The present invention provides a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle comprising an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component including: a bottom portion; a first tape-shaped body provided on the bottom portion; and a second tape-shaped body provided on the bottom portion, wherein a cut is prodded between the first and second tape-shard bodies running in a longitudinal direction with respect to the first and second tape-shaped bodies from edges of the first and second tape-shaped bodies, the first tape-shaped body including a first front tape body and a first rear tape body, and the second tape-shaped body including a second front tape body and a second rear tape body, and wherein a first ratio of a width of the first front tape body to a width of the first rear tape body and a second ratio of a width of the second front tape to a width of the second rear tape body are independently within the range of 5:5 to 5:3. According to one aspect, the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention includes an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component including: a bottom portion; a first tape-shaped body provided on the bottom portion; and a second tape-shaped body provided on the bottom portion, wherein one edge of the bottom portion is concave, wherein a cut in provided between the first and second tape-shaped bodies running in a longitudinal direction with respect to the first and second tape-shaped bodies from edges of the first and second tape-shaped bodies, the first tape-shaped body including a first front tape body and a first rear tape body, and the second tape-shaped body including a second front tape body and a second rear tape body, and wherein a first ratio of a width of the first front tape body to a width of the first rear tape body positioned on the side of the concave edge and a second ratio of a width of the second nd front tape body to a width of the second rear tape body positioned on the side of the concave edge are independently within the range of 5:5 to 5:3. Here, the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component may have a length of 300 mm to 600 mm mod the first and second tape-shaped bodies may independently have a width of 50 mm to 150 mm. According to another aspect, the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention includes a modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component, including a rectangular bottom portion; a first rear tape body and a front tape body extending from one edge of the bottom portion having respective axes parallel to each other; and a second rear tape body and a second front tape body extending from an opposite edge of the bottom portion having respective axes parallel to each other, wherein the first and second rear tape bodies have lengths shorter than those of the first and second front tape bodies. Here, the pressure-sensitive adhesive component may have a length from an edge of the first front tape body to an end of the second front tape body of 400 mm to 650 mm, and the first and second tape-shaped body may independently have a width of 50 mm to 150 mm. Further, the first and second front tape bodies nay independently have a length of 200 mm to 270 mm. Still further, the first and second rear tape bodies may independently have a length of 80 mm to 150 mm. In the present invention, it is preferable that head portions of the first rear tape body, the first front tape body, the second rear tape body, and the second front tape body arm each tongue-shaped. It is preferable that the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle includes a Substrate and a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer and the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer is covered with a release liner. Sere, the substrate may be made of a high twist fabric, an elastic knitted fabric or an elastic woven fabric. The pressure-sensitive adhesive layer may be made of an acrylic-based pressure-sensitive adhesive or a gel-based pressure-sensitive adhesive. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention may further include an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component in a rectangular form having a shorter side and a longer side and a curved corner, as an independent element. In the present invention, the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component or the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component may include a release liner that covers the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer and is separated by a back slit and has indicated thereon a character or an image thereon Here, one can recognize an order from the character or image put on the release liners separated by the back splits. The taping method by using the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component of the present invention includes: removing a release liner on a bottom portion; placing a heal such that an edge of the heel is in line with a concave edge of the bottom portion; removing a release liner on a front tape portion to be applied to an outer wide of the ankle portion and applying the front tape portion with holding a head portion of a front tape body while expanding the front tape portion so as to cover a medial malleolus of the ankle portion from a heal toward a knee joint; removing a release liner on a front tape head portion and applying the front tape head portion; removing a release liner on a front tape portion to be applied to an inner side of the ankle portion and applying the front tape portion while drawing up the front tape portion just above and expanding; removing a release liner on a front tape head portion and applying the front tape head portion; removing a release liner on a rear tape portion positioned on an outer side of the ankle portion and applying the rear tape portion by holding a head portion of a rear tape body so as to pass along the back side of the ankle portion and cover over the medial malleolus while expanding the rear tape portion; removing a release liner of a rear tape head portion and applying the rear tape head portion; removing a release liner on a rear tape portion positioned on the inner side of the ankle portion and applying the rear tape portion by holding a head portion of a rear tape body and while expanding the rear tape portion so as to pass along the back side of the ankle portion and cover over the lateral malleolus; and removing a release liner of a rear tape head portion and applying the rear tape head portion. Here, one edge of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive may be applied onto the rear tape portion so as to cover the lateral malleolus of the ankle portion in an overlapping manner and then the other edge of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component may be applied to onto the other rear tape portion so as to cover the medial malleolus of the ankle portion in an overlapping manner. The taping method by using the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component includes removing a release liner of a bottom portion and placing a heel sole on the bottom portion such that a rear tape body covers a surface of malleolus when elevated vertically; removing a release liner of one of the rear tape bodies and applying the rear tape body by holding a head portion of the rear tape body to lift the rear tape body vertically while expanding the rear tape body so as to cover the lateral malleolus of the ankle portion; removing a release liner of the other rear tape body to be applied to an inner side of the ankle portion and applying the rear tape body while lifting the rear tape body vertically to expand the rear tape body so as to cover an inner side of the ankle portion; removing a release liner of one of the front tape bodies positioned on an outer side of the ankle portion and applying the front tape body while holding a head portion of the front tape body to expand the front tape body so as to paws along an entire loop from above the dorsum of foot and the ankle portion and cover over the lateral malleolus and further pass Achilles' tendon on the back side of the ankle to the lateral malleolus; and removing a release liner of the other front tape body positioned on the inner side of the ankle portion and applying the front tape body while holding a head portion of the front tape body to expand the front tape body so as to pass along an entire loop including crossing at the ankle portion above the dorsum of foot to cover over the lateral malleolus, passing the Achilles' tendon to reach the medial malleolus. In the present invention, it is preferable that the head portion is applied after relaxation of elongation of the head portion. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A is a plan view showing a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 1B is a front view of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle shown in FIG. 1A; FIG. 2 is a a cross-sectional view illustrating a layer structure of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle according to the present invention; FIG. 3A is a plan view showing an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A for an ankle according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3B is a plan view showing an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive a component B; FIG. 4A is a plan view showing an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A for illustrating a method of performing taping according to the present invention; FIGS. 4B and 4C are each a schematic perspective view illustrating the method of performing taping using the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A according to the present invention; FIGS. 5A, 5B and 5C are each a schematic perspective view illustrating the method of performing taping using the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A according to the present invention subsequent to the steps shown in FIGS. 4A to 4C; FIGS. 6A and 6B are each a schematic perspective view illustrating the method of performing taping using the H-shad pressure-sensitive adhesive component A according to the present invention subsequent to the steps shown in FIGS. 5A to 5C; FIGS. 7A and 7B are each a schematic perspective view illustrating a method of performing taping using an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component B according to the present invention; FIG. 8A is a plan view showing a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle C according to a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8B is a front view of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle C shown in FIG. 8A; FIG. 9A, 9B and 9C are each a schematic perspective view illustrating a method of performing taping using a modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component C according to the present invention; FIGS. 10A, 10B and 10C are each a schematic perspective view illustrating the method of performing taping using the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component C according to the present invention subsequent to the steps shown in FIGS. 9A to 9C; FIGS. 11A, 11B and 11C are each a schematic perspective view illustrating the method of performing taping using the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component C according to the present invention subsequent to the steps shown in FIGS. 10A to 10C; FIG. 12A is a plan view showing a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12B is a plan view showing an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component B; FIGS. 13A and 13B are each a schematic perspective view illustrating a method of performing taping further using an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive tape B; FIGS. 14A and 14B are each a schematic perspective view illustrating a method of performing taping further using an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive tape B; FIGS. 15A and 15B are each a schematic perspective view illustrating a method of performing taping further using an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive tape B; and FIGS. 16A and 16B are each a schematic perspective view illustrating a method of performing taping further using an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive tape B. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for ankle of the present invention is an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component that includes a bottom portion, a first tape-shaped body and a second tape-shaped body, with the first and second tape-shaped each being constituted by a front tape portion and a rear tape portion. The bottom portion may be rectangular or may form a concave edge on one end. Hereinafter, the present invention will be described in detail by embodiments with reference to the attached drawings. The same or like constituent elements are indicated by the same reference numerals and detailed explanation thereof is omitted. FIG. 1A is a plan view showing a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle according to a first embodiment of the present invention and FIG. 1B is a front view of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle shown in FIG. 1A. Here, explanation will be made on a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle including an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component. In FIG. 1A, an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A has a substantially rectangular contour and includes a bottom portion 1 to be applied to a heel sole of the foot substantially in the center thereof and tape-shaped bodies 17 and 17′ to be applied to side and back surfaces, respectively, of the ankle on right-hand and left-hand sides, respectively, of the bottom portion 1. The right and left tape-shaped bodies 17 and 17′ are formed with cuts 6 and 6′, respectively, running from respective shorter edges of the substantially rectangular pressure-sensitive adhesive component A (hereinafter, referred to “shorter rectangular edge”) to reach the bottom portion; thus the right tape-shaped body is divided into a first front tape body and a first rear tape body, and the left tape-shaped body in divided into a second front tape body and a second rear tape body. The first front tape body has a front tape portion 2 and a front taps head portion 3 and the first roar tape body has a rear tape portion 4 and a rear tape head portion 5. The second front tape body has a front tape portion 2′ and a front tape head portion 3′ and the second rear tape body has a rear tape portion 4′ and a rear tap head portion 5′. The respective head portions of the front body and rear tape body, i.e., the front tape head portion 3 and 3, and the rear tape head portion 5 and 5′ are tongue-shaped. The term “tongue-shaped” as used herein means a shape like a rectangle with the corner portions thereof being cut off, including for example, shapes similar to curves, such ax polygonal, semicircular, elliptical, R-shaped and the like curves. If the front tape head portions and rear tape head portions are rectangles with corners as they are the front and rear tape bodies tend to be peeled off when they are applied on the already applied pressure-sensitive adhesive component (including the own back sides of them) whereas forming head portions into a tongue shape makes them difficult to be peeled off when applied in an overlapping manner one on another. The positions of the cuts 6 and 6′ are preferably such that the ratio of the width of the front tape portion 2 (W11) and the width of the rear tape portion 4 (W12) is within the range of, for example, W11:W2=5:5 to 5:3. In addition, the position of the left cut 6′ and that of the right cut 6 maybe the same or different but it is preferred that the positions of both are preferably within the above-mentioned range. The bottom portion 1 has a concave edge 7 on one side edge on the side of the rear tape portions. The shape of the concave edge 7 is preferably such that it allows the and of the heel of foot to run off from the bottom portion 1 to some extent. Although the layer structure of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention will be described in detail later on, here a brief explanation is made. To prevent attachment of dust and the like to the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer to protect it until use, it is preferable that a release liner is laminated on the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer. It is also preferable that the release liner is provided with a back split at several positions. For example, back splits are provided at a boundary portion 9 between the bottom portion I and the first front tape portion 2 and rear tape portion 4 and similarly at the left-hand side boundary portion 8′. The back splits are also provided at a boundary portion 10 between the first front-tape portion 2 and the front tape head portion 3 and similarly at the boundary portion 9 between the second front tape portion 2′ and the front tape head portion 3′. Further, back splits are provided at the boundary portion 12 between the first rear tape portion 4 and the rear tape head portion 5 and similarly at tho boundary portion 11 between the second rear tape portion 4, and the rear tape head portion 5′. In the case of the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component shown in FIG. 1, numeric symbols (such as {circle over (1)} and {circle over (2)}) are put as by printing on the release liner of each part separated by the back split. Although what is put is not limited to numerical symbols, it is preferable that images such as characters (including numerical symbols) showing the order of taping and illustrations are indicated by any appropriate method. The substantially rectangular H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component shown in FIG. 1 has a shorter rectangular edge length (W10) of preferably 50 mm to 150 mm and a longer rectangular edge length (L10) of preferably 300 mm to 600 mm. It is preferable that the pressure-sensitive adhesive component is designed appropriately within such a range in consideration of the body type, foot type and so forth. Further, the each out 6,6′ has a length of preferably 150 mm to 250 mm. It is preferable that the length and a size and a shape of the bottom portion are designed appropriately within such a range in consideration of the body type, foot type and so forth. FIG. 1B shows an example of the layer structure of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle A. In FIG. 1B, the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle includes a support 19, a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer 15 and a release liner 16. Here, the support 19 is constituted by a substrate 14 only. However, the support 19 may be a laminate of the substrate 14 and another layer 18 provided thereon as shown in FIG. 2. The type and the like of another layer 18 may be selected appropriately an necessary. Although the release liner 16 may be omitted, it is preferable that the release liner 16 in laminated on the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer 15 in order to prevent the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer 15 from being contaminated with dust and dirt and protect adhesive power until use. In FIG. 1B, the release liner 16 is provided with back splits at the boundary portions (8, 8′, 11, 12) of each part and each release liner that covers each part is formed with a printed portion 13 where a numerical symbol (such a {circle over (1)} or {circle over (2)}) is printed. The release liner may be one that man be used pressure-sensitive adhesive tapes generally applied to the skin. Specifically, use can be made of high-quality paper, glassine paper, parchment paper and the like coated thereon with a releasing agent having an ability to release, such as silicone; high-quality paper anchor-coated with a resin or laminated with polyethylene, further coated with a releasing agent having an ability to release, such as silicone; and so forth. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention preferably has suitable kickback property, good handling property (workability), and fixability. Therefore, it is preferable that the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention (for adhesive the pressure-sensitive adhesive component without the release liner, that is, pressure-sensitive adhesive component consisting of a support and a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer) has an elongation (degree of elongation) in a longitudinal direction (in the direction of larger length of a rectangle) of about 30% to about 110%, more preferably 30% to 70%. Such a pressure-sensitive adhesive component has a tensile strength of preferably 10 N/19 mm width or more and 200 N/19 mm width or less and a 20% modulus (tensile stress at 20% elongation) of preferably 0.5 N/19 mm width or more and 8 N/19 mm width or less. If the elongation is greater than 110%, there is the fear that the pressure-sensitive adhesive component in the region where it contacts the ankle portion is elongated to the limit by repeated expansion and contraction caused in response to the expansion and contraction motions of the ankle portion. It is preferable that the substrate 14 that constitutes the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention has a tensile stress at 20% elongation is 10 N/19 mm width or less and more preferably, from the viewpoint of fixability of ankle joint and the like, 9 N/19 mm width or less. Further, it is preferable that the substrate has a hysteresis at 80% elongation of 85% or more and a tensile stress at 80% elongation of 15 N/19 mm width or more. To further alleviate the load on the ankle joint and the like, it is more preferable that the substrate has a hysteresis at 80% elongation of 88% or more and a tensile stress at 80% elongation of 16 N/19 mm width or more. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle that contains the substrate having, such characteristics can realize followability and fixability to the ankle joint and the like. Here, the term “hysteresis at 80% elongation” refers to an index that indicates restoration when the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle is expanded to 80% of the maximum elongation. On the other hand, the term “tensile stress at 20% elongation (20% modulus)” refers to a tensile strength when a sample having a predetermined form in elongated to 20% elongation at a predetermined speed, and the term “tensile stress at 80% elongation (80% modulus)” refers to a tensile strength when a sample having a predetermined form is elongated to 80% elongation at a predetermined speed. It is preferable that the substrate 14 has a degree of elongation suitable for fixing the ankle joint and the like and examples of the material of such a substrate include nonwoven fabrics, woven fabrics, high twist fabrics containing high twist yarn in the longitudinal direction, longitudinally expanding fabric containing elastic yarn as warp (for example, spandex fabric using an elastic yarn having urethane as a core of the yarn), elastic fabric using elastic yarn as warp and weft, made of nylon, polyester, polyurethane, rayon, polypropylene, polyethylene, cotton and so forth. In the present invention, in consideration of the above-mentioned characteristics, it is preferable that a knitted fabric having elasticity (hereinafter, referred to as “elastic knitted fabric”) is used. For example, knitted fabric knitted from a single material selected from stretch yarn made of nylon, polyester and the like fibers subjected to special processing to impart elasticity therewith, or synthetic fiber yarn having high elasticity such as polyurethane elastic fiber or knitted fabric knitted from a mixture of such a synthetic fiber and a fiber having low elasticity such as polyester fiber or cotton, knitted fabric made of spun bond nonwoven fabric in which an elastic fiber such as polyurethane elastic yarn is knitted and so forth may be used. Knitting methods that can be used include (warp) knitting including tricot knitting, Rachel knitting, and Milanese knitting, and (weft) knitting including plain knitting and circular knitting. Among them, warp knit goods are more preferable since they do not fray when they are out. The thickness of the synthetic yarn is preferably about 40 to about 160 deniers. The substrate 14 that constitutes the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention may be made of natural rubber sheet and synthetic rubber sheet having elasticity, natural and synthetic rubber sheets provided with perforations to have moisture permeability, sheet made of the above-mentioned woven fabric or knitted fabric laminated with a polyurethane film and no forth. In the present invention, it is preferable to use a high twist fabric having a longitudinal elongation of about 30% to about 110%, a tensile strength of 10 N/19 mm width to 200 N/19 mm width, and a 20% modulus of 0.5 N/19 mm width to 10 N/19 width. Use of such a high twist fabric enables the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle to exhibit handling property (workability), followability, fixability, compressibility (kickback property) and so forth that are important when taping is performed. It is preferable that the thickness of the substrate 14 is appropriately determined depending on the material characteristics and so forth of the substrate. In consideration of the followability to the skin, fixability of tape, workability of taping and so forth, the thickness of the substrate 14 is preferably 200 μm to 1,000 μm, more preferably, 300 μm to 1,000 μm, particularly preferably 300 μm to 800 μm, and most preferably 500 μm to 800 μm. The substrate 14 may be either of a single layer structure or of a double layer structure. In the came of multi-layer structures, it is preferable that the total thickness of all the layers is within the above-mentioned range. Further, it is preferable that the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention has a thickness of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component without the release liner is 300 μm to 1,100 μm. The substrate 14 is provided with a polyurethane layer on its outer surface (in FIG. 1B, on a lower surface of the substrate 14). That is, in FIG. 2, the other layer 18 may be a polyurethane layer. Covering the outer surface of the substrate 14 with a polyurethane layer can impart the substrate 14 with moisture permeability and waterproof property. The polyurethane layer may be ford from known urethanes such an ether-based urethanes and ester-based urethanes. In the present invention, polyurethane films may be used as the polyurethane layer. The thickness of the polyurethane layer is preferably 5 μm or more and less than 30 μm. When the thickness of the polyurethane layer is 5 μm or more, the unevenness of the surface of the substrate made of, for example, elastic knitted fabric and the like is sufficiently coated so that no pinholes are formed. On the other hand, when the thickness of the polyurethane layer is less than 30 μm, sufficient moisture permeability can be maintained. For example, when the substrate is applied so as to overlap on the back surface of the same substrate having unevenness thereon, sometimes an end of the overlappingly applied pressure-sensitive adhesive component is turned. However, the adhesive power onto the own back surface of the substrate can be improved. Further, when the substrate having poor waterproof property is used in rain and is wetted, the applied portion tends to be peeled off. However, provision of the polyurethane layer can impart the substrate with waterproof property. Furthermore, adjustment of the thickness of the polyurethane layer can control the degree of the kickback property. It is preferable that the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer 15 has flexibility and viscoelasticity such that it can follow up the skin onto which it is applied and is formed by using a pressure-sensitive adhesive having less stimulation to the skin. For this purpose, various pressure-sensitive adhesives well-known or practically used in the field of common pressure-sensitive adhesive tape for taping may be used. Specific examples of the pressure-sensitive adhesive that can be used include acrylic-based pressure-sensitive adhesives, rubber-based pressure-sensitive adhesives, synthetic rubber-based pressure-sensitive adhesives, vinyl ether-based pressure-sensitive adhesives, silicone-based pressure-sensitive adhesives, and gel-based pressure-sensitive adhesives. In consideration of stimulation to the skin and so forth, it is preferable that the acrylic-based pressure-sensitive adhesives and gel-based pressure-sensitive adhesives are used. For example, oily gel pressure-sensitive adhesives have relatively low adhesive power whereas they have excellent adherence to the skin and are satisfactory for use in taping and so forth. They can be used advantageously since they do not harm the horny layer of the skin upon peeling off. Reference is made to Published Translation of PCT Application No. 2000-513287. The pressure-sensitive adhesive layer 15 may be provided on the entire surface or a part of the surface one side of the substrate 14 (support 19). When it is provided on the surface of the support 19 partly, the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer may be formed as dots or stripes. The region where no pressure-sensitive adhesive layer is formed serves as an air passage as well. Therefore, the air permeability and moisture permeability of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component can be improved, so that steaming, skin irritation and so forth due to sweating can be prevented. The stripes may be of linear, undulated or the like forms. Generally, it is preferable that an undulated form that undergoes less variation with time in sectional area of inter-stripe interstices is adopted. However, it is preferable that the form of the stripes may be determined appropriately depending on the characteristics and so forth of the pressure-sensitive adhesive to be used. On the other hand, when the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer is provided on the surface of the substrate partly, it is preferable that the size and arrangement of dots, the size of the inter-stripe interstices and so forth are appropriately designed such that a space that serves as an air passage can be assured between the adjacent stripes. When the pressure-sensitive adhesive is coated on a desired region, for example, a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer having a desired streak-like or wave-like form may be formed on a release liner by using a mold having, for example, comb-like form with fixing or moving in amplitude the comb during coating and then the streak-like or wave-like form may be transferred on the surface of the substrate 14. It is preferable that the thickness of the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer 15 is determined appropriately depending on the type, characteristics and so forth of the pressure-sensitive adhesive to be used; for example, the thickness of the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer 15 is preferably 20 μm to 120 μm and more preferably 40 μm to 100 μm. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle may be provided with perforations as necessary so far as they do not deteriorate the effects of the present invention. Then, a pressure-sensitive adhesive component including, besides the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component, an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component as an independent member will be described. FIG. 3 shows a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle according to a second embodiment of the present invention, Here, the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component shown in FIG. 3A is the same as the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A shown in FIG. 1A. The auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component B shown in FIG. 3B has a structure that includes a tape portion 21 and a right-hand side edge 22 and a left-hand side edge 22′ on both ends thereof. The right-hand edge 22 and left-hand edge 22′ are tongue-shaped, with the corner portions thereof being cut off. Forming edge portions into a tongue shape makes them difficult to be peeled off when applied in an overlapping manner one on another. Thus, the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component B has a substantially rectangular contour with the corners being constituted by R-shaped curves. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component has a shorter rectangular edge length (W20) of preferably 50 mm to 100 mm and a longer rectangular edge length (L20) of preferably 100 mm to 350 mm. It is preferable that the pressure-sensitive adhesive component is designed appropriately within the above-mentioned range in consideration of the body type, foot type and so forth. The layer structure of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component shown in FIG. 3B is the same as that of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component shown in FIG. 3A, that is, the same as that of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component shown in FIG. 1B; that is, the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component includes a substrate having thereon a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer and a release liner on the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer. The release liner that covers the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer is provided with back slits at a boundary 24 between the tape portion 21 and the right-hand side edge portion 22 and at a boundary 24′ between the tape portion 21 and the left-hand aid edge portion 22′. Further, similar to FIG. 1A, numerical symbols ({circle over (6)}, {circle over (7)}, etc.) are printed on each part of the release liner provided with back slits. The numerical symbols to be printed on the release liner of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component may be continuous to those shown in FIG. 3A. As one example of the method of performing taping by using the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention, an example in which a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle having the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A and the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component B as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B is applied to the ankle will be described hereinbelow. In the present invention, the term “taping” refers to fixing a treatment site such as a joint, muscle or tendon by using a pressure-sensitive adhesive tape and the like and supporting, correcting, reinforcing and so forth the treatment site exhibit the effects of alleviating the pain and promoting the therapy. FIGS. 4A to 7B are diagrams that illustrate the method of fixing an ankle joint and the like by using the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle according to the second embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 4A to 7B illustrate the method of applying the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A (hereinafter, sometimes referred to as “method A”) and FIGS. 7A and 7B further illustrate the method of further applying the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component B (hereinafter, sometimes referred to as “method B”). Therefore, when the taping is performed by using the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle including only the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the anterior half of the use method just before the application of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component B (method A) may be applied as it in to the use method shown below. In FIG. 4A, an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A is placed on a stage that facilitates the operation of application, such as a footrest, with the release liner being placed upside. After the release liner (marking {circle over (1)}) on the bottom portion 1 is removed, the heel sole is mounted on the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer of the bottom portion and applied thereto such that the rear part of the heel is protruded from the concave edge 7 of the bottom portion 1 (see FIG. 4B). The release liner (marking {circle over (2)}) on the first front tape portion 2 to be applied to the outside of the ankle portion is removed, and the first front tape head portion 3 is hold by the hand and in applied from the heal toward the knee joint so as to cover the lateral malleolus of the ankle joint while expanding the first front tape portion, followed by removal of the release liner (marking ({circle over (3)}) on the first front head portion 3 and application of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component (see FIG. 4C). Subsequently, as shown in FIG. 5A, the release liner (marking {circle over (2)}) on the second front tape portion 2′ to be applied to the inside of the ankle portion, and the second front tape portion 2′ is applied while drawing it just above so as to cover the medial malleolus, followed by removal of the release liner (marking ({circle over (3)}′) on the second front tape head portion 3′ and application of the head portion. This operation corresponds to so-called “stirrup”, which can suppress and limit varus of ankle bone and caloaneal bone. Then, as shown in FIGS. 5B and 5C, the release liner (marking {circle over (4)}) on the first rear tape portion 4 positioned on an outer side of the ankle portion is removed, and the first rear tape head portion 5 is hold by the hand while expanding the first rear tape portion and is applied by passing along the back of the ankle joint so as to cover over the medial malleolus, followed by removal of the release liner (marking on the first rear tape head portion 5 and application of the head portion. Then, as whom in FIGS. 6A and 6B, the release liner (marking {circle over (4)}) on the second rear tape 4, positioned on an inner side of the ankle joint is removed, and the second roar tape head portion 5′ in hold by the hand while expanding the second rear tape portion and is applied by passing along the back of the ankle joint so as to cover over the lateral malleolus, followed by removal of the release liner (marking ({circle over (5)}′) on the second rear tape head portion 5′ and application of the head portion. This operation corresponds to so-called “heel lock”, which exhibits not only the taping function of stirrup but also suppresses and limits the varus of the foot joint so that movement of the ankle bone forward can be suppressed and limited. Thus, the method of applying the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A to the ankle portion is referred to as “method A” for convenience's sake. Subsequently, the release liner (marking {circle over (7)}) on one edge portion 22 of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component B is removed, and the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component is applied onto the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A in an overlapping manner so as to cover the foot from the dorsum of foot to the lateral malleolus. Thereafter, the release liner (marking {circle over (6)}) on the tape portion 6 is roved and the tape portion 6 is applied while expanding the tape portion 6 by drawing it so as to cover an Achilles' tendon of a back of the ankle. Finally, after the release liner (marking {circle over (7)}′) on the remaining edge portion 22′ is removed, the edge portion 22′ is applied so as to cover the medial malleolus and further cover the dorsum of foot (see FIGS. 7A and 7B). This operation corresponds to so-called “half eight”. Thus, the method in which after the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A is applied, further the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component B is applied to the ankle portion is referred to as “method B” for convenience's sake. Use of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle shown in FIG. 3 according to the present invention enables appropriate fixing of ankle joints and the like by the taping according to the method A. Further, use of the auxiliary component and performing taping in an overlapping manner can protect the Achilles' tendon and strengthen the fixing power of the ankle portion. Furthermore, the present invention can play a role of fixing the first tape portion of the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component. In addition, the taping may be performed by moderately loading the body weight on the bottom portion as necessary. This allows taping to be performed in a state close to the state of the ankle joint upon which a load is imposed when exercising. FIG. 8A is a plan view showing a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle C according to a third embodiment of the present invention and FIG. 8B is a front view of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle C shown in FIG. 8A. Here, a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle consisting of a modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component having a substantially trapezoidal contour will be described. In FIG. 8A, the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle has a substantially trapezoidal contour and a bottom portion 41 to be applied to the heel sole of the foot substantially in the center of the trapezoid. On both sides of the bottom portion 41, the pressure-sensitive adhesive component has a first tape-shaped body consisting of a first rear tape body 42 and a first front tape body 43, and a second tape-shaped body 47′ consisting of a second rear tape body 42′ and a second front tape 43′, respectively. The axes of the first rear tape body 42 and the first front tape body 43′ are parallel to each other. Similarly, the axes of the second rear tape body 42′ and the second front tape body 43′ are parallel to each other. The first rear tape body 42 and the second rear tape body 42′ are tapes to be applied to aides of the ankle; they must have a length sufficient to cover the malleolus. However, it is preferable that they do not have too large a length but a suitable length, for example, a length on the order such that they can reach slightly above the malleolus. When the tapes are set to such a length, the pressure-sensitive adhesive component taped will not protrude from the upper end of the socks, thus giving an acceptable appearance. Note that users may cut the tapes so as to have such a length appropriately prior to use. The first front tape body 43 and the second front tape body 43′ are tapes to be applied around the ankle so as to cover the Achilles' tendon and longer than the first and second rear tape bodies 42 and 42′. Each of the head edges of the first rear tape body, first front tape body, second rear tape body, and second front tape body are tongue-shaped. The bottom portion 41 are rectangular and the first rear tape body 42 and the first front tape body 43 are arranged on one aide of the rectangle and the second rear tape body 42′ and the second front tape body 43′ are arranged on the opposite aide of the rectangle. Note that the edge on the side of the rear tape body of the bottom portion 41 may be formed into a concave form. The layer structure of the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component C shown in FIG. 8A, which will be exemplified in FIG. 8B, may assume the ale structure as that of the layer construction shown in FIG. 2. Here, the release liner 16 may be omitted. However, it is preferable that the release liner 16 is laminated on the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer 15 in order to prevent the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer 15 from being contaminated with dust and dirt and protect adhesive power until use. The release liner 16 is provided with a back slit at several positions. For example, in FIG. 8A the back slits are provided at a boundary portion 44 between the bottom portion 41 and the first rear tape body 42 and the first front tape body 43 arranged on the left side of the bottom portion and similarly at a boundary portion 44′ between the bottom portion 41 and the second tape body arranged on the right side of the bottom portion. In the case of this pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle, numeric symbols (such as {circle over (1)} and {circle over (2)}) are printed and a printed portion 45 formed on the release liner of each part provided with back splits. Although this printed portions 45 are not limited to numerical symbols, it is preferable that images such as characters (including numerical symbols) showing the order of taping and illustrations are indicated by any appropriate method. Further, in the present embodiment, similarly to the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component shown in FIG. 1, the first front tape body has a front tape portion and a front tape head portion and the first rear tape body has a rear tape portion and a rear tape head portion and boundary portions thereof may be provided with back slits, and in addition the release liner of each back alit part maybe formed with a printed part. The substantially trapezoidal pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle (modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component C) shown in FIGS. 8 and 8B has a lower bottom side length, i.e., a length from the head edge of the first front tape body 43 to the head edge of the second front tape body 43′ (L10) of 400 mm to 650 mm, and a trapezoidal height, i.e., the total (W10) of the width (W12) of the front tape bodies (43, 43′) and the width W11 of the rear tape bodies (42, 42′) is preferably 50 mm and 150 mm and it is preferable that the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle is appropriately designed within the above mentioned range taking into consideration the body type, foot type and so forth. The length (L11) of the rear tape body 42 (or 42′) is preferably 80 mm to 150 mm and the length (L13) of the front tape body 43 (or 43′) is preferably 200 mm to 270 mm. Further, the length (L12) of the bottom portion 41 may be greater than the width of the heal and is, for example, 50 mm to 90 mm. It is preferable that the lengths and size of the bottom portion and the like are appropriately designed in consideration of the body type, foot type and the like. As one example of the method of performing taping by using the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention, an example in which a modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle having a substantially trapezoidal shape as shown in FIGS. 6A and 6B in applied to the ankle portion will be described hereinbelow. FIGS. 9A to 11C are diagrams that illustrate the method of fixing an ankle joint and the like by using the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle according to the third embodiment of the present invention (modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component C) (hereinafter, sometimes referred to as “method C”). In FIG. 9A, a pressure-sensitive adhesive component is placed on a place that facilitates the operation of application, such as floor or ground, with the release liner being placed upside. After the release liner (marking {circle over (1)}) on the bottom portion 41 is removed, the heel sole in mounted on the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer of the bottom portion 41 and applied thereto such that the rear tapes 42 and 42′ pass just above the malleolus when they are lifted up, that is, the heel is slightly protruded from the rear side of the bottom portion. 41 (the upper side of the trapezoid). In FIG. 9B, the release liner (marking {circle over (2)}) on the first rear tape body 42 to be applied to the outside of the ankle portion is removed while maintaining the angle (θ) of the ankle portion at 90°, the head portion of the first rear tape body 42 is held by the hand and pulled immediately above, and the first rear tape body 42 is applied halfway so as to cover the lateral malleolus of the ankle joint while expanding the first rear tape body 42, and then the head portion of the first rear tape body 42 is applied in a less elongated state than ever. The reason why the tape body is applied halfway in an elongated state is to impart a moderate fixing power to the treatment site and application after the elongation of the head portion is lessened is to decrease physical stress due to the contact area between the akin and the pressure-sensitive adhesive component to thereby alleviating the skin irritation and reducing peeling off of the edge of the tape body due to strain-stress. Subsequently, as shown in FIG. 9C, after the release liner (marking {circle over (2)}′) on the second rear tape body 42′ to be applied to the inner side of the ankle portion is removed, the head portion of the tape is held by the hand and the second rear tape body 42′ is applied halfway while drawing it just above so as to cover the actual malleolus, and then the elongation of the head portion of the second rear tape body 42′ is lessened, followed by applying the head portion of the tape body 42′. This operation corresponds to so-called “stirrup”, which can suppress and limit varus of the calcaneal bone and ankle bone. Then, as shown in FIG. 10A, the release liner (marking on the first front tape body 43 to be applied to the outside of the ankle portion is removed, and the head portion of the first front tape body 43 in held by the hand while expanding the first front tape body and is applied by passing along the dorsum of the ankle an back of the ankle joint so as to cover the Achilles' tendon, to the front of the ankle, that is by making the first front tape body 43 to wind substantially around the ankle, followed by applying the first front tape body 43 except for the head portion thereof, and subsequently loosening the elongation of the head portion and then applying the head portion (see FIG. 10C). Similarly, as shown in FIG. 11A, after the release liner (marking ({circle over (3)}′) on the second front tape body 43′ to be applied to the inner side of the ankle joint in removed, the head portion of the second front tape body 43′ is hold by the hand and the second front tape body 43′ except for the head portion is applied while drawing it to pass the dorsum of foot and back of the ankle joint 80 as to cover the Achilles' tendon (see FIG. 11B) to thereby making the head portion of the second front tape body to wind substantially around the ankle, and then the elongation of the head portion of the second front tape body 43′ in lessened and the head portion thereof is applied to the substrate of the already applied first tape body 43 in an overlapping manner (see FIG. 11C). This operation corresponds to so-called “figure eight”,which can exhibit the stirrup taping function and also suppressing and limiting the varus of the ankle joint of suppress and limit varus of the caloaneal bone and ankle bone, thee preventing the forward movement of the ankle bone. Further, it has the function of protecting the Achilles' tendon, strengthening the fixing power of the ankle portion to fix the stirrup taping. In addition, the taping may be performed by moderately loading the body weight on the bottom portion as necessary. This allows taping to be performed in a state close to the state of the ankle joint upon which a load is imposed when exercising. According to the present invention, taping by using the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component having a substantially trapezoidal contour can fix the ankle joint and the like appropriately as described above. In the present invention, after performing taping by using a modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component, a rectangular auxiliary component formed of nonelastic cotton tape or elastic tape as shown in FIG. 3B may be appropriately used and taped on the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component in an overlapping manner to reinforce the taping by the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component. The embodiment in which the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component B is used in combination with the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component is shown in FIGS. 12A and 12B. In FIGS. 12A and 12B, an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component 31 is of a substantially rectangular shape and preferably has a size such that the dorsum of the foot and the Achilles' tendon can be covered. For example, it is preferable that the rectangular shorter side is 3.8 cm to 7.5 cm long and a longer side is 7.5 cm to 20 cm long. Further, it is preferable that the edges of the rectangle are tongue-shaped. When the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component is constituted by an elastic tape, it may be made of a material similar to the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component C of the present invention and may have a similar layer structure. Further, when the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component is constituted by a nonelastic tape, it may be made of a material similar to that of a nonelastic cotton tape for general taping. Alternatively, the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component may be substituted by a commercially available tape for taping. Hereinafter, the reinforcing method of performing taping by using the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component B (hereinafter, sometimes referred to as “method D”) will be described. Note that although the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component is applied to the previously applied modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component in an overlapping manner, the figure illustrating the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component and the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component in an overlapping state is complicated, so that hereinafter, explanation will be made with referring to diagrams in which the previously applied modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component is omitted and only the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component is shown. FIGS. 13A and 13B are diagrams that illustrate a first taping reinforcing method by using an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component. The method is an effective taping reinforcing method in preventing inward twist of the ankle ,i.e., varus of the ankle. In FIG. 13A, the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component 31 is passed starting from the base of the toes while expanding the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component 31 so as to cover the lateral malleolus and then passed along the back of the ankle to cover the Achilles' tendon, and along the inner side to the front side of the ankle as shown in FIG. 13B, followed by relaxation of elongation of the head portion and application. In FIGS. 14A and 14B, a second taping reinforcing method by using an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component is illustrated. The method is an effective taping reinforcing method in preventing outward twist of the ankle, i.e., valgus of the ankle. In FIG. 14A, the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component 31 is passed starting from the base of the toes while expanding the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component 31 so as to cover the medial malleolus and then passed along the back of the ankle to cover the Achilles' tendon, and along the outer side to the front side of the ankle as shown in FIG. 14B, followed by relaxation of elongation of the head portion and application. In FIGS. 15A and 15B, a third taping reinforcing method by using an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component is illustrated. The method is an effective taping reinforcing method in preventing twist of the ankle toward the floor, i.e., bending down of the toe of the ankle. In FIG. 15A, after the angle of the ankle is set to 90°, the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component 31 is applied to the base of the ankle and while holding this portion one free end of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component is pulled toward the tiptoe and applied halfway, followed by relaxation of elongation of the head portion and application to the base of the toes. Subsequently, an shown in FIG. 15B, while holding this portion another free end of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component is pulled toward the shin and applied halfway, followed by relaxation of elongation of the head portion and application to the shin. In FIGS. 16A and 16B, a fourth taping reinforcing method by using an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component is illustrated. The method is an effective taping reinforcing method in preventing twist of the ankle toward the shin, i.e., bending back of the toe of the ankle. In FIG. 16A, after the toe of the ankle is bent backward, that is, the angle of the ankle is set to an angle slightly smaller than 90°, the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component 31 is applied to the bas of the toes toward the bottom of the foot while expanding the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component 31. Then, as shown, in FIG. 16B, the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component 31 is applied from the backside of the ankle toward the shin while drawing it to expand with stretching the Achilles' tendon and applied halfway, followed by relaxation of elongation of the head portion and application of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component. Use of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention shown in FIGS. 12A and 12B, enables fixing of the ankle joint and the like appropriately according to the taping method C. Further, overlapping taping by using the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component results in strengthening of the fixing power of the ankle portion. Note that after taping the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component A according to the method A, reinforcing may be performed by using the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component according to one of the first to fourth reinforcing methods (method D) mentioned above instead of the method B. That is, in the present invention, the method D can be applied to the method A and the method B can be applied to the method C. When markings indicating the order of application are shown on the release liners of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention and optional auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component, application of the tapes in the order indicated enables users having no expert knowledge on taping to perform taping readily and at proper positions. Further, in addition to the taping method of the present invention, a conventional taping method may also be used. EXAMPLES Hereinafter, the present invention will be described in more detail by examples. However, the present invention should not be considered as being limited to the samples and various applications are possible without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. Example 1 A mixture of 90 parts by weight of 2-ethylhexyl acrylate and 9 parts by weight of acrylic acid was copolymerized with ethyl acetate under an inert gas atmosphere to obtain an acrylic-based pressure-sensitive adhesive. The acrylic-based pressure-sensitive adhesive was coated on a treated surface of a release liner having a high-quality paper laminated with a polyethylene, further subjected to treatment with silicone on the laminated surface to a thickness of 80 μm on dry basis and the resultant was dried at 120° C. for 3 minutes to form a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer. On this pressure-sensitive adhesive layer was superposed and applied an elastic knitted fabric having a thickness of 450 μm prepared by knitting 75-denier polyester yarn by interlock weaving so as to expand and contract to obtain a laminate having a layer structure of substrate/pressure-sensitive adhesive layer/release liner. The elastic knitted fabric had a tensile stress at 20% elongation of 2.5 N/19 mm width and a hysteresis at 80% elongation of 92%, and a tensile stress at 80% elongation of 19 N/19 mm width. The obtained laminate was punched to obtain a pressure-sensitive adhesive component made of an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component and an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component having a shape as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B. Note that the rectangular contour of the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component had the following sizes. The length of the shorter edge (W10) was 90 mm, and the length of the longer edge (L10) was 410 mm. The length of the bottom portion was 70 mm and the length of the tape portion was 140 mm. W11:W12=5:4. Further, the length (L20) of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component was 250 mm and the width (W20) of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component was 70 mm. The release liners were provided with back slits at each boundary of two adjacent parts of the release liner and was stamped continuous numbers indicating the order of application. By using the obtained pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle, taping on the ankle portion according to the above-mentioned method A. An oily gal pressure-sensitive adhesive agent was coated on a treated surface of a release liner composed of polyethylene laminated high-quality paper, further treated with silicone, to a thickness of 70 μm on dry basis and was dried at 120° C. for 3 minutes to form a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer. An elastic knitted fabric having a thickness of 450 μm having the same material as the substrate in Example 1, knitted by interlock weaving 75 denier polyester yarn so that it could sand and contract was superposed and applied on the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer to obtain a laminate having a layer structure of substrate/pressure-sensitive adhesive layer/release liner. The obtained laminate was punched to obtain a pressure-sensitive adhesive component mad of an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component and an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component having shape as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B. Note that the rectangular contour of the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component had the following sizes. The length of the shorter edge (W10) was 90 mm, and the length of the longer edge (L10) was 450 mm. The length of the bottom portion was 70 mm and the length of the tape portion was 170 mm. W11 was 50 mm and W12 was 40 mm. Further, the length (L20) of the I-shaped auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component was 200 mm and the width (W20) of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component was 50 mm. In the same manner as in Example 1, the release liners were provided with back slits and stamped continuous numbers. By using the obtained pressure-sensitive adhesive components (H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component and auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component), taping of an ankle portion was performed according to the above-mentioned method B. Example 3 A pressure-sensitive adhesive layer was prepared in the same manner as in Example 1. A fabric (high twist fabric) obtained by twill weaving a mixed yarn composed of cotton and rayon prepared in advance as a substrate was superposed and laminated on the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer to obtain a laminate having a layer structure of substrate/pressure-sensitive adhesive layer/release liner. Note that the thickness of the substrate and the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer was 750 μm. The obtained laminate was punched to obtain a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle having a shape as shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B. Note that the substantially trapezoidal contour of the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component had the following sizes. The height of the trapezoid in FIG. 8A (W10) was 100 mm, and the width of the rear tape body (W11) and the width of the front tape body (W12) were each 50 mm. The length of the lower edge of the trapezoid (L10) was 550 mm. Further, the length of the rear tape body (L11) was 115 mm. The length of the front tape body (L13) was 240 mm. In addition, the length of the bottom portion (L12) was 70 mm. The release liners provided with back slits were stamped with continuous numbers indicating the order of application. By using the obtained pressure-sensitive adhesive components, taping of an ankle portion was performed according to the above-mentioned taping method C for the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component. Example 4 An oily gel pressure-sensitive adhesive agent was coated on a treated surface of a release liner composed of polyethylene laminated high-quality paper, further treated with silicone, to a thickness of 65 μm on dry basis and was dried at 120° C. for 3 minutes to form a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer. An about 13-μm polyurethane film was bonded and laminated on one surface of a substrate, i.e., an elastic knitted fabric having a thickness of about 252 μm prepared by nitting 75 denier polyeser yarn by interlock weaving so as to expand and contract to form a support. Superposing and applying the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer on the substrate side of the support formed a laminate having a layer structure of polyurethane film/substrate/pressure-sensitive adhesive layer/release liner. Note that the thickness of the laminate (excluding the release liner), specifically a total of the thicknesses of the support and the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer was about 320 μm. The obtained laminate was punched to obtain a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle having a shape as shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B. Note that the substantially trapezoidal contour of the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component had the following sizes. The height of the trapezoid in FIG. 8A (W10) was 100 mm, and the width of the rear tape body (W11) and the width of the front tape body (W12) were each 50 mm. Tho length of the lower edge of the trapezoid (L10) was 560 mm. Further, the length of the roar tape body (L11) was 90 mm. The length of the front tape body (L13) was 255 mm. In addition, the length of the bottom portion (L12) was 50 mm. The release liners provided with back slits were stamped with continuous numbers indicating the order of application. By using the obtained pressure-sensitive adhesive components, taping of an ankle portion was performed according to the above-mentioned taping method C for modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component. Comparative Example 1 By using a conventional tape generally known as a taping tape for sports, taping was performed by a common method. That is , first an underlap tape was applied centered on the ankle Then two anchor tapes (38 mm in width), i.e., nonelastic cotton tapes, were applied on positions about 5 cm above the ankle. The two anchor tapes were applied off to the side by about ⅓ to about ½ or spirally wound around. Then, three stirrup tapes (38 mm in width) were applied by drawing up from the position of the inner anchor tape passing the medial malleolus to the position of the outer side anchor tape. Note that three stirrup tapes were applied off to the side by about ⅓ to about ½. Thereafter, to fasten the ends of the stirrup tapes with tho anchor tapes, the two anchor tapes were wound around at the position of about 5 cm above the ankle. Then, to prevent tottering of the ankle by pressing the periphery of the ankle, a figure eight tape was applied by winding it around the foot starting from the position of the Achilles' tendon passing the lateral malleolus and around the dorsum of foot, passing the plantar arch, crossing the dorsum of foot, passing above the medial malleolus, returning to the original point, and further running over the Achilles' tendon to the outer side to make a half round trip. Thereafter, heel lock taping was performed. That is, an elastic tape made of a high twist fabric was made to pass from the dorsum of foot as an original point, medial malleolus, back side of the heel, underneath the lateral malleolus, to the plantar arch, and crossing the dorsum of foot. Subsequently, the elastic tape was made to pass above the latenal malleolus, the Achilles' tendon to the heel, underneath the medial malleolus, obliquely passing the plantar arch, and then the dorsum of foot. This operation was performed repeatedly and the tape was continuously wound around the foot upward to the position where the anchor tape was applied above the ankle. Twenty volunteers of thirties in age were asked to apply pressure-sensitive adhesive components around their ankles by the taping methods of Examples 1 to 4 and Comparative Example 1 and evaluate the operability of taping and the conditions immediately after the taping according to the standards described below. Further, after exercising jogging for 1 hour after applying the pressure-sensitive adhesive components, stability of adhesion and fixability after the exercise were evaluated according to the standards described below. The number of persons meeting each standard is shown in Table 1 and Table 2. <Standards of Evaluation> {circle over (1)} Operability of taping [1]: Very easy to apply, cases in which taping could be performed within 3 minutes; [2]: Difficult to apply, taping time being longer than 3 minutes and less than 10 minutes; [3]: Very difficult to apply, cases in which taping took 10 minutes or longer. {circle over (2)}) Conditions immediately after taping [1]: No local thickening, very comfortable; [2]: After the application, no discomfort but a slight feeling of strangeness being felt; [3]: After the application, discomfort of being aware of taping, with some pain; [4]: Very painful and discomfortable, unable to wear shoes. {circle over (3)} Stability of adhesion and fixability after exercise [1]: 90% or more of the applied pressure-sensitive adhesive showing no peel, with the taping function on the ankle continuing sufficiently; [2]: 50% or more and less than 90% showing no peel, with partial loosening but maintaining the taping function; [3]: Less than 50% showing no peel, with showing loosening and loss of the taping function. TABLE 1 Comparative Example 1 Example 2 Example 1 Evaluation (Number of (Number of (Number of Standard Persons) Persons) Persons) Operability 1 20 20 0 of taping 2 0 0 9 3 0 0 11 Conditions 1 18 17 0 immediately 2 2 3 2 after 3 0 0 15 taping 4 0 0 3 Stability 1 19 18 17 of adhesion 2 1 2 2 and 3 0 0 0 fixability after exercise TABLE 2 Example 3 Example 4 Evaluation (Number of (Number of Standard Persons) Persons) Operability 1 20 13 of taping 2 0 7 3 0 0 Conditions 1 17 18 immediately 2 3 2 after 3 0 0 taping 4 0 0 Stability 1 19 17 of adhesion 2 1 3 and 3 0 0 fixability after exercise The results shown in Tables 1 and 2 indicate that taping using the pressure-sensitive adhesive components for an ankle in Examples 1 to 4 by the method described in Examples 1 to 4 resulted in best evaluations by 13 persons or more out of the 20 person in all the evaluations of “Operability of taping”, “Conditions immediately after taping”, and “Stability of adhesion and fixability after exercise”. That is, the pressure sensitive adhesive components for an ankle of the present invention are good in the feeling of wearing and operability and exhibit satisfactory taping function. Furthermore, it revealed that the pressure sensitive adhesive components for an ankle of the present invention have waterproof property On the other hand, Comparative Example 1 in which taping was performed by the conventional method indicated that the taping took a long time and many parsons complained for discomfort in the feeling of wearing the taping. As described above in detail, use of the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention enables a person having no expert knowledge on taping to perform readily and in a short time appropriate taping only by following the order indicated, for example, on the release liner. Since everybody can perform taping with ease, the present invention is very useful for preventing recurrence of sprained ankle that would otherwise tend to become chronic and also preventing serious physical damages. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention enables sufficient fixing of an ankle joint and the like and assures continued fixability, so that they are useful for various kinds of athletes including walkers, joggers, hikers, climbers and so forth a well as rehabilitation trainees for the functional recovery of foot joints and the like. Furthermore, use of the pressure-sensitive adhesive components for an ankle of the present invention causes no thickening upon application and makes users to feel no inconvenience in daily life, allowing users to wear shoes, also allowing wearing athletes' shoes. According to the taping method of the present invention, taping can be performed by placing the heel sole on the bottom portion of the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component or the like and loading the body weight thereon, so that there is no need to hold the pressure-sensitive adhesive component by one hand, thus allowing free use of hands, so that taping can be performed with free hands, thus assuring effective taping effects. Furthermore, according to the taping method of the present invention, taping can be performed in a state close to the state of that ankle joint or the like upon which a load is imposed when exercising, so that an effective taping effect tends to be shown easy. According to the taping method of the present invention, neither local circulation disturbance nor nervous disturbance will occur due to over winding since no spiral winding around the ankle is involved. The present invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. The present embodiment is therefore to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive, the scope of the invention being indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description and all changes which claims within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are therefore intended to b embraced therein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle and to a method for using it. More particularly, the present invention relates to a pressure-sensitive adhesive component used for fixing ankle joints and the like in the fields of medicine, sports, chiropractic and so on and to a method for using such a pressure-sensitive adhesive component. 2. Description of Related Art An ankle is a portion of a body that supports the body and thus is loaded with the body weight and that tends to suffer a sprained ankle in porting, daily life and so on. Since the ankle is closely involved in walking, a pain in the ankle makes daily motion difficult. Accordingly, there has been a keen desire for a countermeasure to alleviate the pain that occurs in the ankle. For example, a treatment to fix the ankle joint and the like has been performed. A method for fixing the ankle joint and the like without requiring expert knowledge includes a method of attaching a supporter around an ankle disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 10-24055. The supporter has a shin pad formed to have a large thickness and use of the pad results in thickening of the ankle so that one cannot wear shoes or the like when he or she has attached the shin pad around the ankle. This is inconvenient to daily life motions. Further, a supporter for a foot joint made of an elastic tape-shaped body, including an anchor strap that winds up around an ankle, a figure eight strap that winds up around a dorsum of the foot and a sole of the foot in the form of a figure eight (8), and a stirrup strap that winds up around the foot from a medial malleolus to a lateral malleolus through the sole is disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 10-248865. The supporter loosens with a lapse of time, thus failing to fix the ankle joint and the like sufficiently. Fixing or otherwise restricting the movement of an ankle joint by using a pressure-sensitive adhesive tape in order to alleviate the pain of the ankle (taping) is a conventional treatment performed in the fields of sports and medicine. Appropriate taping can sufficiently fix the ankle to alleviate the pain of the ankle and will not reduce the ability of the ankle and the like to move. However, the conventional treatment has the defect that appropriate taping cannot be readily performed since expert knowledge is required for performing such taping. Also, it has the problem that taping by spirally winding a pressure-sensitive adhesive tape around an ankle in an overlapping manner tends to cause local circulation disturbance and nervous disturbance due to over constriction. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention has been made under the above-mentioned circumstances and an object of the present invention is to provide a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle portion with which a person having no expert knowledge on taping can fix the ankle quickly and easily and which causes no problems such as failure to wear shoes due to the attachment of a fixing member or the like and thickening of the ankle an a result of application of the tape. Another object of the present invention is to provide a method for fixing an ankle joint and the like by using the pressure-sensitive adhesive opponent for an ankle portion. The present invention provides a pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle comprising an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component including: a bottom portion; a first tape-shaped body provided on the bottom portion; and a second tape-shaped body provided on the bottom portion, wherein a cut is prodded between the first and second tape-shard bodies running in a longitudinal direction with respect to the first and second tape-shaped bodies from edges of the first and second tape-shaped bodies, the first tape-shaped body including a first front tape body and a first rear tape body, and the second tape-shaped body including a second front tape body and a second rear tape body, and wherein a first ratio of a width of the first front tape body to a width of the first rear tape body and a second ratio of a width of the second front tape to a width of the second rear tape body are independently within the range of 5:5 to 5:3. According to one aspect, the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention includes an H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component including: a bottom portion; a first tape-shaped body provided on the bottom portion; and a second tape-shaped body provided on the bottom portion, wherein one edge of the bottom portion is concave, wherein a cut in provided between the first and second tape-shaped bodies running in a longitudinal direction with respect to the first and second tape-shaped bodies from edges of the first and second tape-shaped bodies, the first tape-shaped body including a first front tape body and a first rear tape body, and the second tape-shaped body including a second front tape body and a second rear tape body, and wherein a first ratio of a width of the first front tape body to a width of the first rear tape body positioned on the side of the concave edge and a second ratio of a width of the second nd front tape body to a width of the second rear tape body positioned on the side of the concave edge are independently within the range of 5:5 to 5:3. Here, the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component may have a length of 300 mm to 600 mm mod the first and second tape-shaped bodies may independently have a width of 50 mm to 150 mm. According to another aspect, the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention includes a modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component, including a rectangular bottom portion; a first rear tape body and a front tape body extending from one edge of the bottom portion having respective axes parallel to each other; and a second rear tape body and a second front tape body extending from an opposite edge of the bottom portion having respective axes parallel to each other, wherein the first and second rear tape bodies have lengths shorter than those of the first and second front tape bodies. Here, the pressure-sensitive adhesive component may have a length from an edge of the first front tape body to an end of the second front tape body of 400 mm to 650 mm, and the first and second tape-shaped body may independently have a width of 50 mm to 150 mm. Further, the first and second front tape bodies nay independently have a length of 200 mm to 270 mm. Still further, the first and second rear tape bodies may independently have a length of 80 mm to 150 mm. In the present invention, it is preferable that head portions of the first rear tape body, the first front tape body, the second rear tape body, and the second front tape body arm each tongue-shaped. It is preferable that the pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle includes a Substrate and a pressure-sensitive adhesive layer and the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer is covered with a release liner. Sere, the substrate may be made of a high twist fabric, an elastic knitted fabric or an elastic woven fabric. The pressure-sensitive adhesive layer may be made of an acrylic-based pressure-sensitive adhesive or a gel-based pressure-sensitive adhesive. The pressure-sensitive adhesive component for an ankle of the present invention may further include an auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component in a rectangular form having a shorter side and a longer side and a curved corner, as an independent element. In the present invention, the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component or the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component may include a release liner that covers the pressure-sensitive adhesive layer and is separated by a back slit and has indicated thereon a character or an image thereon Here, one can recognize an order from the character or image put on the release liners separated by the back splits. The taping method by using the H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component of the present invention includes: removing a release liner on a bottom portion; placing a heal such that an edge of the heel is in line with a concave edge of the bottom portion; removing a release liner on a front tape portion to be applied to an outer wide of the ankle portion and applying the front tape portion with holding a head portion of a front tape body while expanding the front tape portion so as to cover a medial malleolus of the ankle portion from a heal toward a knee joint; removing a release liner on a front tape head portion and applying the front tape head portion; removing a release liner on a front tape portion to be applied to an inner side of the ankle portion and applying the front tape portion while drawing up the front tape portion just above and expanding; removing a release liner on a front tape head portion and applying the front tape head portion; removing a release liner on a rear tape portion positioned on an outer side of the ankle portion and applying the rear tape portion by holding a head portion of a rear tape body so as to pass along the back side of the ankle portion and cover over the medial malleolus while expanding the rear tape portion; removing a release liner of a rear tape head portion and applying the rear tape head portion; removing a release liner on a rear tape portion positioned on the inner side of the ankle portion and applying the rear tape portion by holding a head portion of a rear tape body and while expanding the rear tape portion so as to pass along the back side of the ankle portion and cover over the lateral malleolus; and removing a release liner of a rear tape head portion and applying the rear tape head portion. Here, one edge of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive may be applied onto the rear tape portion so as to cover the lateral malleolus of the ankle portion in an overlapping manner and then the other edge of the auxiliary pressure-sensitive adhesive component may be applied to onto the other rear tape portion so as to cover the medial malleolus of the ankle portion in an overlapping manner. The taping method by using the modified H-shaped pressure-sensitive adhesive component includes removing a release liner of a bottom portion and placing a heel sole on the bottom portion such that a rear tape body covers a surface of malleolus when elevated vertically; removing a release liner of one of the rear tape bodies and applying the rear tape body by holding a head portion of the rear tape body to lift the rear tape body vertically while expanding the rear tape body so as to cover the lateral malleolus of the ankle portion; removing a release liner of the other rear tape body to be applied to an inner side of the ankle portion and applying the rear tape body while lifting the rear tape body vertically to expand the rear tape body so as to cover an inner side of the ankle portion; removing a release liner of one of the front tape bodies positioned on an outer side of the ankle portion and applying the front tape body while holding a head portion of the front tape body to expand the front tape body so as to paws along an entire loop from above the dorsum of foot and the ankle portion and cover over the lateral malleolus and further pass Achilles' tendon on the back side of the ankle to the lateral malleolus; and removing a release liner of the other front tape body positioned on the inner side of the ankle portion and applying the front tape body while holding a head portion of the front tape body to expand the front tape body so as to pass along an entire loop including crossing at the ankle portion above the dorsum of foot to cover over the lateral malleolus, passing the Achilles' tendon to reach the medial malleolus. In the present invention, it is preferable that the head portion is applied after relaxation of elongation of the head portion. | 20040614 | 20080902 | 20050120 | 66116.0 | 0 | ALI, SHUMAYA B | PRESSURE-SENSITIVE ADHESIVE COMPONENT FOR ANKLE AND USE THEREOF | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,865,770 | ACCEPTED | Illuminated elastomeric flying disc and its method of manufacture | An internally illuminated toy having a flexible body that is made from an elastomeric gel. The flexible body defines an internal chamber that is accessible through a small access opening. An electronics module is provided that contains a light source. The electronics module is inserted into the internal chamber of the flexible body by hyper-extending the access opening. Once inside the internal chamber, the access opening elastically contracts and the electronics module is trapped within the flexible body. When activated, the electronics module illuminates, thereby internally illuminating the flexible body of the toy. | 1. A thrown toy projectile device, comprising: a flexible body made from an elastomeric gel, wherein said flexible body defines an internal chamber that is accessible through an access opening of a first size; an electronics module disposed within said internal chamber, said electronics module having a rigid housing that contains a light source, wherein said electronics module is larger than said access opening; wherein said electronic module is received and retained within said internal chamber of said flexible body by elastically deforming said access opening and passing said electronics module into said internal chamber through said access opening. 2. The device according to claim 1, wherein said flexible body is formed as a flying disc. 3. The device according to claim 1, wherein said elastomeric gel is translucent and is internally illuminated by said electronics module. 4. The device according to claim 1, wherein said electronics module contains at least one battery for powering said light source and an activation switch. 5. The device according to claim 4, wherein said housing is translucent and is internally illuminated by said light source. 6. The device according to claim 4, wherein said electronics module further includes a circuit for selectively flashing said light source in a predetermined flash pattern. 7. The device according to claim 4, wherein said electronics module further includes a sound generator for producing sound. 8. (canceled) 9. (canceled) 10. A method of forming an internally illuminated toy, comprising the steps of: forming a flexible body that defines an internal chamber, wherein an access hole leads into said internal chamber through said body; providing an electronics module that is larger than said access hole in said flexible body, said electronics module containing a light and a power source for said light; and advancing said electronics module into said internal chamber by elastically hyper-extending said access hole to a size through which said electronics module can pass. 11. The method according to claim 10, wherein said step of forming a flexible body includes forming a flexible body from an elastomeric gel. 12. The method according to claim 10, wherein said step of forming a flexible body that defines an internal chamber, includes molding said flexible body around an insert and removing said insert from said flexible body. 13. The method according to claim 10 wherein said step of providing an electronics module includes providing a housing containing a light, a power source for said light and an activation switch for said light. 14. The method according to claim 13, wherein said housing is translucent and is internally illuminated by said light. 15. The method according to claim 10, wherein said step of providing an electronics module includes providing a sound generator that produces sound when activated. 16. (canceled) 17. (canceled) 18. A flying disc device, comprising: a flexible disc body made from an elastomeric gel, wherein said disc body defines at least one internal chamber; and a separate electronics module enveloped within said internal chamber, wherein said electronics module has a rigid translucent housing that is not connected to said flexible disc body, and wherein said electronics module internally illuminates said flexible disc body from within said internal chamber. 19. The device according to claim 18, wherein said elastomeric gel is translucent. 20. The device according to claim 18, wherein a light with a power source that is contained within said rigid translucent housing. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention In general, the present invention relates to flying-disc projectile toys. More particularly, the present invention relates to flying-disc projectile toys that are made from elastomeric material and flying disc toys that are illuminated. 2. Description of Related Art Flying disc toys, such as the Frisbee™, have been popular in the toy marketplace for decades. In this period of time, there have been many variations to the design and structure of toy flying discs. Toy flying discs have been made from metal, wood and plastic. Furthermore, a variety of different electronic light modules have been attached to flying disc toys so that the flying discs will appear illuminated during low light conditions. Within the past few years, advancements have occurred in the field of polymer science that have enabled highly elastic gel materials to be produced. These elastic gels are also very resistant to tearing. These elastomeric gels are produced by mixing oils with various tri-block copolymers. Since such gel materials are soft, they have been adapted for use in the field of projectile toys, in order to make the projectile toys safer. Elastomeric gels have been used in the manufacture of flying discs. This was done to make the disc easier to store, easier to hold, easier to catch and less inclined to cause impact damage. Prior art flying discs made from elastomeric gels are exemplified by U.S. Pat. No. 5,324,222 to Chen, entitled Ultra-Soft, Ultra-Elastic Airfoils. A problem associated with fabricating a flying disc from an elastomeric gel is that there exists no rigid structure to mount a light module or other electronic module. Of course, a rigid electronic module can be glued to the flexible flying disc, but this would make the body of the disc rigid, thereby eliminating the benefits of making the flying disc from an elastomeric gel. A need therefore exists for a way to connect electronic components to a flexible elastomeric body in a manner that does not make the elastomeric body rigid. This need is met by the present invention as described and claimed below. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is an internally illuminated toy. The toy has a flexible body that is made from an elastomeric gel. The flexible body defines an internal chamber that is accessible through a small access opening. An electronics module is provided that contains a light source and a battery needed to power the light source. The electronics module is inserted into the internal chamber of the flexible body by hyper-extending the access opening to a size that enables the electronics module to pass. Once inside the internal chamber, the access opening elastically contracts and the electronics module is trapped within the flexible body. Since the electronics module is not attached to the flexible body, the electronics module does not prevent the flexible body from being stretched in any direction. When activated, the electronics module illuminates, thereby internally illuminating the flexible body of the toy. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a better understanding of the present invention, reference is made to the following description of exemplary embodiments thereof, considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an exemplary embodiment of the present invention toy; FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of the embodiment of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the embodiment of FIG. 1 shown in a stretched condition; FIG. 4 is a method schematic for the manufacture of the embodiment of the present invention shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is a selectively cross-sectioned view of an alternate embodiment of the present invention toy DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Although the present invention can be utilized in many different types of toy projectiles, such as balls, footballs and the like, the present invention is particularly well suited for use in the fabrication of flying discs. Accordingly, the exemplary embodiment of the present invention is illustrated and described as a flying disc. This is done to set forth the best mode contemplated for the present invention. However, such an exemplary embodiment should not be considered a limitation to the application of the present invention to other thrown toy projectiles. Referring to FIG. 1, a first exemplary embodiment of the present invention is shown. The shown embodiment is a flying disc 10. The flying disc 10 has a molded body 12 that is fabricated from an elastomeric gel. An appropriate elastomeric gel is described in co-pending patent application Ser. No. 10/641,795, filed Aug. 15, 2003, entitled Elastic Non-Sticky Surface Gel Material, which is incorporated into this specification by reference. The flying disc 10 has a flexible body 12 that is shaped like a circular disc. Because the flexible body 12 is molded from an elastomeric gel, the flexible body of the flying disc is both soft and highly elastic. A cavity 14 is formed in the geometric center of the flexible body 12. As will later be explained in more detail, the central cavity 14 is created by placing a removable form in the mold when the flexible body 12 is molded from elastomeric gel. An electronics module 20 is placed within the central cavity 14 of the flexible body 12. The electronics module 20 is a self-contained unit having a rigid housing 22 that surrounds an internal light source, power supply and control button 24. The electronics module 20 is sized to fit securely within the central cavity 14 of the flexible body 12. However, the control button 24 of the electronics module 20 can be manually manipulated through the material of the flexible body 12. Consequently, the electronics module 20 can be selectively turned on and off. The elastomeric gel used to create the flexible body 12 is preferably translucent. Consequently, light produced by the electronics module 20 passes through the material of the elastic body 12 and the flying disk 10 glows from internal illumination. Referring to FIG. 2, it can be seen that a small access hole 26 is formed in the flexible body 12 that leads to the central cavity 14. The access hole 26 is needed to remove the molding form that is used to create the central cavity 14 during molding. The access hole 26 has a diameter that is far smaller than the diameter of the electronics module 20. However, due to the physical properties of the elastomeric gel that forms the flexible body 12, the access hole 26 can be temporarily stretched open to a diameter that will enable the electronics module 20 to pass through the access hole 26 and into the central cavity 14. The moment the electronics module 20 passes through the access hole 26, it elastically contracts back to its normal size, thereby trapping the electronics module 20 within the central cavity 14. If the electronics module 20 ever needs to be removed from the central cavity 14 for repair or battery replacement, the electronics module 20 can be pressed against the access hole 26. If pushed with enough force, the electronics module 20 will hyper-extend the access hole 26 until it opens wide enough for the electronics module 20 to pass. The electronics module 20 has a translucent protective housing 22. Contained within the housing 22 is at least one light emitting diode (LED) 28 and a battery 30 to power the LED 28. The activation of the LED 28 is controlled by a manual control switch 24 that is present on the exterior of the protective housing 22. In addition to the LED(s) 28, the protective housing 22 also contains a small circuit board 32 with circuitry that causes the LED(s) 28 to flash in a predetermined sequence. The electronics module 20 may also contain a noise generator and speaker so that the electronics module can produce sound in addition to light. The housing 22 of the electronics module 20 physically protects the various electronic components from damage and contamination with water and dirt. The housing 22 retains the electronics components in place, thereby making the electronic components highly resistant to shock damage, which is important with a thrown projectile toy. The housing 22 also protects the electronic components from being damaged, should the flying disc 10 ever be stepped upon or otherwise crushed. Referring now to FIG. 3, it can be seen that since the flexible body 12 of the flying disc 10 is made from an elastomeric gel, the flexible body 12 can be stretched. When the flexible body 12 is stretched, it elongates. As the flexible body 12 elongates, so does the central cavity 14. It can be seen that the central cavity 14 retains the electronics module 20 but is not bonded to the electronics module 20. Consequently, the electronics module 20 is free to move within the central cavity 14 as the central cavity 14 elongates indifferent directions. The stretching force, therefore, never acts directly upon the electronics module 20 and the flying disc 10 can be stretched without concern of damaging the electronics module 20. Referring to FIG. 4, an exemplary method of manufacture is shown for the fabrication of the flying disc 10. As is indicated by Step 1, the shape of a projectile toy is formed by injection molding an elastomeric gel in a mold 40. The elastomeric gel 46 is molded around an insert 42 that forms the central cavity 14 in the molded flexible body 12. The insert 42 is supported in the mold 40 by a support shaft 44. The elastomeric gel 46 forms around the support shaft 44. As is indicated by Step 2, the flexible body 12 is removed from the mold 40. The flexible body 12 has a central cavity 14 created by the molding insert 42. An access hole 26 is present that leads to the central cavity 14. The access hole 26 is created by the support shaft 44 that held the insert 42 in place during molding. To remove the flexible body 12 from the insert 42, the flexible body 12 is pulled off the insert 42. The access hole 26 hyper-extends and passes around the insert 42. Referring to Step 3 in FIG. 4, it can be seen that an electronics module 20 is provided. The electronics module 20 is sized to fit within the central cavity 14 of the flexible body 12. Lastly, as is indicated by Step 4, the electronics module 20 is inserted into the central cavity 14 by again hyper-extending the access hole 26. In the embodiment of the present invention shown to this point, the flexible body 12 has only one central cavity 14 and only one electronics module 20 that fits within that central cavity 14. Referring to FIG. 5, an alternate embodiment of the present invention device is shown. In the embodiment of FIG. 5, a flying disc 50 is shown having a flexible body 52. Contained within the flexible body 52 are a plurality of cavities 54. A plurality of electronics modules 56 are provided that fit within the different cavities. The electronics modules 56 can be different sizes and have different functions. For instance, each of the electronics modules 56 can produce light of a different color. Alternatively, some of the electronics modules 56 may produce light while others produce sound. The electronics modules 56 are preferably symmetrically disposed around the center of the flying disc 50 so that the flying disc 50 is balanced while spinning during flight. It will be understood that a person skilled in the art can make many variations to the present invention using functionally equivalent parts to the parts that are illustrated. For instance, the electronics modules need not be round, they can be oval, disc shaped or can have any other body shape. A rounded shape is preferred due to its lack of salient points that may wear against the material of the flexible body. Furthermore, the flexible body itself can be formed into many different geometric shapes. Additionally, the function of the electronics modules can be varied in many ways. The electronics modules can be made to flash in any pattern and/or play any selection of music or sounds. All such variations, modifications and alternate embodiments are intended to be included within the scope of the present invention as described and claimed below. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention In general, the present invention relates to flying-disc projectile toys. More particularly, the present invention relates to flying-disc projectile toys that are made from elastomeric material and flying disc toys that are illuminated. 2. Description of Related Art Flying disc toys, such as the Frisbee™, have been popular in the toy marketplace for decades. In this period of time, there have been many variations to the design and structure of toy flying discs. Toy flying discs have been made from metal, wood and plastic. Furthermore, a variety of different electronic light modules have been attached to flying disc toys so that the flying discs will appear illuminated during low light conditions. Within the past few years, advancements have occurred in the field of polymer science that have enabled highly elastic gel materials to be produced. These elastic gels are also very resistant to tearing. These elastomeric gels are produced by mixing oils with various tri-block copolymers. Since such gel materials are soft, they have been adapted for use in the field of projectile toys, in order to make the projectile toys safer. Elastomeric gels have been used in the manufacture of flying discs. This was done to make the disc easier to store, easier to hold, easier to catch and less inclined to cause impact damage. Prior art flying discs made from elastomeric gels are exemplified by U.S. Pat. No. 5,324,222 to Chen, entitled Ultra-Soft, Ultra-Elastic Airfoils. A problem associated with fabricating a flying disc from an elastomeric gel is that there exists no rigid structure to mount a light module or other electronic module. Of course, a rigid electronic module can be glued to the flexible flying disc, but this would make the body of the disc rigid, thereby eliminating the benefits of making the flying disc from an elastomeric gel. A need therefore exists for a way to connect electronic components to a flexible elastomeric body in a manner that does not make the elastomeric body rigid. This need is met by the present invention as described and claimed below. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is an internally illuminated toy. The toy has a flexible body that is made from an elastomeric gel. The flexible body defines an internal chamber that is accessible through a small access opening. An electronics module is provided that contains a light source and a battery needed to power the light source. The electronics module is inserted into the internal chamber of the flexible body by hyper-extending the access opening to a size that enables the electronics module to pass. Once inside the internal chamber, the access opening elastically contracts and the electronics module is trapped within the flexible body. Since the electronics module is not attached to the flexible body, the electronics module does not prevent the flexible body from being stretched in any direction. When activated, the electronics module illuminates, thereby internally illuminating the flexible body of the toy. | 20040614 | 20070529 | 20051215 | 94120.0 | 1 | MILLER, BENA B | ILLUMINATED ELASTOMERIC FLYING DISC AND ITS METHOD OF MANUFACTURE | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,865,795 | ACCEPTED | White balance adjustment apparatus and method for a digital image device | An apparatus and method for a digital image device having an image-capturing device for photoelectrically changing an optical image focused through a lens unit, and for converting a signal output from the image-capturing device into a digital signal and processing input color data which is output in a predetermined period are disclosed. The apparatus and method comprise changing a range of established luminance levels every predetermined period, and luminance-dividing and storing color data, from the input color data, which belongs to the range of the established luminance level; detecting a white color out of the luminance-divided and stored color data, and setting to a range of clip luminance levels a range of luminance levels to which the detected white color belongs. The apparatus and method also comprise dividing an image captured on the image-capturing device into the predetermined number of windows, and view-dividing and storing color data in the window which belongs to the range of clip luminance levels with changing the windows every predetermined period. The apparatus and method further comprise calculating a final white color value based on the view-divided and stored color data. | 1. A white balance adjustment method for a digital image device having an image-capturing device for photoelectrically changing an optical image focused through a lens unit, and for converting a signal output from the image-capturing device into a digital signal and processing input color data which is output in a predetermined period, comprising the steps of: changing a range of established luminance levels every predetermined period, and luminance-dividing and storing color data, from the input color data, which belongs to the range of the established luminance level; detecting a white color out of the luminance-divided and stored color data, and setting a range of luminance levels to which the detected white color belongs for a range of clip luminance levels; dividing an image captured on the image-capturing device into a predetermined number of windows, and view-dividing and storing color data in the window which belongs to the range of clip luminance levels with changing the windows every predetermined period; and calculating a final white color value based on the view-divided and stored color data. 2. The white balance adjustment method as claimed in claim 1, further comprising the steps of: calculating a correction value for color corrections based on the detected final white color value; and correcting the input color data using the correction value. 3. The white balance adjustment method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the range of established luminance levels is any one of intervals obtained by dividing a range between a minimum luminance value and a maximum luminance value in the same interval, and changing to a next divided interval every predetermined period. 4. The white balance adjustment method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the step for detecting the final white color value detects a white color by the divided window, and calculates as the final white color value the color data detected as a white color having the highest value. 5. The white balance adjustment method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the image-capturing device is a Charge-Coupled Device (CCD). 6. The white balance adjustment method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the predetermined period is either one frame period or one field period. 7. An apparatus for adjusting a white balance for an image-capturing device, the apparatus comprising: a digital image device having an image-capturing device for photoelectrically changing an optical image focused through a lens unit, and for converting a signal output from the image-capturing device into a digital signal and processing input color data which is output in a predetermined period; a lens unit adapted to optically detect an object; an automatic gain control (AGC) unit adapted to control a gain for a signal output from the image-capturing device; and a controller adapted to change a range of established luminance levels every predetermined period, and luminance-divide and store color data, from the input color data, which belongs to the range of the established luminance level; to detect a white color out of the luminance-divided and stored color data, and set a range of luminance levels to which the detected white color belongs for a range of clip luminance levels; to divide an image captured on the image-capturing device into a predetermined number of windows, and view-divide and store color data in the window which belongs to the range of clip luminance levels with the changed the windows every predetermined period; and to calculate a final white color value based on the view-divided and stored color data. 8. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the controller is further adapted to calculate a correction value for color corrections based on the detected final white color value; and to correct the input color data via the correction value. 9. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the range of established luminance levels is any one of intervals obtained by dividing a range between a minimum luminance value and a maximum luminance value in the same interval, and changing to a next divided interval every predetermined period. 10. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the controller is further adapted to detect a white color by the divided window, and calculate as the final white color value the color data detected as a white color having the highest value. 11. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the image-capturing device is a Charge-Coupled Device (CCD). 12. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the predetermined period is either one frame period or one field period. 13. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the lens unit comprises a zoom lens, a focus lens and an iris. 14. The apparatus of claim 13, wherein the zoom lens is adapted to magnify or reduce a subject to be photographed. 15. The apparatus of claim 13, wherein the focus lens is adapted to focus the image-capturing device on the subject. 16. The apparatus of claim 13, wherein the iris is adapted to control the amount of light to the image-capturing device. 17. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the CCD is adapted to photoelectrically convert images captured through the lens unit into an electrical signal. 18. The apparatus of claim 7, further comprises: a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) adapted to convert a digital image signal into at least one of a National Television Standards Committee (NTSC) format and a Phase Alternating Line (PAL) format. 19. The apparatus of claim 7, further comprises: an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) adapted to convert an analog signal from the AGC into a digital signal. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(a) of Korean Patent Application No. 2003-39844, dated Jun. 19, 2003, in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the entire contents of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a white balance adjustment method for a digital image device. More particularly, the present invention relates to a white balance adjustment method for a digital image device capable of improving a white detection capability by using luminance division and view division to reduce errors in the adjustment of the white balance. 2. Description of the Related Art In general, even when a user photographs the same subject with a digital image camera such as a digital still camera or a digital video camera, colors in the photographs look different according to available lighting conditions such as outdoor sun light, cloudy weather, indoor white-color lamp, fluorescent lamp illumination, and so on. However, people do not feel unnatural so much since human eyes adapt themselves to such light source and accept various shades of white as being a white color. The digital image device fully responds to Red Green Blue (RGB) color components included in light sources each having a different color temperature to reproduce a color having a high color temperature as a greenish-white color and a color having a low color temperature as a reddish-white color. Accordingly, in the above situations, it is necessary to render a mixed white color as solid white, and, even when a color temperature changes, it is preferable for a white balance to be maintained at the color temperature. To accomplish this, the RGB ratio for an achromatic subject is controlled to remain a certain value, or a color difference signal such as Red-Yellow (R-Y) or Blue-Yellow (B-Y) is controlled to remain at zero. This is referred to as white balance adjustment. That is, for a greenish-white color, a red (R) gain is increased and a blue (B) gain is decreased, and, for a reddish-white color, the B gain is increased or the R gain is decreased. In order to precisely adjust the white balance, it is necessary to precisely detect a reference white color. In order to accomplish this, a white color is ideally set which is used as a reference for a certain image-photographing environment, and the color is used to perform white balancing for a digital image device. However, it is troublesome to do this whenever photographs are taken. A method has been developed to determine a white color based on the characteristics of a subject. This method assumes that a color for a captured picture generally comes close to an achromatic color, that is, to a zero, when an integral value is used with respect to all color components included in the captured picture, which can effectively detect a white color if the captured picture has a wide color distribution inclusive of diverse colors. However, if the method is applied to instances of a narrow color distribution such as a picture photographed at sunset, on red tomatoes, or the like, it can result in an unnatural looking photograph, so means to avoid the unnaturalness need to be taken. That is, a method is required in which the white color is detected with the center portion of the captured picture cut off, portions with low color concentration levels are extracted except for portions with colors highly concentrated on the captured picture, or the like. The proposed method should be a luminance division-based method that divides a luminance level range, inputs color data by divided luminance level range, and detects a white color, a view division-based method that divides a picture-captured view into smaller views, inputs color data by divided view, and detects a white color, or the like. However, such a luminance division-based method based on luminance levels may have a problem of having high errors when colors are corrected based on the white color data detected since the white color data detected includes solid colors and the like which have high luminance. In addition, the view division-based method may have the problem of having high errors when colors are corrected based on the detected white color since all colors existing on each and every divided view are mixed to detect the white color. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, it is an aspect of the present invention to provide a white balance adjustment apparatus and method for a digital image device capable of precisely detecting a white color to adjust a white balance without resulting in errors. In order to achieve the above aspects of the present invention, a digital image device having an image-capturing device for photoelectrically changing an optical image focused through a lens unit, and for converting an analog signal output from the image-capturing device into a digital signal, controlling gains, and processing input color data which is output in a predetermined period, and a related method are provided. The apparatus and method comprise changing a range of established luminance levels every predetermined period, and luminance-dividing and storing color data, out of the input color data, which belongs to the range of the established luminance level. The apparatus and method also comprise detecting a white color out of the luminance-divided and stored color data, and setting a range of clip luminance levels a range of luminance levels to which the detected white color belongs; dividing a view captured on the image-capturing device into the predetermined number of windows, and view-dividing and storing color data in the window which belongs to the range of clip luminance levels with changing the windows every predetermined period. The apparatus and method further comprise calculating a final white color value based on the view-divided and stored color data. Preferably, the white balance adjustment apparatus and method further comprise calculating a correction value for color corrections based on the detected final white color value; and correcting the input color data in use of the correction value. Preferably, the range of established luminance levels is any one of intervals obtained by dividing a range between a minimum luminance value and a maximum luminance value in the same interval, and changing to a next divided interval every predetermined period. In addition, detecting the final white color value can comprise detecting a white color by the divided window, and calculating as the final white color value, the largest value of color data detected as a white color. Furthermore, the image-capturing device can be a Charge-Coupled Device (CCD), and the predetermined period can be either one frame period or one field period. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above aspects and features of the present invention will be more apparent by describing certain embodiments of the present invention with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a digital image device for adjusting a white balance according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a flow chart illustrating a process for white balance adjustment according to an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 3 and FIG. 4 are diagrams illustrating white balance adjustment according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the drawings, it should be noted that the same or similar elements are denoted by the same reference numerals even though they are depicted in different drawings. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a digital image device for adjusting a white balance according to an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to the block diagram of FIG. 1, the digital image device has a lens unit 100, a Charge Coupled Device (CCD) 110, an Automatic Gain Control (AGC) unit 120, an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) 130, a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) 140, and a processor 150. The lens unit 100 is provided with a zoom lens for magnifying and reducing a subject, a focus lens for focusing on the subject, an iris for controlling the amount of light, and so on. The CCD 110 is used as an image-capturing device, and photoelectrically converts images captured through the lens unit 100 into an electrical signal. The CCD 110 reads and outputs charged signals at or about every frame period, that is, at or about every 1/30 seconds, or at or about every field period, that is, at or about every 1/60 seconds. The AGC unit 120 controls a gain of a signal output from the CCD 110. The ADC 130 converts an output into a digital signal, for example, a one-field or a one-frame image signal gain-controlled in the AGC unit 120. The DSP 140 encodes the converted digital image signal into an image signal of a National Television Standards Committee (NTSC) format, Phase Alternating Line (PAL) format, or the like, and has circuits necessary for other signal processing. The processor 150 inputs color data output at or about every 1/30 seconds or at or about 1/60 seconds from the DSP 140, detects a white color, and calculates Red (R) and Blue (B) gain control values for white balance adjustments in use of the detected white color, and sends the calculated R and B gain control values to the DSP 140. The DSP 140 corrects color data using the received R and B gain control values and outputs white balance-adjusted color data. The processor 150 controls overall operations of a digital image device according to the control program stored in memory (not shown). FIG. 2 is a flow chart illustrating a white balance adjustment process according to an embodiment of the present invention. The flow chart shows steps each operating at or about every one-frame period or at or about every one-field period during which data charged in the CCD 110 used as an image-capturing device is read and output. Referring to the flow chart, first, the processor 150 determines whether a FLAG value is “0” in step S200. The FLAG value is a variable for determining whether to execute a routine related to the luminance division or to execute a routine related to the view division, and the initial FLAG value is set to “0”. Accordingly, if the flag is set to “0” in step 200 step S205 is executed and the color data periodically sent from the DSP 140 in a range of established luminance levels is stored. Provided that the maximum luminance value and the minimum luminance value are denoted as 1max and 1min, respectively, and the number of divided luminance levels is denoted as n, as shown in FIG. 3, a range of the first established luminance levels refers to color data in a range of luminance values, that is, in a range denoted as “1”, between 1min and [1min+(1max−1min)/n]. The processor 150 inputs and stores only color data between the luminance levels, and sets a next luminance level in step S210. The next luminance level is a value obtained when the lower and upper values of a previous luminance level are incremented by (1max−1min)/n respectively, which refers to a range denoted as “2” in FIG. 3. If the next luminance level is completely set, the processor 150 determines whether the luminance division is completed in step S215. If the luminance division is not completed, the processor 150 repeats steps S200 through S215 when color data is input during the next period, and inputs and stores color data up to a range belonging to a luminance level corresponding to the nth range shown in FIG. 3, illustratively shown as n-1 and n. Accordingly, if the luminance division is completed, the color data is divided into n luminance levels, and each divided color data is stored. If the luminance division is completed, the processor 150 searches for color data closest to a white color based on the color data divided and stored in the n luminance levels, and selects a luminance level belonging to the color data in step S220. Further, the processor 150 selects the selected luminance level to be a clip luminance level for use in the view division, and sets the first window for use in the view division in step S225. Thereafter, the processor 150 sets the Flag value to “1” in step S230, and executes a routine related to the view division from the next period. Since the FLAG value is “1” in the next operation period, the processor 150 determines the FLAG value in step S200, and stores the color data belonging to the range of the clip luminance level out of the color data pertaining to the first window in step S235. As shown in FIG. 4, provided that the coordinates of an upper left end point of a view captured through an image-capturing device is denoted as Xstart for an X axis and Ystart for a Y axis and the coordinates of a upper lower end point of the view is denoted as Xend for the X axis and Yend for the Y axis, the first window refers to a range, that is, a range denoted as “1”, enclosed with the upper left end point coordinates Xstart and Ystart for the X and Y axes, respectively, and the lower right end point coordinates [Xstart+(Xend−Xstart)/k] and [Ystart+(Yend−Ystart)/m] for the X′ and Y axes, respectively. Out of the color data in the range, the processor 150 inputs and stores the color data belonging to a range of the clip luminance level established in the luminance division. If the color data pertaining to the first window is completely stored, the processor 150 sets a next window in step S240. The next window refers to a range denoted as “2” in FIG. 4, so the coordinates of the Y axis for the respective end points of the first window are not changed, but the coordinates of the X axis are incremented by (Xend−Xstart)/k. The window is changed every color data input period, and, if the color data is completely stored up to the window denoted as k*m, the window division is completed. If the window division is completed, the processor 150 selects as a white color value the closest color data out of k*m color data each stored by window in step S250. If the processor 150 selects as a final white value the color data with the highest value. If the final white color value is completely selected, the processor 150 sets a range of the first luminance level and initializes a window range as the first window in order to execute a routine based on the luminance division as aforementioned, and initializes the window range as the first window in step S255. Further, the processor 150 sets the FLAG to “0”, and repeats the above steps during a next period. The processor 150 calculates R and B gain control values for color corrections based on the selected white color value. The calculated R and B gain control values are transferred to the DSP 140 in order for a color data gain to be controlled, so that colors are corrected. As previously described, the white balance adjustment method first determines a range of luminance levels to which a white color belongs using the luminance division, and selects a final white value through the view division in the determined range of luminance levels, to thereby enable a relatively precise white color to be detected as well as enable the white balance to be adjusted without errors in use of the detected final white value. As described above, the embodiments of the present invention detects luminance levels to which a white color belongs using luminance division, and detects a final white color value through the view division in a range of the detected luminance levels, to thereby detect a relatively precise white color. Further, the embodiment of the present invention adjusts the white balance using a detected white value, to thereby obtain good-quality images that are appear natural on digital image devices. Although a certain embodiment of the present invention has been described, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that the present invention should not be limited to the described embodiment, but various changes and modifications can be made within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a white balance adjustment method for a digital image device. More particularly, the present invention relates to a white balance adjustment method for a digital image device capable of improving a white detection capability by using luminance division and view division to reduce errors in the adjustment of the white balance. 2. Description of the Related Art In general, even when a user photographs the same subject with a digital image camera such as a digital still camera or a digital video camera, colors in the photographs look different according to available lighting conditions such as outdoor sun light, cloudy weather, indoor white-color lamp, fluorescent lamp illumination, and so on. However, people do not feel unnatural so much since human eyes adapt themselves to such light source and accept various shades of white as being a white color. The digital image device fully responds to Red Green Blue (RGB) color components included in light sources each having a different color temperature to reproduce a color having a high color temperature as a greenish-white color and a color having a low color temperature as a reddish-white color. Accordingly, in the above situations, it is necessary to render a mixed white color as solid white, and, even when a color temperature changes, it is preferable for a white balance to be maintained at the color temperature. To accomplish this, the RGB ratio for an achromatic subject is controlled to remain a certain value, or a color difference signal such as Red-Yellow (R-Y) or Blue-Yellow (B-Y) is controlled to remain at zero. This is referred to as white balance adjustment. That is, for a greenish-white color, a red (R) gain is increased and a blue (B) gain is decreased, and, for a reddish-white color, the B gain is increased or the R gain is decreased. In order to precisely adjust the white balance, it is necessary to precisely detect a reference white color. In order to accomplish this, a white color is ideally set which is used as a reference for a certain image-photographing environment, and the color is used to perform white balancing for a digital image device. However, it is troublesome to do this whenever photographs are taken. A method has been developed to determine a white color based on the characteristics of a subject. This method assumes that a color for a captured picture generally comes close to an achromatic color, that is, to a zero, when an integral value is used with respect to all color components included in the captured picture, which can effectively detect a white color if the captured picture has a wide color distribution inclusive of diverse colors. However, if the method is applied to instances of a narrow color distribution such as a picture photographed at sunset, on red tomatoes, or the like, it can result in an unnatural looking photograph, so means to avoid the unnaturalness need to be taken. That is, a method is required in which the white color is detected with the center portion of the captured picture cut off, portions with low color concentration levels are extracted except for portions with colors highly concentrated on the captured picture, or the like. The proposed method should be a luminance division-based method that divides a luminance level range, inputs color data by divided luminance level range, and detects a white color, a view division-based method that divides a picture-captured view into smaller views, inputs color data by divided view, and detects a white color, or the like. However, such a luminance division-based method based on luminance levels may have a problem of having high errors when colors are corrected based on the white color data detected since the white color data detected includes solid colors and the like which have high luminance. In addition, the view division-based method may have the problem of having high errors when colors are corrected based on the detected white color since all colors existing on each and every divided view are mixed to detect the white color. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, it is an aspect of the present invention to provide a white balance adjustment apparatus and method for a digital image device capable of precisely detecting a white color to adjust a white balance without resulting in errors. In order to achieve the above aspects of the present invention, a digital image device having an image-capturing device for photoelectrically changing an optical image focused through a lens unit, and for converting an analog signal output from the image-capturing device into a digital signal, controlling gains, and processing input color data which is output in a predetermined period, and a related method are provided. The apparatus and method comprise changing a range of established luminance levels every predetermined period, and luminance-dividing and storing color data, out of the input color data, which belongs to the range of the established luminance level. The apparatus and method also comprise detecting a white color out of the luminance-divided and stored color data, and setting a range of clip luminance levels a range of luminance levels to which the detected white color belongs; dividing a view captured on the image-capturing device into the predetermined number of windows, and view-dividing and storing color data in the window which belongs to the range of clip luminance levels with changing the windows every predetermined period. The apparatus and method further comprise calculating a final white color value based on the view-divided and stored color data. Preferably, the white balance adjustment apparatus and method further comprise calculating a correction value for color corrections based on the detected final white color value; and correcting the input color data in use of the correction value. Preferably, the range of established luminance levels is any one of intervals obtained by dividing a range between a minimum luminance value and a maximum luminance value in the same interval, and changing to a next divided interval every predetermined period. In addition, detecting the final white color value can comprise detecting a white color by the divided window, and calculating as the final white color value, the largest value of color data detected as a white color. Furthermore, the image-capturing device can be a Charge-Coupled Device (CCD), and the predetermined period can be either one frame period or one field period. | 20040614 | 20080219 | 20050224 | 60014.0 | 0 | MOTSINGER, SEAN T | WHITE BALANCE ADJUSTMENT APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR A DIGITAL IMAGE DEVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,014 | ACCEPTED | Electrosurgical ablator with integrated aspirator lumen and method of making same | Electrosurgical devices for ablating tissue and methods of making the same are disclosed. The electrosurgical devices include an electrode with a lumen for aspirating gasses and debris produced during surgery. The electrode also includes a plurality of upper active edges for ablating tissue in an electrosurgical procedure. The upper active electrodes are spaced apart to form a filter that filters out large tissue particles from being aspirated into the lumen. The upper active edges ablate the large particles to form particles that can pass into the lumen. A lower active edge is formed at the terminal end of the lumen for ablating tissue being aspirated into the lumen. The lower active edge prevent tissue particles from occluding the opening to the lumen. | 1. An electrosurgical instrument for ablating tissue in a surgical procedure comprising: an elongate electrically conductive probe having a proximal end portion and a distal end portion and defining a lumen therethrough for aspirating gasses and debris; an electrode disposed at the distal end portion of the probe, the electrode having a distal end and a proximal end, the electrode comprising: a lumen extending from the proximal end toward the distal end and being configured for aspirating gasses and debris therethrough; a plurality of upper active edges formed at the distal end of the electrode for ablating tissue, the upper active edges being spaced apart so as to form one or more openings in fluid communication with the lumen; and at least one lower active edge formed between the upper active edges and the lumen for ablating tissue that may otherwise block said lumen. 2. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 1, wherein said plurality of upper active edges form a planar surface. 3. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 1, wherein said upper active edges form a grate. 4. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 1, wherein the electrode is a single piece. 5. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 1, wherein the spacing between said upper active edges is less than about 0.02 inch. 6. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 1, wherein the spacing between said upper active edges is less than about 0.01 inch. 7. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 1, wherein said lower active edge is formed by the terminal end of said lumen. 8. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 1, wherein an upper active edge is positioned over said lumen to create a plurality of distinct openings thereto. 9. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 1, wherein the electrode comprises a material selected from the group consisting of tungsten, stainless steel, platinum, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, alloys thereof, and combinations thereof. 10. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 1, further comprising an insulator encircling said electrode so as to leave only the distal end of said electrode exposed to the exterior of the electrosurgical device. 11. An electrosurgical instrument for ablating tissue in a surgical procedure comprising: an elongate electrically conductive probe having a proximal end portion and a distal end portion and defining a lumen therethrough for aspirating gasses and debris; an electrode disposed at the distal end portion of the probe, the electrode having a distal end and a proximal end, the electrode comprising: a lumen extending from the proximal end toward the distal end and being configured for aspirating gasses and debris therethrough; a plurality of upper active edges formed at the distal end of the electrode for ablating tissue, the upper active edges being elongate and spaced apart so as to form a plurality of elongate openings in fluid communication with the lumen; and at least one lower active edge formed between the upper active edges and the lumen for ablating tissue that may otherwise block said lumen. 12. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 11, wherein said plurality of upper active edges form a planar surface. 13. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 11, wherein said upper active edges form a grate. 14. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 11, wherein an upper active edge is positioned over said lumen to create a plurality of distinct openings thereto. 15. An electrosurgical instrument for ablating tissue in a surgical procedure comprising: an elongate electrically conductive probe having a proximal end portion and a distal end portion and defining a lumen therethrough for aspirating gasses and debris; an electrode disposed at the distal end portion of the probe, the electrode having a distal end and a proximal end, the electrode comprising: a lumen extending from the proximal end toward the distal end and being configured for aspirating gasses and debris therethrough; a plurality of upper active edges formed at the distal end of the electrode for ablating tissue, the upper active edges being elongate and spaced apart to form at least one elongate groove that spans the distal end of the electrode, the groove being positioned over the lumen and in fluid communication therewith. 16. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 15, wherein the upper active edges form a plurality of grooves that are in fluid communication with the lumen. 17. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 15, wherein the groove is narrower than the diameter of the lumen. 18. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 15, wherein the groove is narrower than half the diameter of the lumen. 19. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 15, wherein the upper active edges form a surface having a perimeter and wherein the groove creates an opening at the perimeter of the electrode that extends below the surface, the opening being in fluid communication with the exterior of the electrosurgical instrument. 20. An electrosurgical instrument for ablating tissue in a surgical procedure comprising: an elongate electrically conductive probe having a proximal end portion and a distal end portion and defining a lumen therethrough for aspirating gasses and debris; an electrode disposed at the distal end portion of the probe, the electrode having a distal end and a proximal end, the electrode comprising: aspiration means for aspirating gasses and debris; first ablation means, disposed at the distal end of the electrode, for ablating tissue; and second ablation means, disposed between the distal end and proximal end, for ablating tissue that may otherwise block said aspiration means. 21. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 20, wherein said first ablation means comprises a plurality of upper active edges spaced apart so as to form one or more openings in fluid communication with the lumen. 22. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 20, wherein said second ablation means comprises a lower active edge formed between the upper active edges and the lumen for ablating tissue that may otherwise block said lumen. 23. A method of making an electrosurgical instrument for ablating tissue and aspirating the debris therefrom, the method comprising: providing a piece of electrically conducting material having a proximal end and a distal end; boring a lumen in said piece of material, the lumen opening at the proximal end and terminating proximal to the distal end; cutting at least one groove in said distal end to form at least one opening where gasses and debris can be aspirated into said lumen, said cutting also forming at least one lower active edge and a plurality of upper active edges for ablating tissue in an electrosurgical procedure. 24. A method according to claim 23, wherein cutting said groove forms at least two openings where gasses and debris can be aspirated into said lumen. 25. A method according to claim 23, further comprising cutting a plurality of grooves. 26. A method as in claim 23, wherein the piece of conducting material has a planar surface. 27. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 23, wherein an upper active edge is positioned over said lumen to create a plurality of distinct openings thereto. 28. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 23, wherein the spacing between said upper active edges is less than about 0.02 inch. 29. An electrosurgical instrument according to claim 23, wherein the spacing between said upper active edges is less than about 0.01 inch. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. The Field of the Invention The present invention relates to electrosurgical devices for ablating tissue in an arthroscopic procedure. More specifically, the present invention relates to electrosurgical devices with an electrode that defines a lumen for aspirating gasses and debris. 2. The Relevant Technology An arthroscope is an instrument used to look directly into a surgical site. Typically, the arthroscope utilizes a magnifying lens and coated glass fibers that beam an intense, cool light into the surgical site. A camera attached to the arthroscope allows the surgeon to view the surgical site on a monitor in the operating room. With the arthroscope, the surgeon can look directly into a surgical site, such as a knee or shoulder, to diagnose injury and decide on the best treatment. While viewing the surgical site with the arthroscope, the surgeon can repair an injury using a separate surgical instrument. The ability to view the surgical site in this manner allows for a minimally invasive procedure. In recent years, arthroscopic surgeries have been developed for surgical procedures that traditionally were once very complicated and time consuming. Many of these surgeries are now performed as outpatient procedures using arthroscopic techniques. At the beginning of the arthroscopic procedure, the patient receives an anesthetic. After the patient has been sufficiently anesthetized, the surgeon makes a plurality of incisions, known as portals. The portals extend from the exterior of the body of the patient to the surgical site. Three portals are usually made: a first for the arthroscope, a second for the surgical instrument, and a third to permit fluids to escape from the surgical site. Sterile fluid is generally introduced by way of the arthroscope through the first portal. The sterile fluid serves among other purposes to expand the area of the surgical site. The insertion of sterile fluid makes it easier to see and work inside the body of the patient at the surgical site. Electrosurgical instruments are a common device used in arthroscopy to ablate and/or coagulate tissue. In electrosurgery, an electrode is used to direct a high frequency current near or through body tissue. The high frequency current generates enough heat to ablate tissue. In monopolar electrosurgery the return electrode is a patch placed on the person. Energy that dissipates into the tissue connects the circuit by passing through the patch. In a bipolar electrosurgical device, the return electrode is placed in a separate location on the electrosurgical device. Energy leaving the ablator electrode passes through fluids and/or tissue and returns to the electrode on the electrosurgical device. In both monopolar and bipolar electrosurgery, an electrode transfers energy to the surrounding fluid. The energy can be controlled to simply warm the adjacent tissue or it can be used to cut or ablate tissue. Warming tissue is often done to facilitate coagulation. The heating event causes coagulation and thus can be used to stop bleeding in an arthroscopic procedure. To ablate tissue, larger amounts of energy are applied to the electrode. The electrode generates enough heat to create gas bubbles around the electrode. The gas bubbles have a much higher resistance than tissue or saline, which causes the voltage across the electrode to increase. Given sufficient power the electrode discharges (i.e. arcs). The high voltage current travels through the gas bubbles and creates a plasma discharge. Moving the electrode close to tissue causes the plasma layer to come within a distance sufficiently close to vaporize and ablate the tissue. The contours and surface area of an electrode are important for controlling where arcing occurs on the electrode and how much power is required to cause a discharge. Current density is greatest at sharp edges. Arcing, and thus ablating, can be controlled by forming electrodes or electrode edges with small surface areas. Even though gas bubbles can be a necessary or unavoidable consequence of electrosurgery, gas bubbles can pose a problem for the practitioner using arthroscopy. Bubbles formed by an electrosurgical device can block the physician's view in the arthroscopic camera. Thus, bubbles collecting in the surgical site can significantly slow down the surgical procedure or increase the risk that a physician will make an undesirable cut. To overcome the disadvantages created by bubbles formed in the surgical area, recent electrosurgical devices have been created that have lumens for aspirating gasses and tissue debris. One problem with these electrosurgical devices, however, is that they can become plugged. In operation, an electrosurgical device creates tissue fragments. These tissue fragments are drawn to the opening of the aspirating lumen and can block the passage of gasses. Some recent electrosurgical devices place electrodes above the opening of the lumen to ablate tissue blocking the opening. However, even with these electrodes, there is a period of time when the electrode is breaking down the fragment that gasses cannot pass through. When this event occurs, a surgeon has to wait for the fragment to degrade and pass before the surgeon can continue with the surgical procedure. Therefore, what is needed is an improved electrosurgical device that can aspirate tissue fragments without disrupting the aspiration of gasses, such that a surgeon's field of vision remains clear. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention overcomes the disadvantages of the electrosurgical devices in the prior art by providing an electrode that reduces plugging. In an exemplary embodiment, the electrosurgical instrument includes a handle with a probe extending from the handle. The probe can be inserted into a patient during an arthroscopic procedure to ablate tissue. The electrosurgical probe has an electrode on its distal end. The electrode includes an active surface for generating arcing that can be used to ablate tissue. The electrode also defines a lumen where gasses and debris can be aspirated. The lumen terminates prior to the distal end and opens into one or more openings. The active surface of the electrode includes upper active edges and lower active edges. The upper active edges form a first layer for ablating tissue. The upper active edges are distal to the lumen and spaced apart to form a filter for filtering tissue being aspirated into the lumen. The lower active edge or edges are positioned at the terminus of the lumen and ablate tissue that passes into the lumen. Because the upper active edges are distal to the lumen and spaced apart to form a filter, the upper active edges trap large fragments of tissue before they reach the lumen. Furthermore, tissue stuck on the upper active edges typically does not prevent gas bubbles from passing into the lumen because of the many alternative paths to the lumen through the upper edges. Once these tissue fragments have been broken into smaller pieces, the force of the aspirator will draw the smaller fragments into the lumen. The lower active edge is formed at the distal end of the lumen to prevent the smaller fragments from collecting and forming a plug in the lumen. The present invention advantageously prevents tissue fragments from plugging the aspirating lumen of the electrosurgical device. The continuous flow of fluids and gasses through the aspirating lumen greatly increases the ability of the physician to complete a procedure without interruption. The surgeon's clear field of vision provided by using the electrosurgical device of the present invention helps prevent errors, increases the speed with which the surgeon can complete the procedure and thus reduces the overall expense of the surgical procedure. The method of manufacturing the electrosurgical device of the present invention provides significant advantages over the prior art. In one embodiment of the present invention, the electrode is made from a single piece of electrically conductive material. The lumen is made by back drilling a bore into the piece of material. The bore terminates proximal to the distal end. A series of grooves are then cut into the distal end. The grooves are cut deep enough to reach the lumen, thereby creating openings into the lumen. The grooves also create ribs of material. The upper edges of the ribs form active edges where the electrode arcs, thereby generating the cutting potential of the electrode. Creating an electrode in this manner can significantly reduce the cost of manufacturing. Back drilling the bore and cutting the grooves are relatively simple and economical manufacturing procedures, yet they can produce an electrode with extensive amounts of active edges for ablating tissue. The probe of an electrosurgical device must be very small for it to be inserted into a patient through the portals, as discussed above. Therefore, creating electrodes with a large active surface area can be particularly challenging. The problems accompanying size restriction are further compounded by adding a sizable lumen to the probe for aspirating gasses and debris. The manufacturing techniques of the present invention optimize lumen size and ablation potential. The active area of the electrode is maximized by placing the lumen blow the active area. The placement of the lumen allows for a greater ablation surface, yet the configuration of the ablation surfaces helps prevent clogging of the lumen as compared with prior art devices. These and other features of the present invention will become more fully apparent from the following description and appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS To further clarify the above and other advantages and features of the present invention, a more particular description of the invention will be rendered by reference to specific embodiments thereof which are illustrated in the appended drawings. It is appreciated that these drawings depict only typical embodiments of the invention and are therefore not to be considered limiting of its scope. The invention will be described and explained with additional specificity and detail through the use of the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an electrosurgical system including a radio frequency generator, an aspirator, and an electrosurgical instrument according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the probe of the electrosurgical instrument of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is an exploded view of the probe of the electrosurgical instrument of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view of the probe of the electrosurgical instrument of FIG. 2; FIG. 5A is a top view of the electrode of the probe shown in FIG. 3; and FIG. 5B is a cross-sectional view of the electrode shown in FIG. 3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Embodiments of the present invention relate to electrosurgical systems for ablating tissue in an electrosurgical procedure. FIG. 1 shows an exemplary electrosurgical system which includes an electrosurgical instrument 10 connected to an electrosurgical generator 12 and an aspirator 14. In an exemplary embodiment, electrosurgical generator 12 is configured to generate radio frequency (“RF”) wave forms for a monopolar instrument such as electrosurgical instrument 10. Generator 12 can generate energy useful for ablating tissue and/or coagulating tissue. In one embodiment, generator 12 includes standard components, such as dial 16 for controlling the frequency and/or amplitude of the RF energy, a switch 18 for changing the type of waveform generated, a switch 20 for turning the generator on and off, and an electrical port 22 for connecting the electrosurgical instrument 10. Generator 12 also includes port 24 for connecting an electrical ground. It will be appreciated that generator 12 can be designed for use with bipolar electrosurgical instruments instead of, or in addition to, monopolar devices. Aspirator 14 includes a pump 26, a reservoir 28, an on/off switch 30, and an aspirator port 32. Pump 26 provides negative pressure for aspirating fluids, gasses, and debris through electrosurgical device 10. Aspirated fluids and debris can be temporarily stored in reservoir 28. In another embodiment, electrosurgical device 10 is connected to wall suction. When using wall suction, canisters or other reservoirs are placed in the suction line to collect aspirated tissue and fluids. Those skilled in the art will recognize that many different configurations of generator 12 and aspirator 14 can be used in the present invention. Electrosurgical instrument 10 includes power cord 34 for electrically connecting instrument 10 to generator 12 through electrical port 22. Extension tubing 36 provides a fluid connection between instrument 10 and aspirator 14. A flow control device 38 allows a practitioner to vary the rate of aspiration through instrument 10. A probe 40 is connected to a handle 42. Probe 40 can be used for ablating tissue in a patient. Buttons 44 and 46 on handle 42 can be used to switch the mode of operation of probe 40 between an ablation mode and a coagulation mode. FIGS. 2 and 3 illustrates probe 40 of the present invention with the insulating layer 56 removed (See FIG. 4) to show various underlying aspects of the invention. As shown in the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 2, probe 40 includes tubing 48, an electrode 50, an electrode seat 52, and an insulating piece 54. Electrode 50, shown in FIG. 3, has a distal end 60 and a proximal end 62. As discussed more fully below, active surface 72 is formed on distal end 62. Active surface 72 is configured to arc when high powered RF energy is supplied to it. Arcing on active surface 72 gives electrode 50 the ability to ablate tissue. Electrode 50 can also be used to coagulate tissue. Coagulation can be performed by reducing the power supplied to the active surface 72 to a level below that needed to cause the active surface 72 to arc. Current that flows through electrode 50 without arcing creates heat, but in lesser amounts. The lesser energy dissipates into the surrounding tissue and facilitates coagulation. Buttons 44 and 46 (See FIG. 1) allow a surgeon to select the power level to operate in a coagulation mode or an ablation mode. In an exemplary embodiment, insulating piece 54 comprises an annular ring configured to encircle at least a portion of electrode 50. Insulating piece 54 is typically a heat resistant and electrically nonconductive material such as a ceramic. Insulating piece 54 is configured to seat against electrode 50 to prevent undesired discharge of current near active surface 72. Because the temperatures near active surface 72 can reach thousands of degrees Celsius, insulating piece 54 is made of a material that can withstand these extreme temperatures. While insulating piece 54 has been illustrated as a circular piece with an aperture for placing the electrode 50, insulating piece 54 can be made to have any desired shape. Typically the shape of insulating piece 54 is advantageously designed so as to correspond to the shape of the electrode 50. Insulating piece 54 is usually configured to provide spacing between the active surface 72 and other materials that make up part of probe 40, such as a heat resistant coating. As further shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, electrode seat 52 provides a location for connecting electrode 50 at a desired angle. In an exemplary embodiment, electrode seat 52 includes a bore 53 for connecting electrode 50 at about a 90° angle. Of course electrode seat 53 can be configured to connect electrode 50 at desired angles other than 90°. Electrode seat 52 can be made from an electrically conductive material such as stainless steel or titanium. In one embodiment, electrode seat 52 forms part of the electrical connection between generator 12 (FIG. 1) and electrode 50. In one embodiment the connection between electrode 50 and electrode seat 52 secures insulating piece 54 to probe 40. To secure insulating piece 54, electrode 54 includes a retaining ledge 51 that is configured to engage a lip 55 on insulating piece 54. As electrode 50 is connected to electrode seat 52, electrode 50 engages insulating piece 54 and secures it to probe 40. In an exemplary embodiment, electrode 50 is connected to electrode seat 52 through a projection weld. An end of electrode seat 52, opposite to electrode 50 is inserted into tubing 48. In an exemplary embodiment, tubing 48 and electrode seat 52 are made of an electrically conductive material such that when electrode seat 52 is inserted into tubing 48, they form and electrical connection. For example, electrode seat 50 and tubing 48 can comprise stainless steal or titanium. Electrode seat 52 can be permanently connected to tubing 48 by making a weld at the seam between the end of tube 48 and electrode seat 52. For example, electrode seat 52 can be welded to tubing 48 using a laser. An optional liner 49 within tubing 48 is shown, which can be made of any desired material, including insulating and non-insulating materials. As shown in FIG. 4, probe 40 also includes an insulating coating 56. Insulating coating 56 is typically formed as one or more electrically insulating sheaths or coatings. Insulating coating 56 prevents direct electrical contact between the metal components of probe 40 and any exterior materials. Any contact between the conductive components of probe 40 and exterior materials can result in unwanted discharge. Because of the high temperatures involved in electrosurgery, insulating coating 56 can be made from a heat resistant material. Suitable materials for making insulating coating 56 include polytetraflouroethylene, polyimides, and the like. Insulating coating 56 can also include nylon. In one embodiment electrode 50, seat 52 and tubing 48 define a lumen 58 through the center of probe 40. Lumen 58 opens near the distal end of electrode 50 for aspirating fluids, gasses, and debris from the exterior of probe 40. On the proximal end of probe 40, lumen 58 is connected to aspirator 14 (See FIG. 1), which creates negative pressure in lumen 58. The negative pressure draws gasses, fluids, and debris from the exterior of instrument 10 into lumen 58. During an electrosurgical procedure, a surgical site is typically irrigated with a saline solution. Thus, as material is drawn out of the surgical site through lumen 58 the material is quickly replaced. Alternatively, saline or another fluid can be inserted into the surgical site to create positive pressure, which causes fluid to flow through lumen 58. FIGS. 5A and 5B, show an exemplary electrode 50 according to the present invention. As shown in FIG. 5B, lumen 58 opens at proximal end 60 and terminates prior to distal end 62. Active surface 72 is positioned at distal end 62. FIG. 5A shows a top view of distal end 62. Grooves 64a-64d (collectively referred to as grooves 64) are formed in distal end 62. Grooves 64b and 64c are formed over lumen 58 to create openings 68a and 68b. As discussed more fully below, rib 66c divides lumen 58 into openings 68a and 68b. Gasses and debris are aspirated into lumen 58 through openings 68a and 68b, via grooves 64b and 64c. Grooves 64 also define ribs 66a-66e (collectively referred to as ribs 66). Each of ribs 66 has or forms an upper active edge 70a-70e (collectively referred to as upper edges 70). Active upper edges 70 of electrode 50 are designed to discharge current (i.e. arc) to ablate tissue in an electrosurgical procedure. As discussed above, discharge of current typically occurs where current density is greatest on the electrode. Current density is greatest on small surface areas such as the upper edges 70 of ribs 66. By way of illustration, FIG. 5B shows rib 66a as having an upper active edge 70b. As shown in the top view of FIG. 5A, active edge 70b extends the length of rib 66b. Increasing the number and/or length of the upper edges increases the ablating potential of electrode 50. In an exemplary embodiment, electrode 50 further includes a lower active edge 74 (FIG. 5A). Lower active edge 74 is formed at the distal end of lumen 58. Lower active edge 74 ablates tissue being aspirated into lumen 58 and prevents tissue from collecting and plugging lumen 58. Lower active edge 74 can be formed at the edge created by a groove, or lower edge 74 can be a wire or other structure configured to ablate tissue that is placed near or at the terminus of electrode. The foregoing and the like are examples of second ablation means for ablating tissue at the distal end of the lumen. To prevent lumen 58 from plugging, ribs 66 are spaced apart to form a filter above lumen 58. In an exemplary embodiment, ribs 66 are elongate and evenly spaced to form a grate. As shown in FIGS. 5A and 5B, the active edges can form a planar surface for capturing relatively large tissue fragments. Large tissue fragments that can plug lumen 58 are held on the upper active edges until they are ablated to form smaller pieces that are less likely to plug lumen 58. Fragments that pass through the upper electrodes are typically small enough to pass through opening 68a or 68b. If not, lower active edge 74 is able to ablate any fragment too large to pass through opening 68a or 68b. Lower active edge 74 can also ablate small particles that could otherwise collect to plug lumen 58. In addition, dividing the opening of lumen 58 into openings 68a and 68b allows gasses and debris to be aspirated through one opening if the other opening is plugged. Because the upper active edges are spaced to form a grate or filter, gas bubbles and fluids can enter lumen 58 even while large fragments are captured on the upper edges and ablated. In an exemplary embodiment, grooves 64 span distal end 62 such that openings 68a and 68b are elongate, thereby providing a long opening where gasses can be aspirated. The long narrow nature of grooves 64 allows electrode 50 to capture large fragments yet avoid becoming plugged. Fragments are rarely if ever large enough to span the entire groove 64. In one embodiment, grooves 64 extend to the perimeter of electrode 50 and below the surface of distal end 62. In this embodiment, grooves 64 create openings that extend down the side of electrode 50. Distal end 62 extends beyond insulating piece 54 (See FIG. 4) such that grooves 64 provide a lateral opening to the exterior of probe 40. In this situation, a fragment can cover the entire surface of distal end 62 and gasses can still be aspirated into lumen 58 through the side openings of grooves 64. The ability of the electrosurgical device of the present invention to simultaneously ablate captured tissue fragments and aspirate gasses and fluids allows a surgeon to carry out an electrosurgical procedure with fewer interruptions. In an exemplary embodiment, the dimensions of electrode 50 are sufficiently small so probe 40 can fit in a portal for performing an arthroscopic procedure. In one embodiment, electrode 50 has a diameter of about 0.10 inch and a length of about 0.11 inch. In an exemplary embodiment, electrode includes grooves of about 0.01 inch wide and ribs about 0.012 inch wide. In a preferred embodiment, the spacing of the active edges is less than about 0.03 inch and more preferably less than about 0.015 inch. Of course, electrodes having different dimensions are within the scope of the present invention. While exemplary embodiments have been described showing a single electrode with linear and evenly spaced ribs, those skilled in the art will recognize that the electrode of the present invention can be configured differently. In one embodiment, the electrode includes ribs that are taller or shorter or non-linear. In addition, ribs 66 can be of variable height such that active edges 70 do not form a planar surface. In another embodiment, upper active edges 70 and lower active edge 74 are electrically isolated such that electrical parameters can be controlled separately. Furthermore, active edges 70 are not limited to a corner edge or flat surfaces. For example, in one embodiment, an active edge can include a rounded surface, wire loops, protruding wires, or any other shape with a surface area small enough to provide sufficient current density for creating an arc or high voltage discharge. The foregoing and the like are examples of first ablation means for ablating tissue and filtering tissue being aspirated into a lumen Embodiments of the present invention also include methods for manufacturing electrode 50. In an exemplary embodiment, electrode 50 is manufacture by first shaping or forming a piece of electrically conducting material. The electrically conducting material can include tungsten, stainless steel or its alloys, platinum or its alloys, titanium or its alloys, molybdenum or its alloys, nickel or its alloys, and the like. In an exemplary embodiment, lumen 58 is created by back drilling proximal end 60 of electrode 50. Lumen 58 opens at proximal end 60 and terminates short of distal end 62. Lumen 58 can be cut to any desired shape such as rectangular or cylindrical. Typically lumen 58 is cut using a drill bit that forms a cylindrical lumen. Grooves 64 are cut into distal end 62 to form ribs 66. The depth of grooves 64 controls the height of ribs 66. In one embodiment, grooves 64b and 64c are formed to leave rib 66c centered over lumen 58. Grooves 64b and 64c are also cut beyond the terminal end of lumen 58 to create openings 68a and 68b. Rib 66c acts as a barrier between opening 68a and 68b such that tissue blocking opening 68a cannot block opening 68b and vice versa. Extending grooves 64b and 64c beyond the terminal end of lumen 58 also creates lower active area 74. Grooves 64 are cut so as to cross over lumen 58. Active surface 74 is formed where the terminus of the lumen 58 is exposed by grooves 64b and 64c. In an alternative embodiment, lumen 58 can be larger or smaller and grooves 64 can be cut to create more or fewer openings in lumen 58. Manufacturing electrode 50 according the present invention is advantageous because it is simple and inexpensive. Because electrodes used in electrosurgical procedures must be very small to insert them through a portal, the manufacturing can be difficult and expensive. The methods of the present invention provide a simple and economical process for manufacturing electrodes. The present invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from its spirit or essential characteristics. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects only as illustrative and not restrictive. The scope of the invention is, therefore, indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description. All changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within their scope. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. The Field of the Invention The present invention relates to electrosurgical devices for ablating tissue in an arthroscopic procedure. More specifically, the present invention relates to electrosurgical devices with an electrode that defines a lumen for aspirating gasses and debris. 2. The Relevant Technology An arthroscope is an instrument used to look directly into a surgical site. Typically, the arthroscope utilizes a magnifying lens and coated glass fibers that beam an intense, cool light into the surgical site. A camera attached to the arthroscope allows the surgeon to view the surgical site on a monitor in the operating room. With the arthroscope, the surgeon can look directly into a surgical site, such as a knee or shoulder, to diagnose injury and decide on the best treatment. While viewing the surgical site with the arthroscope, the surgeon can repair an injury using a separate surgical instrument. The ability to view the surgical site in this manner allows for a minimally invasive procedure. In recent years, arthroscopic surgeries have been developed for surgical procedures that traditionally were once very complicated and time consuming. Many of these surgeries are now performed as outpatient procedures using arthroscopic techniques. At the beginning of the arthroscopic procedure, the patient receives an anesthetic. After the patient has been sufficiently anesthetized, the surgeon makes a plurality of incisions, known as portals. The portals extend from the exterior of the body of the patient to the surgical site. Three portals are usually made: a first for the arthroscope, a second for the surgical instrument, and a third to permit fluids to escape from the surgical site. Sterile fluid is generally introduced by way of the arthroscope through the first portal. The sterile fluid serves among other purposes to expand the area of the surgical site. The insertion of sterile fluid makes it easier to see and work inside the body of the patient at the surgical site. Electrosurgical instruments are a common device used in arthroscopy to ablate and/or coagulate tissue. In electrosurgery, an electrode is used to direct a high frequency current near or through body tissue. The high frequency current generates enough heat to ablate tissue. In monopolar electrosurgery the return electrode is a patch placed on the person. Energy that dissipates into the tissue connects the circuit by passing through the patch. In a bipolar electrosurgical device, the return electrode is placed in a separate location on the electrosurgical device. Energy leaving the ablator electrode passes through fluids and/or tissue and returns to the electrode on the electrosurgical device. In both monopolar and bipolar electrosurgery, an electrode transfers energy to the surrounding fluid. The energy can be controlled to simply warm the adjacent tissue or it can be used to cut or ablate tissue. Warming tissue is often done to facilitate coagulation. The heating event causes coagulation and thus can be used to stop bleeding in an arthroscopic procedure. To ablate tissue, larger amounts of energy are applied to the electrode. The electrode generates enough heat to create gas bubbles around the electrode. The gas bubbles have a much higher resistance than tissue or saline, which causes the voltage across the electrode to increase. Given sufficient power the electrode discharges (i.e. arcs). The high voltage current travels through the gas bubbles and creates a plasma discharge. Moving the electrode close to tissue causes the plasma layer to come within a distance sufficiently close to vaporize and ablate the tissue. The contours and surface area of an electrode are important for controlling where arcing occurs on the electrode and how much power is required to cause a discharge. Current density is greatest at sharp edges. Arcing, and thus ablating, can be controlled by forming electrodes or electrode edges with small surface areas. Even though gas bubbles can be a necessary or unavoidable consequence of electrosurgery, gas bubbles can pose a problem for the practitioner using arthroscopy. Bubbles formed by an electrosurgical device can block the physician's view in the arthroscopic camera. Thus, bubbles collecting in the surgical site can significantly slow down the surgical procedure or increase the risk that a physician will make an undesirable cut. To overcome the disadvantages created by bubbles formed in the surgical area, recent electrosurgical devices have been created that have lumens for aspirating gasses and tissue debris. One problem with these electrosurgical devices, however, is that they can become plugged. In operation, an electrosurgical device creates tissue fragments. These tissue fragments are drawn to the opening of the aspirating lumen and can block the passage of gasses. Some recent electrosurgical devices place electrodes above the opening of the lumen to ablate tissue blocking the opening. However, even with these electrodes, there is a period of time when the electrode is breaking down the fragment that gasses cannot pass through. When this event occurs, a surgeon has to wait for the fragment to degrade and pass before the surgeon can continue with the surgical procedure. Therefore, what is needed is an improved electrosurgical device that can aspirate tissue fragments without disrupting the aspiration of gasses, such that a surgeon's field of vision remains clear. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention overcomes the disadvantages of the electrosurgical devices in the prior art by providing an electrode that reduces plugging. In an exemplary embodiment, the electrosurgical instrument includes a handle with a probe extending from the handle. The probe can be inserted into a patient during an arthroscopic procedure to ablate tissue. The electrosurgical probe has an electrode on its distal end. The electrode includes an active surface for generating arcing that can be used to ablate tissue. The electrode also defines a lumen where gasses and debris can be aspirated. The lumen terminates prior to the distal end and opens into one or more openings. The active surface of the electrode includes upper active edges and lower active edges. The upper active edges form a first layer for ablating tissue. The upper active edges are distal to the lumen and spaced apart to form a filter for filtering tissue being aspirated into the lumen. The lower active edge or edges are positioned at the terminus of the lumen and ablate tissue that passes into the lumen. Because the upper active edges are distal to the lumen and spaced apart to form a filter, the upper active edges trap large fragments of tissue before they reach the lumen. Furthermore, tissue stuck on the upper active edges typically does not prevent gas bubbles from passing into the lumen because of the many alternative paths to the lumen through the upper edges. Once these tissue fragments have been broken into smaller pieces, the force of the aspirator will draw the smaller fragments into the lumen. The lower active edge is formed at the distal end of the lumen to prevent the smaller fragments from collecting and forming a plug in the lumen. The present invention advantageously prevents tissue fragments from plugging the aspirating lumen of the electrosurgical device. The continuous flow of fluids and gasses through the aspirating lumen greatly increases the ability of the physician to complete a procedure without interruption. The surgeon's clear field of vision provided by using the electrosurgical device of the present invention helps prevent errors, increases the speed with which the surgeon can complete the procedure and thus reduces the overall expense of the surgical procedure. The method of manufacturing the electrosurgical device of the present invention provides significant advantages over the prior art. In one embodiment of the present invention, the electrode is made from a single piece of electrically conductive material. The lumen is made by back drilling a bore into the piece of material. The bore terminates proximal to the distal end. A series of grooves are then cut into the distal end. The grooves are cut deep enough to reach the lumen, thereby creating openings into the lumen. The grooves also create ribs of material. The upper edges of the ribs form active edges where the electrode arcs, thereby generating the cutting potential of the electrode. Creating an electrode in this manner can significantly reduce the cost of manufacturing. Back drilling the bore and cutting the grooves are relatively simple and economical manufacturing procedures, yet they can produce an electrode with extensive amounts of active edges for ablating tissue. The probe of an electrosurgical device must be very small for it to be inserted into a patient through the portals, as discussed above. Therefore, creating electrodes with a large active surface area can be particularly challenging. The problems accompanying size restriction are further compounded by adding a sizable lumen to the probe for aspirating gasses and debris. The manufacturing techniques of the present invention optimize lumen size and ablation potential. The active area of the electrode is maximized by placing the lumen blow the active area. The placement of the lumen allows for a greater ablation surface, yet the configuration of the ablation surfaces helps prevent clogging of the lumen as compared with prior art devices. These and other features of the present invention will become more fully apparent from the following description and appended claims. | 20040610 | 20061219 | 20051215 | 68515.0 | 0 | TOY, ALEX B | ELECTROSURGICAL ABLATOR WITH INTEGRATED ASPIRATOR LUMEN AND METHOD OF MAKING SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,031 | ACCEPTED | Non-lethal projectiles for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target | Projectile systems are provided herein employing an inhibiting and/or marking substance for impairing/marking a living target, such as a human or animal target. In preferred embodiments, the projectile system includes a generally frangible projectile that is optimally filled to at least about 50%, with the substance to be delivered to the target, such that the substance is radially dispersed into a cloud upon impact. In one implementation, the substance delivered comprises a powdered inhibiting substance, such as a powdered pepper. In one implementation, the powdered inhibiting substance comprises a substance having one or more capsaicinoids. | 1-12. (Canceled). 13. A system comprising: a frangible projectile to be impacted with a target; the frangible projectile comprising a rigid frangible shell having a thickness and a volume formed within, wherein the rigid frangible shell ruptures upon impact with the target; and a substance contained within the volume and occupying at least about 50% of the volume; wherein the substance comprises a powdered inhibiting substance, wherein upon impact with the target the rigid frangible shell ruptures, radially dispersing the powdered inhibiting substance proximate to the target into a cloud; and wherein the powdered inhibiting substance comprises nonivamide. 14. The system of claim 13 further comprising a compressed gas launcher for launching the frangible projectile. 15. The system of claim 13 wherein the rigid frangible shell further comprises a material selected from the group consisting of polymers and plastics. 16. The system of claim 13 wherein the rigid frangible shell further comprises at least one structurally weakening feature. 17. The system of claim 13 further comprising a marking substance contained within the volume. 18. The system of claim 13 wherein the substance further comprises a weighting substance contained within the volume. 19. The system of claim 13 wherein the nonivamide comprises synthetic nonivamide. 20. A system comprising: a frangible projectile to be impacted with a target; the frangible projectile comprising a rigid frangible shell having a thickness and a volume formed within, wherein the rigid frangible shell ruptures upon impact with the target; and a substance contained within the volume and occupying at least about 50% of the volume; wherein the substance comprises a powdered inhibiting substance, wherein upon impact with the target the rigid frangible shell ruptures, radially dispersing the powdered inhibiting substance proximate to the target into a cloud; and wherein the powdered inhibiting substance comprises a capsaicinoid. 21. The system of claim 20 further comprising a compressed gas launcher for launching the frangible projectile. 22. The system of claim 20 wherein the rigid frangible shell further comprises a material selected from the group consisting of polymers and plastics. 23. The system of claim 20 wherein the rigid frangible shell further comprises at least on structurally weakening feature. 24. The system of claim 20 further comprising a marking substance contained within the volume. 25. The system of claim 20 wherein the substance further comprises a weighting substance contained within the volume. 26. The system of claim 20 wherein the inhibiting substance further comprises at least one additional capsaicinoid. 27. The system of claim 20 wherein the capsaicinoid is selected from the group consisting of capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, and nonivamide. 28. The system of claim 20 wherein the capsaicinoid comprises synthetic nonivamide. 29. A system comprising: a frangible projectile to be impacted with a target; the frangible projectile comprising a rigid frangible shell having a thickness and a volume formed within, wherein the rigid frangible shell ruptures upon impact with the target; and a substance contained within the volume and occupying at least about 50% of the volume; wherein the substance comprises a powdered inhibiting substance, wherein upon impact with the target the rigid frangible shell ruptures, radially dispersing the powdered inhibiting substance proximate to the target into a cloud; and the powdered inhibiting substance adapted to be inhaled causing irritation. 30. The system of claim 29 wherein the powdered inhibiting substance comprises one or more capsaicinoids. 31. The system of claim 29 wherein the powdered inhibiting substance comprises one or more substances selected from the group consisting of capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, and nonivamide. 32. The system of claim 31 wherein the powered inhibiting substance comprises synthetic nonivamide. 33. The system of claim 29 wherein powdered inhibiting substance further comprises a means for contacting a mucous membrane and causing pain. 34. A system comprising: a frangible projectile to be impacted with a target; the frangible projectile comprising a rigid frangible shell having a thickness and a volume formed within, wherein the rigid frangible shell ruptures upon impact with the target; and a substance contained within the volume and occupying at least about 50% of the volume; wherein the substance comprises a powdered inhibiting substance, wherein upon impact with the target the rigid frangible shell ruptures, radially dispersing the powdered inhibiting substance proximate to the target into a cloud; and the powdered inhibiting substance comprising a means for causing irritation. 35. The system of claim 34 wherein the powdered inhibiting substance further comprises a means for contacting a mucous membrane and causing pain. 36. The system of claim 34 wherein the powdered inhibiting substance further comprises a means for incapacitating a target upon being inhaled. 37. A projectile for impacting a target comprising: a rigid frangible shell having a volume formed therein, the rigid frangible shell configured to fracture upon impact with the target; a substance within the volume and occupying at least about 50% of the volume; the substance comprising a powdered irritant; and the powdered irritant comprising a pepper substance. 38. The projectile of claim 37 wherein the pepper substance comprises one or more capsaicinoids. 39. The projectile of claim 37 wherein the pepper substance comprises on or more substances selected from the group consisting of capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, and nonivamide. 40. The projectile of claim 37 wherein the pepper substance comprises nonivamide. 41. The projectile of claim 40 wherein the nonivamide comprises synthetic nonivamide. | This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/382,295, filed Mar. 4, 2003, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/146,013, filed May 14, 2002, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 09/289,258, filed Apr. 9, 1999, which is a Continuation-In-Part (CIP) of application Ser. No. 08/751,709, filed Nov. 18, 1996, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a non-lethal projectile system and, more particularly to non-lethal projectiles that deliver an inhibiting and/or marking substance to a target, especially a living target. Even more particularly, the present invention relates to non-lethal projectile systems including a capsule, most preferably a generally spherical capsule, containing an inhibiting and/or marking substance, and tactical methods for using the non-lethal projectile systems in combination with a launch device in order to most effectively inhibit, impair, or disable the living target in a less-than-lethal way. The projectile systems of the present invention, upon impact with the living target, provide optimized dispersal of the inhibiting and/or marking substance on and about the target, and in particular, provide an improved mechanism for delivering the inhibiting substance to the target's face, without requiring that the projectile impact the target's face. Further, the projectile system is designed such that deployment facilitates its effectiveness by creating sufficient force, upon impact with the target, to cause the target to move his, her or its face into the dispersing substance, while at the same time experiencing impairment, or temporary disability as a result of the impact. Specifically, the non-lethal projectiles are able to be launched with sufficient non-lethal force to immediately slow and/or stop a moving target, before the inhibiting substance carried thereby affects the target. Additionally, the projectile systems of the present invention are easier and cheaper to manufacture than heretofore known projectiles, are effective at safer, stand-off distances as well as at close range distances, are easily integrated into normal officer training programs, and can be used with conventional, as well as custom, launchers. Steadily rising crime rates have led to an increased need for technologically enhanced crime devices. There is particularly a need for non-lethal devices that are capable of at least temporarily incapacitating, slowing or inhibiting a suspected criminal and/or marking such individuals for later identification. As populations increase, the risk that a criminal will be surrounded by or in close proximity to innocent persons when officers are trying to subdue him/her also increases. Whereas non-permanently injuring an innocent bystander, while subduing a suspected criminal, is acceptable, killing the bystander is not. Thus, there is great need for non-lethal (or less-than-lethal), highly effective weapons that may be used by officers and others to slow, stop and/or mark criminals. Presently available, non-lethal devices include, for example, stun guns, mace, tear gas, pepper spray devices and similar devices that impair the vision, breathing or other physical or mental capabilities of the target. One attempt to provide a non-lethal device for delivering an inhibiting substance is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 3,921,614, issued to Fogelgren for a COMPRESSED GAS OPERATED GUN HAVING VARIABLE UPPER AND LOWER PRESSURE LIMITS OF OPERATION, which patent is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Fogelgren describes a gas-operated gun and associated projectiles. In one illustrated embodiment, a projectile consists of a projectile casing that houses a structure in which a firing pin is situated so as to detonate a primary charge upon impact of the projectile with a target. Deterioration of the primary charge causes the expulsion of a load carried in a load chamber. The load chamber may contain various types of load, such as tear gas, dye, flash-powder or wadding. Another embodiment illustrated in the Fogelgren patent consists of a projectile casing that encloses a body member, which, together with a frontal member, defines a load chamber. The body member and the frontal member are attached so as to be readily separable in flight to enable the load to escape from the load chamber and to proceed to the desired target. In this embodiment, the load is buckshot or plastic pellets. A further embodiment of the projectile shown by Fogelgren stores a portion of a compressed gas, utilized to expel the projectile, to be used to expel a load upon striking a target. Upon firing, an outer body member separates from an inner body member thereby exposing and releasing a holding pin, which holding pin prevents premature release of the projectile's load. Apertures, from which the load is expelled upon impact, are sealed with wax to prevent expulsion of the load before the projectile impacts the target. The portion of the compressed gas used to expel the load is stored in a rear chamber of the projectile during flight, while the load is stored in a forward chamber. When the projectile strikes the target, the compressed gas is released, forcing the load through the apertures and out of the projectile. An additional embodiment of the projectile shown by Fogelgren consists of outer members that form a container into which is fitted a breakable glass vile. Rearward of the breakable vile, padding is provided to prevent breakage of the vile upon firing of the projectile. Forward of the vile is a firing pin assembly against which the breakable vile impacts, as it shifts forward within the members forming the container, upon impact. As with the above embodiment, a holding pin, which normally prevents the breakable vial from shifting forward in the container, is expelled as an outer body member separates from an inner body member. This allows the breakable vial to shift forward upon impact, shattering the breakable glass vial against the firing pin. The breakable vile contains a load to be delivered to the target, which is delivered through apertures near the front of the projectile upon the shattering of the breakable glass vial. The vile may be charged with a compressed gas so as to provide a charged load. Disadvantageously, the projectiles described by Fogelgren, particularly those projectiles described that would be suitable for delivering loads such as tear gas or dye, are complicated and expensive to manufacture. The embodiment employing pressurized gas to both expel the projectile and to expel the load upon impact with the target requires a great amount of pressurized gas, that is, a sufficient quantity to both fire the projectile and to provide the portion of pressurized gas necessary to ensure expulsion of the load. In addition, such embodiment requires complicated and tedious methods to manufacture components such as a microminiature ball valve (through which the portion of the pressurized gas enters the rear chamber upon firing), wax sealer within each of the plurality of apertures and a holding pin that must fall away from the projectile in flight. The embodiment employing the breakable glass vial is also complicated to manufacture, because it also employs a holding pin that must fall away during the flight of the projectile and employs numerous structures that must be precisely fitted together to allow them to separate during firing and in flight. This embodiment also must be carefully handled so that the breakable glass vial does not shatter while being handled by the user. This can be particularly problematic, for example, when the Fogelgren device is being used by a police officer in pursuit of a fleeing criminal (or when used by a police officer threatened by a suspected criminal). Thus, significant room for improvement still exists in the development of non-lethal projectiles. Another approach to providing non-lethal projectiles for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target is suggested in U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,379, issued to Kotsiopoulos, et al., for a PAINT BALL, which patent is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The Kotsiopoulos, et al., device is directed primarily to a paint ball projectile for delivering a load (or blob) of paint to a target, and for expelling the blob of paint onto the target upon impact. The paint ball shown by Kotsiopoulos, et al. consists of a shell that fractures in a predetermined pattern upon impact with a target. The Kotsiopoulos, et al. disclosure includes a passing reference to the use of such a paint ball for delivering dyes, smoke or tear gas to a target, however, provides no mechanism for dispersing an inhibiting load upon explosion of the projectile, which is important for a non-lethal inhibiting projectile to be effective. Specifically, when the Kotsiopoulos, et al. projectile impacts the target, by-design, the load is dispersed rather locally. Thus, even if one skilled in the art were to act upon the passing reference to using tear gas in the Kotsiopoulos, et al. patent, to using tear gas, the present inventors believe that such a device would be generally ineffective because the tear gas would not be dispersed to the target's face, where it needs to be to be effective. Furthermore, as Kotsiopoulos, et al. is an unpressurized projectile, the amount of tear gas delivered would necessarily be limited to an unpressurized volume having dimensions of a paint ball. Even if this amount of tear gas were delivered to a target's face, it is unlikely that this amount of tear gas would be sufficiently effective to impair the target in a useful way. To elaborate on the importance of localized dispersion of loads carried by the Kotsiopoulos et al. projectile, Kotsiopoulos, et al. describe a device for delivering a blob of paint to a target dictating a relatively confined dispersion, i.e., a blob of about 3 to 6 or 8 inches in diameter on the target. It would, in fact, be undesirable to widely disperse paint in the context in which the Kotsiopoulos, et al., device is used as such could be quite dangerous to the target. In contrast, for applications where an inhibiting substance is to be delivered, wide dispersion is not only desired but extremely important, particularly when the projectile impacts the target with force, and the inhibiting substance must be taken in through facial openings in order to be effective. Because firing even a non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectile at or within a few inches of a target's face is extremely dangerous, potentially causing permanent injury or death, which is, of course, contrary to the objective of non-lethal projectiles, devices such as those suggested by the teachings of Kotsiopoulos, et al., would be considered undesirable by those of skill in the art to achieve a non-lethal inhibition of a target. Still other non-lethal projectiles are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,009,164, issued to Grinberg (Apr. 23, 1991), U.S. Pat. No. 5,221,809 issued to Cuadros (Jun. 22, 1993) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,565,649, issued to Tougeron, et al. (Oct. 15, 1996), each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Grinberg describes a projectile that changes its shape upon impact with a target, thereby reducing the danger of penetration into a live target. For example, Grinberg uses a double leaf construction to facilitate rupture of the projectile upon impact. Cuadros describes a projectile that increases in size either during flight or upon impact to spread its force over a large area to provide a knock-down effect without body penetration, and Tougeron, et al., describe a self-propelled projectile intended to deliver an active substance to a living target. While each of the devices described by these patents attempts to provide a projectile that may be used to stop or slow a living target without causing lethal injury, all of the devices have proven to be less than ideal. They are complicated and expensive to manufacture, and they are variously difficult to use and unreliably effective. As a result of these problems and others, there is no widely commercially accepted non-lethal projectile in use by law enforcement or military personnel today that delivers an inhibiting substance to a target. A significant disadvantage to the prior art devices is that none takes into consideration the need to deliver an inhibiting (or active) substance under fairly precise dispersal conditions to insure effectiveness thereof. When a target is impacted with a projectile delivering a substance thereto, to be maximally effective, the substance should disperse in a generally radial manner (or transverse to the motion of the projectile) such that the target's face is quickly and fully contacted thereby. At the same time, the projectile should, most desirably, be able to be aimed with a degree of precision so as to be able to avoid hitting the target in, for example, the face. At the same time, the dispersion of the inhibiting substance must be sufficient that, for example, a projectile impacting on a target's chest delivers inhibiting substance to the target's face where it can be effective. Unfortunately, prior art projectiles, not only rarely contemplate these problems, but also frequently fail to provide for dispersal of the inhibiting substance to a target's face after impacting the target at a remote area. Specifically, for example, while powdered inhibiting substances, in the view of the inventors, offer distinct advantages over the vast majority of prior art devices that deliver inhibiting substances to a target, no commercially viable device known to the inventors has ever been produced that addresses the problem of both accurately delivering the projectile to the target at a location remote from the target's face, and dispersing a powered inhibiting substance in a cloud-like, radial manner so as to assure that the powdered inhibiting substance reaches the target's face. Yet, there remains a significant commercial market and tactical advantage to a non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectile that can be accurately delivered to a target, impacting the target in an area other than the target's face, while at the same time providing dispersal of a powdered inhibiting substance to the target's face, where it is effective. Unfortunately, using devices heretofore known to the inventors, targets are often able to escape and/or minimize their exposure to the delivered substance. A further disadvantage to most non-lethal weapons heretofore known is that they either operate at close ranges, for example, pepper spray canisters, or operate at long ranges, for example, rubber bullet devices, but do not operate at both close and long ranges. The inventors are not aware of any prior devices that are both sufficiently safe to be used at close range and, at the same time, effective at longer ranges, such as 10 feet or more, e.g., 20 or 30 feet or more. In particular, the close range weapons are generally not deployed with sufficient force to travel further than a few meters, and the longer range weapons generally are not “muzzle safe” in that they cannot be safely deployed at very short distances because of the chemical/explosive nature of the launching mechanism. Thus, presently, law enforcement and military personnel are required to employ two different technologies, one for close range applications, and another for long range applications. At the same time, the advantages of using a single device for both applications are numerous, and readily apparent. For example, cost is a significant factor recognized universally by governmental agencies, but perhaps even more importantly is a tactical disadvantage imposed by the use of both short range and long range non-lethal or less-than-lethal technologies. Specifically, all technologies known to the present inventors require that a user make a decision as to whether a particular situation calls for a short range non-lethal technology or a long range non-lethal technology. This requires not only spending time to assess a situation in order to determine whether non-lethal or lethal technology should be employed, but also requires expenditure of more time determining which non-lethal technology is appropriate, that is whether the situation calls for short-range technology or long-range technology. As a result, non-lethal and less-than-lethal projectiles are rarely used by law enforcement and military personnel, and, when used, are generally used only in situations where sufficient time exists for the user to make the chain of decisions necessary to first select non-lethal technology and second, to select what range of non-lethal technology is appropriate. Cost becomes an important consideration in these tactical issues as well. Because two types of non-lethal technology must, using heretofore known technology, be available, many, if not most, law enforcement and military agencies cannot afford to fully equip their personnel. This cost constraint is further exacerbated because heretofore available non-lethal technologies, at least the ones that are effective, and thus actually useable, are complicated and highly specialized and most non-lethal devices do not offer a low-cost inert training version. Thus, training is costly and therefore, use is infrequent. As a result, even if currently available technologies could be used at both short and long ranges (thus presumably providing tactical and cost advantages), the actual costs of currently available devices is still prohibitive and therefore dictates only limited deployment. Finally, there are currently, no projectile systems available on the market for delivering powdered substances to a living target. One reason for this unavailability is that such heretofore contemplated projectile systems are difficult to manufacture or are ineffective. While dispensing a powdered substance into a cup is straightforward, dispensing the substance into two parts of an apparatus that must subsequently be sealingly joined together, without loss of any of the powdered substance, is not so straightforward. Kotsiopoulos, et al., for example, show completely filling their paint ball through a small hole using a capillary. Such an approach, however, cannot be used to fill the Kotsiopoulos, et al. device with a powder, as it is known that powder generally cannot be conducted through a capillary as can a liquid or gas. This manufacturing difficulty combined with the aforementioned difficulties in insuring adequate dispersal of the substance, especially powdered substances, has prevented manufacturers of non-lethal projectile systems from entering the market with powder-filled devices. Today, to the knowledge of the present inventors, there is no heretofore commercially viable, non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectile for delivering a powdered inhibiting substance to a target. While powdered inhibiting substances are known, there is presently no delivery mechanism available for accurately delivering and dispersing such an inhibiting substance in a non-lethal, short or long range manner. Thus, as will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, significant improvements are needed in non-lethal projectiles for delivering inhibiting and/or marking substances to targets, especially to living targets. For example, muzzle safe projectile systems that provide optimum dispersal of the substances contained therein are desirable. Further, projectile systems that may be readily incorporated into existing officer training programs would be advantageous, as such systems would insure that officers could be quickly, cost effectively, and easily trained in the use of the system, which, in turn would be of particular advantage to the officer when attempting to use the system under stressful situations, as would normally be the case. Additionally, non-lethal projectile systems designed to impact a living target in such a way as to actually facilitate the effectiveness of the system are desirable, as are methods of employing such projectile systems to maximize effectiveness thereof. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention advantageously addresses the above-identified needs, as well as other needs, by providing a non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectile system for delivering a substance to a target, especially a living target, such as a human or animal target, wherein the projectile system is specially designed to maximize its effectiveness including by providing a kinetic impact against the target at a first location on or near the target combined with optimum dispersal of the substance on and/or about the target at a second location. In one embodiment, the invention can be characterized as a system comprising a shell casing configured to fit within a delivery device and a frangible projectile to be impacted with a target wherein the frangible projectile is within the shell casing. The frangible projectile comprises a rigid frangible shell having a thickness and a volume formed within, wherein the rigid frangible shell ruptures upon impact with the target, and a substance is contained within the volume that occupies at least about 50% of the volume. The substance comprises a powdered inhibiting substance, wherein upon impact with the target the rigid frangible shell ruptures radially dispersing the powdered inhibiting substance proximate to the target into a cloud and the substance includes a powdered oleoresin capsicum. In another embodiment, the invention can be characterized as a method for launching frangible projectiles including the steps of: placing a shell casing within a delivery device wherein a frangible projectile is within the shell casing wherein the frangible projectile comprises a rigid frangible shell having a thickness and a volume formed within, wherein a substance is contained within the volume and occupies at least about 50% of the volume wherein the substance comprises a powdered inhibiting substance, forcing the frangible projectile out of the shell casing and the delivery device, and impacting a target with the frangible projectile, wherein upon impact with the target, the rigid frangible shell ruptures radially dispersing the powdered inhibiting substance proximate to the target into a cloud wherein the substance includes a powdered oleoresin capsicum. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other aspects, features and advantages of the present invention will be more apparent from the following more particular description thereof, presented in conjunction with the following drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a side view of a projectile for delivering an inhibiting substance, such as oleoresin capsicum, tear gas or the like, to a living target, such as a human target, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional side view of two halves of the capsule of a projectile system in accordance herewith, illustrating the use of membranes, within each half, to retain the substance contained therein, during assembly; FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional side view of the two capsule halves of FIG. 2 in a rotated position as they would be during assembly, when brought together; FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional side view of a sealed capsule of a projectile system in accordance herewith, illustrating the membranes employed to retain the substance within the capsule; FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view of a fully assembled capsule in accordance with preferred embodiments herein, illustrating optimal fill of the capsule with a substance to be delivered to a living target; FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of two capsule halves, in accordance with preferred projectile systems herein, during assembly of the capsule, illustrating use of a mandrel to compress the substance within the capsule half, thereby preventing spillage during assembly of the capsule. FIG. 7 is a flow chart showing alternative, preferred methods of assembly of a projectile system in accordance herewith; FIG. 8 is a side-view of a capsule in accordance with the projectile systems herein, illustrating a preferred snap-together structure employing mated flanges; FIG. 9 is a side view of a projectile made in accordance with one variation of the projectile of FIG. 1 modified to include a pattern of exterior dimples that serves the tripartite purposes of decreasing drag, increasing lift, and facilitating atomization of the inhibiting substance upon impact with the living target; FIG. 10 is a side view of a projectile made in accordance with another variation of the projectile of FIG. 1 modified to include another pattern of exterior dimples that serves the tripartite purposes of decreasing drag, increasing lift, and facilitating atomization of the inhibiting substance upon impact with the living target; FIG. 11 is a partial cross-sectional view illustrating an example of an exterior dimples of the variations of the projectile shown in FIGS. 2 and 3; FIG. 12 is a perspective view of one half of a capsule of the present projectile system made in accordance with a further variation of the projectile system of FIG. 1 modified to include a matrix pattern of exterior global scoring and also showing the male flange of a preferred snap-together embodiment of the capsule; FIG. 13 is a perspective view of the complimentary, female, half of the capsule illustrated in FIG. 12, also illustrating the matrix pattern of exterior global scoring and further showing an example of a female flange of the preferred snap-together embodiment of the capsule; FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional perspective view of an alternative capsule in accordance with the projectile systems herein, wherein the capsule halves are not joined and illustrating interior scoring of the capsule; FIG. 15 is a cross-sectional side view of the capsule of FIG. 14; FIG. 16 is an additional cross-sectional perspective view of the capsule of FIGS. 14 and 15; FIG. 17 is a side-view of a projectile system made in accordance with a still further variation of the system of FIG. 1, wherein the capsule is modified to include both a matrix pattern of exterior global scoring and a pattern of dimples; FIG. 18 is a cross-sectional view of a further variation of the projectile systems described herein, wherein solid material, such as walnut shells or rice, has been added to the substance contained within the capsule; FIG. 19 is a cross-sectional view of another variation of the projectile systems described herein, wherein metal filings have been added to the substance contained within the capsule; FIG. 20 is a cross-sectional view of still another variation of the projectile systems described herein, wherein metal shot has been added to the substance contained within the capsule; FIG. 21 is a cross-sectional view of a still further variation of the projectile systems described herein, wherein metal balls have been added to the substance contained within the capsule; FIG. 22 is a cross-sectional view of a variation of the projectile systems described herein, wherein a liquid or gas substance is contained within one half of the capsule and a powdered substance is contained in the other half of the capsule; FIG. 23 is a side view of a projectile system, such as are illustrated in FIGS. 4, 5, 9, 10 & 17, as it impacts a target; FIG. 24 is a side view of a projectile system, such as are illustrated in FIG. 18, as it impacts a target; FIGS. 25, 26 and 27 are a sequence of profile views of a human target as he/she is impacted with a projectile system in accordance herewith; FIG. 28 is a frontal view of a human target with a preferred firing pattern, for the projectile systems herein, illustrated on his/her body; FIG. 29 is a frontal view of a human target with two alternatively preferred firing patterns, for the projectile systems herein, illustrated on his/her body; FIG. 30 is a side view of a tactic, contemplated herein, for stopping a car under chase using the projectile systems described herein; FIG. 31 is a perspective view of a further tactic contemplated herein, for delivering projectile systems in accordance herewith, to a target within a building; FIG. 32 is a cross-sectional view of a projectile for delivering an inhibiting substance to a target in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, wherein the embodiment of FIG. 1 is employed to carry the inhibiting substance, and a stabilizer portion is employed to increase range; FIG. 33 is a cross-sectional view of a projectile made in accordance with one variation of the projectile of FIG. 32, wherein a plunger is employed to explode a capsule containing the inhibiting substance; FIG. 34 is a cross-sectional view of a projectile made in accordance with another variation of the projectile of FIG. 32, wherein the plunger employed to explode the capsule containing the inhibiting substance is aerodynamically-shaped; FIG. 35 is a cross-sectional view of a projectile made in accordance with a further variation o of the projectile of FIG. 32, wherein the plunger is employed to explode a capsule containing the inhibiting substance, and wherein an atomization matrix made up of forward pointing exit orifices is located at a rearward end of the projectile in order to increase a spray pattern area on the target; FIG. 36 is a cross-sectional view of a projectile made in accordance with a variation of the projectile of FIG. 35, wherein the plunger is employed to puncture a membrane behind which the inhibiting substance is encapsulated; FIG. 37 is a cross-sectional view of a projectile for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target in accordance with a further embodiment of the present invention, wherein a pressurized canister is employed to carry the inhibiting substance, and a stabilizer section is employed to increase range; FIG. 38 is a cross-sectional view of the projectile for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target, wherein a pressurized canister is employed to carry the inhibiting substance, and a stabilizer section is employed to increase range, and wherein the projectile employs an adhesive material and a mechanical attachment system to attach the projectile to the target during delivery of the inhibiting substance to the target and further employs forward pointing exit orifices to increase a spray pattern area on the target; FIG. 39A is a cross-sectional view of a projectile for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target in accordance with an additional embodiment of the present invention, wherein a twelve-gauge shotgun shell is packed with a rosin bag (or alternatively a spherical capsule) that contains an inhibiting substance, such as powdered or liquid oleoresin capsicum; FIG. 39B is a cross-sectional view of an alternative of the projectile of FIG. 39A, wherein the twelve-gauge shotgun shell is packed with one or more spherical capsules, for example, as illustrated in FIG. 1, which capsules preferably contain an inhibiting substance, such as oleoresin capsicum. FIG. 40 is an end cross-sectional view of the projectile for delivering an inhibiting substance in accordance with the additional embodiment of FIG. 39A; FIG. 41 is a cross-sectional view of a launch device useable in combination with the projectile for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target in accordance with an additional embodiment of the present invention, wherein the launch device assumes the form of a PR24 police baton thus allowing dual use of the launch device, i.e., as a launch device and as a PR24 police baton; FIG. 42 is a cross-sectional view of a launch device suitably used with the projectile for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, wherein the launch device assumes the form of a flashlight thus allowing dual use of the launch device, i.e., as a launch device and as a flashlight; FIG. 43 is a cross-sectional view of an adaptation of the launch device of FIG. 41 for delivering ball-type projectiles; FIG. 44 is a side cross-sectional view of an adaptation of the launch device of FIG. 42 for delivering ball-type projectiles, wherein a plurality of barrels, such as two, are employed so as to allow for the firing of multiple projectiles without reloading; and FIG. 45 is an end cross-sectional view of the adaptation of the launch device of FIG. 44 illustrating the plurality of barrels. Corresponding reference characters indicate corresponding components throughout the several views of the drawings. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The following description of the presently contemplated best mode of practicing the invention is not to be taken in a limiting sense, but is made merely for the purpose of describing the general principles of the invention. The scope of the invention should be determined with reference to the claims. In one aspect, the projectile system employs an inhibiting/impairing substance and/or a marking substance, such as a colored dye or chemical compound having a particularly offensive odor, to slow/stop and/or mark for identification (either by a dye or through attendant bruising of the target as a result of the kinetic impact), a living target. In another aspect, the projectile system includes a capsule filled to greater than 50%, preferably to 75% to 99%, more preferably to 85% to 95% and most preferably to about 90%, of its volume with an inhibiting/impairing substance and/or marking substance and/or inert substance, such that upon impact with a target, the substance is radially (or transversely to the motion of the projectile system) dispersed on and/or about the target. In a still further aspect, the present invention provides a projectile system that operates by impacting a living target with sufficient force to cause the target to move or hunch towards the projectile thereby bringing his/her face more proximate to the nearly simultaneously dispersing cloud of inhibiting/marking substance. In another aspect, the present invention advantageously is filled with any of an inhibiting substance, such as oleoresin capsicum, a marking or tagging substance, such as a colored dye, and/or an inert substance, such as talcum, or any combination thereof. For example, it is contemplated herein, by the present inventors, that a projectile system in accordance with one embodiment could include a combination of oleoresin capsicum and talcum, at a desired ratio, and to an appropriate fill level in order to improve dispersion of and the effect of the oleoresin capsicum to a desired level. Alternatively, a combination of oleoresin capsicum, and/or other inhibiting substance, and a colored dye, and/or other marking substance, may be employed to simultaneously incapacitate the target and mark him/her for later identification. In yet another alternative, it may be desirable to employ only a marking substance or only an inert substance, such as talcum, in the projectile system, such as when the projectile system is being used for training purposes. In a still further embodiment, the projectile system may have no substance contained therein. In this embodiment, the projectile system may be used to mark a living target by bruising him/her upon impact. In a particular embodiment, the projectile system comprises a spherical capsule separable into two about equal halves, wherein the halves contain a powdered impairing substance sufficient in amount so that the projectile is at least greater than 50% full and preferably between about 60% and 99% full, for example, from between 75% and 95%, for example, about 90% filled with a powdered substance and wherein, to facilitate manufacture of the projectile system, the powdered substance within each half is compressed and/or retained therein by a thin membrane, for example a paper foil, which contacts the inhibiting substance during assembly of the spherical capsule. In this preferred embodiment, the thin membrane is preferably sufficiently strong to retain the desired substance within the capsule as it is manufactured or assembled, yet frangible enough to readily rupture subsequent sealing of the capsule and prior to, or at least simultaneously with, impact with the target. The inhibiting substance may, for example, contain at least 1% oleoresin capsicum, e.g., between 3% and 30%, e.g., between 5% and 20%, with a remainder of the inhibiting substance being either an inert substance or a marking substance or a different inhibiting substance, such as tear gas powder. Similarly, more than one inhibiting substance may be combined to provide a total of about 1% to about 30% or more inhibiting substance in the capsule. In a further embodiment, the projectile system comprises the spherical capsule separable into two about equal halves, wherein the halves contain the powdered impairing substance sufficient in amount so that the projectile is at least greater than 50% full and preferably is between about 60% and 99% full, for example, from between 75% and 95%, e.g. about 90% filled with the powdered substance and wherein, to facilitate manufacture of the projectile system, the powdered substance within each half is compacted using, for example, a mandrel, whereby respective portions of the powdered substance each remain packed within a respective half during assembly of the halves into a spherical (or other suitably shaped) capsule. As indicated above, the inhibiting substance may, for example, contain at least 1% oleoresin capsicum, e.g., between 3% and 30%, e.g., between 5% and 20%, with a remainder of the powdered substance being an inert substance, a marking substance or a different inhibiting substance. In some variations, the inhibiting substance may include fragments of solid material to enhance dispersion of the inhibiting substance. For example crushed walnut shells, rice, wood shavings, metal particles, such as metal powder or metal filings, or the like may be added to the inhibiting substance to help carry the inhibiting substance away from a point of impact of the projectile against the target. The solid material, having a greater density and mass than the powdered inhibiting substance, inert substance or marking substance, tends to project further from the point of impact, there by facilitating dispersion of the substance as it is carried by the solid material. In yet other variations, a weighting substance, for example metal balls, metal shot metal balls wood pieces or other high mass and/or high density materials, such as higher density powders, can be added to the inhibiting substance to not only facilitate dispersion of a powdered substance, but to also increase the kinetic impact of the projectile against the target, thus enhancing the initial impact effectivity of the projectile. This variation can be used to enhance the already synergistic combination of kinetic impact and inhibiting substance, which act, for example, serially, in order to initially stun a target with the kinetic impact, and then debilitate the target with the inhibiting substance. Alternatively, this variation may be employed, where one or more targets are located behind a glass or similar barrier, to break the glass, thereby providing access to other targets. In use, these higher kinetic force projectiles may, or optionally may not, contain an inhibiting substance. And, if such high kinetic impact projectiles do not contain an inhibiting substance, such projectiles may optionally be, for example, solid, rather than capsules, and thus may be made from solid steel, rubber, glass, plastic, or the like. These kinetic projectiles may be used alone or intermixed with projectiles containing inhibiting substance. When intermixed, a pattern of one kinetic projectile for every X inhibiting projectiles may be utilized, where X may be, for example, from between 0.1 and 10. Or, kinetic projectiles may be used to initially subdue a target, followed by inhibiting projectiles to impair the target. In addition, these kinetic projectiles may be arranged such that successive projectiles carry an increasing kinetic impact, so that an initial impact would be a of relatively low kinetic force, and successive kinetic impacts would be of relatively higher forces. In this approach, kinetic capsules may be intermixed with inhibiting capsules, or may themselves carry an inhibiting substance. Also, each successive round may be of increasing kinetic force, or a group of projectiles at a given kinetic force may be fired before a subsequent group of high kinetic force. In further variations, a marking agent, dye, or taggant can be added to the inhibiting substance in order to provide a mechanism for identifying the target at a later time. This feature of this variation may be particularly useful in law enforcement applications, where evidence gathering may be enhanced if the target can be marked. By combining a marking agent with an inhibiting substance a significant synergism is achieved. In another aspect, marking can be effected by bruising of the target due to the kinetic impact of the projectile against the target. In yet a further variation, a powdered inhibiting substance can be combined with a liquid or gas irritant, or other agent to be delivered. The liquid or gas, and the powdered irritant can be carried in separate chambers, in for example, separate halves of the projectile using the membranes described herein to contain the powdered inhibiting substance and the other agent, keeping them separated, if needed. If a liquid or gas is contained by one or both of the membranes, such membranes can be made, for example out of plastic, vinyl, rubber or the like. In an alternative embodiment, the capsule of the projectile system is constructed to facilitate rupture thereof upon impact with a target. In one aspect, the capsule has a plurality of structurally weakening dimples within its exterior surface, and, more particularly, the structurally weakening dimples have a minimum depth of about 15%, preferably about 20%-75% and most preferably about 30% to 60% of the thickness of the capsule. Advantageously, these dimples also provide enhanced aerodynamic qualities, thus serving a dual and synergistic combination of uses. Alternatively, the capsule employs a matrix of global surface scoring in its exterior and/or interior surface to provide a weakened surface and facilitate rupture upon impact. Further alternatively, a combination of dimples, with surface scoring connecting the dimples may be employed to provide both enhanced aerodynamic qualities and to facilitate rupturing of the capsule upon impact. In another embodiment, the present invention includes a method of assembling the projectile system herein comprising the steps of filling each half of the capsule with a portion of the substance to be delivered to the target, covering the substance within each half of the capsule with a thin membrane to retain the substance therein and sealingly attaching the two halves to one another. In a particular embodiment, the two halves of the capsule are welded to one another using ultrasound, glue or a suitable solvent. Or alternatively, the two halves may be formed with interlocking flanges, so as to snap together without need for the use of solvent, glue or ultrasonic welding, or so as to provide a mechanical closure, while, for example, a solvent or glue is used to provide hermeticity to the capsule, thereby preventing contamination of, for example, a powder irritant with, for example, water vapor, which can cause clumping of the powder irritant, and thus reduce the ability of the powder irritant to disperse. In a still further embodiment, the sealed capsule is shaken or otherwise subjected to forces sufficient to rupture the membranes therein, after sealing thereof. In another embodiment, the present invention includes a method of assembling the projectile system herein comprising the steps of filling each half of the capsule with a portion of the substance to be delivered to the target, compressing (or tamping) the substance within each half, such as with a mandrel, to retain the substance therein, and sealingly attaching the two halves to one another. As above, in a particular embodiment, the two halves of the capsule are welded to one another using ultrasound, glue of a suitable solvent. Or alternatively, the two halves may be formed with interlocking flanges, so as to snap together without need for the use of solvent, glue or ultrasonic welding, or so as to provide a mechanical closure, while, for example, a solvent or glue is used to provide hermeticity to the capsule, thereby preventing contamination of, for example, a powder irritant with, for example, water vapor, which can cause clumping of the powder irritant, and thus reduce the ability of the powder irritant to disperse. Advantageously, the structure provided by the S embodiments herein provides a highly accurate, muzzle safe projectile. By making available an option of using existing paint ball launcher technology, the inventors provide not only a highly accurate launch device, but one that is readily available, and extremely cost effective for law enforcement agencies and military branches. Advantageously, present training programs for law enforcement and military personnel include training such personnel to target a target's chest area when using lethal weaponry. Use of the above methodology with the above non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectile does not change this tactic, and thus, both the above method and above projectile are readily deployable with and readily compatible with the training of current law enforcement and military personnel. In a variation, rapid firing of projectiles, such as for example from an automatic or semi-automatic weapon, in accordance with the embodiments herein can be used to enhance both kinetic stunning, and impairing of the target with the inhibiting substance. Such rapid firing can be effected with projectiles having successively more concentrated fills of inhibiting substance, such as 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and possibly higher mixes of inhibiting powder with inert powder, in order to initially deliver a minimum of inhibiting substance, gradually increasing strength of the inhibiting substance with successive projectiles. Several projectiles at each strength may be used followed by several at a next higher strength or each successive projectile may contain substance at an increasing strength or any combination of strengths may be employed. Whether or not projectiles with successively more concentrated fills are employed, or, for example, a single fill concentration is employed, the rapid firing of projectiles at a target offers an advantage in that a larger more diffuse cloud of inhibiting substance is created with each impact of a projectile against or near the target. Thus, in effect, successively greater amounts of inhibiting substance are delivered to the target with each successively impacting, rapidly rifled projectile. When rapid firing is employed, a pattern of projectile impacts beginning near a target's shoulder, and moving toward a target's groin may be particularly advantageous at causing the target to move his or her face into the cloud of powdered inhibiting substance, or irritant, as he or she hunches over and turns to protect him or herself from the pattern of projectile impacts. Similarly, a pattern beginning near the target's groin, and moving toward the target's shoulder may also be effective and advantageous. This latter approach particularly lends itself to use when an aggressive target may ultimately need to be targeted in an extremely aggressive manner, such as at the target's head. Specifically, a pattern of projectile impacts beginning near a target's groin can move up the target's torso, and, if needed, terminate with projectile impacts on or near the target's head. The inventors envision that the targeting of a target's head be used only in extreme cases, perhaps only in cases that would justify the use of deadly force. Thus, in yet a further embodiment, the invention contemplated herein includes a method of impairing a human target by impacting the target's upper torso, especially upper chest area, with a projectile system in accordance herewith, with sufficient force to cause the target's upper torso to move posteriorly and the target's head to move anteriorly that is, to hunch forward towards the projectile. This effect is enhanced by the target's natural propensity to close around a point of impact, and to protect a wounded area. Upon impact with the target, the capsule ruptures causing a radial dispersion of the substance contained therein. And thus, as the target's head moves anteriorly, it moves toward a cloud of radially dispersing substance. As a result, the substance comes in contact with the target's face, and, especially, the mucous membranes, such as, of the target's airway, thereby maximizing the inhibiting effects of the substance. As a further advantage of the present method, the target will naturally be caused to inhale as his or her face is moved anteriorly, and, thus, the target is forced to inhale the substance from the cloud, causing a significantly enhanced effectivity as compared to commercially available device of which the present inventors are aware. In another aspect of the present invention, frangible capsules, in accordance herewith, containing breaker balls, such as steel balls, ceramic balls, glass balls or other materials having enhanced mass/weight characteristics, may be fired initially, for example, from a rapid fire rifle, so as to open a passage through a barrier, for example glass, acrylic or similar glass-like material, followed by firing of one or more projectiles filled with an inhibiting substance, i.e., irritant. This variation provides a particular advantage in situations such as car chases, where a target can be impaired while stopped momentarily in traffic as he or she attempts to elude law enforcement personnel. Specifically, while stopped, an officer can fire a series of breaker balls followed by projectiles containing inhibiting substance. The use of breaker balls can also, for example, be useful in situations such as hostage situations where a target is located inside a building behind glass that first needs to be broken before inhibiting projectiles can be fired into the building toward the target. Most advantageously, because the capsules containing the breaker balls are frangible and break upon impact with the glass-like barrier, they are less dangerous to the living targets than would be a non-encapsulated breaker ball. In a further method, the projectiles of the above embodiments need not strike the target to be effective. Instead the projectiles can be aimed at a wall, a ceiling, or at another structure near, especially above, the target, whether or not the target is not visible. Specifically, for example, a target hiding behind a wall can be effectively inhibited by the widely dispersed cloud of inhibiting substance, e.g., powder, produced upon impact of the projectile against a nearby structure. This method is useful, for example, in armed robbery situations, prison riots, cell extractions, and the like, where targets may be intentionally hiding from law enforcement or military personnel. Thus, it is a feature of the present invention to provide a projectile system for delivering a desired substance, especially an impairing/inhibiting substance and/or a marking substance to a target, which projectile system provides optimum dispersal, and therefore effectiveness, of the substance(s) on and/or about the target. It is a further feature of the present invention to provide a projectile system that is easily manufactured and readily deployed. It is a still further feature of the present invention to provide a projectile system, the use of which may be easily incorporated into an existing armed officer training program. It is yet another feature of the present invention to provide a method of non-lethally impairing a living target using the projectile system herein. As used herein, the term “projectile system” refers generally to the entire projectile apparatus of the present invention that travels to the target. For example, in all embodiments contemplated herein, the projectile system at least includes a capsule (or container portion) having a hollow space within which is contained a substance for delivery to the target. In some embodiments (discussed near the end this patent document), the projectile system includes additional apparatus associated with the capsule, for example a stabilizer body, which apparatus travels with the capsule to the target. It is presently preferred by the inventors however, to omit the stabilizer body, and employ only the capsule. The terms “capsule”, “casing” and “shell” are used interchangeably herein to refer to the container portion of the projectile system within which the substance is contained, whether or not a deliverable substance is actually contained therein. Referring now to FIG. 1, a side view is shown of a projectile 10 for delivering an inhibiting substance, such as, pepper spray, oleoresin capsicum powder, tear gas, smoke or the like, to a living target, such as a human target, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Most preferably, the inhibiting substance comprises finely powdered oleoresin capsicum, such as may be purchased from Defense Technology of America in Casper, Wyoming (for example, Blast Agent oleoresin capsicum #T14, #T16, #T21 and/or #T23). In the present embodiment, the oleoresin capsicum powder (referred to with respect to the present embodiment as “powder”) is preferably purchased at a concentration of at least about 0.5%, e.g., between 1% and 30%, e.g., 3% and 10%, e.g. about 5% by volume. Alternatively, powder may be diluted, to a desired concentration, by mixing with an inert powdered substance, such as talcum or corn starch. In other embodiments, the projectile 10 may also be used to deliver other substances such as marking substances, including for example, dyes or paint, or the like, to a living or an inanimate target, and may also be used to deliver inert substances, such as talcum powder. In still further embodiments, the projectile may be used to deliver both inhibiting and marking substances to the target. The projectile 10, in accordance with the present embodiment, includes an inhibiting substance 11 encapsulated within a plastic, gelatinous or similar material capsule 12. The capsule 12, or shell, may be made from various known substances, such as acrylic, vinyl, plastic, polystyrene and/or other polymers, sodium alginate, calcium chloride, coated alginate and/or polyvinyl alginate (PVA). In a preferred embodiment, the projectile systems contemplated herein include a generally spherical hollow capsule, preferably formed of a polymer substance, for example and without limitation, polystyrene, polyvinyl, vinyl or acrylic. Preferably, the outer diameter of the spherical capsule 12, or shell, is from between about 1.0 cm and 5.0 cm, e.g., 1.8 cm. The inner-diameter of the shell 12 (which defines the volume in which the substance is carried) preferably has a diameter of from between about 0.3 cm and 5.0 cm, e.g., 1.7 cm. In preferred embodiments described in detail herein, the capsule 12 is filled to at least greater than 50%, preferably 60% to less than 100%, more preferably 85% to 95%, and most preferably to about 90%, of its volume with a substance, for example an inhibiting and/or marking substance, to be delivered to a target, for example a human target. The capsule 12 is preferably formed, in halves, by injection molding or by being hot pressed; however other methods are also suitable. For example, the spherical capsules of U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,379, incorporated herein by reference, (hereinafter the '379 patent) are formed using a carefully temperature controlled draw of polystyrene. Production of the capsule of the '379 patent in this fashion can be time consuming and, where being manufactured for the purpose of delivering paint to a target, requires careful attention to feed rates and maintenance of temperature differences between injection feeds of the paint and forming of the capsules. In contrast, and as discussed further herein, the preferred capsules of the present invention may be quickly formed, filled and sealed at very high production rates, in part, because the capsules are formed in halves, then appropriately filled, joined and sealed. It has been discovered, by the present inventors, that the effectiveness of projectile systems employing capsules to deliver powdered non-lethal substances, such as powdered oleoresin capsicum, to a target are maximized by filling the capsules to at least greater than 50%, preferably 60% to less than 100%, more preferably 85% to 95% of their maximum volume, and most preferably to about 90% of their maximum volume. This is somewhat counterintuitive as it would be expected that a capsule that is full or nearly full of a powdered substance would, upon rupture, disperse its contents in a rather small, local area (i.e., as a lump or blob) and therefore be of minimal effectiveness unless facial openings of a target were directly targeted. However, it would also be expected that a capsule that is only about half-full or less with a powdered substance would disperse more effectively, which is not proven to be the case. For example, capsule fills of less than about 60% have been found by the inventors to not disperse with sufficient transverse or radial motion to reach the critical face region of the target but rather provide only local application of the inhibiting substance, i.e., produce only a lump or blob of powder on the target. Similarly, and as expected, where capsule fills are full, i.e., approach 100% of their total volume, the substances do adhere to themselves and clump, moving as though they were a large particle rather than dispersing in a radial, cloud-like fashion. Thus, the present inventors discovery of an optimal fill range, i.e., at least greater than 50% and preferably from between 60% and less than 100%, e.g., between 75% and 95%, e.g., 90%, represents a significant improvement, one that enables the use of powdered inhibiting substances, for the first time known to the inventors, in a commercially viable non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectile. For the reasons above, this optimal fill range further represents an unexpected result. However, at the same time, this optimal fill range poses a different problem, which is addressed herein below, that is, how to fill two halves of a spherical capsule so that a resultant capsule has the optimal fill range, without significant spillage of the substance contained therein during closure of the two capsule halves. To further facilitate maximum dispersal of the contents of the capsule in a non-lethal projectile system, the inhibiting substance should be formulated so that it is not strongly cohesive. For example, where a liquid substance is employed, it should be selected to have very low surface tension (or should be placed under pressure), and where powders are concerned, highly structured surfaces are to be avoided. Thus, for example corn starch is a smooth surfaced powder that will readily disperse in a cloud-like manner; whereas other powders may require micro-grinding to remove structured surfaces. Various substances, well known to those of skill in the art, may be used in the present projectile systems. Particularly preferred herein, however, is powdered oleoresin capsicum, which is a pepper-derived substance, i.e., essentially a food product. When powdered oleoresin capsicum is delivered to a target, in accordance with the apparatus and methods described herein, the target inhales the substance into its lungs, which not only is painful to the target but also results in a temporary inability to breathe effectively. Although the inability to breathe is temporary, it is of sufficient duration to cause panic in the individual, thereby providing adequate time for apprehension. Furthermore, like the liquid form, powdered oleoresin capsicum causes significant irritation and pain when it contacts the mucous membranes, such as for example, eyes, nose, mouth or throat, of a living target. Again, powdered oleoresin capsicum, preferred for use herein, may be purchased from Defense Technology of America in Casper, Wyoming (for example, Blast Agent oleoresin capsicum #T14, #T16, #T21 and/or #T23). As mentioned above, the use of optimal fills with powdered inhibiting substances in a spherical projectile poses a serious practical problem, i.e., how to fill two halves of a spherical capsule with enough powder so that, when assembled the capsule contains an optimal fill, without spillage of the powder. As one of skill will appreciate, spillage is a problem in nearly any environment, but when the material spilled is as inhibiting as oleoresin capsicum powder, the elimination of such spillage becomes important to the safety of persons performing the assembly. Furthermore, as those of skill will readily appreciate, where a liquid substance may be dispensed into a capsule using a capillary, a powdered substance cannot be so dispensed with any sort of accuracy. Thus, the inventors herein have had to devise a method of filling capsules to greater than 50% of their volume, with a powdered substance, in accordance herewith. Referring then to FIGS. 2-6, illustrated are the stages of two preferred assembly methods of a projectile system (600), in accordance herewith, comprising a spherical capsule (613) containing a powdered substance (605, 607 & 611). FIG. 2 shows cross sectional views of the two halves of a capsule 604, 610 in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. As illustrated in FIGS. 2-4, the problem of spillage during assembly is overcome in this embodiment by employing a thin membrane 602, 608, within each half of the capsule 604, 610 after the each is filled to a desired level with a powdered substance 605, 607 (the two portion of substance 605, 607 together constituting the optimal fill of the capsule 613). The membranes 602, 608 retain respective portions of the substance 605, 607 within each half 604, 610 to facilitate assembly of the halves 604, 610 to form the capsule 613 without spilling the substance 605, 607 during assembly. Each half 604, 610 is preferably a generally hemispherical, symmetrical half of the capsule. FIG. 2, then, illustrates the two capsule halves 604, 610 after being filled to their desired level with the powdered substance 605, 607 and then covered with a membrane 602, 608. Next, as can be seen in FIG. 3, the two halves 604, 610 are rotated toward one another and brought together so that a sphere is formed. FIG. 4 shows the capsule 613 after the halves are joined to one another. Upon joining of the two halves 604, 610 into a closed spherical capsule 613, the capsule 613 is then, optionally, sealed along the point of joining (606 FIGS. 18-22) by, for example, ultrasound welding or use of a glue or solvent. In a preferred embodiments, the capsule 613 is hermetically sealed along the joining seam, such that moisture and/or other contaminants cannot enter the capsule, spoiling its contents. In a still further preferred aspect, the sealed capsule of the projectile system 600 FIG. 4 is shaken or otherwise subjected to sufficient force to cause rupture of the membranes within the capsule 613, such that the substance 611 within the capsule becomes mixed and moves relatively freely within the capsule 613. It is noted that the glue/solvent is not illustrated in FIGS. 4 or 5 because they are cut away views of the projectile system 613. Also, not illustrated are the remnants of the membranes 602, 608 in FIG. 5 following rupture of the same, as just described. In an alternative preferred assembly method, illustrated in FIG. 6, a mandrel, 614 or other similar tool, may be employed to mechanically compress or tamp the powdered substance 607 within each half capsule 604,610 to retain the substance therein during the remainder of the assembly process. In FIG. 6, one half of the capsule 604 is shown as having had its contents compressed, while the second half 610 is shown with the mandrel 614 therein. It will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the mandrel or other similar tool may be, and preferably is, a part of a machine (not illustrated) used to mechanically assemble the capsules in accordance herewith. Referring now to FIG. 7, a flow chart is shown illustrating in detail preferred methods of assembly of a projectile system 600, in accordance herewith, wherein the projectile system 600 comprises a capsule 613 formed from two about equal halves 604, 610, the structures of which are described above, which capsule 613 contains a powdered substance, especially a powdered inhibiting substance and most preferably a powdered oleoresin capsicum composition. The method illustrated includes some of the preferred alternatives for assembly. Thus, in a preferred method, each half 604, 610 (FIGS. 2, 3 & 6) is fabricated using suitable molding or forming techniques (Block 702), and each is filled (Block 704) to about 90% of its volume with the substance 605, 607, respectively, to be delivered to the target, especially a powdered substance, and most preferably an oleoresin capsicum composition. In one alternative, a thin membrane 602, 608 is then placed (Block 706) into each half of the capsule 604, 610 to cover the substance 605, 607 contained therein. In a second alternative a mandrel 614, or other tool, is used to mechanically compress the substance within each half (Block 705). At this point in the method, the halves 604, 610 are substantially as shown in FIGS. 2 and 6, with and without membranes, respectively. In practice, the two halves 604, 610, after having been covered by the membranes 602, 608 or mechanically compressed, are then preferably rotated about 900, towards one another and brought together (Block 708). The halves 604, 610 are then preferably sealed to one another (Blocks 709, 710, 712, 714), such as using ultrasonic welding techniques (Block 709), or using an appropriate solvent or glue (Block 710) or by snapping the halves together (Block 712). For example, if polystyrene is used, many known solvents are available that will dissolve the polystyrene just enough to result in sealing of the same as the plastic hardens upon evaporation of the solvent. Polystyrene is commonly used for plastic models, and thus, various modeling glues are available that provide suitable sealing. With respect to the alternative of sealing of the halves by snapping them together, FIG. 8 illustrates capsule halves 604, 610 that have been formed with interlocking flanges 800, 802 thereon such that the two halves may be mated and so snapped together (Block 712). Subsequent to mating the capsule halves and optionally, the capsule may be sealed (Block 714), such as by addition of a solvent, along the seam, which solvent essentially melts the plastic of the halves into one another as described above. In a most preferred embodiment herein, the flanges are formed with grooves 802 and tongues 800 such that the two halves (female and male, respectively) interlock when snapped together, providing at least a nearly hermetic seal to the capsule. (See, for example, FIGS. 8 and 12-16.) Referring then to FIG. 8, two capsule halves 604, 610 are shown with the above-mentioned interlocking flanges 800, 802. As can be seen, the flanges 800, 802 are slightly flared, so as to be slightly frustoconical in shape. Slight deformation of the respective flanges 800, 802 during assembly, and reformation as these flanges 800, 802 snap together, places these frustoconical shapes against one another, and thus holds the halves 604, 610 tightly in place against one another. As mentioned above, a droplet of solvent can be placed at the seam of the halves 604, 610, once the halves 604, 610 are assembled, thereby providing not only mechanical assembly of the halves but also insuring hermetic sealing thereof, which may be important in environments where, for example, water vapor may contaminate the substance contained in the capsule. Alternatively, the membranes 602, 608 (FIG. 2), previously described, may serve as a first and last line of defense against contaminants to the substance 605, 607, where the membranes are maintained in tact following assembly rather than being forcibly ruptured prior to use thereof. Further still, the flanges 800, 802 of the capsule halves 604, 610 may be designed to alone provide at least a near hermetic seal. Referring back to FIGS. 4 and 5, once the halves 604, 610 are assembled into a spherical capsule 600 and, optionally, sealed, the projectile system 600 is complete (Block 716). In embodiments employing membranes, the membranes 602, 608 are selected to be strong enough to retain the substance 605, 607 within the halves 604, 610, as the two halves are joined, yet thin enough to readily rupture on or before impact of the projectile system 600 with the target. Most preferable, in this regard, are thin, circular cut, paper membranes that will tension against respective inner walls of the halves 604, 610 sufficiently to retain the substances 605, 607 therein. For example, the membrane may tension within an interior scoring of the capsule half (see, e.g. FIGS. 14-16, discussed further herein), where such is provided. In those embodiments employing membranes, the membranes 602, 608 are preferably gently air-cleaned along the circular contact surface after placement within the halves 604, 610 and prior to rotation of the halves 604, 610 to bring them together for welding, snapping and/or other sealing. It will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the membranes useful in these embodiments may be formed of any number of materials, including for example, paper, plastic or other polymer, rubber or even foam sponge. Generally, the membranes will be circular cut to be slightly larger than the interior circumference of the capsule half at the point where it is to contact that interior surface. Thus, when placed into the capsule half and, preferably, compressed, the membrane will tension against the interior surface of the capsule and thereby retain the substance therein. The membranes are preferably from between about 1 to about 5 mm thick, most preferably about 3 mm; however, other thickness are likewise contemplated herein, especially depending upon the specific substance contained within the capsule. For example, where both a liquid and a powdered substance are to be included in the capsule, it may be advantageous to provide a slightly thicker membrane to insure separation of the two substances until rupture of the capsule on or about the target. As previously described, the spherical capsule of the present invention preferably has an outer diameter of about 1.8 cm and an inner diameter of about 1.7 cm. While these capsule dimensions are preferred for use in the present embodiments, other dimensions are likewise possible. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,379, issued to Kotsiopoulos, et al. on Oct. 19, 1993, the contents of which have previously been incorporated herein by reference, describes a paint ball having dimensions different from those preferred herein, but which may, none-the-less, be useful in combination with the teachings herein. While a spherical capsule 600 is illustrated, it will be readily appreciated by those of skill in the art that the capsule, or shell, may be of any convenient shape. What is of particular importance is that the capsule be optimally filled to, for example, at least greater than 50%, preferably about 60% to less than 100%, more preferably about 85% to 95%, e.g., about 90%, of its total volume with the substance 611. It is at these optimal fill levels that optimum dispersal of the substance is achieved and, therefore, that the effectiveness of the projectile system, whether to mark an individual target for later identification or to impair a target by, for example, irritating skin, mucous membranes, vision and/or lungs, is maximized. Referring next to FIGS. 9-17, various preferred embodiments of the projectile systems 600 described herein are illustrated wherein the capsule includes structurally weakening features or fracture points on the exterior (22, 32, 46) or interior (47) surface thereof, which fracture points primarily facilitate rupture of the capsule upon impact with a target. In particular, for example, the exterior or interior surface of the capsule is optionally provided with scorings (FIGS. 12-16) or with indentations/dimples (FIGS. 9-11) or with both (FIG. 17), thereby providing structural weak points within the capsule along which weak points the capsule may readily fracture. Referring to FIG. 9, a side view is shown of a projectile system 600 made in accordance with one variation of the projectile system 10 (FIG. 1), described above, that has been modified to include a pattern of exterior dimples 22 in the capsule 613 that serve the tripartite purposes of facilitating fracture of the capsule 24 and atomization of the substance contained therein, upon impact with the living target and of improving flight of the projectile system 600 by decreasing drag and increasing lift thereof. The capsule 613 of the projectile system 600 of FIG. 9 is similar in materials, dimensions and manufacture to the capsule 12 of the projectile system 10 shown in FIG. 1, but employs the pattern of exterior dimples 22 so as to facilitate rupture of the capsule 613 upon impact with a target and to provide lower drag and greater lift to the projectile system 600 during flight, thus potentially making possible longer distances of flight. Importantly, the dimples 22 provide structural weak points at which the capsule 613 can burst upon impact with the target, thereby improving atomization of the inhibiting substance contained within the shell 613. This, in combination with the optimized fill specifications described herein, results in a larger and finer cloud of inhibiting/impairing substance being dispersed proximate to the target immediately following impact of the projectile system 600 with the target. The larger and finer cloud of inhibiting substance provides for more effective inhibition of the target than has heretofore been possible with conventional non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectiles. The dimples 22 are most preferably round at their exterior edge, have a frustioconical-shaped wall and a flat, circular innermost surface, or basal portion. The dimples 22 preferably have a depth of at least about 0.05 mm preferably between about 0.05 mm and 2.0 mm, e.g., between about 0.1 mm and 1.5 mm, e.g., between about 0.2 mm and 1.0 mm, e.g., about 0.3 mm and preferably have a minimum depth of about 15% to 75%, e.g. 20% to 40% of the thickness of the casing or shell. Preferably, there are from between six and 50 dimples 22, e.g., 20 dimples, on the shell/capsule 613 so as to provide omnidirectional atomization of the inhibiting substance upon impact and a maximal decrease in drag and increase in lift. The dimples 22 may be formed in the capsule 613 using known methods, for example, as a part of the injection molding process, using laser ablation techniques, or using other known plastics forming techniques. Referring next to FIG. 10, a side view is shown of a projectile system 600 made in accordance with another variation of the present invention, modified to include a different pattern of exterior dimples 32 in the shell 613 which dimples continue to serve the tripartite purposes of facilitating rupture of the capsule and atomization of the inhibiting substance, upon impact with the living target, and of decreasing drag and increasing lift of the projectile system during flight thereof. As can be seen, there are a greater number of exterior dimples 32 in the variation of FIG. 10, which may further improve rupture and atomization and further decrease drag and increase lift. Preferably, the dimples 34 are arranged in a pattern in the exterior surface of the casing 613 so that each of six equal sectors of the casing show at least one dimple 32 thereon. Other dimple arrangements, such as are known in the golfing arts, may also be suitable. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,560,168, issued to Aoyama, for a GOLF BALL, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Referring next to FIG. 11, a cross-sectional view is shown of an example of a preferred structure for the exterior dimples 22, 32 of the above-described capsules 613. As can be seen, the dimples 22, 32 have frustioconical-shaped interior walls 40 and a flat innermost surface 42, or basal portion, with a depth of at least about 0.05 mm, preferably between about 0.05 mm and 2.0 mm, e.g., between about 0.1 mm and 1.5 mm, e.g., between abut 0.2 mm and 1.0 mm, e.g., about 0.3 mm and preferably have a minimum depth of about 15% to 75%, e.g. 20% to 40% of the thickness of the casing or shell. As mentioned above, the dimples 22, 32 can be produced using laser ablation techniques, by forming them into the shell using injection molding techniques or using other known forming techniques. FIGS. 12 & 13 are prospective views of two complimentary halves of a capsule 604, 610 made in accordance with a still further variation of the system of FIG. 1. In this embodiment, the capsule 604 and 610 together is modified to include a matrix pattern of exterior global scoring 46 that serve the tripartite purposes of facilitating rupture of the capsule and atomization of the inhibiting substance, upon impact with the living target, and of decreasing drag and increasing lift during flight of the projectile system. The capsule halves 604, 610 of FIGS. 12 & 13 are similar in materials, dimensions and manufacture to those previously described, but employ the matrix pattern of exterior global scoring 46 as an added feature. The scoring provides a lattice of structural weak points at which the casing can burst upon impact with the target. As with the embodiment shown in FIG. 9, this results in a larger and finer cloud of inhibiting substance being dispersed proximate to the target, immediately following impact of the projectile system with the target. Such dispersal provides for more effective inhibiting of the target than has heretofore been possible with conventional projectile approaches. The scoring 46 is preferably “V”-shaped in cross-section with an angled or slightly flat bottom portion of the “V” providing a basal portion of such scoring. The scoring preferably has a depth of from between about 0.1 mm and 1.5 mm, e.g., between about 0.2 mm and 1.0 mm, e.g., about 0.6 mm and preferably has a minimum depth of about 15% to 75%, e.g. 20% to 40% of the thickness of the casing or shell 604,610. Preferably, there are from between about 2 and 10, e.g., between 4 and 7, circumferential (i.e., latitudinal) scores and from between about 2 and 10, e.g., between 6 and 8 longitudinal scores in the surface of the shell 604,610 so as to provide omnidirectional atomization of the inhibiting substance upon impact and a maximal decrease in drag and increase in lift for the projectile. FIGS. 14-16 are cut-away perspective and side views of yet another alternative embodiment of the capsules 613 of the present projectile systems. In these embodiments, interior surface scoring 47 is used to facilitate rupture of the capsule 613 and atomization of the substance contained therein (not illustrated), upon impact of the projectile system with a living target. The structure and dimensions of the capsule 613 is as previously described. Similarly, the structure and dimensions of the interior scoring is the same as just described for the exterior scoring. Thus, neither is again presented here. The interior scoring 47 is preferably formed into the capsule halves 604, 610 during manufacture thereof, for example during molding of the capsule halves. Alternatively, the interior scoring 47 may be added to the capsule halves 604, 610 after manufacture and before filling of the halves, such as by laser ablation. FIG. 17 is a side-view of a projectile system 600 made in accordance with a still further variation of the system of FIG. 1. In this embodiment, the capsule 613 is modified to include both a matrix pattern of exterior global scoring 46 and a pattern of dimples 32, which dimples are, preferably, interconnected by the matrix pattern of scoring. This combination of dimples and scoring serves tripartite purposes of facilitating rupture of the capsule and atomization of the substance contained therein, upon impact with the living target and of decreasing drag and increasing lift during flight of the projectile system. As the exterior structurally weakening features of dimples and scoring are substantially as described above with reference to FIGS. 9 through 13, further description of the structure, shape and dimensions of the dimples and scoring in FIG. 17 is not made herein. The scoring and the dimples, illustrated in FIG. 17, provide a lattice of structural weak points interconnecting structurally weakening dimples, at all of which the casing 613 can burst upon impact with the target. As with the above embodiments, this results in a larger and finer cloud of inhibiting substance being dispersed proximate to the target, immediately following impact of the projectile system 600 with the target. Such dispersal provides for more effective inhibiting of the target than has heretofore been possible with conventional projectile approaches. Referring next to FIG. 18, a cross sectional view is shown of a further variation of the projectile systems described herein. The projectile system 900 is similar in structure and contents to the projectile systems of FIGS. 2-4, except that solid material 902 has been added to the substance 605, 607 e.g., a powdered inhibiting substance, within the capsule 900. As can be seen, the halves 604, 610, the membranes 602, 608 and the inhibiting substance 605, 607 are shown, and are substantially the same as described above with reference to FIGS. 2-4. Assembly is substantially as illustrated in FIGS. 2-6 and as described in FIG. 7, but with the addition of the solid material to the substance within the capsule 900. The solid material 902 may be, for example, crushed walnut shells, rice, metal particles, such as metal powder or filings, wood particles, such as wood shavings or wood dust, or any other readily available solid that can be added to the substance 605. Facts such as cost, density, and toxicity factor into selection of the solid material 902. Advantageously, the solid material 902 helps to disperse the substance 605, 607 by carrying the substance 605, 607 quickly away from the point of impact in a generally radial (or lateral) direction. Further discussion of the radial dispersion of the substance 605, 607 is made herein below, both with respect to projectiles carrying a solid material 902, and projectiles not carrying solid material. Referring next to FIG. 19, a projectile system is shown 1000 in accordance with a further variation of the embodiments described herein. Shown are the halves 604, 610, the membranes 602, 608, and the substance 605, 607 therein. Also shown are metal filings 1002, such as iron, steel, or bismuth filings, added to and intermixed with the substance. Alternatively, any of the previously mentioned solid substances, including for example metal powders, such as powdered iron, steel or bismuth, may be used in lieu of the metal filings. The metal filings 1002 function in a manner similar to the manner in which the solid material 902 (FIG. 18) functions in that, upon impact, the metal filings, being more dense than the substance 605,6 07 are flung radially, thereby breaking up the substance, atomizing the substance and carrying the substance radially, perhaps further than the substance would be dispersed absent the metal filings 1002. In addition, the metal filings increase the mass of the projectile, thereby increasing the kinetic force applied by the projectile against the target upon impact of the projectile against the target. As a result, the variation shown may offer as an advantage, not only enhanced inhibiting of a target, due to a more widely dispersed cloud of inhibiting substance, but also enhanced kinetic “thumping” against the target, thereby increasing the initial stunning blow delivered by the projectile. This increase in kinetic force may also enhance the ability f the projectile to leave a bruise on the target, thereby enhancing the projectile's ability to serve not only as a tool for inhibiting a target, but also as an evidentiary tool, should doubt arise as to whether a certain individual is one that has been hit by a projectile of the embodiments specified herein. The projectile systems may be arranged such that successively fired projectiles or groups of projectiles are of relatively greater mass than previous projectiles or groups of projectiles, thereby gradually increasing the kinetic force of “thump” experienced by a target, assuring that both adequate kinetic force is used to achieve stunning of the target, while at the same time assuring that a minimum amount of kinetic force is applied to any given target. For example, a child or female target is much more likely to be affected by earlier, lower kinetic forces or “thumps” than will be a large male. This, combined with the possible inclusion of a powdered inhibiting substance of a prescribed concentration or of an increasing concentration, provides law enforcement and military personnel with a non-lethal approach suitable for delivering a minimumly necessary amount of non-lethal or less-than-lethal technology to a target of virtually any size, shape or tolerance level. Referring next to FIG. 20, a projectile system is shown 2000 in accordance with a further additional variation of the embodiments described herein. Shown are the halves 604, 610, the membranes 602, 608, and the substance 605, 607, therein. Also shown are metal shot 2002, such as iron or steel shot or, alternatively, metal, wood or ceramic balls which are added to and intermixed with the substance 605, 607. The metal shot 2002 function in a manner similar to the manner in which the metal filings 1002 (FIG. 19) function, and thus, to that extent, further explanation of their functionality is not made herein. The metal shot 2002 have the added benefit that they may, in some circumstances, also provide an additional source of discomfort for the target, as the metal shot 2002 impact against the target after the projectile explodes. Referring next to FIG. 21, a projectile system is shown 3000 in accordance with a further additional variation of the embodiments described herein. Shown are the halves 604, 610, the membranes 602, 608, and the substance 605, 607 contained therein. Also shown are relatively large, metal balls 3002, such as iron or steel balls, (or alternatively ceramic, plastic or glass balls), added to each half of the capsule 604, 610 and generally surrounded by the substance 605, 607. The metal balls 3002 function in a manner similar to the manner in which the metal shot 2002 (FIG. 20) function, and thus, to that extent, further explanation of their functionality is not made herein. The metal balls 3002, however, also have the added benefit that they may, in some circumstances, provide an additional source of discomfort for the target, as the metal balls 3002 impact against the target after the projectile explodes. Referring next to FIG. 22, a cross sectional view is shown of yet another variation of the embodiments described herein. Shown are the halves 604, 610, the membranes 602, 604 and the substance 605, 607. In this variation, one of the halves 604 is filled with the powdered substance 605, as described above, while the other half 610 is, for example, filled with a liquid or gas substance 4002, which substance may be an irritant, a marking agent or may serve as additional weight to the projectile system 4000. In this variation, the benefits of an additional irritant (i.e., in addition to the powdered substance 605) lie in the particular application to which the teachings herein are put. With respect to marking, the evidentiary benefits will be apparent to the skilled artisan, and lie primarily in situations when a target temporarily eludes law enforcement officers. In this situation, it is important for law enforcement to be able to identify a target as having been the same target that was hit by a projectile fired by law enforcement personnel, e.g., as the target is escaping from a crime scene. Where the second substance 4002 is added to increase the mass of the projectile, then the benefit of increased kinetic force upon impact of the projectile against the target, and thus an increased ability to initially stun a target is realized. It will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that numerous variations of these alternative embodiments are possible, and thus, are equally contemplated hereby. For example, in one alternative, one half of the capsule may be filled to about 90% or more of its volume with a powdered inhibiting substance and covered with a membrane as previously described. The other half of the capsule may then have, for example, a liquid marking/tagging substance placed therein, occupying about 60% or less of the total volume of the second half. A membrane may then be placed over the liquid substance and additional powdered substance placed on top of the membrane. Preferably the powdered substance added to the second half of the capsule containing the liquid marking substance will be in an amount equal to about 30% or more of the volume of the half capsule. The half capsule containing only powdered substance is then placed atop the second half capsule (containing the liquid and powder) and the two halves are joined, and, preferably sealed. Thus, the completely assembled capsule, according to the present alternative, will contain liquid marking substance at a volume of about 30% or less of the total volume of the capsule and will contain powdered substance at a volume of about 60% or more of the total volume of the capsule. Other combinations, including those employing more than two membranes, will be readily appreciated by those of skill in the art. Of course, those embodiments wherein the capsule contains both a liquid substance and a powder substance will preferably include membranes that rupture only upon impact, such that the liquid and powder are kept separate until deployed. Advantageously, the projectile systems contemplated herein are muzzle safe, that is they may be safely and effectively fired at close range, including, for example, at arm's length. In contrast, other long range non-lethal projectiles have not proven to be safe immediately outside a muzzle. A further important feature of the present projectile systems is that they are not only easy to manufacture in large quantities, but they are also very inexpensive compared with prior art projectiles. Thus, having specified numerous variations and embodiments of the projectile, and methods of manufacture, FIGS. 23 through 31 show various applications and tactics for using the projectile embodiments. Such figures are described hereinbelow. Referring to FIGS. 23 and 24, side views are shown of the projectile systems described and illustrated in FIGS. 4, 5, 9, 10 & 17 and the projectile system of FIG. 18, respectively, as they impact against a target 5000. As can be seen, for example, in FIG. 23, the optimal fill, described above, results in a wide dispersion of the substance, substantially radially away from the point of impact and away from an axis defined by the projectile's trajectory as it impacts the target. Similarly, FIG. 24 illustrates the solid material 902 being projected radially with the substance 611, thereby driving the substance 611 more radially away from the projectile, and enhancing its dispersion pattern. (It is noted that the substance 611 is the same as 605, 607 in those figures illustrating capsule halves. See for example, FIG. 5.) The embodiments of the projectile systems described herein are particularly advantageous in that their use may be readily incorporated into existing officer training programs. This is because the projectiles are designed to be fired at a target's upper torso (See e.g., FIG. 25), which is the same area officers are trained to aim at when using lethal weapons. When officers are confronted with a situation in which they must use force, whether or not that force must be lethal, they are, of course, stressed. Having to take additional time to decide where to aim a weapon depending upon the projectiles contained therein can actually be dangerous for the officer. By providing a non-lethal projectile system that may be aimed in the same manner and at the same point on a target as are other, lethal, projectiles, an officer is more likely to be able to react quickly and accurately in firing such projectiles. Referring to FIGS. 25 through 27, a sequence of profile views are shown of a target 5000, as he or she is impacted with a projectile system 600 of the present invention. In FIG. 25, the target 5000 is first impacted with a projectile system 600 of the present invention. The target's head 5002, at the time of impact, is illustrated as in a generally upright forward-looking position. Nearly immediately upon impact, the capsule of the projectile system ruptures, dispersing its contents 5004 in a radial, cloud-like manner on and about the target 5000. About simultaneously with dispersal of the contents 5004 of the capsule, the target 5000 begins to hunch towards the point of impact of the capsule on his/her body. (See FIG. 26) Thus, the target's back side moves in a generally posterior (rearward) direction, while his/her head and upper chest region move in a generally anterior (forward) and inferior (down) direction so as to hunch around the point of impact. Quite advantageously for the purposes of the present invention, such movement is a natural reaction for people when they are hit by something with such force. Within a matter of seconds, and as illustrated in FIG. 27, the target's head 5002 is essentially surrounded by the dispersing cloud of inhibiting and/or marking substance 5004. Where an inhibiting substance is employed, the target 5000 will feel pain as the inhibiting substance contacts his/her mucous membranes (i.e., his/her eyes, nose, mouth and throat), and as the target inhales the substance (also a natural reaction), he/she will experience significant pain in his/her lungs, will temporarily be unable to breathe and will begin to panic. Under such circumstances, even the most aggressive target is easily subdued and apprehended. Thus, the target's movements, in response to impact of the projectile, combined with the radial dispersement of the substance on and about the target, provides a particularly effective non-lethal inhibition of the target. This present embodiment, then, provides a method of slowing and/or stopping and/or marking a living target. According to this method, the projectile system is fired at a target; the mechanical force of the impact causes rupture of the capsule, thereby permitting dispersal of the capsule contents, additionally, the force is sufficient to cause the target to move towards the dispersing substance, resulting in inhalation of the same, as the target attempts to catch his/her breath following the impact. As the substance is inhaled and/or contacts the mucous membranes in the face region, the target is stunned, that is physically impaired, and thus, collapses. Further contemplated herein, is providing a projectile system wherein the projectile, especially a generally spherical capsule, is sufficiently hard and is delivered with sufficient force to result in bruising of the target at and surrounding the point of impact. In this way, the target is not only exposed to an inhibiting substance, but is also temporarily marked for later identification. For example, if any confusion arises as to who has been hit by the non-lethal projectiles, such as where the target is able to recover from or escape the effects of the inhibiting substance before officers are able to apprehend him/her, then the target may later be identified by the bruising, should he/she ultimately be apprehended. Those of skill in the art, will readily appreciate that the force required to fire a projectile system in accordance herewith, at a target, such that the projectile ruptures upon impact with the target, will generally also be sufficient to cause bruising to the target. It will further be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the capsules of the present invention may alone be used to mark a target, by bruising of the same, with or without delivery of any substances. Referring next to FIGS. 28 and 29, front views are shown of various firing patterns that may be used when firing the projectiles of the present invention, which firing patterns offer particular advantages when used in combination with the projectile systems described herein and with rapid firing techniques. Quite advantageously, the projectile system of the present invention may be rapid fired, for example using a compressed air pistol, compressed air rifle, a fully automatic launcher, a dual-use modified PR24 police baton, and/or a dual-use modified flashlight. A rapid fire weapon can be rapid fired in a vertical direction, such as illustrated in FIG. 28, from the top (superior region) of the target's torso, for example, near his/her shoulder, down to the bottom (inferior region) of the torso and body, for example, near his/her groin. It has been discovered, by the inventors, that this firing method exploits the targets tendency to retract a stricken portion of their body, and to follow (i.e., hunch around) a pattern of impacts, thereby resulting in the target moving his/her body ever more downward and into the dispersing substance, resulting in maximum incapacitation of the target. In this instance, the target moves in a manner similar to that shown in FIGS. 25 through 27, however, the movement of the target's head into the cloud is even more dramatic when the illustrated rapid firing method is employed. (FIG. 28) Note that while the rapid firing method has been discovered to offer particular advantages, traditional wisdom dictates a horizontal sweeping of the target's body with projectile impacts. The inventors are aware of no heretofore employed methods that specify vertical sweeping of a target's body with non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectiles. Referring next to FIG. 29, a front view of a target, similar to that of FIG. 28, is shown. In this variation, however, the pattern of projectile impacts move from the lower (inferior region) of the target's torso/body up to the top (superior region) of the torso/body, e.g., from the target's groin area towards either the target's shoulder or head, with the “head pattern” being shown in dashed lines. The variation illustrated in FIG. 29 is particularly advantageous in highly volatile, highly dangerous situations, such as when confronting targets under the influence of powerful drugs. While normally use of non-lethal projectiles would dictate that a target's head be avoided as a target area, this firing pattern provides a user with an option to move the projectile impact pattern to the target's head in the even that all other efforts fail to subdue the target. If, on the other hand, the target is subdued, the firing pattern can move safely to the target's shoulder. The inventors contemplate that this pattern of projectile impacts will be slightly less effective in getting a target to move his or her head into the cloud of substance; however, it does offer the advantage of providing a severe option, when, for example, deadly force would be justified. Referring next to FIG. 30, a side view is shown of a tactic for stopping a car under chase. Contemplated herein is loading a weapon with both impairing capsules and kinetic capsules, that is, respectively, frangible capsules containing an inhibiting and/or marking substance and frangible capsules that are hollow or that contain an inert substance. Alternatively, breaker balls, e.g., stainless steel, ceramic, plastic or glass balls, contained in a frangible capsule in accordance herewith, may be substituted for kinetic capsules. Thus, for example, as the weapon is rapid fired at a suspected criminal who is within a vehicle, the first rounds of capsules would be kinetic capsules or breaker balls that simply break the windows (solid line shows trajectory) of the vehicle to facilitate entry of the subsequent, impairing capsules that would then fill the vehicle (dashed line shown trajectory), at least in the vicinity of the criminal, with the inhibiting substance, thereby rendering the target unable to operate his or her vehicle. Referring next to FIG. 31, a perspective view of a tactic for delivering an inhibiting substance to a target within a building is shown. As with the tactic above, an initial one or more kinetic capsules are used to break glass or other glass-like, i.e. frangible,.material of the building, such as, for example, acrylic, plexi-glass or the like. These “glass-breaker” capsules are followed by impairing capsules that deliver the inhibiting substance to the target. Again, as with the tactic described with respect to FIG. 30, frangible capsules in accordance herewith, containing breaker balls may be employed as the first round of projectile systems in order to break the glass-like barrier behind which the target is located. Advantageously, the impairing capsules need not actually impact the target to be effective. Specifically, so long as the capsules impact sufficiently near the target that the cloud is inhaled by the target, or otherwise affects the target's respiration or other mucus membranes, such capsules will be effective at achieving their intended purpose, i.e., inhibiting or impairing the target. Thus, for example, where an animal, such as a dog or large cat, e.g. mountain lion, is being targeted, the capsules, in accordance herewith, may be impacted on the ground near the animal's face or on another object near the animal's head or may be targeted directly to the animal's head or body. In this case, (except, perhaps where the animal's head is targeted) the present invention provides a non-lethal means for subduing an animal that may pose a danger to humans or that may be in need of assistance itself. Thus, in accordance with the present aspect, and quite advantageously, the projectile systems, because their dispersal mechanism is so optimized, may be used to inhibit a target when the target cannot actually be targeted. By way of further example, an individual hiding within a bathroom stall cannot be seen and thus for law enforcement personnel to attempt to confront the individual could place the law enforcement personnel in great danger. However, with the projectile systems of the present system, the officer need simply fire the projectiles at the wall above the stall within which the target is hiding or at a solid object near the target individual. The capsules of the system will rupture and the contents thereof will waft down into the stall, where they will be inhaled by the target and/or contact the target's mucous membranes, thereby incapacitating him/her. In fact, the inventors have tested this scenario using the projectiles of the present invention and have found the results to be quite impressive. The individual could not escape the effects of the inhibiting substance and was well incapacitated thereby. A further advantage of embodiments described herein lies in the discovery that common, household hair spray performs well as a sealer to maintain a powdered inhibiting substance, such as powdered oleoresin capsicum, against a surface. Thus, for example, a target that has been hit with one or more projectiles, as well as a surrounding area, can be sprayed with hair spray prior to being handled by law enforcement or military personnel in order to prevent said personnel from having to cope with powdered inhibiting substance residues that may be on a target or in an area around a target following use of embodiments described herein. As with many other aspects of the present embodiments, the use of hair spray to seal a powdered inhibiting substance to a surface following use of such embodiments, provides a low cost, practical, commercially viable, approach to a problem that, to the inventors' knowledge is unaddressed in the prior art. It is expected that various other spray adhesives, will similarly perform this sealing function, and thus, should be understood to be contemplated herein, by the inventors. In any case, absent a solution to the problem of residual inhibiting substance or irritant, it is highly questionable whether any law enforcement or military agency (particularly law enforcement agency) would adopt a powder-filled projectile as a non-lethal or less-than-lethal solution. Presently, all commercially viable non-lethal or less-than-lethal approach used by law enforcement and the military, at least to the best of the inventors' knowledge, either do not employ a chemical irritant, or employ a gas, which is diluted and carried away by ambient air currents. In the case of tear gas, however, for example, residual tear gas is a significant problem for personnel operating in an area after tear gas has been deployed. For example, if medical personnel are needed in an area, they are required to wear a breaching apparatus following the use a tear gas, at least until an area can be vented. With the present approach, however, an area can be sealed with hair spray or another spray adhesive following use of a powdered irritant projectile, after which personnel, such as medical personnel, can operate in the area almost immediately without the need for cumbersome and awkward breathing apparatuses with which such personnel may not have any training. Further, if, for example, mouth-to-mouth resuscitation needs to be performed, the present technology allows medical or law enforcement personnel to perform this type of resuscitation without first moving a victim out of an area contaminated by an inhibiting substance. Thus, the ability to seal both a target and an area around a target following use of the projectiles described herein provides a significant, and heretofore unaddressed, solution to a very real problem with heretofore available non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectiles that employ a chemical inhibiting substance or irritant. Turning now to FIGS. 32 through 40, various alternative designs for projectiles, in accordance with the present invention, are shown. Each of these embodiments, with the exception of the embodiments of FIGS. 36 through 40, employ some variation of the spherical projectile described above, and offer alternative designs suitable for some applications. The inventors, however, are presently of the opnion that the spherical projectile embodiments of FIGS. 1-6, 8-22 are preferred, from the standpoint of effectivity, simplicity and cost. Referring then to FIG. 32, a cross-sectional view is shown of a projectile system 50 for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target in accordance with alternative embodiment of the present invention, wherein the projectile system 10 of the embodiment of FIG. 1 is employed to carry the inhibiting substance, and a stabilizer body 52 is employed to increase range. The projectile system 50 of FIG. 32 employs an inhibiting substance encapsulated within the shell 12, such as described previously above. Alternatively, the shell 12 may have a non-spherical shape, such as a bullet shape, e.g., elliptical, parabolical, prolate spheroidal, two-sheet hyperboloidal, or the like. The shell 12 is mounted to the stabilizer body 52, which has a stabilizer section 54, a puncture tube 56, and an atomization matrix 56. The shell 12 is mounted to the stabilizer body 52 on a forward edge 58 of the atomization matrix 56, and rests on a tip 60 of the puncture tube 56. Wax or adhesive may be used to hold the shell 12 in place. Upon impact with the target, the shell 12 is forced backwards (relative to the direction of flight of the projectile) into the tip 60 of the puncture tube 56, which punctures the shell 12. This releases the inhibiting substance contained within the shell 12 into an interior region 62 of the atomization matrix 56. From the interior region 62 of the atomization matrix 56, the inhibiting substance is released through a plurality of exit orifices 64 passing through the periphery of the atomization matrix. There are preferably from between 2 and 20, e.g., 10 exit orifices 64 in the atomization matrix 56. Each exit orifice 64 preferably has a circular shape and a diameter of from between about 0.5 mm and 4 mm, e.g., 1 mm. The stabilizer body 52 is preferably circular in cross-section (taken normal to its direction of flight), having an outer diameter equal to the outer diameter of the shell 12, i.e., from between about 1.0 cm and 5.0 cm, e.g., 1.8 cm. The length of the stabilizer body 52 is from between about 1.5 cm and 5 cm, e.g., 3 cm, and the overall length of the projectile system 50 (i.e., the stabilizer body and the shell) is from between about 2.5 cm and 10 cm, e.g., 5 cm. The stabilizer body 52 is preferably made from plastic or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene resin (ABS), and the stabilizer section 54 has a hollow rear section 66 that has a hollow interior with an inner diameter of from between 1.0 cm and 5 cm, e.g., 1.8 cm, and a depth of from between about 1 cm and 5 cm, e.g., 2 cm. The hollow rear section 66 serves to decrease the mass of the stabilizer body 52 without significant detrimental effect on the aerodynamics of the projectile system 50. The stabilizer body 52 can be made using known plastics molding techniques, such as injection molding. Referring next to FIG. 33, a cross-sectional view is shown of a projectile system 70 made in accordance with one variation of the projectile 50 of FIG. 32, wherein a plunger 72, or impact piston, is employed to explode the shell 12 containing the inhibiting substance. The projectile system 70 has a stabilizer body 74, similar in function, dimensions and manufacture, to the stabilizer body 52 described above, and the impact piston 72 is slidable within a piston cylinder 76. The piston cylinder 76 is formed at a forward portion of an atomization matrix 78, similar to the atomization matrix 56 described above. The stabilizer body 74 also employs a stabilizer section 80, similar to the stabilizer section described above. The shell 12 is located between a pair of puncture tubes 82, 84, one of which forms a rearward portion of the impact piston 72, and one of which forms a forward portion of the stabilizer section 80. The shell 12 is located within the atomization matrix 78. Upon impact with the target, the impact piston 72 is forced rearward by its impact against the target, squeezing the shell 12 between the puncture tubes 82, 84, ultimately causing the shell 12 to rupture. This releases the inhibiting substance within the shell 12 into an interior region 86 of the atomization matrix, from which the inhibiting substance escapes via exit orifices 88 similar to the exit orifices 64, described above. Referring next to FIG. 34, a cross-sectional view is shown of a projectile system 90 made in accordance with another variation of the projectile system 50 of FIG. 32, wherein an impact piston 92 is employed to explode a shell 12 containing the inhibiting substance. The projectile system 90 of FIG. 34 is similar in structure and operation to the projectile system 50 of FIG. 32 except as noted below. The projectile system 90 of FIG. 34 employs the impact piston 92 having a bullet-shaped, e.g., elliptic paraboloid, prolate spheroid, two-sheet hyperboloid, or the like, forward end 94. Advantageously, this bullet-shaped forward end 94 provides improved aerodynamics for the projectile system 90, thus facilitating firing over longer distances and/or facilitating use of a lower-powered weapon than is needed to fire the projectiles of FIGS. 32 or 33. FIG. 35 is a cross-sectional view of a further variation of a projectile system 100, wherein a variation of the impact piston 110 is employed to explode the capsule 12 containing the inhibiting substance, and wherein the atomization matrix 104 is located at a rearward end of the projectile system 100. Shown are the shell 12 mounted to a stabilizer body 106, which has a puncture tube 108. An impact piston 110 is slidable within a piston cylinder 111 formed at a forward portion of the atomization matrix 104. The shell 12 is located between the impact piston 110 and the puncture tube 108. Advantageously, the atomization matrix 104 is located at a rearward section of the projectile system and exit orifices 114 that make up the atomization matrix 104 are angled forward so as to direct inhibiting substance escaping therethrough toward the front of the projectile, i.e., toward the target. The impact piston 110 of the present embodiment preferably includes a rubber tip 116 aimed at minimizing damage to the target. Upon impact with the target, the impact piston 110 is forced rearward by impact against the target, squeezing the shell 12 between the impact piston 110 and the puncture tube 108, ultimately causing the shell 12 to rupture. Such rupturing of the shell 12 releases the inhibiting substance within the shell 12 into an interior region 118 of the atomization matrix 104, from which the inhibiting substance escapes via the exit orifices 114 which orifices direct the escaping substance toward the target. FIG. 36 is a cross-sectional view of a projectile system 200 made in accordance with a variation of the projectile system of FIG. 35, wherein the impact piston 110 is employed to puncture a membrane 202 behind which is contained the inhibiting substance. The membrane may be made from, for example, wax, plastic, acrylic or polyvinylchloride. In all other respects, the projectile system 200 is substantially identical to the projectile system 100 of FIG. 35, and therefore further explanation of its structure and functionality is not made herein. Referring next to FIG. 37, a cross-sectional view is shown of a projectile system 109 for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target in accordance with a further embodiment of the present invention, wherein a pressurized canister 112 is employed to carry the inhibiting substance, and a stabilizer section 114 is employed to increase range. Shown are a plurality of radially oriented exit orifices 116 emanating from a central release chamber 118 into which a valve 120 expels inhibiting substance upon being rearwardly displaced. Also shown are the stabilizer body 80 and a piston 92. The piston 92 is bullet-shaped, similar to the piston 92 shown in FIG. 33 above, with a puncture tube 82 located on a rearward portion thereof. The piston 92 is housed in a cylinder 122 that forms a forward portion of the stabilizer body 114. Alternatively, the pressurized canister 112 may be long enough to itself act also as the target piston 92, thus eliminating the need for a separate piston such as the illustrated piston 92. The stabilizer body 114 also includes a stabilizer section 80 similar to the stabilizer sections 80 described above. Upon impact, the piston 92 is displaced rearwardly within the cylinder 122, which forces the puncture tube 82 into the valve 120. In response to a force applied by the puncture tube 82, the valve 120 is rearwardly displaced. In response to such rearward displacement, the valve 120 releases the inhibiting substance into the central release chamber 118, from which the inhibiting substance escapes through the exit orifices 116, thereby dispersing the inhibiting substance proximate to the target. Preferably the exit orifices 116 are angled forward so as to better direct the inhibiting substance to the target. The inhibiting substance is contained within the canister 112 which is formed in, or inserted into a portion 124 of the stabilizer body 114 in front of the stabilizer section. Within the canister 112, the inhibiting substance is pressurized so that it is readily expelled when the valve 120 is opened. The inhibiting substance may be pressurized using, e.g., compressed air techniques or aerosol techniques, such as are known in the art. FIG. 38 is a cross-sectional view of the projectile system 250 for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target, wherein a pressurized canister 112 is employed to carry the inhibiting substance, and a stabilizer section 114 is employed to increase range, and wherein the projectile system 250 employs an adhesive material 252 and a mechanical attachment system 254 to attach the projectile to the target during delivery of the inhibiting substance to the target. Shown are a plurality of radially oriented exit orifices 116 emanating from a central release chamber 118 into which a valve 120 expels the inhibiting substance upon being rearwardly displaced. Also shown are the stabilizer body 80 and a piston 92. The piston 92 is bullet-shaped, similar to the piston shown in FIG. 37 above. The piston 92 is housed in a cylinder 122 that forms a forward portion of the stabilizer body 114. The stabilizer body 114 also includes a stabilizer section 80, which is similar to the stabilizer section 80 described above. Upon impact the piston 92 is displaced rearwardly within the cylinder 122, which forces the pressurized canister 112 into the valve 120. In response to the force on the valve 120, the valve 120 is rearwardly displaced causing it to open and release the inhibiting substance into the central release chamber 118, from which the inhibiting substance escapes through the exit orifices 116, thereby dispersing the inhibiting substance proximate to the target. Concomitantly with the rearward displacement of the piston 92, piston locks 256 lock the piston in its displaced position, which in turn locks the pressurized canister 112 in its displaced position, holding the valve 120 in an open state. The piston locks 256 may, for example, operate in a ratchet fashion. The adhesive material 252 and mechanical attachment system 254, which may comprise a plurality of barbed tips 254, assure that once the projectile system 250 impacts the target it will attach to the target during release of the inhibiting substance, so as to increase the effectivity of the inhibiting substance against the target. The adhesive material is preferably centrally located on a forward end of the piston 92, whereas the barbed tips 254 preferably are located peripherically around the forward end of the piston 92. (Note that in variations of the present embodiment either the adhesive material 252 or the mechanical attachment 254 may be used alone, instead of in combination with each other.) FIGS. 39A and 39B are side cross-sectional views of alternative projectile systems 300 for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target in accordance with additional embodiments of the present invention, wherein a twelve-gauge shotgun shell 302 is packed with a rosin bag 304 FIG. 39A that contains an inhibiting substance, such as oleoresin capsicum, or, alternatively and preferably, is packed with one or more capsules containing an inhibiting substance 303 FIG. 39B, such as, for example, is shown in the various embodiments described herein. Advantageously, the modified shotgun shells in accordance with the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 39A and 39B may be used with standard, commercially available shotguns. Shown in FIG. 39A are the twelve-gauge shotgun shell 302, the rosin bag 304, an airtight seal 306, wadding 308, and black powder or gun powder 310. Shown in FIG. 39A are the twelve-gauge shotgun shell 302, three spherical capsules 303, protective diaphragms 305 between the capsules, an airtight seal 306, wadding 308, and black powder or gun powder 310. It will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the diaphragms 305 may be formed of various materials such as, for example, sponge foam, cotton, plastic or other polymer, paper, wadding or similar cushioning material. Upon firing of the twelve-gauge shotgun shell 302, the black powder 310 is ignited, which causes the expansion of gases forcing the wadding 308 and the rosin bag 304 or capsules 303 and diaphragms 305 out of the twelve-gauge shotgun shell 302. Such forcing out of the wadding 308 and the rosin bag 304 or capsules 303 and diaphragms 305 breaks the airtight seal 306. With respect to rosin bag 304 of FIG. 39A, it contains oleorosin capsicum in powder form, as mentioned above, which, upon impact with the target, causes the target to be inhibited. (The rosin bag 304 is, as is known in the art, porous, so as to allow release of the powdered inhibiting substance upon impact of the rosin bag 304 with the target.) With respect to the capsules 303 and diaphragms 305 of FIG. 39B, the capsules 303 rupture upon impact with the target, as previously described, thereby dispersing the oleoresin capsicum and inhibiting the target. The diaphragms 305 may impact the target or may fall short of the target. The primary purpose of the diaphragms, which are optionally included in this embodiment, is to prevent premature rupture of the capsules during shipment, carrying and/or loading of the shotgun shell 302. Referring next to FIG. 40, an end cross-sectional view is shown of the projectile system 300. Shown are the twelve-gauge shotgun shell 302 and the rosin bag 304. As can be seen, the rosin bag 304 is folded within the twelve-gauge shotgun shell 302 so as to fit tightly within the twelve-gauge shotgun shell 302. Upon firing of the twelve-gauge shotgun shell 302, the rosin bag 304 expands and unfolds prior to impact with the target so as to maximize exposure of the target to the rosin bag 304, thus maximizing its inhibiting effect. Referring to FIGS. 41 through 45, several exemplary embodiments of delivery devices suitable for projecting the projectiles described above at a target are shown. While various devices are shown, the inventors have presently focused most of their research activity on perfecting the projectiles described above. It is contemplated, however, that subsequent improvements to the delivery devices (or launchers) will be forthcoming in the not-to-distant future. At the same time, it is to be appreciated that the projectiles described above with reference to FIGS. 1-6 and 8-22 can be satisfactorily launched using commercially available paint ball equipment, such as, for example, compressed gas paintball launchers, which are of course readily available in the commercial market, and very inexpensive compared to heretofore available equipment for launching or firing non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectiles. Referring first to FIG. 41 a cross-sectional view is shown of a custom launch device 400 useable in combination with projectiles described herein for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target. Advantageously, the launch device depicted is in the form of a PR24 police baton, such as those commonly used by law enforcement officers. Shown are a plurality of projectile systems 402 loaded within a chamber 404 of the launch device. The chamber 404 also houses a spring 406, which is used to push the projectile systems 402 into position for firing. A flapper valve 408 retains the projectile systems 402, allowing only a single projectile system 418 to move into the barrel 410 for firing. The chamber 404 and the barrel 410 together form the baton portion of the PR24 police baton. Within a handle portion of such baton, a valve switch 412 and a propellent cylinder 414 are housed. A removable cap 416 on an end of the handle portion can be used to load the propellant cylinder 414 into the device 400. When launch of a projectile is desired, the valve 412 is opened by operation of a button or trigger (not shown) which releases a measured amount of propellent from the propellent cylinder 414 into the barrel 410 behind the single projectile system 418. This propellent is preferably CO2 or compressed air and propels the single projectile 418 down the barrel and out the end of the launch device toward a target. When reloading of the device is desired, another removable cap 420 is removed, along with the spring 406, and a plurality of projectiles are loaded into the chamber 402 behind the flapper valve 408. Referring next to FIG. 42, a cross-sectional view is shown of another custom launch device 450 useable with projectiles described above for delivering an inhibiting substance in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. Advantageously the launch device 450 assumes the form of a flashlight, including batteries 452, an on/off switch 454 and a reflector housing 456 of conventional design. Also shown are a propellent cylinder 458, a valve switch 460, a projectile system 462, a barrel 464 and a removable cap 466. When firing of the projectile system 462 is desired, the removal cap 466, which may be attached on one side, such as by a hinge, is opened, the device 450 is aimed at the target and the valve switch 460 is opened by the depression of a button or trigger (not shown). The opening of the valve switch 460 releases propellent gas from the propellent cylinder 458 into the barrel 464 behind the projectile system 462, thus propelling the projectile system 462 down the barrel 464 toward the target whereat it delivers the inhibiting substance to the target. In FIG. 43, a cross-sectional view of an adaptation of the custom launch device 500 of FIG. 41, for delivering ball-type projectile systems in rapid successive firings, is shown. The spring 502, the projectile chamber 504, the valve 506, the propellent cylinder 508, the barrel 510, the flapper valve 512, the projectile system in position for launch 514, the removable cap 516 and the other removable cap 518 can be seen. Operation of the launch device 500 depicted in FIG. 43 is substantially identical to operation of the launch device 400 depicted in FIG. 41 and therefore further explanation of the functionality and structure depicted is not made herein. Referring next to FIG. 44, a cross-sectional view is shown of an adaptation of a custom launch device 550 for delivering ball-type projectile systems, wherein a plurality of barrels 566, 568 are employed to allow the simultaneous or rapid successive firing of projectile systems 562, 565 without reloading. Shown are the batteries 552, the on/off switch 554, the reflector housing 556, the propellent cylinder 558, the valve switch 560 and the removable cover 570. The propellant cartridge 558, the valve switch 560, the removable cover 570, the projectile systems 562, 565 and the barrels 566, 568 are housed within an enlarged portion 570 of the launch device 550 so as to accommodate the two barrels 566, 568 within the circumference of the launch device 550. Except as noted hereinabove, the structure and operation of the launch device depicted in FIG. 44 is substantially identical to the structure and function of the launch device depicted in FIG. 42, and therefore further explanation of the launch device of FIG. 44 is not made herein except to note that the valve switch 560 is preferably selective, such that the firing of a projectile from only one of the barrels 566, 568 at a time occurs. For example, a first depression of a button, may cause the valve switch 560 to direct a measured amount of propellant gas into one of the barrels 566, and a second depression of the button may cause the valve switch 560 to direct the measured amount of propellant gas into the other of the barrels 568. Other embodiments may allow simultaneous firing of projectiles from both barrels 566, 568 or manual selection of from which barrel 566, 568 to fire, and therefore selection of which projectile to fire. This latter embodiment may be useful for example when two different projectiles, carrying two different substances, for example, an inhibiting substance and marking substance are utilized. Referring finally to FIG. 45, an end view is shown of the launch device 550 described in FIG. 44, wherein two or more barrels 566, 568 allow multiple, simultaneous or rapid successive projectile launches. While the invention herein disclosed has been described by means of specific embodiments and applications thereof, numerous modifications and variations could be made thereto by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the invention as set forth in the claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a non-lethal projectile system and, more particularly to non-lethal projectiles that deliver an inhibiting and/or marking substance to a target, especially a living target. Even more particularly, the present invention relates to non-lethal projectile systems including a capsule, most preferably a generally spherical capsule, containing an inhibiting and/or marking substance, and tactical methods for using the non-lethal projectile systems in combination with a launch device in order to most effectively inhibit, impair, or disable the living target in a less-than-lethal way. The projectile systems of the present invention, upon impact with the living target, provide optimized dispersal of the inhibiting and/or marking substance on and about the target, and in particular, provide an improved mechanism for delivering the inhibiting substance to the target's face, without requiring that the projectile impact the target's face. Further, the projectile system is designed such that deployment facilitates its effectiveness by creating sufficient force, upon impact with the target, to cause the target to move his, her or its face into the dispersing substance, while at the same time experiencing impairment, or temporary disability as a result of the impact. Specifically, the non-lethal projectiles are able to be launched with sufficient non-lethal force to immediately slow and/or stop a moving target, before the inhibiting substance carried thereby affects the target. Additionally, the projectile systems of the present invention are easier and cheaper to manufacture than heretofore known projectiles, are effective at safer, stand-off distances as well as at close range distances, are easily integrated into normal officer training programs, and can be used with conventional, as well as custom, launchers. Steadily rising crime rates have led to an increased need for technologically enhanced crime devices. There is particularly a need for non-lethal devices that are capable of at least temporarily incapacitating, slowing or inhibiting a suspected criminal and/or marking such individuals for later identification. As populations increase, the risk that a criminal will be surrounded by or in close proximity to innocent persons when officers are trying to subdue him/her also increases. Whereas non-permanently injuring an innocent bystander, while subduing a suspected criminal, is acceptable, killing the bystander is not. Thus, there is great need for non-lethal (or less-than-lethal), highly effective weapons that may be used by officers and others to slow, stop and/or mark criminals. Presently available, non-lethal devices include, for example, stun guns, mace, tear gas, pepper spray devices and similar devices that impair the vision, breathing or other physical or mental capabilities of the target. One attempt to provide a non-lethal device for delivering an inhibiting substance is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 3,921,614, issued to Fogelgren for a COMPRESSED GAS OPERATED GUN HAVING VARIABLE UPPER AND LOWER PRESSURE LIMITS OF OPERATION, which patent is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Fogelgren describes a gas-operated gun and associated projectiles. In one illustrated embodiment, a projectile consists of a projectile casing that houses a structure in which a firing pin is situated so as to detonate a primary charge upon impact of the projectile with a target. Deterioration of the primary charge causes the expulsion of a load carried in a load chamber. The load chamber may contain various types of load, such as tear gas, dye, flash-powder or wadding. Another embodiment illustrated in the Fogelgren patent consists of a projectile casing that encloses a body member, which, together with a frontal member, defines a load chamber. The body member and the frontal member are attached so as to be readily separable in flight to enable the load to escape from the load chamber and to proceed to the desired target. In this embodiment, the load is buckshot or plastic pellets. A further embodiment of the projectile shown by Fogelgren stores a portion of a compressed gas, utilized to expel the projectile, to be used to expel a load upon striking a target. Upon firing, an outer body member separates from an inner body member thereby exposing and releasing a holding pin, which holding pin prevents premature release of the projectile's load. Apertures, from which the load is expelled upon impact, are sealed with wax to prevent expulsion of the load before the projectile impacts the target. The portion of the compressed gas used to expel the load is stored in a rear chamber of the projectile during flight, while the load is stored in a forward chamber. When the projectile strikes the target, the compressed gas is released, forcing the load through the apertures and out of the projectile. An additional embodiment of the projectile shown by Fogelgren consists of outer members that form a container into which is fitted a breakable glass vile. Rearward of the breakable vile, padding is provided to prevent breakage of the vile upon firing of the projectile. Forward of the vile is a firing pin assembly against which the breakable vile impacts, as it shifts forward within the members forming the container, upon impact. As with the above embodiment, a holding pin, which normally prevents the breakable vial from shifting forward in the container, is expelled as an outer body member separates from an inner body member. This allows the breakable vial to shift forward upon impact, shattering the breakable glass vial against the firing pin. The breakable vile contains a load to be delivered to the target, which is delivered through apertures near the front of the projectile upon the shattering of the breakable glass vial. The vile may be charged with a compressed gas so as to provide a charged load. Disadvantageously, the projectiles described by Fogelgren, particularly those projectiles described that would be suitable for delivering loads such as tear gas or dye, are complicated and expensive to manufacture. The embodiment employing pressurized gas to both expel the projectile and to expel the load upon impact with the target requires a great amount of pressurized gas, that is, a sufficient quantity to both fire the projectile and to provide the portion of pressurized gas necessary to ensure expulsion of the load. In addition, such embodiment requires complicated and tedious methods to manufacture components such as a microminiature ball valve (through which the portion of the pressurized gas enters the rear chamber upon firing), wax sealer within each of the plurality of apertures and a holding pin that must fall away from the projectile in flight. The embodiment employing the breakable glass vial is also complicated to manufacture, because it also employs a holding pin that must fall away during the flight of the projectile and employs numerous structures that must be precisely fitted together to allow them to separate during firing and in flight. This embodiment also must be carefully handled so that the breakable glass vial does not shatter while being handled by the user. This can be particularly problematic, for example, when the Fogelgren device is being used by a police officer in pursuit of a fleeing criminal (or when used by a police officer threatened by a suspected criminal). Thus, significant room for improvement still exists in the development of non-lethal projectiles. Another approach to providing non-lethal projectiles for delivering an inhibiting substance to a living target is suggested in U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,379, issued to Kotsiopoulos, et al., for a PAINT BALL, which patent is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The Kotsiopoulos, et al., device is directed primarily to a paint ball projectile for delivering a load (or blob) of paint to a target, and for expelling the blob of paint onto the target upon impact. The paint ball shown by Kotsiopoulos, et al. consists of a shell that fractures in a predetermined pattern upon impact with a target. The Kotsiopoulos, et al. disclosure includes a passing reference to the use of such a paint ball for delivering dyes, smoke or tear gas to a target, however, provides no mechanism for dispersing an inhibiting load upon explosion of the projectile, which is important for a non-lethal inhibiting projectile to be effective. Specifically, when the Kotsiopoulos, et al. projectile impacts the target, by-design, the load is dispersed rather locally. Thus, even if one skilled in the art were to act upon the passing reference to using tear gas in the Kotsiopoulos, et al. patent, to using tear gas, the present inventors believe that such a device would be generally ineffective because the tear gas would not be dispersed to the target's face, where it needs to be to be effective. Furthermore, as Kotsiopoulos, et al. is an unpressurized projectile, the amount of tear gas delivered would necessarily be limited to an unpressurized volume having dimensions of a paint ball. Even if this amount of tear gas were delivered to a target's face, it is unlikely that this amount of tear gas would be sufficiently effective to impair the target in a useful way. To elaborate on the importance of localized dispersion of loads carried by the Kotsiopoulos et al. projectile, Kotsiopoulos, et al. describe a device for delivering a blob of paint to a target dictating a relatively confined dispersion, i.e., a blob of about 3 to 6 or 8 inches in diameter on the target. It would, in fact, be undesirable to widely disperse paint in the context in which the Kotsiopoulos, et al., device is used as such could be quite dangerous to the target. In contrast, for applications where an inhibiting substance is to be delivered, wide dispersion is not only desired but extremely important, particularly when the projectile impacts the target with force, and the inhibiting substance must be taken in through facial openings in order to be effective. Because firing even a non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectile at or within a few inches of a target's face is extremely dangerous, potentially causing permanent injury or death, which is, of course, contrary to the objective of non-lethal projectiles, devices such as those suggested by the teachings of Kotsiopoulos, et al., would be considered undesirable by those of skill in the art to achieve a non-lethal inhibition of a target. Still other non-lethal projectiles are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,009,164, issued to Grinberg (Apr. 23, 1991), U.S. Pat. No. 5,221,809 issued to Cuadros (Jun. 22, 1993) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,565,649, issued to Tougeron, et al. (Oct. 15, 1996), each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Grinberg describes a projectile that changes its shape upon impact with a target, thereby reducing the danger of penetration into a live target. For example, Grinberg uses a double leaf construction to facilitate rupture of the projectile upon impact. Cuadros describes a projectile that increases in size either during flight or upon impact to spread its force over a large area to provide a knock-down effect without body penetration, and Tougeron, et al., describe a self-propelled projectile intended to deliver an active substance to a living target. While each of the devices described by these patents attempts to provide a projectile that may be used to stop or slow a living target without causing lethal injury, all of the devices have proven to be less than ideal. They are complicated and expensive to manufacture, and they are variously difficult to use and unreliably effective. As a result of these problems and others, there is no widely commercially accepted non-lethal projectile in use by law enforcement or military personnel today that delivers an inhibiting substance to a target. A significant disadvantage to the prior art devices is that none takes into consideration the need to deliver an inhibiting (or active) substance under fairly precise dispersal conditions to insure effectiveness thereof. When a target is impacted with a projectile delivering a substance thereto, to be maximally effective, the substance should disperse in a generally radial manner (or transverse to the motion of the projectile) such that the target's face is quickly and fully contacted thereby. At the same time, the projectile should, most desirably, be able to be aimed with a degree of precision so as to be able to avoid hitting the target in, for example, the face. At the same time, the dispersion of the inhibiting substance must be sufficient that, for example, a projectile impacting on a target's chest delivers inhibiting substance to the target's face where it can be effective. Unfortunately, prior art projectiles, not only rarely contemplate these problems, but also frequently fail to provide for dispersal of the inhibiting substance to a target's face after impacting the target at a remote area. Specifically, for example, while powdered inhibiting substances, in the view of the inventors, offer distinct advantages over the vast majority of prior art devices that deliver inhibiting substances to a target, no commercially viable device known to the inventors has ever been produced that addresses the problem of both accurately delivering the projectile to the target at a location remote from the target's face, and dispersing a powered inhibiting substance in a cloud-like, radial manner so as to assure that the powdered inhibiting substance reaches the target's face. Yet, there remains a significant commercial market and tactical advantage to a non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectile that can be accurately delivered to a target, impacting the target in an area other than the target's face, while at the same time providing dispersal of a powdered inhibiting substance to the target's face, where it is effective. Unfortunately, using devices heretofore known to the inventors, targets are often able to escape and/or minimize their exposure to the delivered substance. A further disadvantage to most non-lethal weapons heretofore known is that they either operate at close ranges, for example, pepper spray canisters, or operate at long ranges, for example, rubber bullet devices, but do not operate at both close and long ranges. The inventors are not aware of any prior devices that are both sufficiently safe to be used at close range and, at the same time, effective at longer ranges, such as 10 feet or more, e.g., 20 or 30 feet or more. In particular, the close range weapons are generally not deployed with sufficient force to travel further than a few meters, and the longer range weapons generally are not “muzzle safe” in that they cannot be safely deployed at very short distances because of the chemical/explosive nature of the launching mechanism. Thus, presently, law enforcement and military personnel are required to employ two different technologies, one for close range applications, and another for long range applications. At the same time, the advantages of using a single device for both applications are numerous, and readily apparent. For example, cost is a significant factor recognized universally by governmental agencies, but perhaps even more importantly is a tactical disadvantage imposed by the use of both short range and long range non-lethal or less-than-lethal technologies. Specifically, all technologies known to the present inventors require that a user make a decision as to whether a particular situation calls for a short range non-lethal technology or a long range non-lethal technology. This requires not only spending time to assess a situation in order to determine whether non-lethal or lethal technology should be employed, but also requires expenditure of more time determining which non-lethal technology is appropriate, that is whether the situation calls for short-range technology or long-range technology. As a result, non-lethal and less-than-lethal projectiles are rarely used by law enforcement and military personnel, and, when used, are generally used only in situations where sufficient time exists for the user to make the chain of decisions necessary to first select non-lethal technology and second, to select what range of non-lethal technology is appropriate. Cost becomes an important consideration in these tactical issues as well. Because two types of non-lethal technology must, using heretofore known technology, be available, many, if not most, law enforcement and military agencies cannot afford to fully equip their personnel. This cost constraint is further exacerbated because heretofore available non-lethal technologies, at least the ones that are effective, and thus actually useable, are complicated and highly specialized and most non-lethal devices do not offer a low-cost inert training version. Thus, training is costly and therefore, use is infrequent. As a result, even if currently available technologies could be used at both short and long ranges (thus presumably providing tactical and cost advantages), the actual costs of currently available devices is still prohibitive and therefore dictates only limited deployment. Finally, there are currently, no projectile systems available on the market for delivering powdered substances to a living target. One reason for this unavailability is that such heretofore contemplated projectile systems are difficult to manufacture or are ineffective. While dispensing a powdered substance into a cup is straightforward, dispensing the substance into two parts of an apparatus that must subsequently be sealingly joined together, without loss of any of the powdered substance, is not so straightforward. Kotsiopoulos, et al., for example, show completely filling their paint ball through a small hole using a capillary. Such an approach, however, cannot be used to fill the Kotsiopoulos, et al. device with a powder, as it is known that powder generally cannot be conducted through a capillary as can a liquid or gas. This manufacturing difficulty combined with the aforementioned difficulties in insuring adequate dispersal of the substance, especially powdered substances, has prevented manufacturers of non-lethal projectile systems from entering the market with powder-filled devices. Today, to the knowledge of the present inventors, there is no heretofore commercially viable, non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectile for delivering a powdered inhibiting substance to a target. While powdered inhibiting substances are known, there is presently no delivery mechanism available for accurately delivering and dispersing such an inhibiting substance in a non-lethal, short or long range manner. Thus, as will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, significant improvements are needed in non-lethal projectiles for delivering inhibiting and/or marking substances to targets, especially to living targets. For example, muzzle safe projectile systems that provide optimum dispersal of the substances contained therein are desirable. Further, projectile systems that may be readily incorporated into existing officer training programs would be advantageous, as such systems would insure that officers could be quickly, cost effectively, and easily trained in the use of the system, which, in turn would be of particular advantage to the officer when attempting to use the system under stressful situations, as would normally be the case. Additionally, non-lethal projectile systems designed to impact a living target in such a way as to actually facilitate the effectiveness of the system are desirable, as are methods of employing such projectile systems to maximize effectiveness thereof. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention advantageously addresses the above-identified needs, as well as other needs, by providing a non-lethal or less-than-lethal projectile system for delivering a substance to a target, especially a living target, such as a human or animal target, wherein the projectile system is specially designed to maximize its effectiveness including by providing a kinetic impact against the target at a first location on or near the target combined with optimum dispersal of the substance on and/or about the target at a second location. In one embodiment, the invention can be characterized as a system comprising a shell casing configured to fit within a delivery device and a frangible projectile to be impacted with a target wherein the frangible projectile is within the shell casing. The frangible projectile comprises a rigid frangible shell having a thickness and a volume formed within, wherein the rigid frangible shell ruptures upon impact with the target, and a substance is contained within the volume that occupies at least about 50% of the volume. The substance comprises a powdered inhibiting substance, wherein upon impact with the target the rigid frangible shell ruptures radially dispersing the powdered inhibiting substance proximate to the target into a cloud and the substance includes a powdered oleoresin capsicum. In another embodiment, the invention can be characterized as a method for launching frangible projectiles including the steps of: placing a shell casing within a delivery device wherein a frangible projectile is within the shell casing wherein the frangible projectile comprises a rigid frangible shell having a thickness and a volume formed within, wherein a substance is contained within the volume and occupies at least about 50% of the volume wherein the substance comprises a powdered inhibiting substance, forcing the frangible projectile out of the shell casing and the delivery device, and impacting a target with the frangible projectile, wherein upon impact with the target, the rigid frangible shell ruptures radially dispersing the powdered inhibiting substance proximate to the target into a cloud wherein the substance includes a powdered oleoresin capsicum. | 20040610 | 20070327 | 20050331 | 83122.0 | 1 | BERGIN, JAMES S | NON-LETHAL PROJECTILES FOR DELIVERING AN INHIBITING SUBSTANCE TO A LIVING TARGET | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,057 | ACCEPTED | Beam conditioning system | The present invention provides an x-ray beam conditioning system with a Kirkpatrick-Baez diffractive optic including two optical elements, of which one of the optical elements is a crystal. The elements are arranged in a side-by-side configuration. The crystal can be a perfect crystal. One or both diffractive elements can be mosaic crystals. One element can be a multilayer optic. For example, the multilayer optic can be an elliptical mirror or a parabolic mirror with graded d-spacing. The graded d-spacing can be either lateral grading or depth grading, or both. | 1. An x-ray beam conditioning system comprising: a Kirkpatrick-Baez side-by-side optic including a first diffractive element, and a second diffractive element, one diffractive element being a crystal. 2. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 1 wherein both diffractive elements are mosaic crystals with high mosaicity and low d-spacing. 3. The x-ray beam directing system of claim 1 wherein the crystal is selected from the group consisting of a perfect crystal and a mosaic crystal and has a low d-spacing. 4. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 3 wherein the other diffractive element is a multilayer optic. 5. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 3 wherein the other diffractive element is a mosaic crystal with large d-spacing. 6. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 1 wherein the diffractive element is a multilayer optic selected from the group consisting of an elliptical mirror and a parabolic mirror and has graded d-spacing. 7. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 6 wherein the graded d-spacing is lateral grading. 8. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 6 wherein the graded d-spacing is depth grading. 9. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 6 wherein the graded d-spacing is lateral grading and depth grading. 10. The x-ray beam conditioning system 1 wherein at least one diffractive element is an asymmetric Johansson crystal. 11. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 1 wherein at least one diffractive element is a Johansson crystal, a Johann crystal, or a logarithm crystal. 12. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 1 wherein both diffractive elements are equidistant from the origin from where the x-ray beam is emitted. 13. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 1 wherein the diffractive elements are located at different distances from the origin from where the x-ray beam is emitted. 14. The x-ray beam conditioning system 1 wherein at least one diffractive element is a crystal with low d-spacing for use in a plane where high convergence is provided. 15. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 1 further comprising at least two working corners. 16. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 1 further comprising an entrance aperture and an exit aperture. 17. An x-ray beam conditioning system comprising: a first crystal with a first active zone, the first crystal being positioned along a beam line in a first reflective plane, the beam line being defined by an x-ray field originating at an origin; and a multilayer reflective element with a second active zone, the reflective element being positioned along the beam line in a second reflective plane that is perpendicular to the first reflective plane, and the first active zone reflecting an incident beam to the second active zone. 18. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 17 wherein the crystal and the reflective element define a first center point and a second center point, respectively, the first center point and the second center point being equidistant from the origin. 19. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 18 wherein the first center point is positioned a first distance from the origin, and the second center point is positioned a second distance from the origin, the first distance being less than the second distance. 20. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 18 wherein the first center point is positioned a first distance from the origin, and the second center point is positioned a second distance from the origin, the first distance being greater than the second distance. 21. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 17 wherein the reflective element is a multilayer optic. 22. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 21 wherein the multilayer optic is elliptically curved. 23. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 21 wherein the multilayer optic is parabolically curved. 24. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 21 wherein the multilayer optic is spherically curved. 25. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 21 wherein the multilayer optic has graded d-spacing. 26. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 25 wherein the graded d-spacing is laterally grading. 27. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 26 wherein the graded d-spacing is depth grading. 28. The x-ray beam conditioning system of claim 26 wherein the graded d-spacing is lateral grading and depth grading. | RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/478,460, filed Jun. 13, 2003, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND The present invention relates generally to an x-ray optical system for conditioning an x-ray beam. More particularly, the present invention relates to a optical system for reflecting an x-ray beam in two directions. There are a number of x-ray applications that require the use of a two dimensional conditioned x-ray beam. For example, medical radiotherapy systems utilize x-ray beams to destroy cancerous tissue, x-ray diffraction or microdiffraction analysis systems channel x-ray radiation at a sample crystal generating a diffraction pattern indicative of a lattice structure, and x-ray fluorescence and spectroscopy systems employ directed and conditioned x-ray beams. A Kirkpatrick-Baez optical configuration has been proposed to reflect an x-ray beam in two directions independently. In the Kirkpatrick-Baez configuration, at least two optical elements are oriented sequentially so that their meridian axes are perpendicular. Using two parabolic optical elements, a Kirkpatrick-Baez system is capable of capturing radiation from a point source and collimating it into a parallel beam. Equipped with ellipsoidal optics, a Kirkpatrick-Baez system reflects a perfect point image with a point source at its focal point. More recent developments in the fabrication of multilayer reflective optics have led to further developments in the Kirkpatrick-Baez-type optical systems. For example, a modified Kirkpatrick-Baez system, including the use of sequentially ordered multilayer optics, have been proposed for of inertial confinement fusion. Although the use of multilayer mirrors in a Kirkpatrick-Baez configuration provides increased efficiency, this type of system is not optimal because mirrors positioned at different distances from the source have different capture angles (i.e., a mirror positioned further from the source has lower efficiency), and, additionally, the beam convergence and image size are different in two planes, resulting in a phenomenon known as anamorphotism. To improve efficiency and combat anamorphotism, a proposed confocal optical system employs a pair of multilayer mirrors assembled in a side-by-side configuration. The side-by-side Kirkpatrick-Baez multilayer optic is optimal for applications demanding a beam with low convergence. However, there are other applications which tolerate a higher beam convergence or in which convergence is not limited at all. Examples of such applications include micro x-ray fluorescence analysis (MXRF) and medical radiotherapy systems utilizing a convergence x-ray beam to destroy cancerous tissue. These applications demand a high flux, but a multilayer optic has limited capabilities to provide a high capture angle because of its relatively large d-spacing. Crystals are also capable of reflecting x-rays. Their natural periodic structure, as well as that of multilayer structures, diffracts x-ray according to Bragg's equation nλ=2d sin θ, (1) where n is the integral number describing the order of reflection, λ is the wavelength of x-rays, and d is the spatial periodicity of the lattice structure of the diffractive element. A so-called Johansson crystal provides precise focusing in the diffraction plane similar to an elliptically graded d-spacing multilayer. It is noteworthy that crystals have much smaller d-spacing than multilayers. This allows freedom of design on their base x-ray optical elements with a high capture angle. For example, a Johansson crystal may have a theoretical capture angle up to 4θ. However, crystals have several drawbacks that have heretofore limited their application in certain x-ray related fields. The narrow rocking curve (that is, the angular range over which an element can reflect a parallel beam) of a perfect crystal limits the flux the crystal can utilize from a finite size focal spot. Mosaic crystals have a modest reflectivity and a large penetration depth, which is not favorable in applications requiring sharp focusing. Both types of crystals have a limited acceptance in the axial plane (plane perpendicular to the diffraction plane), and this acceptance drops significantly when an x-ray is not parallel to the diffraction plane. This last feature makes optical systems with two diffractive elements with small d-spacing and narrow rocking curve ineffective. These limiting factors have heretofore rendered optics having crystal combinations ineffective in particular x-ray applications. From the above, it is seen that there exists a need for an improved x-ray optical system for conditioning an x-ray beam using crystals. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides an x-ray beam conditioning system with a Kirkpatrick-Baez (i.e., confocal) diffractive optic including two optical elements, of which at least one of the optical elements is a crystal. The elements are arranged in a side-by-side configuration. The crystal can be a perfect crystal. One or both diffractive elements can be mosaic crystals. One element can be a multilayer optic. For example, the multilayer optic can be an elliptical mirror or a parabolic mirror with graded d-spacing. The graded d-spacing can be either lateral grading or depth grading, or both. Among other advantages, certain implementations of the x-ray optical system may combine a multilayer x-ray optic with a crystal in an orthogonal, confocal arrangement optimized for high-flux operations. Other features and advantages will be apparent from the following description and claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic view of reflection from a focusing diffractive element; and FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic view of reflection from two focusing diffractive elements in a Kirkpatrick-Baez side-by-side arrangement in accordance with the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION An analysis of the efficiency of various diffractive x-ray optical elements provides a basis for the understanding of the present invention. For simplicity, consider a single diffractive element with a cylindrical reflecting surface and with a capability to focus x-rays from a point source to the point image in the diffraction plane. Examples of such diffractive elements are Johansson crystals and elliptical multilayers with a proper grading of d-spacing. The capability of these optical elements to accept and redirect x-rays from a monochromatic x-ray source can be described as: ε=f·α·β·R, (2) where f is a factor describing from which portion of the source size a diffractive element can use radiation, α and β are the acceptance angles in the diffraction and axial planes, respectively, and R is the element reflectivity. The efficiency of the source focal spot usage f can be calculated as a convolution of a source spatial intensity distribution and a diffractive element angular acceptance. But in two extreme cases f can be presented as simple analytical expressions. If the angular size of the source γ as seen from the diffractive element is much larger than an angular acceptance δθ, then f can be calculated as: f = δ θ γ . ( 3 ) However, when the diffractive element angular acceptance δθ is much larger than an angular size of the source γ, f is equal to 1. An angular acceptance of a diffractive element is identical to its rocking curve. The angular size of the source is: γ = F L , ( 4 ) where F is the effective width of the source in the diffraction plane and L is the distance from the source to a diffractive element. The angular acceptance in the diffraction plane a is defined by the diffractive element length l and Bragg's angle θ, namely: α = ( l · sin θ ) L . ( 5 ) Equation (5) is a suitable expression for both Johansson crystals and elliptical multilayers. Each diffractive element has a limited acceptance in the axial plane as well, which is caused by the change of the incident angle when a ray propagates out of the diffraction plane. A single element optical system 10 shown in FIG. 1 includes a source 12 that emanates x-rays 13 towards an optical element 16, such as, for example, a Johansson crystal, a Johann crystal, or a logarithm spiral crystal. The optical element 16 diffracts the x-rays 13 to a focus 14. The source 12 and the focus 14 are located on a focusing circle 20. A strip 18 on the optical element 16 defines an area within which the incident angle changes less than the half of the optical element rocking curve. The areas below and above this strip 18 do not reflect the beam effectively because a change of the incident angle is too large compared to the rocking curve. This angular acceptance of a diffractive element in the axial plane β can be described as β = ( δθ tan θ ) 1 2 . ( 6 ) Some other conditions, for instance, an aperture or an angular source distribution may limit the radiation usage in the axial plane. In such cases, β is the smallest of the limitations. The calculated efficiencies of various optical configurations and optical elements for both large and small focal spot of the sources (see, e.g., expressions 3 and 4) are shown below in Table 1. The configurations include a single optical element, a pair of similar optical elements in a side-by-side, confocal configuration (that is, a Kirkpatrick-Baez configuration), and a hybrid pair of optical elements including a multilayer and a crystal element in a side-by-side, confocal configuration. The representative optical elements are a germanium Ge111 crystal, a multilayer with center d-spacing of 20 Angstroms, a lithium fluoride LiF200 crystal, and a pyrolitic graphite C0002 crystal as a single diffractive element. As indicated, pyrolitic graphite provides superior efficiency for both large and small sources, and the multilayer efficiency exceeds the efficiency of the Ge and LiF crystals when the source is large. TABLE 1 EFFICIENCY OF OPTICAL CONFIGURATIONS Optical Lithium Pyrolitic Configuration Germanium Multilayer Fluoride Graphite Large Source Single Element 1.3E−05 1.2E−04 3.5E−05 6.2E−03 Standard 1.8E−13 8.1E−09 5.4E−12 2.9E−05 Confocal Optic Hybrid 2.0E−08 1.1E−07 6.8E−06 Confocal Optic Small Source Single Element 4.8E−03 4.2E−03 3.6E−03 2.1E−02 Standard 1.4E−06 5.3E−04 3.2E−06 1.9E−02 Confocal Optic Hybrid 6.9E−04 1.1E−03 2.2E−−03 Confocal Optic To calculate the efficiency of the confocal optical configuration, a capture angle in the diffraction plane for one element is considered the angle of axial acceptance for the second element. However, equation (6) for the angle of axial acceptance is not correct for the confocal arrangement, since it assumes that deviations not in the diffraction plane occur symmetrically in both directions, which is not the case in the confocal arrangement. FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic view of a confocal (or Kirkpatrick-Baez) optical configuration 40 with a first optical element 42 and a second optical element 44 aligned in a side-by-side, orthogonal manner. The first optical element 42 defines a focusing circle 46 and the second optical element 44 defines a focusing ellipse 48. The first and second optical elements 42, 44 are aligned such that the focusing circle 46 intersects the focal points of the focusing ellipse 48 twice, once at the source 50 and once at the image position 52. In one embodiment, the first optical element 42 is a crystal and the second optical element 44 is a multilayer optic. Referring again to FIG. 2, the crystal working surface 54 is vertical and the multilayer working surface 56 is horizontal and positioned below the focusing circle 46. As shown, the crystal Bragg's angle θc defines the axial component of the incident angle of an x-ray from the focus to the mirror surface and vice versa. The cylindrical working surfaces of two optical elements cross, constructing the working corner of the optic, that is, the two strips 58 and 60 shown on the crystal working surface 54 and the multilayer working surface 56, respectively. Note that the axial components for both optical elements are not symmetric with respect to their corresponding diffraction planes. To find the axial acceptance of a diffractive element in these conditions, expression (6) is re-written as: β = ( 2 Δθ tan θ ) 1 2 ( 7 ) or as : Δ θ = β 2 tan θ 2 . ( 8 ) In equations (7) and (8), β is an angle between the ray and diffraction plane of an element and Δθ is the corresponding deviation of the incident angle from Bragg's angle. To determine the strength of the incident angle change d(Δθ) caused by a small variation of axial angle dβ, equation (8) is differentiated, yielding: d(Δθ)=β·tan θ·dβ (9) If d(Δθ)=δθ is an element angular acceptance in its diffraction plane, than its axial acceptance at an average axial angle β is: d β = δ θ β tan θ . ( 10 ) In a confocal optic arrangement the crystal axial angle βc is defined through the mirror Bragg's angle θm as: βc=arctan(tan θm·cos θc), and (11) βm=arctan(tan θc·cos θm), (12) where θm and θc are Bragg's angles of the mirror and crystal, respectively. Since the confocal optic acceptance angle in a vertical plane is defined by the mirror capture angle and the crystal axial acceptance angle, the smaller of these two angles is employed for the efficiency calculations. The efficiency of a confocal optic based on similar or different elements in two diffraction perpendicular planes can be calculated on the basis of the above equations. The results of such calculations are also presented in Table 1. Again, it is seen that graphite provides the highest efficiency. However, a nontrivial result of these calculations is that the hybrid optic including a multilayer and either a perfect crystal (Ge) or a mosaic crystal (LiF) provides higher efficiency than a pure confocal optic having two similar components in two planes. For instance, with a large source, a Ge confocal optic has an efficiency of 1.8E-13, compared to an efficiency of 8.1E-9 for a multilayer optic. However, a hybrid optic with a multilayer in one plane and Ge in another plane provides an efficiency of 2.0E-8. This latter configuration is of a special interest because optics based on a multilayer and a Ge crystal can provide precise focusing and high efficiency. The following, among others, are examples of combinations of diffractive elements that provide a high efficiency in the confocal arrangement: two mosaic crystals with a low d-spacing and high mosaicity; a multilayer mirror and a mosaic or a perfect crystal with a low d-spacing; and a mosaic crystal with a high d-spacing with a mosaic or a perfect crystal with low d-spacing. The definitions of low/high d-spacing and low/high mosaicity depend on the particular requirements of the collimated beam. For example, d-spacing above about 10 Angstroms and mosaicity more than about 5 to 10 arcminutes many be considered high d-spacing and high mosaicity, respectively. A confocal optic including a Johansson crystal and an elliptical multilayer mirror with laterally graded d-spacing and depth grading is one preferred configuration. This type of optic is an effective diffractive component to form a convergent focusing beam. One particularly effective implementation of hybrid confocal multilayer/crystal optic is when a highly convergence beam in one plane is desired, for example, for high convergence beam reflectometry. A parabolic multilayer mirror with laterally graded d-spacing and depth grading is an optimal diffractive element to form a parallel beam. A highly asymmetric Johansson crystal may be used to form a quasi parallel beam when the requirements of beam divergence in one plane are stricter than in the other plane. Again, various embodiments of the present invention can utilize many other diffractive optical components to form a quasi parallel beam. The lengths and center positions of two diffractive elements may coincide, or they may be different. Thus, some areas of two diffractive elements are overlapped, creating a side-by-side, confocal optic, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The hybrid confocal optic of the present invention may include two, four or multiple working corners, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,014,423, the contents of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Finally, certain implementations of the x-ray optical system of the present invention may include entrance and exit apertures to clean the x-ray beam and to simplify x-ray shielding. It should be apparent to those skilled in the art that the above-described embodiment is merely illustrative of but a few of the many possible specific embodiments of the present invention. Numerous and various other arrangements can be readily devised by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present invention relates generally to an x-ray optical system for conditioning an x-ray beam. More particularly, the present invention relates to a optical system for reflecting an x-ray beam in two directions. There are a number of x-ray applications that require the use of a two dimensional conditioned x-ray beam. For example, medical radiotherapy systems utilize x-ray beams to destroy cancerous tissue, x-ray diffraction or microdiffraction analysis systems channel x-ray radiation at a sample crystal generating a diffraction pattern indicative of a lattice structure, and x-ray fluorescence and spectroscopy systems employ directed and conditioned x-ray beams. A Kirkpatrick-Baez optical configuration has been proposed to reflect an x-ray beam in two directions independently. In the Kirkpatrick-Baez configuration, at least two optical elements are oriented sequentially so that their meridian axes are perpendicular. Using two parabolic optical elements, a Kirkpatrick-Baez system is capable of capturing radiation from a point source and collimating it into a parallel beam. Equipped with ellipsoidal optics, a Kirkpatrick-Baez system reflects a perfect point image with a point source at its focal point. More recent developments in the fabrication of multilayer reflective optics have led to further developments in the Kirkpatrick-Baez-type optical systems. For example, a modified Kirkpatrick-Baez system, including the use of sequentially ordered multilayer optics, have been proposed for of inertial confinement fusion. Although the use of multilayer mirrors in a Kirkpatrick-Baez configuration provides increased efficiency, this type of system is not optimal because mirrors positioned at different distances from the source have different capture angles (i.e., a mirror positioned further from the source has lower efficiency), and, additionally, the beam convergence and image size are different in two planes, resulting in a phenomenon known as anamorphotism. To improve efficiency and combat anamorphotism, a proposed confocal optical system employs a pair of multilayer mirrors assembled in a side-by-side configuration. The side-by-side Kirkpatrick-Baez multilayer optic is optimal for applications demanding a beam with low convergence. However, there are other applications which tolerate a higher beam convergence or in which convergence is not limited at all. Examples of such applications include micro x-ray fluorescence analysis (MXRF) and medical radiotherapy systems utilizing a convergence x-ray beam to destroy cancerous tissue. These applications demand a high flux, but a multilayer optic has limited capabilities to provide a high capture angle because of its relatively large d-spacing. Crystals are also capable of reflecting x-rays. Their natural periodic structure, as well as that of multilayer structures, diffracts x-ray according to Bragg's equation in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? nλ= 2 d sin θ, (1) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where n is the integral number describing the order of reflection, λ is the wavelength of x-rays, and d is the spatial periodicity of the lattice structure of the diffractive element. A so-called Johansson crystal provides precise focusing in the diffraction plane similar to an elliptically graded d-spacing multilayer. It is noteworthy that crystals have much smaller d-spacing than multilayers. This allows freedom of design on their base x-ray optical elements with a high capture angle. For example, a Johansson crystal may have a theoretical capture angle up to 4θ. However, crystals have several drawbacks that have heretofore limited their application in certain x-ray related fields. The narrow rocking curve (that is, the angular range over which an element can reflect a parallel beam) of a perfect crystal limits the flux the crystal can utilize from a finite size focal spot. Mosaic crystals have a modest reflectivity and a large penetration depth, which is not favorable in applications requiring sharp focusing. Both types of crystals have a limited acceptance in the axial plane (plane perpendicular to the diffraction plane), and this acceptance drops significantly when an x-ray is not parallel to the diffraction plane. This last feature makes optical systems with two diffractive elements with small d-spacing and narrow rocking curve ineffective. These limiting factors have heretofore rendered optics having crystal combinations ineffective in particular x-ray applications. From the above, it is seen that there exists a need for an improved x-ray optical system for conditioning an x-ray beam using crystals. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides an x-ray beam conditioning system with a Kirkpatrick-Baez (i.e., confocal) diffractive optic including two optical elements, of which at least one of the optical elements is a crystal. The elements are arranged in a side-by-side configuration. The crystal can be a perfect crystal. One or both diffractive elements can be mosaic crystals. One element can be a multilayer optic. For example, the multilayer optic can be an elliptical mirror or a parabolic mirror with graded d-spacing. The graded d-spacing can be either lateral grading or depth grading, or both. Among other advantages, certain implementations of the x-ray optical system may combine a multilayer x-ray optic with a crystal in an orthogonal, confocal arrangement optimized for high-flux operations. Other features and advantages will be apparent from the following description and claims. | 20040610 | 20060711 | 20050203 | 72615.0 | 0 | THOMAS, COURTNEY D | BEAM CONDITIONING SYSTEM | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,088 | ACCEPTED | 1, 5-diaminopentan-3-ol compounds and related treatment methods | Substituted 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compounds and methods of making the same. Pharmaceutical compositions containing these compounds and methods of treatment using these pharmaceutical compositions. | 1. A 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compound corresponding to formula I, wherein R1 and R2 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical or together form a (CH2)n chain, wherein n represents an integer greater than or equal to 3; R3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic radical, an aryl radical or a heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system is optionally singly or multiply substituted or is bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic bridge or the aryl or heteroaryl radical is part of a polycyclic system; R4 and R5 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical or an aryl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic bridge or together form a (CH2)m chain wherein m represents an integer; R and R are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical or an aryl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic bridge or together form a (CH2)p chain, wherein p represents an integer; R8 represents hydrogen or an optionally singly or multiply substituted aryl or heteroaryl radical, wherein the aryl or heteroaryl radical is optionally part of a polycyclic system; or a physiologically acceptable salt thereof; provided, however that 1,5-bis-(N,N′-dimethylamino)-2,4-dimethyl-3-pyridin-2-ylpentan-3-ol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-phenylcyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcyclohexanol and 2,7-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcycloheptanol are not included. 2. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound is present in the form of a free base. 3. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound is present in the form of a pure enantiomer or pure diastereoisomer. 4. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound is present in the form of a mixture of stereoisomers. 5. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound is present in the form of a racemic mixture. 6. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound is present in the form of a solvate. 7. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound is present in the form of a hydrate. 8. The compound of claim 1, wherein R1 and R2 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-6 radical or together form a (CH2)n chain, wherein n represents an integer from 3 to 9; R3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-6 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C3-7 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system is optionally singly or multiply substituted or bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-5 bridge; R4 and R5 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-6 radical, a phenyl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-5 bridge or together form a (CH2)m chain, wherein m represents an integer from 4 to 10; R6 and R7 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-6 radical, a phenyl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-5 bridge or together form a (CH2)p chain, wherein p represents an integer from 4 to 10; and R8 represents hydrogen. 9. The compound of claim 1, wherein R1 and R2 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 radical or together form a (CH2)n chain, wherein n represents an integer from 3 to 5; R3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C5-6 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system is optionally singly or multiply substituted by halogen, an alkyl group, an alkoxy group or a trihalogenated alkyl group or is bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 bridge; R4 and R5 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 radical or together form a (CH2)m chain, wherein m represents an integer from 4 to 6; R6 and R7 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 radical or together form a (CH2)p chain, wherein p represents an integer from 4 to 6; and R8 represents hydrogen. 10. The compound of claim 9, wherein the respective ring system of the radical R3 is singly or multiply substituted by halogen, an alkyl group with 1 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkoxy group with 1 to 6 carbon atoms or a trihalogenated methyl group or is bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 bridge. 11. The compound of claim 1, wherein R1 and R2 together form a (CH2)n chain, wherein n represents 3; R3 represents a vinyl radical, a cyclopentyl radical, a cyclohexyl radical, a thiophenyl radical or a phenyl radical, wherein the cyclohexyl radical is optionally bound by a methylene bridge or the phenyl radical is optionally singly or multiply substituted by fluorine, chlorine, a methyl group, an isopropyl group, a methoxy group or a trifluoromethyl group or is optionally bound by a linear, saturated aliphatic C1-3 bridge or an ethinyl bridge; R4 and R5 together form a (CH2)m chain, wherein m represents 5; R6 and R7 together form a (CH2)p chain, wherein p represents 5; and R8 represents hydrogen. 12. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound corresponds to formula II wherein m and p are the same or different and represent an integer from 4 to 10, and n represents an integer greater than or equal to 3. 13. The compound of claim 12, wherein m and p are the same or different and represent an integer from 4 to 10; n represents an integer from 3 to 9; R3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-6 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C3-7 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system is optionally singly or multiply substituted or bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-5 bridge; and R8 represents hydrogen 14. The compound of claim 12, wherein m and p are the same or different and represent an integer from 4 to 6; n represents an integer from 3 to 5; R3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C5-6 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system is optionally singly or multiply substituted by halogen, an alkyl group, an alkoxy group or a trihalogenated alkyl group or is bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 bridge; and R8 represents hydrogen. 15. The compound of claim 14, wherein the respective ring system of the radical R3 is singly or multiply substituted by halogen, an alkyl group with 1 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkoxy group with 1 to 6 carbon atoms or a trihalogenated methyl group or is bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 bridge. 16. The compound of claim 12, wherein m and p represent 5; n represents 3; R represents a vinyl radical, a cyclopentyl radical, a cyclohexyl radical, a thiophenyl radical or a phenyl radical, wherein the cyclohexyl radical is optionally bound by a methylene bridge or the phenyl radical is optionally singly or multiply substituted by fluorine, chlorine, a methyl group, an isopropyl group, a methoxy group or a trifluoromethyl group or is optionally bound by a linear, saturated aliphatic C1-3 bridge or an ethinyl bridge; and R8 represents hydrogen. 17. A substituted 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compound according to claim 1 wherein said compound is selected from the group consisting of: 1-phenyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(4-chlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-benzyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(4-fluoro-3-methyl-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-o-tolyl-cyclohexanol; 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-vinyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(4-tert-butyl-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-cyclopentyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-m-tolyl-cyclohexanol; 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-bicyclohexyl-1-ol; 1-(4-fluorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-phenethyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-phenylethynyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-thiophen-2-yl-cyclohexanol; 1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(3-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(3-phenyl-propyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(2,3-dichlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-p-tolyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-cyclohexylmethyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(5-fluoro-2-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(3-fluorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(3-chlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(3,5-dichlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(2-chlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(4-fluorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(3-methoxy-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(4-chloro-3-trifluoromethyl-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(3-fluorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(2-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(2-methyl-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(3-chloro-4-fluorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-(3-trifluoromethyl-phenyl)-cyclohexanol; 1-(3-methyl-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(4-chlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(2-chloro-6-fluorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(2,5-dimethyl-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; 1-(3-chlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol; and 1-(2,4-dichlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol. 18. A method for producing a 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compound according to claim 1, comprising the steps of A1) reacting a ketone corresponding to formula (1), with paraformaldehyde and an amine corresponding to formula (2) or (2a), by a Mannich reaction in a suitable solvent; working up the reaction mixture; and isolating the product corresponding to formula (3) A2) reacting an enamine corresponding to formula 1a wherein R represents an aliphatic C1-6 radical, a morpholinyl, piperidyl or pyrrolidinyl radical, wherein the two radicals R are the same or different with an aldehyde corresponding to formula (4), wherein R8 is not hydrogen and an amine corresponding to formula (2a), by a Mannich reaction in the presence of triethylamine, chlorotrimethylsilane and sodium iodide in a suitable solvent; working up the mixture; and isolating the ketone corresponding to formula (3a); reacting the ketone corresponding to formula (3a) with paraformaldehyde and an amine corresponding to formula (2), by a Mannich reaction in a suitable solvent, with the addition of hydrochloric acid or in acetic acid while heating; working up the reaction mixture; and isolating the product corresponding to formula (3b) A3) reacting an enamine corresponding to formula (1a), wherein R represents an aliphatic C1-6 radical, a morpholinyl, piperidyl or pyrrolidinyl radical, wherein the two radicals R are the same or different with an iminium salt corresponding to formula (5), wherein R8 is not hydrogen and Y− represents a chloride, bromide, iodide or AlCl4− ion by a Mannich reaction while heating in a suitable solvent; working up the reaction mixture; isolating the ketone corresponding to formula (3a); reacting the ketone corresponding to formula (3a) with paraformaldehyde and an amine corresponding to formula (2) by a Mannich reaction in a suitable solvent, with the addition of hydrochloric acid or in acetic acid while heating; working up the reaction mixture; isolating the product corresponding to formula (3b) and B) reacting a compound corresponding to formula (3) or (3b) with a Grignard compound or an organolithium compound corresponding to formulae R3MgCl, R3MgBr, R3Mgl, MgR32 or LiR3, in a suitable solvent; working up the reaction mixture and isolating the compound corresponding to formula 1. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the amines corresponding to formulae (2) and (2a) are the same. 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the solvent of step A1) is ethanol, optionally with the addition of hydrochloric acid or acetic acid, wherein said reaction is optionally provided with heat. 21. The method of claim 18, wherein the amine corresponding to formula (2a) of step A2) is in the form of its hydrochloride. 22. The method of claim 18, wherein the solvent of the first Mannich reaction in step A2) or step A3) is acetonitrile. 23. The method of claim 18, wherein the solvent of the second Mannich reaction in step A2) or step A3) is ethanol. 24. The method of claim 18, wherein the solvent in step B of the reaction is diethylether or tetrahydrofuran. 25. A pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one substituted 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compound according to claim 1 or containing a compound selected from the group consisting of 1,5-bis-(N,N′-dimethylamino)-2,4-dimethyl-3-pyridin-2-ylpentan-3-ol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1phenylcyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcyclohexanol, or 2,7-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcycloheptanol as the active ingredient and a physiologically acceptable auxiliary substance. 26. A method of alleviating pain in a mammal comprising administering to said mammal an effective pain-alleviating amount of a pharmaceutical composition according to claim 25. 27. The method of claim 26 wherein said pain is chronic pain. 28. The method of claim 26 wherein said pain is non-chronic pain. 29. A method of anaesthetizing a mammal comprising administering to said mammal an anaesthetically effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition according to claim 25. 30. The method of claim 29, wherein said pharmaceutical composition is effective as a local anaesthetic. 31. A method of treating or inhibiting a condition selected from the group consisting of arrhythmia, emesis, inflammation, allergy, cardiovascular disease, urinary incontinence, diarrhea, gastritis ulcers shock migraine narcolepsy obesity asthma glaucoma tinnitus hyperkinetic syndrome pruritus, alcohol or drug or substance abuse or dependency, depression, alertness, libido, or neurodegenerative disease or for anxiolysis or anaesthesia comprising the step of administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition according to claim 25. 32. The method of claim 31 wherein said neurodegenerative disease is Parkinson's disease or Huntington's chorea. 33. A method of achieving a nootropic or neurotropic effect in a mammal, comprising the step of administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition according to claim 25. 34. A method for the treatment or prophylaxis of a condition selected from the group consisting of epilepsy, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, cerebral ischemia, cerebral infarct and cerebral oedema comprising the step of administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition according to claim 25. 35. A method of manufacturing a pharmaceutical formulation comprising the step of combining a substituted 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compound according to 1 or 1,5-bis-(N,N′-dimethylamino)-2,4-dimethyl-3-pyridin-2-ylpentan-3-ol; 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1 phenylcyclohexanol; 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2ylcyclohexanol; 2,7-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcycloheptanol with a physiologically acceptable auxiliary substance. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of International Patent Application No. PCT/EP02/13912, filed Jun. 26, 2003, designating the United States of America, and published in German as WO 03/051819, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Priority is claimed based on Federal Republic of Germany Patent Application No. 101 61 818.2, filed Dec. 14, 2001. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to substituted 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compounds, to methods for their production, to pharmaceutical compositions containing these compounds and to the use of substituted 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compounds for producing pharmaceutical compositions and in related treatment methods. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The treatment of pain has great importance in medicine. There is a worldwide need for effective methods of treating pain. The urgent need for action for patient-friendly and purposeful treatment of chronic and non-chronic pain conditions, this being taken to mean the successful and satisfactory treatment of pain for the patient, is documented in the large number of scientific papers which have recently appeared in the field of applied analgesics and fundamental research on nociception. Conventional opioids, such as morphine, are extremely effective in the treatment of severe to the severest pain. However, their undesirable side effects include inter alia respiratory depression, nausea, sedation, constipation and tolerance development. In addition, they are less effective in the event of neuropathic or incidental pain, suffered in particular by patients with tumors. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One object of the present invention is to provide new compounds which may be used as active pharmaceutical ingredients in pharmaceutical compositions and which are particularly suitable for controlling pain, in particular chronic and/or non-chronic pain. This object is achieved according to the invention by providing substituted 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compounds corresponding to formula I, as these compounds have a particularly pronounced analgesic effect and may be used to treat pain, in particular chronic and/or non-chronic pain, as a local anaesthetic, an anti-arrhythmic, anti-emetic and/or nootropic (neurotropic), for the treatment of inflammatory and/or allergic reactions, cardiovascular diseases, urinary incontinence, diarrhea, gastritis, ulcers, shock, migraine, narcolepsy, obesity, asthma, glaucoma, tinnitus, hyperkinetic syndrome, pruritus, alcohol and/or drug and/or medicine abuse and/or dependency and/or inflammation and/or depression and/or to increase alertness, to increase libido and/or for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, in particular Parkinson's disease and Huntington's chorea, for the treatment and/or prophylaxis of epilepsy, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, cerebral ischemia, cerebral infarct, cerebral oedema and/or for anxiolysis and/or anaesthesia. The present invention therefore relates to 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compounds corresponding to formula I wherein R1 and R2 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical or together form a (CH2)n chain, wherein n represents an integer greater than or equal to 3, R3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic radical, an aryl radical or a heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted and/or be bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic bridge and/or the aryl or heteroaryl radical may be part of a polycyclic system. R4 and R5 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical or an aryl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic bridge or together form a (CH2)m chain wherein m represents an integer, R6 and R7 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical or an aryl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic bridge or together form a (CH2)p chain, wherein p represents an integer, R8 represents hydrogen or an optionally singly or multiply substituted aryl or heteroaryl radical, wherein the aryl or heteroaryl radical may be part of a polycyclic system, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates, with the exception of the compounds 1,5-bis-(N,N′-dimethylamino)-2,4-dimethyl-3-pyridin-2-ylpentan-3-ol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-phenylcyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcyclohexanol and 2,7-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcycloheptanol. Preferred compounds are those corresponding to formula I, wherein R1 and R2 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-6 radical or together form a (CH2)n chain, wherein n represents an integer from 3 to 9, R3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-6 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C3-7 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted and/or be bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-5 bridge, R4 and R5 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-6 radical, a phenyl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-5 bridge or together form a (CH2)m chain, wherein m represents an integer from 4 to 10, R6 and R7 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-6 radical, a phenyl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-5 bridge or together form a (CH2)p chain, wherein p represents an integer from 4 to 10, R8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates, with the exception of the compounds 1,5-bis-(N,N′-dimethylamino)-2,4-dimethyl-3-pyridin-2-ylpentan-3-ol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-phenylcyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcyclohexanol and 2,7-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcycloheptanol. Other preferred compounds include those corresponding to formula I, wherein R1 and R2 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 radical or together form a (CH2)n chain, wherein n represents an integer from 3 to 5, R3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C5-6 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted by halogen, an alkyl group, an alkoxy group and/or a trihalogenated alkyl group and/or be bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 bridge, R4 and R5 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 radical or together form a (CH2)m chain, wherein m represents an integer from 4 to 6, R6 and R7 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 radical or together form a (CH2)p chain, wherein p represents an integer from 4 to 6, R8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates, with the exception of the compounds 1,5-bis-(N,N′-dimethylamino)-2,4-dimethyl-3-pyridin-2-ylpentan-3-ol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-phenylcyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcyclohexanol and 2,7-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcycloheptanol. Other preferred compounds include those corresponding to formula I, wherein R1 and R2 together form a (CH2)n chain, wherein n represents 3, R3 represents a vinyl radical, a cyclopentyl radical, a cyclohexyl radical, a thiophenyl radical or a phenyl radical, wherein the cyclohexyl radical may optionally be bound by a methylene bridge or the phenyl radical may optionally be singly or multiply substituted by fluorine, chlorine, a methyl group, an isopropyl group, a methoxy group and/or a trifluoromethyl group and/or may optionally be bound by a linear, saturated aliphatic C1-3 bridge or an ethinyl bridge, R4 and R5 together form a (CH2)m chain, wherein m represents 5, R6 and R7 together form a (CH2)p chain, wherein p represents 5, R8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. Particularly preferred compounds include those corresponding to formula II wherein m and p are the same or different and represent an integer from 4 to 10, n represents an integer greater than or equal to 3 R3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic radical, an aryl radical or a heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted and/or be bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic bridge and/or the aryl or heteroaryl radical may be part of a polycyclic system and R8 represents hydrogen or an optionally singly or multiply substituted aryl or heteroaryl radical, wherein the aryl or heteroaryl radical may be part of a polycyclic system, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. Other preferred compounds include those corresponding to formula II, wherein m and p are the same or different and represent an integer from 4 to 10, n represents an integer from 3 to 9 and R3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-6 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C3-7 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted and/or bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-5 bridge, R8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. Other preferred compounds include those corresponding to II, wherein m and p are the same or different and represent an integer from 4 to 6, n represents an integer from 3 to 5 and R3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C5-6 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted by halogen, an alkyl group, an alkoxy group and/or a trihalogenated alkyl group and/or be bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C1-3 bridge, R8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. Other preferred compounds include those corresponding to formula II, wherein m and p represent 5, n represents 3 and R3 represents a vinyl radical, a cyclopentyl radical, a cyclohexyl radical, a thiophenyl radical or a phenyl radical, wherein the cyclohexyl radical may optionally be bound by a methylene bridge or the phenyl radical may optionally be singly or multiply substituted by fluorine, chlorine, a methyl group, an isopropyl group, a methoxy group and/or a trifluoromethyl group and/or may optionally be bound by a linear, saturated aliphatic C1-3 bridge or an ethinyl bridge, and R8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. A heteroaryl radical is taken to mean an optionally singly or multiply substituted, five- or six-membered aromatic radical with at least 1, possibly also 2, 3, 4 or 5 heteroatoms, which may be the same or different, which may be part of a polycylic system. Preferred heteroatoms are nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. It is particularly preferred if the heteroaryl radicals are selected from the group comprising pyrrolyl, indolyl, furyl (furanyl), benzofuranyl, thienyl (thiophenyl), benzothienyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazoyl, pyridinyl, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, pyranyl, indazolyl, purinyl, indolizinyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, quinazolinyl, carbazolyl, phenazinyl, phenothiazinyl radical. The bond may be made by any arbitrary ring atom capable of being bound. The optionally present substituents may be the same or different and be bound to any arbitrary ring atom capable of being bound. An aryl radical is taken to mean an optionally singly or multiply substituted aromatic radical which may be part of a polycyclic system. A phenyl radical is particularly preferred. The bond can be made by any arbitrary ring atom capable of being bound. The substituents optionally present may be the same of different and be bound to any arbitrary ring atom capable of being bound. Particularly preferred compounds include those selected from the group comprising 1-phenyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-chlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-benzyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-fluoro-3-methyl-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-o-tolyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-vinyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-tert-butyl-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-cyclopentyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-m-tolyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-bicyclohexyl-1-ol, 1-(4-fluorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-phenethyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-phenylethynyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-thiophen-2-yl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-phenyl-propyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2,3-dichlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-p-tolyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-cyclohexylmethyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(5-fluoro-2-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-fluorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-chlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3,5-dichlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2-chlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-fluorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-methoxy-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-chloro-3-trifluoromethyl-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-fluorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2-methyl-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-chloro-4-fluorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-(3-trifluoromethyl-phenyl)-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-methyl-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-chlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2-chloro-6-fluorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2,5-dimethyl-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-chlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol and 1-(2,4-dichlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. The present invention also relates to methods for producing substituted 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compounds corresponding to formula I, wherein A1) a ketone corresponding to formula (1), wherein R1 and R2 have the meaning given above is gradually reacted with paraformaldehyde and a respective amine corresponding to formula (2) or (2a), wherein R4, R5, R6 and R7 have the meaning given above and wherein the amines corresponding to formulae (2) and (2a) are preferably the same, by a Mannich reaction in a suitable solvent, preferably in ethanol, with the addition of hydrochloric acid or in acetic acid while heating, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the product corresponding to formula (3) isolated and optionally purified, or A2) an enamine corresponding to formula (1a), wherein R1 and R2 have the meaning given above and R represents an aliphatic C1-6 radical, a morpholinyl, piperidyl or pyrrolidinyl radical, wherein the two radicals R may be the same or different is reacted with an aldehyde corresponding to formula (4), wherein R8 has the meaning given above with the exception of hydrogen and an amine corresponding to formula (2a), wherein R4 and R5 have the meaning given above, optionally in the form of its hydrochloride by a Mannich reaction in the presence of triethylamine, chlorotrimethylsilane and sodium iodide in a suitable solvent, preferably in acetonitrile, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the ketone corresponding to formula (3a) isolated and optionally purified, and then the ketone corresponding to formula (3a) is reacted with paraformaldehyde and an amine corresponding to formula (2), wherein R6 and R7 have the meaning given above and wherein the amine corresponding to formula (2) is preferably the same as the amine corresponding to formula (2a) by a Mannich reaction in a suitable solvent, preferably in ethanol, with the addition of hydrochloric acid or in acetic acid while heating, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the product corresponding to formula (3b) isolated and optionally purified, or A3) an enamine corresponding to formula (1a), wherein R1 and R2 have the meaning given above and R represents an aliphatic C1-6 radical, a morpholinyl, piperidyl or pyrrolidinyl radical, wherein the two radicals R may be the same or different is reacted while heating with an iminium salt corresponding to formula (5), wherein R8 has the meaning given above with the exception of hydrogen and R4 and R5 have the meaning given above and Y− represents a chloride, bromide, iodide or AlCl4− ion by a Mannich reaction in a suitable solvent, preferably in acetonitrile, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the ketone corresponding to formula (3a) isolated and optionally purified, and then the ketone corresponding to formula (3a) is reacted with paraformaldehyde and an amine corresponding to formula (2), wherein R6 and R7 have the meaning given above and wherein the amine corresponding to formula (2) is preferably the same as the amine corresponding to formula (2a) by a Mannich reaction in a suitable solvent, preferably in ethanol, with the addition of hydrochloric acid or in acetic acid while heating, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the product corresponding to formula (3b) isolated and optionally purified, and B) a compound corresponding to formula (3) or (3b) is reacted with a Grignard compound or an organolithium compound of formulae R3MgCl, R3MgBr, R3Mgl, MgR32 or LiR3, wherein R3 has the meaning given above, in a suitable solvent, preferably diethylether or tetrahydrofuran, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the compound corresponding to formula 1 isolated and optionally purified. The starting compounds used are commercially available or may be obtained by methods known to a person skilled in the art. The solvents and reaction conditions used for the respective stage of the method correspond to the solvents and reaction conditions conventional for these types of reactions. Further, the general reactions are known to a person skilled in the art from the literature. The free bases of the respective compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I and corresponding stereoisomers may be converted into the corresponding physiologically acceptable salts by reaction with an inorganic or organic acid, preferably with hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, methane sulphonic acid, toluene-p-sulphonic acid, carbonic acid, formic acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid, succinic acid, tartaric acid, mandelic acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid, citric acid, glutamic acid or aspartic acid. The salts formed are inter alia hydrochlorides, hydrobromides, phosphates, carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, formates, acetates, oxalates, succinates, tartrates, fumarates, citrates and glutaminates. The free bases of the respective compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I and corresponding stereoisomers may be converted into the corresponding hydrochlorides by adding trimethylsilylchloride (TMSCl) to the compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I dissolved in a suitable organic solvent, such as butan-2-one (methyl ethyl ketone), or corresponding stereoisomers as free bases. They may also be converted into the hydrobromides in a corresponding manner. The free bases of the respective compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I and corresponding stereoisomers may be converted into the corresponding physiologically acceptable salts with the free acid or a salt of a sugar substitute, such as saccharine, cyclamate or acesulphame. The hydrates may be formed by crystallization from aqueous solution. If the compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I are obtained by the production method according to the invention in the form of their racemates or other mixtures of their various enantiomers and/or diastereomers, these may be separated and optionally isolated using conventional methods known to the person skilled in the art. Chromatographic separation, in particular liquid chromatography under normal pressure or under elevated pressure, preferably MPLC and HPLC and fractional crystallization are mentioned by way of example. In particular, individual enantiomers, for example diastereomic salts formed by means of HPLC on the chiral phase or by means of crystallization with chiral acids, for example (+)-tartaric acid, (−)-tartaric acid or (+)-10-camphorsulphonic acid, may be separated from one another. The compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I and corresponding stereoisomers and the respective corresponding bases, salts and solvates are toxicologically safe and are therefore suitable as pharmaceutical active ingredients in pharmaceutical compositions. The present invention therefore also relates to pharmaceutical compositions containing at least one compound according to the invention corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the compounds excepted above, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers in any mixing ratio, or each in the form of their base or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate and optionally physiologically acceptable auxiliaries. If the compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I or their corresponding physiologically acceptable bases, salts or solvates are chiral, they may, as already stated, be present in the form of their pure enantiomers, their pure diastereomers or in the form of a mixture of at least two of the above-mentioned stereoisomers, including their racemates, in the pharmaceutical compositions according to the invention. Preferably the pharmaceutical compositions according to the invention are suitable for controlling pain, in particular chronic and/or non-chronic pain, as a local anaesthetic, an anti-arrhythmic, anti-emetic and/or nootropic (neurotropic), for the treatment of inflammatory and/or allergic reactions, cardiovascular diseases, urinary incontinence, diarrhea, gastritis, ulcers, shock, migraine, narcolepsy, obesity, asthma, glaucoma, tinnitus, hyperkinetic syndrome, pruritus, alcohol and/or drug and/or medicine abuse and/or dependency and/or inflammation and/or depression and/or to increase alertness, to increase libido and/or for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, in particular Parkinson's disease and/or Huntington's chorea, for the treatment and/or prophylaxis of epilepsy, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, cerebral ischemia, cerebral infarct and/or cerebral oedema and/or for anxiolysis and/or anaesthesia. The invention also relates to the use of at least one compound corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the above-excepted compounds, in the form of their racemate, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate, for producing a pharmaceutical composition for controlling pain, in particular chronic and/or non-chronic pain, for a local anaesthetic, for the treatment of arrhythmia, emesis, inflammatory and/or allergic reactions, cardiovascular diseases, urinary incontinence, diarrhea, gastritis, ulcers, shock, migraine, narcolepsy, obesity, asthma, glaucoma, tinnitus, hyperkinetic syndrome, pruritus, alcohol and/or drug and/or medicine abuse and/or dependency and/or inflammation, depression and/or to increase drive, alertness and/or libido and/or for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, in particular Parkinson's disease and/or Huntington's chorea, for the treatment and/or prophylaxis of epilepsy, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, cerebral ischemia, cerebral infarct and/or cerebral oedema and/or for anxiolysis and/or anaesthesia. The pharmaceutical compositions according to the invention can be formulated as liquid, semi-solid or solid pharmaceutical forms, for example in the form of injection solutions, drops, liquids, syrups, sprays, suspensions, tablets, patches, capsules, plasters, suppositories, ointments, creams, lotions, gels, emulsions, aerosols or in multi-particulate form, for example in the form of pellets or granules and also administered as such. In addition to at least one compound according to the invention corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the above-excepted compounds, in the form of their racemate, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular of the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their base or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate, the pharmaceutical compositions according to the invention conventionally contain further physiologically acceptable pharmaceutical auxiliaries which are preferably selected from the group comprising excipients, fillers, solvents, diluents, surface-active substances, dyes, preservatives, blasting agents, lubricants, flavors and binders. The choice of physiologically acceptable auxiliaries and the amounts thereof to be used depend on whether the pharmaceutical composition is to be applied orally, subcutaneously, parenterally, intravenously, intraperitoneally, intradermally, intramuscularly, intranasally, buccally, rectally or topically, for example to infections of the skin, the mucous membranes and the eyes. Preparations in the form of tablets, dragees, capsules, granules, pellets, drops, liquids and syrups are suitable for oral application; solutions, suspensions, easily reconstitutable dry preparations and sprays are suitable for parenteral, topical and inhalative application. Compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the above-excepted compounds, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular of the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their base or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate in a deposit in dissolved form or in a plaster, optionally with the addition of substances promoting skin penetration, are preparations suitable for percutaneous application. Pharmaceutical compositions according to the invention are produced using conventional substances, devices, methods and processes known to a person skilled in the art, as are described, for example, in A. R. Gennaro (Editor), Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17th edition, Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa. (1985) in particular in part 8, chapter 76 to 93. The corresponding description of the literature is hereby incorporated by a reference and forms part of the disclosure. The amount of the respective compound according to the invention corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the above-excepted compounds, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular of the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their base or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate, to be administered to the patient, may vary and is dependent, for example, on the patient's weight or age and on the method of application, the indication and the severity of the disease. It is normal to administer 0.005 to 500 mg/kg, preferably 0.05 to 5 mg/kg body weight of the patient of at least one compound corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the above-excepted compounds, in the form of their racemate, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular of the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their base or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate. Method for Determining the Binding Affinity to Human Alpha2A-Adrenergic Receptor The affinity of the compounds according to the invention to the pain-relevant alpha2A-receptor was investigated as follows. The receptor affinity of the compounds according to the invention to human alpha2A-adrenergic receptor was determined in a microtiter plate batch. For this purpose, the compounds to be tested were incubated in a concentration of 10 μmol/l with a receptor membrane preparation of human HT29 cells (RB-HAL2A, NEN, Zaventem, Belgium), which endogenously express the alpha2A-adrenergic receptor, at a protein concentration of 40 μg protein/250 μl incubation batch in the presence of 0.5 nmol/l of the radioactively marked ligands [3H]-MK-912 (NET-1059, NEN, Zaventem, Belgium) for 30 minutes, with exclusion of light, at ambient temperature. A 25 mmol/l sodium phosphate buffer at a pH of 7.4 was used as the buffer system. The unspecific bond was determined in the presence of 10 μmol/l phentolamine. After incubation, the microtiter plates were filtered on glass fiber microtiter filter plates (Whatman GF/B, Hassel, Munich) using a Brandel Cell Harvester (MPRI-96T type, Hassel, Munich) and after drying of the glass fiber filter plates and subsequent charging of the plates with 35 μl of a scintillator (Ultima Gold, Canberra-Packard, Freiburg) were measured in a microtiter plate counter (1450 Microbeta Trilux, PerkinElmer-Wallac, Freiburg) after a delay of at least 90 minutes. The glass fiber microtiter filter plates were each pretreated prior to filtration of the incubation plates for 30 minutes with 50 μl per indentation of a 25 mmol/l sodium phosphate buffer supplemented by 0.5% (v/v) polyethylene imine at a pH of 7.4. The percentage inhibition effect of the compounds was calculated as a displacement of the radioactive ligand from its specific bond to the human alpha2A-adrenergic receptor. The invention will be described hereinafter with reference to examples. These descriptions are merely exemplary and do not limit the general scope of the invention. EXAMPLES The following examples show the preparation of certain compounds in accordance with certain embodiments of the invention and related efficacy tests. The chemicals and solvents used were obtained commercially from conventional suppliers (Acros, Avocado, Aldrich, Fluka, Lancaster, Maybridge, Merck, Sigma, TCI, etc.) or synthesized. General Synthesis Instructions for Producing 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol Compounds According to Certain Embodiments of the Invention: Mannich Reaction I 0.1 mol of the respective amino compound corresponding to formula (2a), 0.1 mol paraformaldehyde and 0.05 mol of the respective keto compound corresponding to formula (1) together with 20 ml ethanol and 0.15 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid were heated under reflux for 6 hours. 0.05 mol paraformaldehyde and 0.05 mol of the respective amino compound corresponding to formula (2) were then added, the amino compound corresponding to formula (2) preferably being identical to the respective amino compound corresponding to formula (2a), and heated under reflux for a further 10 hours. The total reaction time was 16 hours. The solvent was then distilled under vacuum, 50 ml acetone added to the residue and the mixture left to stand for several days at +7° C. to crystallize the Mannich compound corresponding to formula (3). Mannich Reaction II The respective amino compound corresponding to formula (2a) (1 equivalent) was added with ice cooling to a sodium iodide solution in acetonitrile (2.2 equivalents). Triethylamine (1 equivalent) and chlorotrimethylsilane (2.2 equivalents) were added dropwise. The suspension was stirred for one hour at ambient temperature. The respective aldehyde corresponding to formula (4) (1 equivalent) was added with ice cooling and the mixture stirred for one hour at ambient temperature. One equivalent of the respective enamine was added with ice cooling and the mixture stirred for two hours at ambient temperature. Dilute hydrochloric acid was added to the batch with ice cooling and the mixture stirred for 15 minutes. The solution was washed three times with ether. A basic pH was adjusted with dilute ammonia solution and the mixture extracted with ether. After drying over magnesium sulphate the ether phase containing the desired product was evaporated. The reaction product corresponding to formula (3a) was then further reacted. 0.1 mol (1 equivalent) of the amino compound corresponding to formula (2), wherein the amino compound corresponding to formula (2) is preferably identical to the amino compound corresponding to formula (2a), 0.1 mol paraformaldehyde and 0.05 mol (0.5 equivalents) of the reaction product were heated under reflux together with 20 ml ethanol and 0.15 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid for 6 hours. The solvent was then distilled under vacuum, 50 ml acetone added to the residue and the mixture left to stand for several days at +7° C. to crystallize the Mannich compound corresponding to formula (3b). Grignard Reaction The Mannich compound, dissolved in THF, corresponding to formula (3) or (3b) (400 μl, 0.5 M) was introduced into a heated reaction vessel cooled under inert gas to −10° C. Two equivalents of the prepared Grignard or organolithium reagent in THF or diethylether (800 μl 0.5 M) were added while stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred at ambient temperature. After three hours the mixture was cooled again to −10° C. and hydrolyzed with ammonium chloride solution. The reaction mixture was extracted twice with ethyl acetate and evaporated under vacuum at 40° C. To characterize the compound according to the invention corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, an ESI-MS was taken in each case. Determining the Binding Affinity to Human Alpha2A-Adrenergic Receptor The binding affinities to human alpha2A-adrenergic receptor were determined by the foregoing methods. The values of some selected exemplary compounds are recited in the following Table 1: TABLE 1 Alpha2A, 10 NM [%] inhibition Compound according to the invention 48 1-(3-fluorophenyl)(-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol 51 1-(3-chlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol 33 1-(3,5-dichlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclo- hexanol 100 1-(2-chlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol 87 1-(4-fluorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol 80 1-(3-methoxy-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyI-cyclo- hexanol 26 1-(4-chloro-3-trifluoromethyl-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-yl- methyl-cyclohexanol c cyclohexanol 59 1-(3-fluorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyI-cyclohexanol 30 1-(2-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyI-cyclo- hexanol 100 1-(2-methyl-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclo- hexanol 38 1-(3-chloro-4-fluoro-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl cyclohexanol 56 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-(3-trifluoromeethyl-phenyl) cyclohexanol 100 1-(3-methyl-beenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyI-cyclo- hexanol 88 1-(4-chlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyI-cyclohexanol 68 1-(2-chloro-6-fluoro-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl cyclohexanol 100 1-(2,5-dimethyI-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyI-cyclo- hexanol 98 1-(3-chlorobenzyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyI-cyclohexanol 100 1-(2,4-dichlorobenzyl)_-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyI-cyclo- hexanol The foregoing description and examples have been set forth merely to illustrate the invention and are not intended to be limiting. Since modifications of the described embodiments incorporating the spirit and substance of the invention may occur to persons skilled in the art, the invention should be construed broadly to include all variations within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereof. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The treatment of pain has great importance in medicine. There is a worldwide need for effective methods of treating pain. The urgent need for action for patient-friendly and purposeful treatment of chronic and non-chronic pain conditions, this being taken to mean the successful and satisfactory treatment of pain for the patient, is documented in the large number of scientific papers which have recently appeared in the field of applied analgesics and fundamental research on nociception. Conventional opioids, such as morphine, are extremely effective in the treatment of severe to the severest pain. However, their undesirable side effects include inter alia respiratory depression, nausea, sedation, constipation and tolerance development. In addition, they are less effective in the event of neuropathic or incidental pain, suffered in particular by patients with tumors. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>One object of the present invention is to provide new compounds which may be used as active pharmaceutical ingredients in pharmaceutical compositions and which are particularly suitable for controlling pain, in particular chronic and/or non-chronic pain. This object is achieved according to the invention by providing substituted 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compounds corresponding to formula I, as these compounds have a particularly pronounced analgesic effect and may be used to treat pain, in particular chronic and/or non-chronic pain, as a local anaesthetic, an anti-arrhythmic, anti-emetic and/or nootropic (neurotropic), for the treatment of inflammatory and/or allergic reactions, cardiovascular diseases, urinary incontinence, diarrhea, gastritis, ulcers, shock, migraine, narcolepsy, obesity, asthma, glaucoma, tinnitus, hyperkinetic syndrome, pruritus, alcohol and/or drug and/or medicine abuse and/or dependency and/or inflammation and/or depression and/or to increase alertness, to increase libido and/or for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, in particular Parkinson's disease and Huntington's chorea, for the treatment and/or prophylaxis of epilepsy, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, cerebral ischemia, cerebral infarct, cerebral oedema and/or for anxiolysis and/or anaesthesia. The present invention therefore relates to 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compounds corresponding to formula I wherein R 1 and R 2 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical or together form a (CH 2 ) n chain, wherein n represents an integer greater than or equal to 3, R 3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic radical, an aryl radical or a heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted and/or be bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic bridge and/or the aryl or heteroaryl radical may be part of a polycyclic system. R 4 and R 5 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical or an aryl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic bridge or together form a (CH 2 ) m chain wherein m represents an integer, R 6 and R 7 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical or an aryl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic bridge or together form a (CH 2 ) p chain, wherein p represents an integer, R 8 represents hydrogen or an optionally singly or multiply substituted aryl or heteroaryl radical, wherein the aryl or heteroaryl radical may be part of a polycyclic system, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates, with the exception of the compounds 1,5-bis-(N,N′-dimethylamino)-2,4-dimethyl-3-pyridin-2-ylpentan-3-ol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-phenylcyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcyclohexanol and 2,7-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcycloheptanol. Preferred compounds are those corresponding to formula I, wherein R 1 and R 2 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-6 radical or together form a (CH 2 ) n chain, wherein n represents an integer from 3 to 9, R 3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-6 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C 3-7 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted and/or be bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-5 bridge, R 4 and R 5 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-6 radical, a phenyl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-5 bridge or together form a (CH 2 ) m chain, wherein m represents an integer from 4 to 10, R 6 and R 7 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-6 radical, a phenyl radical bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-5 bridge or together form a (CH 2 ) p chain, wherein p represents an integer from 4 to 10, R 8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates, with the exception of the compounds 1,5-bis-(N,N′-dimethylamino)-2,4-dimethyl-3-pyridin-2-ylpentan-3-ol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-phenylcyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcyclohexanol and 2,7-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcycloheptanol. Other preferred compounds include those corresponding to formula I, wherein R 1 and R 2 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-3 radical or together form a (CH 2 ) n chain, wherein n represents an integer from 3 to 5, R 3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-3 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C 5-6 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted by halogen, an alkyl group, an alkoxy group and/or a trihalogenated alkyl group and/or be bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-3 bridge, R 4 and R 5 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-3 radical or together form a (CH 2 ) m chain, wherein m represents an integer from 4 to 6, R 6 and R 7 are the same or different and each represent a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-3 radical or together form a (CH 2 ) p chain, wherein p represents an integer from 4 to 6, R 8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates, with the exception of the compounds 1,5-bis-(N,N′-dimethylamino)-2,4-dimethyl-3-pyridin-2-ylpentan-3-ol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-phenylcyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcyclohexanol and 2,7-bis-[(N,N′-dimethylamino)methyl]-1-pyridin-2-ylcycloheptanol. Other preferred compounds include those corresponding to formula I, wherein R 1 and R 2 together form a (CH 2 ) n chain, wherein n represents 3, R 3 represents a vinyl radical, a cyclopentyl radical, a cyclohexyl radical, a thiophenyl radical or a phenyl radical, wherein the cyclohexyl radical may optionally be bound by a methylene bridge or the phenyl radical may optionally be singly or multiply substituted by fluorine, chlorine, a methyl group, an isopropyl group, a methoxy group and/or a trifluoromethyl group and/or may optionally be bound by a linear, saturated aliphatic C 1-3 bridge or an ethinyl bridge, R 4 and R 5 together form a (CH 2 ) m chain, wherein m represents 5, R 6 and R 7 together form a (CH 2 ) p chain, wherein p represents 5, R 8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. Particularly preferred compounds include those corresponding to formula II wherein m and p are the same or different and represent an integer from 4 to 10, n represents an integer greater than or equal to 3 R 3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic radical, an aryl radical or a heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted and/or be bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic bridge and/or the aryl or heteroaryl radical may be part of a polycyclic system and R 8 represents hydrogen or an optionally singly or multiply substituted aryl or heteroaryl radical, wherein the aryl or heteroaryl radical may be part of a polycyclic system, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. Other preferred compounds include those corresponding to formula II, wherein m and p are the same or different and represent an integer from 4 to 10, n represents an integer from 3 to 9 and R 3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-6 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C 3-7 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted and/or bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-5 bridge, R 8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. Other preferred compounds include those corresponding to II, wherein m and p are the same or different and represent an integer from 4 to 6, n represents an integer from 3 to 5 and R 3 represents a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-3 radical, a saturated or unsaturated cycloaliphatic C 5-6 radical, a phenyl radical or a five- or six-membered heteroaryl radical, wherein the respective ring system may optionally be singly or multiply substituted by halogen, an alkyl group, an alkoxy group and/or a trihalogenated alkyl group and/or be bound by a linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated aliphatic C 1-3 bridge, R 8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. Other preferred compounds include those corresponding to formula II, wherein m and p represent 5, n represents 3 and R 3 represents a vinyl radical, a cyclopentyl radical, a cyclohexyl radical, a thiophenyl radical or a phenyl radical, wherein the cyclohexyl radical may optionally be bound by a methylene bridge or the phenyl radical may optionally be singly or multiply substituted by fluorine, chlorine, a methyl group, an isopropyl group, a methoxy group and/or a trifluoromethyl group and/or may optionally be bound by a linear, saturated aliphatic C 1-3 bridge or an ethinyl bridge, and R 8 represents hydrogen in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salts, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. A heteroaryl radical is taken to mean an optionally singly or multiply substituted, five- or six-membered aromatic radical with at least 1, possibly also 2, 3, 4 or 5 heteroatoms, which may be the same or different, which may be part of a polycylic system. Preferred heteroatoms are nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. It is particularly preferred if the heteroaryl radicals are selected from the group comprising pyrrolyl, indolyl, furyl (furanyl), benzofuranyl, thienyl (thiophenyl), benzothienyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazoyl, pyridinyl, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, pyranyl, indazolyl, purinyl, indolizinyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, quinazolinyl, carbazolyl, phenazinyl, phenothiazinyl radical. The bond may be made by any arbitrary ring atom capable of being bound. The optionally present substituents may be the same or different and be bound to any arbitrary ring atom capable of being bound. An aryl radical is taken to mean an optionally singly or multiply substituted aromatic radical which may be part of a polycyclic system. A phenyl radical is particularly preferred. The bond can be made by any arbitrary ring atom capable of being bound. The substituents optionally present may be the same of different and be bound to any arbitrary ring atom capable of being bound. Particularly preferred compounds include those selected from the group comprising 1-phenyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-chlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-benzyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-fluoro-3-methyl-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-o-tolyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-vinyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-tert-butyl-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-cyclopentyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-m-tolyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-bicyclohexyl-1-ol, 1-(4-fluorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-phenethyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-phenylethynyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-thiophen-2-yl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-phenyl-propyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2,3-dichlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-p-tolyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-cyclohexylmethyl-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(5-fluoro-2-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-fluorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-chlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3,5-dichlorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2-chlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-fluorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-methoxy-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-chloro-3-trifluoromethyl-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-fluorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2-methoxy-phenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2-methyl-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-chloro-4-fluorophenyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-1-(3-trifluoromethyl-phenyl)-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-methyl-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(4-chlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2-chloro-6-fluorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(2,5-dimethyl-benzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, 1-(3-chlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol and 1-(2,4-dichlorobenzyl)-2,6-bis-piperidin-1-ylmethyl-cyclohexanol, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salts, in particular the physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvates, in particular the hydrates. The present invention also relates to methods for producing substituted 1,5-diaminopentan-3-ol compounds corresponding to formula I, wherein A 1 ) a ketone corresponding to formula (1), wherein R 1 and R 2 have the meaning given above is gradually reacted with paraformaldehyde and a respective amine corresponding to formula (2) or (2a), wherein R 4 , R 5 , R 6 and R 7 have the meaning given above and wherein the amines corresponding to formulae (2) and (2a) are preferably the same, by a Mannich reaction in a suitable solvent, preferably in ethanol, with the addition of hydrochloric acid or in acetic acid while heating, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the product corresponding to formula (3) isolated and optionally purified, or A 2 ) an enamine corresponding to formula (1a), wherein R 1 and R 2 have the meaning given above and R represents an aliphatic C 1-6 radical, a morpholinyl, piperidyl or pyrrolidinyl radical, wherein the two radicals R may be the same or different is reacted with an aldehyde corresponding to formula (4), wherein R 8 has the meaning given above with the exception of hydrogen and an amine corresponding to formula (2a), wherein R 4 and R 5 have the meaning given above, optionally in the form of its hydrochloride by a Mannich reaction in the presence of triethylamine, chlorotrimethylsilane and sodium iodide in a suitable solvent, preferably in acetonitrile, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the ketone corresponding to formula (3a) isolated and optionally purified, and then the ketone corresponding to formula (3a) is reacted with paraformaldehyde and an amine corresponding to formula (2), wherein R 6 and R 7 have the meaning given above and wherein the amine corresponding to formula (2) is preferably the same as the amine corresponding to formula (2a) by a Mannich reaction in a suitable solvent, preferably in ethanol, with the addition of hydrochloric acid or in acetic acid while heating, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the product corresponding to formula (3b) isolated and optionally purified, or A 3 ) an enamine corresponding to formula (1a), wherein R 1 and R 2 have the meaning given above and R represents an aliphatic C 1-6 radical, a morpholinyl, piperidyl or pyrrolidinyl radical, wherein the two radicals R may be the same or different is reacted while heating with an iminium salt corresponding to formula (5), wherein R 8 has the meaning given above with the exception of hydrogen and R 4 and R 5 have the meaning given above and Y − represents a chloride, bromide, iodide or AlCl 4 − ion by a Mannich reaction in a suitable solvent, preferably in acetonitrile, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the ketone corresponding to formula (3a) isolated and optionally purified, and then the ketone corresponding to formula (3a) is reacted with paraformaldehyde and an amine corresponding to formula (2), wherein R 6 and R 7 have the meaning given above and wherein the amine corresponding to formula (2) is preferably the same as the amine corresponding to formula (2a) by a Mannich reaction in a suitable solvent, preferably in ethanol, with the addition of hydrochloric acid or in acetic acid while heating, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the product corresponding to formula (3b) isolated and optionally purified, and B) a compound corresponding to formula (3) or (3b) is reacted with a Grignard compound or an organolithium compound of formulae R 3 MgCl, R 3 MgBr, R 3 Mgl, MgR 3 2 or LiR 3 , wherein R 3 has the meaning given above, in a suitable solvent, preferably diethylether or tetrahydrofuran, then the reaction mixture is worked up, the compound corresponding to formula 1 isolated and optionally purified. The starting compounds used are commercially available or may be obtained by methods known to a person skilled in the art. The solvents and reaction conditions used for the respective stage of the method correspond to the solvents and reaction conditions conventional for these types of reactions. Further, the general reactions are known to a person skilled in the art from the literature. The free bases of the respective compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I and corresponding stereoisomers may be converted into the corresponding physiologically acceptable salts by reaction with an inorganic or organic acid, preferably with hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, methane sulphonic acid, toluene-p-sulphonic acid, carbonic acid, formic acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid, succinic acid, tartaric acid, mandelic acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid, citric acid, glutamic acid or aspartic acid. The salts formed are inter alia hydrochlorides, hydrobromides, phosphates, carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, formates, acetates, oxalates, succinates, tartrates, fumarates, citrates and glutaminates. The free bases of the respective compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I and corresponding stereoisomers may be converted into the corresponding hydrochlorides by adding trimethylsilylchloride (TMSCl) to the compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I dissolved in a suitable organic solvent, such as butan-2-one (methyl ethyl ketone), or corresponding stereoisomers as free bases. They may also be converted into the hydrobromides in a corresponding manner. The free bases of the respective compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I and corresponding stereoisomers may be converted into the corresponding physiologically acceptable salts with the free acid or a salt of a sugar substitute, such as saccharine, cyclamate or acesulphame. The hydrates may be formed by crystallization from aqueous solution. If the compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I are obtained by the production method according to the invention in the form of their racemates or other mixtures of their various enantiomers and/or diastereomers, these may be separated and optionally isolated using conventional methods known to the person skilled in the art. Chromatographic separation, in particular liquid chromatography under normal pressure or under elevated pressure, preferably MPLC and HPLC and fractional crystallization are mentioned by way of example. In particular, individual enantiomers, for example diastereomic salts formed by means of HPLC on the chiral phase or by means of crystallization with chiral acids, for example (+)-tartaric acid, (−)-tartaric acid or (+)-10-camphorsulphonic acid, may be separated from one another. The compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I and corresponding stereoisomers and the respective corresponding bases, salts and solvates are toxicologically safe and are therefore suitable as pharmaceutical active ingredients in pharmaceutical compositions. The present invention therefore also relates to pharmaceutical compositions containing at least one compound according to the invention corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the compounds excepted above, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers in any mixing ratio, or each in the form of their base or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate and optionally physiologically acceptable auxiliaries. If the compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I or their corresponding physiologically acceptable bases, salts or solvates are chiral, they may, as already stated, be present in the form of their pure enantiomers, their pure diastereomers or in the form of a mixture of at least two of the above-mentioned stereoisomers, including their racemates, in the pharmaceutical compositions according to the invention. Preferably the pharmaceutical compositions according to the invention are suitable for controlling pain, in particular chronic and/or non-chronic pain, as a local anaesthetic, an anti-arrhythmic, anti-emetic and/or nootropic (neurotropic), for the treatment of inflammatory and/or allergic reactions, cardiovascular diseases, urinary incontinence, diarrhea, gastritis, ulcers, shock, migraine, narcolepsy, obesity, asthma, glaucoma, tinnitus, hyperkinetic syndrome, pruritus, alcohol and/or drug and/or medicine abuse and/or dependency and/or inflammation and/or depression and/or to increase alertness, to increase libido and/or for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, in particular Parkinson's disease and/or Huntington's chorea, for the treatment and/or prophylaxis of epilepsy, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, cerebral ischemia, cerebral infarct and/or cerebral oedema and/or for anxiolysis and/or anaesthesia. The invention also relates to the use of at least one compound corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the above-excepted compounds, in the form of their racemate, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their bases or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate, for producing a pharmaceutical composition for controlling pain, in particular chronic and/or non-chronic pain, for a local anaesthetic, for the treatment of arrhythmia, emesis, inflammatory and/or allergic reactions, cardiovascular diseases, urinary incontinence, diarrhea, gastritis, ulcers, shock, migraine, narcolepsy, obesity, asthma, glaucoma, tinnitus, hyperkinetic syndrome, pruritus, alcohol and/or drug and/or medicine abuse and/or dependency and/or inflammation, depression and/or to increase drive, alertness and/or libido and/or for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, in particular Parkinson's disease and/or Huntington's chorea, for the treatment and/or prophylaxis of epilepsy, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, cerebral ischemia, cerebral infarct and/or cerebral oedema and/or for anxiolysis and/or anaesthesia. The pharmaceutical compositions according to the invention can be formulated as liquid, semi-solid or solid pharmaceutical forms, for example in the form of injection solutions, drops, liquids, syrups, sprays, suspensions, tablets, patches, capsules, plasters, suppositories, ointments, creams, lotions, gels, emulsions, aerosols or in multi-particulate form, for example in the form of pellets or granules and also administered as such. In addition to at least one compound according to the invention corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the above-excepted compounds, in the form of their racemate, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular of the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their base or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate, the pharmaceutical compositions according to the invention conventionally contain further physiologically acceptable pharmaceutical auxiliaries which are preferably selected from the group comprising excipients, fillers, solvents, diluents, surface-active substances, dyes, preservatives, blasting agents, lubricants, flavors and binders. The choice of physiologically acceptable auxiliaries and the amounts thereof to be used depend on whether the pharmaceutical composition is to be applied orally, subcutaneously, parenterally, intravenously, intraperitoneally, intradermally, intramuscularly, intranasally, buccally, rectally or topically, for example to infections of the skin, the mucous membranes and the eyes. Preparations in the form of tablets, dragees, capsules, granules, pellets, drops, liquids and syrups are suitable for oral application; solutions, suspensions, easily reconstitutable dry preparations and sprays are suitable for parenteral, topical and inhalative application. Compounds according to the invention corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the above-excepted compounds, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular of the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their base or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate in a deposit in dissolved form or in a plaster, optionally with the addition of substances promoting skin penetration, are preparations suitable for percutaneous application. Pharmaceutical compositions according to the invention are produced using conventional substances, devices, methods and processes known to a person skilled in the art, as are described, for example, in A. R. Gennaro (Editor), Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17th edition, Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa. (1985) in particular in part 8, chapter 76 to 93. The corresponding description of the literature is hereby incorporated by a reference and forms part of the disclosure. The amount of the respective compound according to the invention corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the above-excepted compounds, in the form of their racemates, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular of the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their base or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate, to be administered to the patient, may vary and is dependent, for example, on the patient's weight or age and on the method of application, the indication and the severity of the disease. It is normal to administer 0.005 to 500 mg/kg, preferably 0.05 to 5 mg/kg body weight of the patient of at least one compound corresponding to formula I, preferably corresponding to formula II, including the above-excepted compounds, in the form of their racemate, their pure stereoisomers, in particular enantiomers or diastereomers, or in the form of mixtures of the stereoisomers, in particular of the enantiomers or diastereomers, in any mixing ratio or each in the form of their base or in the form of their salt, in particular a physiologically acceptable salt, or in the form of their solvate, in particular the hydrate. Method for Determining the Binding Affinity to Human Alpha2A-Adrenergic Receptor The affinity of the compounds according to the invention to the pain-relevant alpha2A-receptor was investigated as follows. The receptor affinity of the compounds according to the invention to human alpha2A-adrenergic receptor was determined in a microtiter plate batch. For this purpose, the compounds to be tested were incubated in a concentration of 10 μmol/l with a receptor membrane preparation of human HT29 cells (RB-HAL2A, NEN, Zaventem, Belgium), which endogenously express the alpha2A-adrenergic receptor, at a protein concentration of 40 μg protein/250 μl incubation batch in the presence of 0.5 nmol/l of the radioactively marked ligands [3H]-MK-912 (NET-1059, NEN, Zaventem, Belgium) for 30 minutes, with exclusion of light, at ambient temperature. A 25 mmol/l sodium phosphate buffer at a pH of 7.4 was used as the buffer system. The unspecific bond was determined in the presence of 10 μmol/l phentolamine. After incubation, the microtiter plates were filtered on glass fiber microtiter filter plates (Whatman GF/B, Hassel, Munich) using a Brandel Cell Harvester (MPRI-96T type, Hassel, Munich) and after drying of the glass fiber filter plates and subsequent charging of the plates with 35 μl of a scintillator (Ultima Gold, Canberra-Packard, Freiburg) were measured in a microtiter plate counter (1450 Microbeta Trilux, PerkinElmer-Wallac, Freiburg) after a delay of at least 90 minutes. The glass fiber microtiter filter plates were each pretreated prior to filtration of the incubation plates for 30 minutes with 50 μl per indentation of a 25 mmol/l sodium phosphate buffer supplemented by 0.5% (v/v) polyethylene imine at a pH of 7.4. The percentage inhibition effect of the compounds was calculated as a displacement of the radioactive ligand from its specific bond to the human alpha2A-adrenergic receptor. The invention will be described hereinafter with reference to examples. These descriptions are merely exemplary and do not limit the general scope of the invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20040614 | 20090804 | 20050127 | 99703.0 | 0 | CHANG, CELIA C | 1, 5-DIAMINOPENTAN-3-OL COMPOUNDS AND RELATED TREATMENT METHODS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,152 | ACCEPTED | Method, system, and apparatus for authenticating devices during assembly | Methods and systems for authenticating the operation of electronic devices, such as RFID tags are provided. In accordance with the method, a web of substrates having a plurality of devices attached thereto are received. The operation of a first set of the plurality of devices is authenticated. If it is determined that one or more devices is not operating properly, the location of each device is determined. The web of substrates is then moved incrementally to expose a second set of the plurality of devices. Each device that does not operate properly is indicated by applying ink to the substrate containing the device or by removing the device. | 1. A method for authenticating the operation of a plurality of devices, comprising: (A) receiving a web having a plurality of substrates and a wafer having a plurality of dies; (B) transferring dies to substrates of the web to form a plurality of devices; and (C) authenticating the operation of a device of the plurality of devices. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: (D) repeating step (C) for the remaining devices in the plurality of devices. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of: (D) if the operation of the device does not authenticate properly in step (C), identifying a location of the device. 4. The method of claim 3, further comprising: (E) repeating steps (C) and (D) for the remaining devices in the plurality of devices. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising: (D) if the operation of the device does not authenticate properly in step (C), indicating the device as defective. 6. The method of claim 3, further comprising: (E) if the operation of the device does not authenticate properly in step (C), indicating the device as defective. 7. The method of claim 5, wherein step (D) comprises: applying ink to the substrate containing the defective device. 8. The method of claim 5, wherein step (D) comprises: storing the location information associated with the defective device. 9. The method of claim 6, wherein step (E) comprises: applying ink to the substrate containing the defective device. 10. The method of claim 6, wherein step (E) comprises: storing location information associated with the defective device. 11. The method of claim 3, further comprising: tracking the location of each device during movement of the web. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the step of identifying the location of the device comprises: determining an identification number associated with the device; and using the identification number to access tracked location information associated with the device. 13. The method of claim 3, wherein the step of identifying the location of the device comprises: determining an identification number associated with the device; and calculating location information. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the step of calculating location information comprises: determining the location of the device on the web of substrates using the identification number; determining the time when the device was transferred; using the difference between the current time and the time when the device was transferred to identify the present location of the device in the system. 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the step of calculating location information comprises: determining the location of the device on the web of substrates using the identification number; determining a count when the device was transferred; using the difference between a present count and the count when the device was transferred to identify the present location of the device in the system. 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of devices are RFID tags. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein step (C) comprises: performing a far field read of the RFID tag of the plurality of RFID tags being authenticated. 18. The method of claim 17, further comprising: (D) identifying which RFID tags in the plurality of devices being authenticated did not respond to the far field read. 19. The method of claim 1, where step (A) comprises: receiving a web of substrates having a width of a single substrate. 20. The method of claim 1, where step (A) comprises: receiving a web of substrates having a width of multiple substrates. 21. A system for authenticating the operation of a plurality of devices, comprising: a die transfer module that transfers a plurality of dies to a plurality of substrates on a web of substrates, at least one die per substrate, to form a plurality of devices; a substrate conveyor system that incrementally moves the web of substrates; and a device authentication module, wherein the device authentication module includes logic that authenticates the operation of a plurality of devices. 22. The system of claim 21, further comprising: logic that identifies the location of a die. 23. The system of claim 21 further comprising: an inker. 24. A method for authentication of a plurality of radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, comprising: (A) receiving a web of substrates; (B) attaching a die to each substrate of a plurality of substrates of the web to form a plurality of RFID tags; (C) using an antenna to perform a far field read of each RFID tag of the plurality of RFID tags; (D) indicating which of the plurality of RFID tags do not respond to the far field read. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein step (A) comprises: receiving a web of substrates having a width of a single substrate. 26. The method of claim 24, wherein step (A) comprises: receiving a web of substrates having a width of multiple substrates. 27. The method of claim 24, wherein step (D) comprises: inking at least one RFID tag of the plurality of RFID tags that does not respond to the far field read. 28. The method of claim 24, wherein step (D) comprises: storing a position in the web of at least one RFID tag of the plurality of RFID tags that does not respond to the far field read. 29. A method for authenticating the operation of a device, comprising: (A) receiving a web of substrates; (B) receiving a wafer; (C) transferring a die from the wafer to a substrate of the web to form a device; (D) tracking movement of the device with the web; (E) testing the device; (F) if the device fails the test of step (E), using said tracking to indicate the device in the web has failed. 30. The method of claim 29, wherein said tracking comprises: storing a first time at which the device is formed. 31. The method of claim 30, wherein step (F) comprises: storing a second time at which the device is determined to have failed the test of step (E); and determining a location of the device based on the first time and the second time. 32. The method of claim 31, wherein step (F) further comprises: marking the determined location of the device in the web to indicate the device has failed. 33. The method of claim 29, wherein said tracking comprises: storing a position in the web at which the device is formed. 34. The method of claim 33, wherein step (F) comprises: storing a number of increments of the movement of the web until the device is determined to have failed the test of step (E); and determining a location of the device based on the stored position and the stored increments of the movement of the web. 35. The method of claim 34, wherein step (F) further comprises: marking the determined location of the device in the web to indicate the device has failed. 36. The method of claim 29, further comprising: (G) repeating steps (C)-(F) for a plurality of dies of the wafer. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/477,735, filed Jun. 12, 2003 (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0350000), which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. The following applications of common assignee are related to the present application, have the same filing date as the present application, and are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties: “Method And Apparatus For Expanding A Semiconductor Wafer,” U.S. Ser. No. ______ (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0520000); “Method, System, And Apparatus For Transfer Of Dies Using A Die Plate Having Die Cavities,” U.S. Ser. No. ______ (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0540000); “Method, System, And Apparatus For Transfer Of Dies Using A Die Plate,” U.S. Ser. No. ______ (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0550000); “Method, System, And Apparatus For Transfer Of Dies Using A Pin Plate,” U.S. Ser. No. ______ (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0560000); “Method, System, And Apparatus For High Volume Transfer Of Dies,” U.S. Ser. No. ______ (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0580000); and “Method, System, And Apparatus For High Volume Assembly Of Compact Discs And Digital Video Discs Incorporating Radio Frequency Identification Tag Technology,” U.S. Ser. No. ______ (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0590000). The following applications of common assignee are related to the present application, and are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties: “Method and Apparatus for High Volume Assembly of Radio Frequency Identification Tags,” U.S. Provisional App. No. 60/400,101, filed Aug. 2, 2002 (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0110000); “Method and Apparatus for High Volume Assembly of Radio Frequency Identification Tags,” Ser. No. 10/322,467, filed Dec. 19, 2002 (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0110001); “Multi-Barrel Die Transfer Apparatus and Method for Transferring Dies Therewith,” Ser. No. 10/322,718, filed Dec. 19, 2002 (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0110002); “Die Frame Apparatus and Method of Transferring Dies Therewith,” Ser. No. 10/322,701, filed Dec. 19, 2002 (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0110003); “System and Method of Transferring Dies Using an Adhesive Surface,” Ser. No. 10/322,702, filed Dec. 19, 2002 (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0110004); and “Method and System for Forming a Die Frame and for Transferring Dies Therewith,” Ser. No. 10/429,803, filed May 6, 2003 (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0110005). BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to the assembly of electronic devices. More particularly, the present invention relates to the transfer of dies from wafers to substrates, including substrates of radio frequency identification (RFID) tags. 2. Related Art Pick and place techniques are often used to assemble electronic devices. Such techniques involve a manipulator, such as a robot arm, to remove integrated circuit (IC) dies from a wafer and place them into a die carrier. The dies are subsequently mounted onto a substrate with other electronic components, such as antennas, capacitors, resistors, and inductors to form an electronic device. Pick and place techniques involve complex robotic components and control systems that handle only one die at a time. This has a drawback of limiting throughput volume. Furthermore, pick and place techniques have limited placement accuracy, and have a minimum die size requirement. One type of electronic device that may be assembled using pick and place techniques is an RFID “tag.” An RFID tag may be affixed to an item whose presence is to be detected and/or monitored. The presence of an RFID tag, and therefore the presence of the item to which the tag is affixed, may be checked and monitored by devices known as “readers.” As market demand increases for products such as RFID tags, and as die sizes shrink, high assembly throughput rates for very small die, and low production costs are crucial in providing commercially-viable products. Accordingly, what is needed is a method and apparatus for high volume assembly of electronic devices, such as RFID tags, that overcomes these limitations. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to methods, systems, and apparatuses for producing one or more electronic devices, such as RFID tags, that each include a die having one or more electrically conductive contact pads that provide electrical connections to related electronics on a substrate. According to the present invention, electronic devices are formed at much greater rates than conventionally possible. In one aspect, large quantities of dies can be transferred directly from a wafer to corresponding substrates of a web of substrates. In another aspect, large quantities of dies can be transferred from a support surface to corresponding substrates of a web of substrates. In another aspect, large quantities of dies can be transferred from a wafer or support surface to an intermediate surface, such as a die plate. The die plate may have cells formed in a surface thereof in which the dies reside. Otherwise, the dies can reside on a surface of the die plate. The dies of the die plate can then be transferred to corresponding substrates of a web of substrates. In an aspect, a punch plate, punch roller or cylinder, or a changeable or movable material can be used to transfer dies from the die plate to substrates. Large quantities of dies can be transferred. For example, 10s, 100s, 1000s, or more dies, or even all dies of a wafer, support surface, or die plate, can be simultaneously transferred to corresponding substrates of a web. In one aspect, dies may be transferred between surfaces in a “pads up” orientation. When dies are transferred to a substrate in a “pads up” orientation, related electronics can be printed or otherwise formed to couple contact pads of the die to related electronics of the tag substrate. In an alternative aspect, the dies may be transferred between surfaces in a “pads down” orientation. When dies are transferred to a substrate in a “pads down” orientation, related electronics can be pre-printed or otherwise pre-deposited on the tag substrates. In an aspect, the operation of the electronic devices is authenticated. When a device is not operating properly, the location of the device is indicated. In one aspect, ink is applied to the substrate including the die not operating properly. In an aspect, a far field read of each RFID tag device is performed to authenticate the operation of each RFID tag. The far field read may be performed using an antenna. These and other advantages and features will become readily apparent in view of the following detailed description of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS/FIGURES The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form a part of the specification, illustrate the present invention and, together with the description, further serve to explain the principles of the invention and to enable a person skilled in the pertinent art to make and use the invention. FIG. 1A shows a block diagram of an exemplary RFID tag, according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 1B and 1C show detailed views of exemplary RFID tags, according to embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 2A and 2B show plan and side views of an exemplary die, respectively. FIGS. 2C and 2D show portions of a substrate with a die attached thereto, according to example embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating a device assembly process, according to embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 4A and 4B are plan and side views of a wafer having multiple dies affixed to a support surface, respectively. FIG. 5 is a view of a wafer having separated dies affixed to a support surface. FIG. 6 shows a device assembly system with device authentication, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 shows an example wafer having 48 dies, with wafer identification numbers 1-48, according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 8 shows an exemplary portion of a substrate web having dies from the wafer of FIG. 7 attached thereto, according to example embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 9 shows a flowchart providing steps for authenticating devices, according to embodiments of the present invention. The present invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. In the drawings, like reference numbers generally indicate identical, functionally similar, and/or structurally similar elements. The drawing in which an element first appears is indicated by the leftmost digit(s) in the reference number. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 1. Overview The present invention provides improved processes and systems for assembling electronic devices, including RFID tags. The present invention provides improvements over current processes. Conventional techniques include vision-based systems that pick and place dies, one at a time, onto substrates. The present invention can transfer multiple dies simultaneously. Vision-based systems are limited as far as the size of dies that may be handled, such as being limited to dies larger than 600 microns square. The present invention is applicable to dies 100 microns square and even smaller. Furthermore, yield is poor in conventional systems, where two or more dies may be accidentally picked up at a time, causing losses of additional dies. The present invention allows for improved yield values. The present invention provides an advantage of simplicity. Conventional die transfer tape mechanisms may be used by the present invention. Furthermore, much higher fabrication rates are possible. Current techniques process 5-8 thousand units per hour. The present invention can provide improvements in these rates by a factor of N. For example, embodiments of the present invention can process dies 5 times as fast as conventional techniques, at 100 times as fast as conventional techniques, and at even faster rates. Furthermore, because the present invention allows for flip-chip die attachment techniques, wire bonds are not necessary. Elements of the embodiments described herein may be combined in any manner. Example RFID tags are described in section 1.1. Assembly embodiments for electronic devices are described in section 1.2. 1.1 Exemplary Electronic Device The present invention is directed to techniques for producing electronic devices, such as RFID tags. For illustrative purposes, the description herein primarily relates to the production of RFID tags. However, the invention is also adaptable to the production of further electronic device types, as would be understood by persons skilled in the relevant art(s) from the teachings herein. FIG. 1A shows a block diagram of an exemplary RFID tag 100, according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 1A, RFID tag 100 includes a die 104 and related electronics 106 located on a tag substrate 116. Related electronics 106 includes an antenna 114 in the present example. FIGS. 1B and 1C show detailed views of exemplary RFID tags 100, indicated as RFID tags 100a and 100b. As shown in FIGS. 1B and 1C, die 104 can be mounted onto antenna 114 of related electronics 106. As is further described elsewhere herein, die 104 may be mounted in either a pads up or pads down orientation. FIG. 1B depicts an exemplary tag 100A having a rectangular substrate 116. As shown in FIG. 1B, the exemplary antenna 114 on substrate 116 extends for 50.75 mm in the x direction and 19 mm in the y direction. As would be appreciated by persons skilled in the art, different dimensions and configurations can be used for antenna 114 and substrate 116. FIG. 1C depicts an exemplary tag 100B having a circular substrate 116. Exemplary antenna 114 on substrate 116 also has a substantially circular geometry. As shown in FIG. 1C, exemplary antenna 114 fits within a circle having a diameter of approximately 35 mm. RFID tag 100, such as the exemplary tags shown in FIGS. 1A-1C, may be located in an area having a large number, population, or pool of RFID tags present. RFID tag 100 receives interrogation signals transmitted by one or more tag readers. According to interrogation protocols, RFID tag 100 responds to these signals. Each response includes information that identifies the corresponding RFID tag 100 of the potential pool of RFID tags present. Upon reception of a response, the tag reader determines the identity of the responding tag, thereby ascertaining the existence of the tag within a coverage area defined by the tag reader. RFID tag 100 may be used in various applications, such as inventory control, airport baggage monitoring, as well as security and surveillance applications. Thus, RFID tag 100 can be affixed to items such as airline baggage, retail inventory, warehouse inventory, automobiles, compact discs (CDs), digital video discs (DVDs), video tapes, and other objects. RFID tag 100 enables location monitoring and real time tracking of such items. In the present embodiment, die 104 is an integrated circuit that performs RFID operations, such as communicating with one or more tag readers (not shown) according to various interrogation protocols. Exemplary interrogation protocols are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,002,344 issued Dec. 14, 1999 to Bandy et al. entitled System and Method for Electronic Inventory, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/072,885, filed on Feb. 12, 2002, both of which are incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Die 104 includes a plurality of contact pads that each provide an electrical connection with related electronics 106. Related electronics 106 are connected to die 104 through a plurality of contact pads of IC die 104. In embodiments, related electronics 106 provide one or more capabilities, including RF reception and transmission capabilities, sensor functionality, power reception and storage functionality, as well as additional capabilities. The components of related electronics 106 can be printed onto a tag substrate 116 with materials, such as conductive inks. Examples of conductive inks include silver conductors 5000, 5021, and 5025, produced by DuPont Electronic Materials of Research Triangle Park, N.C. Other materials or means suitable for printing related electronics 106 onto tag substrate 116 include polymeric dielectric composition 5018 and carbon-based PTC resistor paste 7282, which are also produced by DuPont Electronic Materials of Research Triangle Park, N.C. Other materials or means that may be used to deposit the component material onto the substrate would be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) from the teachings herein. As shown in FIGS. 1A-1C, tag substrate 116 has a first surface that accommodates die 104, related electronics 106, as well as further components of tag 100. Tag substrate 116 also has a second surface that is opposite the first surface. An adhesive material or backing can be included on the second surface. When present, the adhesive backing enables tag 100 to be attached to objects, such as books and consumer products. Tag substrate 116 is made from a material, such as polyester, paper, plastic, fabrics such as cloth, and/or other materials such as commercially available Tyvec®. In some implementations of tags 100, tag substrate 116 can include an indentation, “cavity,” or “cell” (not shown in FIGS. 1A-1C) that accommodates die 104. An example of such an implementation is included in a “pads up” orientation of die 104. FIGS. 2A and 2B show plan and side views of an example die 104. Die 104 includes four contact pads 204a-d that provide electrical connections between related electronics 106 (not shown) and internal circuitry of die 104. Note that although four contact pads 204a-d are shown, any number of contact pads may be used, depending on a particular application. Contact pads 204 are made of an electrically conductive material during fabrication of the die. Contact pads 204 can be further built up if required by the assembly process, by the deposition of additional and/or other materials, such as gold and solder flux. Such post processing, or “bumping,” will be known to persons skilled in the relevant art(s). FIG. 2C shows a portion of a substrate 116 with die 104 attached thereto, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 2C, contact pads 204a-d of die 104 are coupled to respective contact areas 210a-d of substrate 116. Contact areas 210a-d provide electrical connections to related electronics 106. The arrangement of contact pads 204a-d in a rectangular (e.g., square) shape allows for flexibility in attachment of die 104 to substrate 116, and good mechanical adherement. This arrangement allows for a range of tolerance for imperfect placement of IC die 104 on substrate 116, while still achieving acceptable electrical coupling between contact pads 204a-d and contact areas 210a-d. For example, FIG. 2D shows an imperfect placement of IC die 104 on substrate 116. However, even though IC die 104 has been improperly placed, acceptable electrical coupling is achieved between contact pads 204a-d and contact areas 210a-d. Note that although FIGS. 2A-2D show the layout of four contact pads 204a-d collectively forming a rectangular shape, greater or lesser numbers of contact pads 204 may be used. Furthermore, contact pads 204a-d may be laid out in other shapes in other embodiments. 1.2 Device Assembly The present invention is directed to continuous-roll assembly techniques and other techniques for assembling electronic devices, such as RFID tag 100. Such techniques involve a continuous web (or roll) of the material of the substrate 116 that is capable of being separated into a plurality of devices. Alternatively, separate sheets of the material can be used as discrete substrate webs that can be separated into a plurality of devices. As described herein, the manufactured one or more devices can then be post processed for individual use. For illustrative purposes, the techniques described herein are made with reference to assembly of tags, such as RFID tag 100. However, these techniques can be applied to other tag implementations and other suitable devices, as would be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) from the teachings herein. The present invention advantageously eliminates the restriction of assembling electronic devices, such as RFID tags, one at a time, allowing multiple electronic devices to be assembled in parallel. The present invention provides a continuous-roll technique that is scalable and provides much higher throughput assembly rates than conventional pick and place techniques. FIG. 3 shows a flowchart 300 with example steps relating to continuous-roll production of RFID tags 100, according to example embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 3 shows a flowchart illustrating a process 300 for assembling tags 100. The process 300 depicted in FIG. 3 is described with continued reference to FIGS. 4A and 4B. However, process 300 is not limited to these embodiments. Process 300 begins with a step 302. In step 302, a wafer 400 (shown in FIG. 4A) having a plurality of dies 104 is produced. FIG. 4A illustrates a plan view of an exemplary wafer 400. As illustrated in FIG. 4A, a plurality of dies 104a-n are arranged in a plurality of rows 402a-n. In a step 304, wafer 400 is optionally applied to a support structure or surface 404. Support surface 404 includes an adhesive material to provide adhesiveness. For example, support surface 404 may be an adhesive tape that holds wafer 400 in place for subsequent processing. FIG. 4B shows an example view of wafer 400 in contact with an example support surface 404. In some embodiments, wafer 400 is not attached to a support surface, and can be operated on directly. In a step 306, the plurality of dies 104 on wafer 400 are separated. For example, step 306 may include scribing wafer 400 according to a process, such as laser etching. FIG. 5 shows a view of wafer 400 having example separated dies 104 that are in contact with support surface 404. FIG. 5 shows a plurality of scribe lines 502a-l that indicate locations where dies 104 are separated. In a step 308, the plurality of dies 104 is transferred to a substrate. For example, dies 104 can be transferred from support surface 404 to substrates 116. Alternatively, dies 104 can be directly transferred from wafer 400 to substrates 116. In an embodiment, step 308 may allow for “pads down” transfer. Alternatively, step 308 may allow for “pads up” transfer. As used herein the terms “pads up” and “pads down” denote alternative implementations of tags 100. In particular, these terms designate the orientation of connection pads 204 in relation to tag substrate 116. In a “pads up” orientation for tag 100, die 104 is transferred to tag substrate 116 with pads 204a-204d facing away from tag substrate 116. In a “pads down” orientation for tag 100, die 104 is transferred to tag substrate 116 with pads 204a-204d facing towards, and in contact with tag substrate 116. Note that step 308 may include multiple die transfer iterations. For example, in step 308, dies 104 may be directly transferred from a wafer 400 to substrates 116. Alternatively, dies 104 may be transferred to an intermediate structure, and subsequently transferred to substrates 116. Example embodiments of such die transfer options are described below in reference to FIGS. 6-8. Note that steps 306 and 308 can be performed simultaneously in some embodiments. This is indicated in FIG. 3 by step 320, which includes both of steps 306 and 308. Example embodiments of the steps of flowchart 300, are described in co-pending applications, “Method and Apparatus for Expanding a Semiconductor Wafer,” (Atty. Dkt. 1689.0520000), “Method, System, and Apparatus for Transfer of Dies Using a Die Plate Having Die Cavities,” (Atty. Dkt. 1689.0540000), “Method, System, and Apparatus for Transfer of Dies Using a Die Plate,” (Atty. Dkt. 1689.0550000), “Method, System, and Apparatus for Transfer of Dies Using a Pin Plate,” (Atty. Dkt. 1689.056000), and “Method, System, and Apparatus for High Volume Transfer of Dies,” (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0580000), each of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. In a step 310, post processing is performed. For example, during step 310, assembly of device(s) 100 is completed. 2. Device Authentication 2.1 System Architecture During the device assembly process, the operation of assembled devices may be authenticated. In other words, as devices are manufactured, they may be checked to determine whether they are operating properly. For example, FIG. 6 shows a simplified device assembly system 600 with device authentication, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. System 600 illustrates an example process for creating devices, authenticating devices, and providing an indication of defectively manufactured devices. System 600 includes a die transfer module 602, a device authentication module 604, an optional inker 606, and a substrate conveyor system 612. System 600 receives wafers 400 or other surfaces or containers having a plurality of dies. Each die has a unique wafer identification number that is programmed in memory on each die. The wafer identification numbers are unique within a wafer. The wafer identification number is used to track the die during the assembly process and/or during post processing. In addition, the wafer identification number is used during die/device authentication. In an embodiment, the wafer identification number is a die identification number (e.g., tag ID) that is unique among dies in a lot of dies located on multiple wafers. Alternatively, the wafer identification number may be a smaller number that is unique only to dies within a single wafer. In an embodiment, the wafer identification number is stored in memory (e.g., ROM) on the die. In applications where the die identification number is not programmed on the die during wafer manufacture, a smaller number, the wafer identification number, is stored in ROM on the die. Thus, the number of bits required to uniquely identify a die on wafer is related to the number of dies on the wafer and/or the application. FIG. 7 shows an example wafer 700 having 48 dies, with wafer identification numbers 1-48. For each wafer entering system 600, each die is identifiable and the location of each die is know. For example, a wafer map indicating the location of each die on the wafer may be maintained, stored, or other recorded. In the wafer map, each wafer identification number is correlated with its location on the die (also referred to as “geolocation”). System 600 stores the wafer map for each wafer being processed. In an alternate embodiment, system 600 accesses an external system for the wafer map when required during processing. Substrate conveyor system 612 conveys a continuous web 608 of substrates 116, to which dies 104 can be attached in large quantities. Web 608 can be a continuous roll of substrates 116, or can be discrete, separate sheets of substrates 116. Substrate conveyor system 612 typically moves the web of substrates in increments related to the substrate size. Die transfer module 602 transfers dies 104 from received wafers 400 onto the substrates 116 of web 608. Die transfer module 602 can include any of the structures and processes described herein or in the referenced applications for transferring dies from wafers to substrates. For example, the die transfer module can include any of the structures and operations for transferring dies from wafers directly to substrates, for transferring dies from wafers to intermediate surfaces, and for transferring dies from intermediate surfaces to substrates. For example, die transfer module 602 may perform the steps 304, 306, and/or 308, shown in FIG. 3. As shown in FIG. 6, die transfer module 602 receives one or more wafers 400, and transfers dies 104 to substrates 116 of web 608. For more information on transfer of dies to substrates, see co-pending applications, “Method, System, and Apparatus for Transfer of Dies Using a Pin Plate” (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0560000), and “Method, System, and Apparatus for High Volume Transfer of Dies,” (Atty. Dkt. No. 1689.0580000). System 600 tracks the location of each die transferred from the wafer onto a substrate. As described above, using the wafer map, system 600 can determine the location of each die within a wafer. System 600 tracks the location of the wafer in the system. Furthermore, system 600 tracks which dies are transferred to which substrates in web 608. Therefore, for each transfer step, system 600 knows the dies being transferred and the location of the substrates receiving each die. In addition, system 600 tracks the location of substrates of substrate web 608. For example, the location of the substrates in the system can be determined because the system moves the substrate web incrementally. For example, the location of a substrate can be tracked by an increment count (e.g., number of increments the substrate web is moved forward after transfer of the die to the substrate) or by an elapsed time since transfer. For example, FIG. 8 shows the location of a plurality of dies from wafer 700. The location of wafer 700 relative to substrate web 608 prior to die transfer is shown as location 840. In the example of FIG. 8, nine dies are transferred simultaneously in a 3×3 array. As shown in location 840, die 10 is positioned adjacent to substrate 116a; die 23 is positioned adjacent to substrate 116d, etc. In addition, as shown at location 840, when dies are transferred, substrate 116a is at location A; substrate 116d is at location B; and substrate 116g is at location C. As further is shown in 840, dies 1-4, 5, 7, 9, 11-16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25-32, 33, 35, 37, and 39-48 are not transferred in this iteration. After die transfer, substrate web 608 is moved in a predetermined increment or increments (e.g., to expose the next 3×3 array of substrates to dies remaining in wafer 700). The location of the substrate web after the substrate web is incremented is shown as location 880. As shown in location 880, die 10 is located on substrate 116a which is at location X; die 23 is located on substrate 116d which is at location Y, die 38 is located on substrate 116g which is at location Z, etc. System 600 may track the location of dies/devices in system 600 during the assembly process. In addition or alternatively system 600 may calculate the location of one or more devices in system 600 at a specific time using known information. In an embodiment, die/device location information is stored (or tracked) locally in system 600. In addition or alternatively location information is stored (or tracked) in an external system. For example, a die/device identifier (e.g., wafer identification number) is stored and correlated with the time or increment when the die was transferred to a substrate. In addition, or alternatively, a specific substrate or substrate location may be stored and correlated with the die/device identifier. The system then tracks the time/increments as the substrate web is moved through the system. The location of a die/device at a specific point during the process can be calculated using the difference between the current increment/time and the increment/time of transfer. This difference can be used to identify the location of the substrate containing the die/device in the system. In an embodiment, location information is continually or periodically updated for each die/device as the die/device moves through system 600. For example, each time the substrate web is incremented, the location information for the die/device in the system is updated. Note that information regarding the location of a device in the system may be tracked or calculated for each device during the assembly process. Alternatively, device location may be calculated only for defective devices. Furthermore, as shown in FIG. 6, after dies are applied to substrates to create devices, operation of the devices is verified by the device authentication module 604. For example, when the devices are RFID tags, the device authentication module 604 includes an antenna. During authentication, the antenna 604 performs a read of the tags that have been assembled to verify whether the tags are operating properly. For example, antenna 604 transmits a signal that is received by tags that have been assembled. For example, die 104e on substrate 116e forms an assembled tag. If operating properly, the assembled tag responds to the signal. Using any appropriate communication protocol, antenna 604 transmits the tag's identification number stored within the tag, and if the tag is operating properly, the tag will respond. If the tag is not operating properly, the tag will not respond. In a preferred embodiment, during tag assembly, an antenna in the device authentication module 604 performs a “far field” read of assembled tags. Alternatively, a “near field” read can be performed. A space or region immediately surrounding an antenna, in which reactive components predominate, is known as the reactive near field region. The size of this region varies for different antennas. For most antennas, however, the outer limit of a near field read is on the order of a few wavelengths or less. Beyond the reactive near field region, the “radiating field” predominates. The radiating region is divided into two sub-regions, the “radiating near field” region and the “far field” region. In the radiating near field region, the relative angular distribution of the field (the usual radiation pattern) is dependent on the distance from the antenna. In a far field region, the relative angular distribution of the field becomes independent of the distance. According to the present invention, a read using the far field region is utilized, as a far field read. An advantage of using the far field region, according to the present invention, is that one or a small number of antennas can be used to verify operation of a large number of assembled tags. This contrasts with using a near field region, in which a radiating element must be applied to each tag under test in close proximity. Thus, in a near field read, a large number of radiating elements is required, while in a far field read, a small number of radiating elements is required. Note, however, in alternative embodiments, the near field regions may be used to verify operation of assembled tags. System 600 identifies the location in the system of each device not operating properly. As a result of the device authentication process, device authentication module 604 knows the wafer identification number of each device not operating properly. In an embodiment, system 600 uses the wafer identification number to access location information to identify the location of defective devices. In an embodiment, location information for each die/device is tracked by the system during the assembly process. Thus, no additional calculation is required. Alternatively, the location of the defective device is calculated using known data, as described above. In an embodiment, the identification of the location of a defective device in the system is performed by the device authentication module. In an alternative embodiment, the identification of the location of a defective device in the system is performed by the inker or similar indication apparatus. Devices that the device authentication module 604 determines are not operating correctly must be indicated. For example, tags that do not respond to the read performed by an antenna in the device authentication module 604 are indicated. Such devices are indicated because they are defective (e.g., do not meet defined operating parameters), and must be rejected. A variety of methods may be used to keep track of such defective tags. For example, in an embodiment, as shown in FIG. 6, an inker 606 may be used to mark defective devices. For example, as shown in FIG. 6, inker 606 has marked a device that includes die 104h and substrate 116h, with a mark 614. Mark 614 may be an ink material, or other marking material, to make a defective device apparent on web 608. Mark 614 makes a defective device readily identifiable, and the device can be disposed of. In an alternative embodiment, an inker 606 is not present. Instead, the identification and/or locations of defective devices on web 608 and/or in system 600 are stored by a computer system. The defective tag can then later be located and disposed of, using the stored location of the device. This is possible, as the wafer identification numbers stored in dies 104 are known prior to being attached to substrates 116. Furthermore, the location in web 608 of each substrate 116 to which a die 104 is attached is known. Thus, the defective tags can be located in web 608. 2.2 Method for Authenticating Devices FIG. 9 shows a flowchart 900 including example steps for authenticating one or more assembled devices during the assembly process, as described above, according to embodiments of the present invention. Further operational and structural embodiments of the present invention will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant arts based on flowchart 900. Note that ways of tracking or indicating defective devices, other than described above, are applicable to the present invention. Flowchart 900 begins at step 910 when a web of substrates and a wafer having dies is received. In an embodiment, a wafer map associated with the wafer is also received. Alternatively, a wafer map is generated by system 600 or accessed from an external system when required during assembly process. In step 920, dies from the wafer are transferred to substrates on the web to form a plurality of devices. In step 930, the web is moved incrementally. In step 940, the operation of a device is authenticated. For example, if the device is an RFID tag, a far field read of the RFID tag is performed. In step 950, a determination is made whether the die/device was found to be defective (e.g., device not operating properly) during step 940. If the device is defective, operation proceeds to step 960. Otherwise, operation proceeds to step 975. For example, when the device is an RFID tag, a device that does not respond to the far field read is considered defective. In step 960, the location of the device is identified. For example, the wafer identification number of the defective device is known. In an example embodiment, the location of each die/device during the assembly process may be tracked and/or calculated and stored internally or externally to system 600. In this exemplary embodiment, in step 960, the wafer identification number is used to access the location information for that die/device on the substrate. In an additional exemplary embodiment, in step 960, the location of the defective die is calculated in real-time using available data. In step 970, the device that is not working properly is indicated. For example, the defective device is marked with ink. In step 975, a determination is made whether any devices remain to be authenticated. If a device remains to be authenticated, operation proceed to step 940. Steps 940-975 are repeated for each device to be authenticated. Otherwise, operation proceeds to step 980. In step 980, the assembly process is continued. For example, if dies on the wafer remain to be transferred, operation may proceed to step 920. If no dies remain on the wafer, operation may proceed to step 910. Note that several steps in flowchart 900 may occur in parallel. For example, a plurality of devices could be authenticated (e.g., steps 940-975) at substantially the same time as a plurality of dies is being transferred to substrates (e.g., step 920). 3.0 Conclusion While various embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example, and not limitation. It will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant arts that various changes in form and detail can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Thus the present invention should not be limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to the assembly of electronic devices. More particularly, the present invention relates to the transfer of dies from wafers to substrates, including substrates of radio frequency identification (RFID) tags. 2. Related Art Pick and place techniques are often used to assemble electronic devices. Such techniques involve a manipulator, such as a robot arm, to remove integrated circuit (IC) dies from a wafer and place them into a die carrier. The dies are subsequently mounted onto a substrate with other electronic components, such as antennas, capacitors, resistors, and inductors to form an electronic device. Pick and place techniques involve complex robotic components and control systems that handle only one die at a time. This has a drawback of limiting throughput volume. Furthermore, pick and place techniques have limited placement accuracy, and have a minimum die size requirement. One type of electronic device that may be assembled using pick and place techniques is an RFID “tag.” An RFID tag may be affixed to an item whose presence is to be detected and/or monitored. The presence of an RFID tag, and therefore the presence of the item to which the tag is affixed, may be checked and monitored by devices known as “readers.” As market demand increases for products such as RFID tags, and as die sizes shrink, high assembly throughput rates for very small die, and low production costs are crucial in providing commercially-viable products. Accordingly, what is needed is a method and apparatus for high volume assembly of electronic devices, such as RFID tags, that overcomes these limitations. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to methods, systems, and apparatuses for producing one or more electronic devices, such as RFID tags, that each include a die having one or more electrically conductive contact pads that provide electrical connections to related electronics on a substrate. According to the present invention, electronic devices are formed at much greater rates than conventionally possible. In one aspect, large quantities of dies can be transferred directly from a wafer to corresponding substrates of a web of substrates. In another aspect, large quantities of dies can be transferred from a support surface to corresponding substrates of a web of substrates. In another aspect, large quantities of dies can be transferred from a wafer or support surface to an intermediate surface, such as a die plate. The die plate may have cells formed in a surface thereof in which the dies reside. Otherwise, the dies can reside on a surface of the die plate. The dies of the die plate can then be transferred to corresponding substrates of a web of substrates. In an aspect, a punch plate, punch roller or cylinder, or a changeable or movable material can be used to transfer dies from the die plate to substrates. Large quantities of dies can be transferred. For example, 10s, 100s, 1000s, or more dies, or even all dies of a wafer, support surface, or die plate, can be simultaneously transferred to corresponding substrates of a web. In one aspect, dies may be transferred between surfaces in a “pads up” orientation. When dies are transferred to a substrate in a “pads up” orientation, related electronics can be printed or otherwise formed to couple contact pads of the die to related electronics of the tag substrate. In an alternative aspect, the dies may be transferred between surfaces in a “pads down” orientation. When dies are transferred to a substrate in a “pads down” orientation, related electronics can be pre-printed or otherwise pre-deposited on the tag substrates. In an aspect, the operation of the electronic devices is authenticated. When a device is not operating properly, the location of the device is indicated. In one aspect, ink is applied to the substrate including the die not operating properly. In an aspect, a far field read of each RFID tag device is performed to authenticate the operation of each RFID tag. The far field read may be performed using an antenna. These and other advantages and features will become readily apparent in view of the following detailed description of the invention. | 20040614 | 20071002 | 20050113 | 86357.0 | 0 | STEVENSON, ANDRE C | METHOD, SYSTEM, AND APPARATUS FOR AUTHENTICATING DEVICES DURING ASSEMBLY | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,222 | ACCEPTED | Drill clamp and method | A drill clamp comprising a clamp mechanism and a hole-locating pin. The clamp mechanism has a first clamp portion and a second clamp portion. The second clamp portion includes a drill-receiving opening sized for receiving a drill bit. The hole-locating pin is operatively connected to the first clamp portion. The clamp mechanism is adapted and configured for movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions. The hole-locating pin is farther from the drill-receiving opening when the clamp mechanism is in the unclamped position than when the clamp mechanism is in the clamped position. The hole-locating pin and the drill-receiving opening are aligned with one another when the clamp mechanism is in the clamped position. | 1. A drill clamp comprising: a clamp mechanism having a first clamp portion and a second clamp portion, the second clamp portion including a drill-receiving opening sized for receiving a drill bit; a hole-locating pin operatively connected to the first clamp portion; the clamp mechanism being adapted and configured for movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions, the hole-locating pin being farther from the drill-receiving opening when the clamp mechanism is in the unclamped position than when the clamp mechanism is in the clamped position, the hole-locating pin and the drill-receiving opening being aligned with one another when the clamp mechanism is in the clamped position. 2. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 1 wherein the hole-locating pin and the drill-receiving opening are aligned with one another throughout movement of the clamp mechanism between the unclamped and clamped positions. 3. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 1 wherein the first and second clamp portions define a slider mechanism, the slider mechanism being adapted and configured to permit linear sliding of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other. 4. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 3 wherein the slider mechanism comprises a C-shaped channel and a channel-receiving tongue, one of the first and second clamp portions defining the C-shaped channel and the other of the first and second clamp portions defining the channel-receiving tongue, the C-shaped channel being sized for receiving the channel-receiving tongue to permit linear sliding of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other. 5. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 1 further comprising a movement mechanism operatively connected to the first and second clamp portions, the movement mechanism being adapted and configured to move the first and second clamp portions relative to each other. 6. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 5 wherein the movement mechanism comprises an air cylinder, the air cylinder including a cylinder body and a moveable rod, the cylinder body being secured to one of the first and second clamp portions, the moveable rod extending from the cylinder body and being secured to the other of the first and second clamp portions, the cylinder body being adapted and configured to extend and retract the moveable rod to cause movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions. 7. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 6 wherein the air cylinder further includes a valve mechanism operatively connected to the cylinder body, the valve mechanism being adapted to enable a user to extend and retract the moveable rod. 8. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 6 wherein the air cylinder further includes a manifold mechanism operatively connected to the cylinder body, the manifold mechanism being adapted to control a rate of movement of the moveable rod. 9. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 6 wherein the air cylinder further includes a valve mechanism and a manifold mechanism, the valve mechanism and the manifold mechanism being operatively connected to the cylinder body, the valve mechanism being adapted to enable a user to extend and retract the moveable rod and the manifold mechanism being adapted to control a rate of movement of the moveable rod. 10. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 1 further comprising means for moving the first and second clamp portions between the clamped and unclamped positions. 11. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 1 wherein the hole locating pin includes a pin tip, the pin tip being adapted to extend into a hole in a work-piece. 12. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 11 wherein the hole locating pin is adapted and configured for movement between an extended position and a retracted position. 13. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 12 further comprising a spring located in the second clamp portion and engaging the hole locating pin in a manner such that the hole locating pin is biased toward the extended position. 14. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 13 wherein the pin tip is configured and adapted to engage a drill bit received in the drill-receiving opening and moved toward the hole locating pin such that the hole locating pin moves from the extended position toward the retracted position as the drill bit is moved axially in a direction from the second clamp portion toward the first clamp portion. 15. A method comprising: providing a drill clamp as set forth in claim 1; providing a work-piece, the work-piece having opposite first and second faces spaced from one another and a first hole extending from the first face toward the second face; positioning the drill clamp, while in the unclamped position, relative to the work-piece, such that the hole-locating pin extends into the hole; moving the clamp mechanism to the clamped position such that the clamp mechanism is clamped against the first and second faces of the work-piece while the hole-locating pin is positioned in the hole; placing a drill bit in the drill-receiving opening and using the drill bit to drill a second hole extending from the second face toward the first face, the second hole being aligned with the first hole. 16. A drill clamp comprising: a clamp mechanism having a first clamp portion and a second clamp portion, the second clamp portion including a drill-receiving opening; a hole-locating pin operatively connected to the first clamp portion; the clamp mechanism being adapted and configured for movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions, the hole-locating pin being adapted to extend into a hole in a work-piece and to position the work-piece such that a drill bit inserted through the drill-receiving opening will engage the work-piece at a location in alignment with the hole. 17. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 16 wherein the hole-locating pin and the drill-receiving opening are aligned with one another throughout movement of the clamp mechanism between the unclamped and clamped positions. 18. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 16 wherein the first and second clamp portions define a slider mechanism, the slider mechanism being adapted and configured to permit linear sliding of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other. 19. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 18 wherein the slider mechanism comprises a C-shaped channel and a channel-receiving tongue, one of the first and second clamp portions defining the C-shaped channel and the other of the first and second clamp portions defining the channel-receiving tongue, the C-shaped channel being sized for receiving the channel-receiving tongue to permit linear sliding of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other. 20. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 16 further comprising a movement mechanism operatively connected to the first and second clamp portions, the movement mechanism being adapted and configured to move the first and second clamp portions relative to each other. 21. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 20 wherein the movement mechanism comprises an air cylinder, the air cylinder including a cylinder body and a moveable rod, the cylinder body being secured to one of the first and second clamp portions, the moveable rod extending from the cylinder body and being secured to the other of the first and second clamp portions, the cylinder body being adapted and configured to extend and retract the moveable rod to cause movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions. 22. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 21 wherein the air cylinder further includes a valve mechanism operatively connected to the cylinder body, the valve mechanism being adapted to enable a user to extend and retract the moveable rod. 23. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 21 wherein the air cylinder further includes a manifold mechanism operatively connected to the cylinder body, the manifold mechanism being adapted to control a rate of movement of the moveable rod. 24. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 21 wherein the air cylinder further includes a valve mechanism and a manifold mechanism, the valve mechanism and the manifold mechanism being operatively connected to the cylinder body, the valve mechanism being adapted to enable a user to extend and retract the moveable rod and the manifold mechanism being adapted to control a rate of movement of the moveable rod. 25. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 16 further comprising means for moving the first and second clamp portions between the clamped and unclamped positions. 26. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 16 wherein the hole locating pin includes a pin tip, the pin tip being adapted to extend into a hole in a work-piece. 27. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 26 wherein the hole locating pin is adapted and configured for movement between an extended position and a retracted position. 28. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 27 further comprising a spring located in the second clamp portion and engaging the hole locating pin in a manner such that the hole locating pin is biased toward the extended position. 29. A drill clamp as set forth in claim 28 wherein the pin tip is configured and adapted to engage a drill bit received in the drill-receiving opening and moved toward the hole locating pin such that the hole locating pin moves from the extended position toward the retracted position as the drill bit is moved axially in a direction from the second clamp portion toward the first clamp portion. 30. A method comprising: providing a drill clamp as set forth in claim 16; providing a work-piece, the work-piece having opposite first and second faces spaced from one another and a first hole extending from the first face toward the second face; positioning the drill clamp, while in the unclamped position, relative to the work-piece, such that the hole-locating pin extends into the hole; placing a drill bit in the drill-receiving opening and using the drill bit to drill a second hole extending from the second face toward the first face, the second hole being aligned with the first hole. 31. A method comprising: providing a drill clamp comprising a clamp mechanism and a hole-locating pin, the clamp mechanism having a first clamp portion and a second clamp portion, the second clamp portion including a drill-receiving opening sized for receiving a drill bit, the clamp mechanism being adapted and configured for movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions, the hole-locating pin operatively connected to the first clamp portion, the hole-locating pin and the drill-receiving opening being aligned with one another when the clamp mechanism is in the clamped position; providing a work-piece, the work-piece having opposite first and second faces spaced from one another and a first hole extending from the first face toward the second face; positioning the drill clamp, while in the unclamped position, relative to the work-piece, such that the hole-locating pin extends into the first hole; moving the clamp mechanism to the clamped position such that the clamp mechanism is clamped against the first and second faces of the work-piece while the hole-locating pin is positioned in the first hole; placing a drill bit in the drill-receiving opening and using the drill bit to drill a second hole extending from the second face toward the first face, the second hole being aligned with the first hole. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. provisional application 60/524,179, filed on Nov. 21, 2003. The application is hereby incorporated by reference herein. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT The invention was made with Government support under Contract No. F33657-96-C-2059 awarded by the United States Air Force. The Government has certain rights in this invention. APPENDIX Not Applicable. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Generally, a drill clamp of the present invention comprises a clamp mechanism and a hole-locating pin. The clamp mechanism has a first clamp portion and a second clamp portion. The second clamp portion includes a drill-receiving opening sized for receiving a drill bit. The hole-locating pin is operatively connected to the first clamp portion. The clamp mechanism is adapted and configured for movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions. The hole-locating pin is farther from the drill-receiving opening when the clamp mechanism is in the unclamped position than when the clamp mechanism is in the clamped position. The hole-locating pin and the drill-receiving opening are aligned with one another when the clamp mechanism is in the clamped position. Another aspect of the present invention is a drill clamp comprising a clamp mechanism and a hole-locating pin. The clamp mechanism has a first clamp portion and a second clamp portion. The second clamp portion includes a drill-receiving opening. The hole-locating pin is operatively connected to the first clamp portion. The clamp mechanism being adapted and configured for movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions. The hole-locating pin is adapted to engage a hole in a work-piece and to position the work-piece such that a drill bit inserted through the drill-receiving opening will engage the work-piece at a desired location. Another aspect of the present invention is a method comprising providing a drill clamp and providing a work-piece. The drill clamp comprises a clamp mechanism and a hole-locating pin. The clamp mechanism has a first clamp portion and a second clamp portion. The second clamp portion includes a drill-receiving opening sized for receiving a drill bit. The hole-locating pin is operatively connected to the first clamp portion. The clamp mechanism is adapted and configured for movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions. The hole-locating pin is farther from the drill-receiving opening when the clamp mechanism is in the unclamped position than when the clamp mechanism is in the clamped position. The work-piece has opposite first and second faces spaced from one another and a first hole extending from the first face toward the second face. The method further comprises: positioning the drill clamp, while in the unclamped position, relative to the work-piece, such that the hole-locating pin extends into the hole; moving the clamp mechanism to the clamped position such that the clamp mechanism is clamped against the first and second faces of the work-piece while the hole-locating pin is positioned in the hole; and placing a drill bit in the drill-receiving opening and using the drill bit to drill a second hole extending from the second face toward the first face, the second hole being aligned with the first hole. Other features and advantages will be in part apparent and in part pointed out hereinafter. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a drill clamp of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a side-elevational view of the drill clamp of FIG. 1, the drill clamp including a clamp mechanism and a spring-biased hole-locating pin, the clamp mechanism being in an unclamped position; FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view taken along the plane of line 3-3 of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a side-elevational view of the drill clamp of FIG. 2 and including a work-piece, the work-piece including a first hole, the hole-locating pin of the drill clamp extending into the first hole; FIG. 5 is a side-elevational view of the drill clamp of FIG. 4 but with the drill clamp being in a clamped position; FIG. 6 is a side-elevational view of the drill clamp of FIG. 5 but showing a drill bit extending through a drill-receiving opening in the clamp mechanism; FIG. 7 is a side-elevational view of the drill clamp of FIG. 6 but showing the drill bit drilled through the work-piece to form a second hole aligned with the first hole such that the first and second holes form a through hole, the drill bit pushing against the hole locating pin in a direction counter to the spring bias of the hole-locating pin to move the pin. Corresponding reference characters indicate corresponding parts throughout the several views of the drawings. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring now to the drawings, a drill clamp of the present invention is indicated in its entirety by the reference numeral 20. The drill clamp 20 is adapted to enable a user to locate a first hole in one side of a work-piece and drill an aligned hole in the other side of the work-piece. The drill clamp 20 comprises a clamp mechanism, generally indicated at 22, having a first clamp portion, generally indicated at 24, and a second clamp portion, generally indicated at 26. Preferably, the clamp mechanism 22 includes a slider mechanism, generally indicated at 30, to permit linear sliding of first and second clamp portions 24, 26 relative to each other. Preferably, the slider mechanism 30 comprises a C-shaped channel 32 and a channel-receiving tongue 34 (FIG. 3). In the preferred embodiment, the channel 32 is part of the first clamp portion 24 and the channel-receiving tongue 34 is part of the second clamp portion 26. However, it is to be understood that other mechanisms may be employed without departing from the scope of the present invention. Also, although relative movement of the first and second clamp portions are preferably linear along a straight line, it is to be understood that other alternative movements may be employed without departing from the scope of the present invention. The clamp mechanism 22 is adapted and configured for movement of the first and second clamp portions 24, 26 relative to each other between an unclamped position (FIGS. 2 and 4) and a clamped position (FIGS. 5-7). Preferably, the drill clamp 20 includes a double actuated air cylinder, generally indicated at 38, to move the first and second clamp portions 24, 26 between the unclamped and clamped positions. The cylinder 38 includes a cylinder body 40 secured to the second clamp portion 26 and a moveable rod 42 extending from the cylinder body and secured to the first clamp portion 24. The cylinder 38 also preferably includes a suitable valve mechanism 44 (FIG. 1) and a manifold mechanism 46. The valve mechanism 44 enables a user to extend and retract the rod 42. The manifold mechanism 46 is adapted to control the rate of movement of the rod 42. Although the drill clamp 20 preferably includes the air cylinder 38, it is to be understood that other mechanisms for moving the clamp mechanism 22 between the unclamped and clamped positions may be employed without departing from the scope of the present invention. For example, the air cylinder 38 may be replaced with a hydraulic cylinder, a motor driven screw mechanism or some other type of motor driven mechanism, a solenoid mechanism, or any other movement mechanism. The drill clamp 20 further comprises a hole-locating pin 50 and a drill-receiving opening 52. Preferably, the hole-locating pin 50 extends through the first clamp portion 24. The hole-locating pin 50 includes a pin-tip 54 adapted to extend into a hole in a work-piece (described in greater detail below). The drill-receiving opening 52 is in the second clamp portion 26 and is sized for receiving a suitable drill bit. Preferably, the pin-tip 54 extends toward and is aligned with the center of the drill-receiving opening 52. Preferably, the hole-locating pin 50 is moveable between an extended position (FIGS. 1-2 and 3-6) and a retracted position (FIG. 7). Preferably, the drill clamp 20 includes a spring 56 for biasing the hole-locating pin 50 in the extended position. A work-piece, generally indicated at 60, is shown in FIGS. 4-7. The work-piece 60 is shown as comprising two adjacent pieces of sheet metal. However, it is to be understood that other types of work-pieces may be employed without departing from the scope of this invention. The work-piece 60 has a first face 62, a second face 64 opposite the first face, and a first hole 66 extending from the first face toward the second face. In use, the drill clamp 20, while in the unclamped position, is positioned relative to the work-piece 60 as shown in FIG. 4 such that the pin-tip 54 of the hole-locating pin 50 extends into the first hole 66. The air cylinder 38 is then actuated to retract the rod 42 in a manner to move the clamp mechanism 22 to the clamped position as shown in FIG. 5. In the clamped position, the work-piece 60 is securely held between the first and second clamp portions 24, 26. In the clamped position, the first clamp portion 24 is in engagement with the first face 62 of the work-piece 60 and the second clamp portion 26 is in engagement with the second face 64 of the work-piece. Next, a suitable drill bit assembly 70 is placed into the drill-receiving opening 52. Preferably, the drill bit assembly 70 includes a bushing 72 and a drill bit 74. The bushing 72 and drill-receiving opening 52 are preferably sized such that the bushing substantially fills the opening and centers the drill bit 74 in the opening. Also preferably, with the drill bit assembly in this position the longitudinal axis of the drill bit 74 is coaxially aligned with the pin-tip 54. The drill bit 74 is then rotated to bore a second hole 80 into the work-piece 60. The second hole 80 extends from the second face 64 of the work-piece 60 toward the first face 62. The second hole 80 is aligned with the first hole 66 to form a combined through hole extending from the second face 64 to the first face 62. As the drill bit 74 drills the second hole 80, it is anticipated that the drill bit will engage the pin-tip 54 of the hole-locating pin 50 and push the hole-locating pin 50 from its extended position to its retracted position (FIG. 7). The spring-bias retractable characteristic of the hole-locating pin 50 resists damage to both the drill bit 74 and the pin-tip 54. In view of the above, it will be seen that several advantageous results are attained by the present invention. As various changes could be made in the above constructions and methods without departing from the scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter contained in the above description or shown in the accompanying drawings shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense. The invention therefore shall be limited solely by the scope of the claims set forth below. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Generally, a drill clamp of the present invention comprises a clamp mechanism and a hole-locating pin. The clamp mechanism has a first clamp portion and a second clamp portion. The second clamp portion includes a drill-receiving opening sized for receiving a drill bit. The hole-locating pin is operatively connected to the first clamp portion. The clamp mechanism is adapted and configured for movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions. The hole-locating pin is farther from the drill-receiving opening when the clamp mechanism is in the unclamped position than when the clamp mechanism is in the clamped position. The hole-locating pin and the drill-receiving opening are aligned with one another when the clamp mechanism is in the clamped position. Another aspect of the present invention is a drill clamp comprising a clamp mechanism and a hole-locating pin. The clamp mechanism has a first clamp portion and a second clamp portion. The second clamp portion includes a drill-receiving opening. The hole-locating pin is operatively connected to the first clamp portion. The clamp mechanism being adapted and configured for movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions. The hole-locating pin is adapted to engage a hole in a work-piece and to position the work-piece such that a drill bit inserted through the drill-receiving opening will engage the work-piece at a desired location. Another aspect of the present invention is a method comprising providing a drill clamp and providing a work-piece. The drill clamp comprises a clamp mechanism and a hole-locating pin. The clamp mechanism has a first clamp portion and a second clamp portion. The second clamp portion includes a drill-receiving opening sized for receiving a drill bit. The hole-locating pin is operatively connected to the first clamp portion. The clamp mechanism is adapted and configured for movement of the first and second clamp portions relative to each other between clamped and unclamped positions. The hole-locating pin is farther from the drill-receiving opening when the clamp mechanism is in the unclamped position than when the clamp mechanism is in the clamped position. The work-piece has opposite first and second faces spaced from one another and a first hole extending from the first face toward the second face. The method further comprises: positioning the drill clamp, while in the unclamped position, relative to the work-piece, such that the hole-locating pin extends into the hole; moving the clamp mechanism to the clamped position such that the clamp mechanism is clamped against the first and second faces of the work-piece while the hole-locating pin is positioned in the hole; and placing a drill bit in the drill-receiving opening and using the drill bit to drill a second hole extending from the second face toward the first face, the second hole being aligned with the first hole. Other features and advantages will be in part apparent and in part pointed out hereinafter. | 20040611 | 20070821 | 20050526 | 66168.0 | 0 | HOWELL, DANIEL W | DRILL CLAMP AND METHOD | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
||||
10,866,435 | ACCEPTED | Student desk chair with rockers rails | A rocking chair particularly suitable for use as a student desk chair as a seating surface, a back rest and a pair of generally parallel rocking rails. Preferably, the rocking chair has a relatively small footprint and has a relatively limited range of rocking motion. In one preferred, but not required embodiment, the pair of generally parallel rocking rails are both reverse cantilevered rocker rails. | 1. A rocking chair comprising: (a) a seating surface; (b) a backrest disposed above the seating surface; (c) a left side reverse cantilevered rocker rail and an opposed right side reverse cantilevered rocker rail, both rocker rails being disposed generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, both rocker rails being disposed below the seating surface and adapted to support the seating surface above the floor. 2. The rocking chair of claim 1 wherein: (a) the seating surface has a horizontal longitudinal axis, a forward edge which terminates at a vertical forward edge seating surface plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, a left side edge which terminates at a vertical left side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface and a right side edge which terminates at a vertical right side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; (b) the backrest has an upper edge which terminates at a vertical backrest plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; and (c) each rocker rail has a forward most portion, a rearward most portion and a central portion, the forward most portion extending forwardly no more than about 3 inches beyond the forward edge seating surface plane, the rearward most portion extending rearwardly no more than about 1 inch inches beyond the backrest plane, the left side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the left side seating surface plane and the right side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the right side seating surface plane. 3. The rocking chair of claim 1 wherein each rocker rail has a forward most portion, a rearward most portion and a central portion, the central portions of both rocker rails being at least about 20 inches in length and having lower surfaces with identical curvatures, both curvatures having a radius of curvature which is greater than 70 degrees. 4. The rocking chair of claim 1 wherein each rocker rail has a forward most portion, a rearward most portion and a central portion, the central portions of both rocker rails being at least about 20 inches in length and having lower surfaces with identical curvatures, both curvatures having a radius of curvature between about 55 degrees and about 70 degrees. 5. The rocking chair of claim 1 wherein: (a) the seating surface has a horizontal longitudinal axis, a forward edge which terminates at a vertical forward edge seating surface plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, a left side edge which terminates at a vertical left side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface and a right side edge which terminates at a vertical right side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; (b) the backrest has an upper edge which terminates at a vertical backrest plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; and (c) each rocker rail has a forward most portion, a rearward most portion and a central portion, the forward most portion extending forwardly no more than about 3 inches beyond the forward edge seating surface plane, the rearward most portion extending rearwardly no more than about 1 inch inches beyond the backrest plane, the left side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the left side seating surface plane and the right side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the right side seating surface plane, the central portions of both rocker rails being at least 20 inches in length and having lower surfaces with identical curvatures, both curvatures having a radius of curvature which is greater than 70 degrees. 6. The rocking chair of claim 1 wherein the rocker rails are made from 1-inch tubular steel. 7. A classroom desk and chair combination 1 comprising: (a) a student desk having (i) an elevated, generally horizontal work surface and (ii) an open space defined below the work surface; and (b) the rocking chair defined in claim 1; wherein the rocking chair is sized and dimensioned to allow the forward edge of the rocking chair to be positioned within the open space below the work surface; and wherein the work surface is disposed at an elevation between about 10 inches and about 15 inches above the elevation of the seating surface of the rocking chair; so that a student can comfortably sit within the rocking chair and work at the work surface. 8. The classroom desk and chair combination of claim 7 wherein: (a) the seating surface has a horizontal longitudinal axis, a forward edge which terminates at a vertical forward edge seating surface plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, a left side edge which terminates at a vertical left side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface and a right side edge which terminates at a vertical right side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; (b) the backrest has an upper edge which terminates at a vertical backrest plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; and (c) each rocker rail has a forward most portion, a rearward most portion and a central portion, the forward most portion extending forwardly no more than about 3 inches beyond the forward edge seating surface plane, the rearward most portion extending rearwardly no more than about 1 inch inches beyond the backrest plane, the left side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the left side seating surface plane and the right side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the right side seating surface plane. 9. The classroom desk and chair combination of claim 7 wherein each rocker rail has a forward most portion, a rearward most portion and a central portion, the central portions of both rocker rails being at least about 20 inches in length and having lower surfaces with identical curvatures, both curvatures having a radius of curvature which is greater than 70 degrees. 10. The classroom desk and chair combination of claim 7 wherein each rocker rail has a forward most portion, a rearward most portion and a central portion, the central portions of both rocker rails being at least about 20 inches in length and having lower surfaces with identical curvatures, both curvatures having a radius of curvature between about 55 degrees and about 70 degrees. 11. The classroom desk and chair combination of claim 7 wherein: (a) the seating surface has a horizontal longitudinal axis, a forward edge which terminates at a vertical forward edge seating surface plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, a left side edge which terminates at a vertical left side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface and a right side edge which terminates at a vertical right side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; (b) the backrest has an upper edge which terminates at a vertical backrest plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; and (c) each rocker rail has a forward most portion, a rearward most portion and a central portion, the forward most portion extending forwardly no more than about 3 inches beyond the forward edge seating surface plane, the rearward most portion extending rearwardly no more than about 1 inch inches beyond the backrest plane, the left side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the left side seating surface plane and the right side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the right side seating surface plane, the central portions of both rocker rails being at least 20 inches in length and having lower surfaces with identical curvatures, both curvatures having a radius of curvature which is greater than 70 degrees. 12. The classroom desk and chair combination of claim 7 wherein the rocker rails are made from 1-inch tubular steel. 13. A rocking chair comprising: (a) a seating surface having a horizontal longitudinal axis, a forward edge which terminates at a vertical forward edge seating surface plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, a left side edge which terminates at a vertical left side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface and a right side edge which terminates at a vertical right side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; (b) a backrest disposed above the seating surface, the backrest having an upper edge which terminates at a vertical backrest plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; and (c) a left side rocker rail and an opposed right side rocker rail, both rocker rails being disposed below the seating surface and adapted to support the seating surface at an elevation above a floor, the pair of rocker rails being generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, each rocker rail having a forward most portion, a rearward most portion and a central portion, the forward most portion extending forwardly no more than about 3 inches beyond the forward edge seating surface plane, the rearward most portion extending rearwardly no more than about 1 inch inches beyond the backrest plane, the left side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the left side seating surface plane and the right side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the right side seating surface plane, the central portions of both rocker rails being at least about 20 inches in length and having lower surfaces with identical curvatures, both curvatures having one or more degrees of curvature, none of which is great than about 70 degrees. 14. The rocking chair of claim 13 wherein the left side rocker rail and the right side rocker rail are both cantilevered rocker rails. 15. The rocking chair of claim 13 wherein the rocker rails are made from 1-inch tubular steel. 16. A classroom desk and chair combination comprising: (a) a student desk having (i) an elevated, generally horizontal work surface and (ii) an open space defined below the work surface; and (b) the rocking chair defined in claim 13; wherein the rocking chair is sized and dimensioned to allow the forward edge of the rocking chair to be positioned within the open space below the work surface; and wherein the work surface is disposed at an elevation between about 10 inches and about 15 inches above the elevation of the seating surface of the rocking chair; so that a student can comfortably sit within the rocking chair and work at the work surface. 17. The classroom desk and chair combination of claim 16 wherein the left side rocker rail and the right side rocker rail are both cantilevered rocker rails. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to chairs and, more specifically, to rocking chairs. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Maintaining the attention span of students, especially young students, in a classroom situation has always been a difficult task. Providing the student with a desk and desk chair which is comfortable and provides good ergonomics throughout the many long hours in a typical school day is increasingly understood to be a critical factor in maintaining the student's attention span. Also, the dramatic increase in student hours spent in high-intensity computing has created a need for ergonomically sound classroom furniture designed for such activities. Such ergonomically sound classroom furniture tends to prevent distracting discomfort and reduces the risk of injuries associated with long-term exposure to poor ergonomics. Accordingly, there is a need for a student desk chair which is comfortable throughout the long hours in a typical school day, especially where such long hours may include work at a computer terminal and keyboard. Such a desk chair must, in addition to being comfortable, must be relatively inexpensive to manufacture, have a relatively small foot print, be easy and safe for ingress and egress and be conveniently storable above the floor (to facility cleaning of the classroom). SUMMARY The invention satisfies this need. The invention is a rocking chair and a rocking chair/classroom desk combination. In one embodiment of the invention, the rocking chair comprises: (a) a seating surface; (b) a backrest disposed above the seating surface; and (c) a support carriage comprising a left side reverse cantilevered rocker rail and an opposed right side reverse cantilevered rocker rail, both rocker rails being disposed generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, the support carriage being adapted to support the seating surface above the floor. In another embodiment, the rocking chair comprises: (a) a seating surface having a horizontal longitudinal axis, a forward edge which terminates at a vertical forward edge seating surface plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, a left side edge which terminates at a vertical left side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface and a right side edge which terminates at a vertical right side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; (b) a backrest disposed above the seating surface, the backrest having an upper edge which terminates at a vertical backrest plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; and (c) a support carriage having a left side rocker rail and an opposed right side rocker rail, the support carriage being adapted to support the seating surface at an elevation above a floor, the pair of rocker rails being generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, each rocker rail having a forward most portion, a rearward most portion and a central portion, the forward most portion extending forwardly no more than about 3 inches beyond the forward edge seating surface plane, the rearward most portion extending rearwardly no more than about 1 inch beyond the backrest plane, the left side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the left side seating surface plane and the right side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the right side seating surface plane, the central portions of both rocker rails being at least about 20 inches in length and having lower surfaces with identical curvatures, both curvatures having one or more degrees of curvature, none of which is greater than about 70 degrees. DRAWINGS These and other features, aspects and advantages of the present invention will become better understood with reference to the following description, appended claims and accompanying drawings where: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a rocking chair having features of the invention; FIG. 2 is a front view of the rocking chair illustrated in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a side view of a classroom chair and desk combination having features of the invention, including a side view of the rocking chair illustrated in FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a top view of the rocking chair illustrated in FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is a bottom view of the rocking chair illustrated in FIG. 1; FIG. 6 is a rear view of the rocking chair illustrated in FIG. 1; and FIG. 7 is a second perspective view of the rocking chair illustrated in FIG. 1, showing the underside of the rocking chair. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following discussion describes in detail one embodiment of the invention and several variations of that embodiment. This discussion should not be construed, however, as limiting the invention to those particular embodiments. Practitioners skilled in the art will recognize numerous other embodiments as well. The invention is a rocking chair 10 having unique characteristics which make it suitable as a classroom chair. As illustrated in the drawings, a typical rocking chair 10 of the invention comprises a seating assembly 12 mounted on a support carriage 14. The seating assembly 12 comprises a generally horizontal seating surface 16 and a generally vertical backrest 18 disposed above the seating surface 16. The seating assembly 12 is preferably contoured to conform to the body of the user for whom the rocking chair 10 is designed. The seating assembly 12 can be made from a variety of materials, including metals, woods and plastics. Plastic materials, such as polypropylene, have been found to be suitable for use in the seating assembly 12. The seating surface 16 has a horizontal longitudinal axis 20 and a forward edge 22 which terminates at a vertical forward edge seating surface plane 24 which is disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis 20 of the seating surface 16. The seating surface 16 further comprises (i) a left side edge 26 which terminates at a vertical left side seating surface plane 28 which is generally parallel to the longitudinal axis 20 of the seating surface 16 and (ii) a right side edge 30 which terminates at a vertical right side seating surface plane 32 which is generally parallel to the longitudinal axis 20 of the seating surface 16. The backrest 18 has an upper edge 34 which terminates at a vertical backrest plane 36 which is disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis 20 of the seating surface 16. An aperture 38 can be provided in the backrest 18 to provide a hand-hold for the convenient lifting of the rocking chair 10. In the embodiment illustrated in the drawings, a plurality of parallel reenforcing ribs 40 are provided on both the rear side of the backrest 18 and the underside of the seating surface 16 to provide additional rigidity. The seating assembly 12 can be provided in a plurality of assembled parts or, as illustrated in the drawings, as an integral unit. The seating assembly 12 is attached to the support carriage 14 such that the seating surface 16 is supported at an appropriate height above a floor. The support carriage 14 can have any number of configurations. In the embodiment illustrated in the drawings, the support carriage 14 is comprised of rolled steel tubing. The support carriage 14 comprises a pair of opposed generally parallel rocker rails 42. Preferably, as illustrated in the drawings, the rocker rails 42 comprise a left side reverse cantilevered rocker rail 44a and an opposed right side reversed cantilevered rocker rail 44b. The use of cantilevered rocker rails 42 provide the support carriage 14 with a degree of flexure not found where the rocker rails 42 are supported by linear struts. The use of reverse cantilevered rocker rails 42 provides additional advantages over conventional cantilevered rocker rails 42. The forwardmost portions 46 of the rocker rails 42 in embodiments having reversed cantilevered rocker rails 42 do not protrude as far forward and are not disposed as far above the floor as are the forwardmost portions 46 of the cantilevered rocker rails 42 which are not reversed in design. Accordingly, the use of reverse cantilevered rocker rails 42 facilitate the safe and easy ingress and egress by the user and facilitate the construction of a classroom rocking chair 10 having a reduced footprint. Rocking chairs 10 having minimized footprints are very important in classroom situations to efficiently make use of the limited space available within the classroom and to safely and efficiently retain a large number of students within the classroom. A smaller foot print also reduces the risk of tripping over the rocker rails 42. Thus, it is preferably that the forwardmost portion 46 extends forwardly no more than about 3 inches beyond the forward edge seating surface plane 24, the rearwardmost portion 48 extends rearwardly no more than about 1 inch beyond the backrest plane 36, the left side rocker cantilevered rocker rail 44a extends laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the left side seating surface plane 28 and the right side reverse cantilevered rocker rail 44b extends laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the right side seating surface plane 32. An additional advantage of using reverse cantilevered rocker rails 42 is that the use of reverse cantilevered rocker rails 42 encourages both relaxed and attentive seating. All rocker rails 42 allow the user to lean back, tipping the seat angle rearward into a relaxed position. Traditional cantilevered rocker rails 42 allow the rocking chairs 10 to emphasize this because their frame-flex naturally rotates the seating surface 16 further back. However, with reverse cantilevered rocker rails 42, the seating surface 16 angle tends to tip forward during the front portion of the rocker rails' travel (as the backrest 18 flexes into a more closed position), particularly when the user's weight and sitting position shifts slightly forward on the seating surface 16 (as when the user is operating a keyboard) which allows better back support, permits the pelvis to rotate forward for better ergonomics and comfort during focused work (by encouraging proper reversed curvature of the lumbar spine) and opens up the leg-body angle for better blood flow to the legs and feet. The use of reverse cantilevered rocker rails 42 also provides the advantage of allowing the rocking chair 10 to be simply and easily stored above the floor (such as for cleaning the floor) by resting the underside of the seating surface 16 on the top of the desk 58 while sliding the rocker rails 42 immediately below the desktop. The support carriage 14 and the rocker rails 42 are configured and constructed of materials so that the amount of spring in the support carriage 14 when in use by a user is not excessive and is not too stiff. In one embodiment, the rocker rails 42 are made of 12-gage (0.1046) steel tube with a nominal 1-inch outside diameter. The rocker rails 42 each have a forwardmost portion 46, a rearwardmost portion 48 and a central portion 50. Typically, the central portion 50 of both rocker rails 42 is at least about 20 inches in length and have lower surfaces with identical curvatures. Typically, the curvature of both rocker rails 42 have a single degree of curvature between about 50 degrees and about 70 degrees, preferably between about 55 degrees and about 65 degrees. In one embodiment, the radius of the two rocker rails 42 is 60.17 degrees. Preferably, the forward motion of the rocking chair 10 and the rearward motion of the rocking chair 10 are carefully controlled so as to provide sufficient forward and rearward motion, while preventing excessive forward and rearward motion. In the embodiment illustrated in the drawings, the furthest forward motion of the rocking chair 10 is about 8.5 degrees from its at-rest position. The furthest rearward motion of the rocking chair 10 is about 7 degrees from the at-rest position. Typically, the rearwardmost portion 48 of both rocker rails 42 comprises a rocker stop 52 to effectively prevent rearward rocking motion of the rocking chair 10. The rocker stop can be made from a resilient material. Typically, the forwardmost portions 46 of both rockers 10 are covered with a cap 54 made of a resilient material. The invention is also a classroom desk and chair combination 56 comprising (i) a student desk 58 having an elevated, generally horizontal work surface 60 and an open space 62 defined below the work surface 60 and (ii) a rocking chair 10 as described above. Typically, the work surface 60 defines a work surface area of at least about 50 square inches, most typically of at least about 225 square inches, such as between about 500 square inches and about 1000 square inches. In the desk and chair combination 56, the rocking chair 10 is sized and dimensioned to allow the forward portion of the rocking chair 10 to be positioned within the open space 62 below the work surface 60. The work surface 60 is disposed at an elevation between about 10 inches and about 15 inches above the elevation of the seating surface 16 of the rocking chair 10. Such a design of a classroom desk and chair combination 56 allow a student to comfortably sit within the rocking chair 10 and work at the work surface 60. Such desk and chair combination 56 are especially suited for comfortably retaining students within a classroom situation for many hours at a time, even where the students are working at computer terminals disposed on top of the work surfaces 60, for example, laptop computer terminals placed upon the work surfaces 60. The rocking chair 10 of the invention provides both good ergonomics and comfort in a product that is also attractive and fun to use. Such a rocking chair 10 will provide students with positive feelings about their school and about their classroom environment. Such positive feelings are recognized by educators to be critical factors in the improvement of a student's academic performance. Having thus described the invention, it should be apparent that numerous structural modifications and adaptations may be resorted to without departing from the scope and fair meaning of the instant invention as set forth hereinabove. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Maintaining the attention span of students, especially young students, in a classroom situation has always been a difficult task. Providing the student with a desk and desk chair which is comfortable and provides good ergonomics throughout the many long hours in a typical school day is increasingly understood to be a critical factor in maintaining the student's attention span. Also, the dramatic increase in student hours spent in high-intensity computing has created a need for ergonomically sound classroom furniture designed for such activities. Such ergonomically sound classroom furniture tends to prevent distracting discomfort and reduces the risk of injuries associated with long-term exposure to poor ergonomics. Accordingly, there is a need for a student desk chair which is comfortable throughout the long hours in a typical school day, especially where such long hours may include work at a computer terminal and keyboard. Such a desk chair must, in addition to being comfortable, must be relatively inexpensive to manufacture, have a relatively small foot print, be easy and safe for ingress and egress and be conveniently storable above the floor (to facility cleaning of the classroom). | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The invention satisfies this need. The invention is a rocking chair and a rocking chair/classroom desk combination. In one embodiment of the invention, the rocking chair comprises: (a) a seating surface; (b) a backrest disposed above the seating surface; and (c) a support carriage comprising a left side reverse cantilevered rocker rail and an opposed right side reverse cantilevered rocker rail, both rocker rails being disposed generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, the support carriage being adapted to support the seating surface above the floor. In another embodiment, the rocking chair comprises: (a) a seating surface having a horizontal longitudinal axis, a forward edge which terminates at a vertical forward edge seating surface plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, a left side edge which terminates at a vertical left side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface and a right side edge which terminates at a vertical right side seating surface plane disposed generally parallel with the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; (b) a backrest disposed above the seating surface, the backrest having an upper edge which terminates at a vertical backrest plane disposed generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface; and (c) a support carriage having a left side rocker rail and an opposed right side rocker rail, the support carriage being adapted to support the seating surface at an elevation above a floor, the pair of rocker rails being generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the seating surface, each rocker rail having a forward most portion, a rearward most portion and a central portion, the forward most portion extending forwardly no more than about 3 inches beyond the forward edge seating surface plane, the rearward most portion extending rearwardly no more than about 1 inch beyond the backrest plane, the left side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the left side seating surface plane and the right side rocker rail extending laterally no more than about 1 inch beyond the right side seating surface plane, the central portions of both rocker rails being at least about 20 inches in length and having lower surfaces with identical curvatures, both curvatures having one or more degrees of curvature, none of which is greater than about 70 degrees. | 20040610 | 20061212 | 20051215 | 74582.0 | 2 | WHITE, RODNEY BARNETT | STUDENT DESK CHAIR WITH ROCKERS RAILS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,700 | ACCEPTED | Waveguide type photoreceptor device | A waveguide type photoreceptor device of the present invention comprises a waveguide 16a disposed on a Fe-doped InP substrate, the waveguide including an n-cladding layer connected to an n-electrode, an n-light guide layer, a light absorption layer, a p-light guide layer, and a p-cladding layer connected to a p-electrode, laminated onto one another over the Fe-doped InP substrate, and the ratio of the layer thickness of the thicker one of the n-light guide layer and the p-light guide layer to that of the thinner one being between 1.3 and 5 both inclusive. | 1. A waveguide type photoreceptor device comprising: a semi-insulative semiconductor substrate; and an optical waveguide layer disposed on said semiconductor substrate, having a first cladding layer of a first conductive type connected to a first electrode, a first light guide layer of the first conductive type, a light absorption layer, a second light guide layer of a second conductive type, and a second cladding layer of the second conductive type connected to a second electrode laminated onto one another over said semiconductor substrate in that order, wherein the ratio of the layer thickness of the thicker one of the first light guide layer and the second guide layer to that of the thinner one is between 1.3 and 5 both inclusive. 2. The waveguide type photoreceptor device according to claim 1, wherein the thickness of the light absorption layer is set such that 0.3 μm≦da≦0.5 μm, where da denotes the thickness of the light absorption layer. 3. The waveguide type photoreceptor device according to claim 1, wherein said optical waveguide layer receives signal light with a 1.3 μm wavelength band and a 1.55 μm wavelength band. 4. The waveguide type photoreceptor device according to claim 2, wherein said optical waveguide layer receives signal light with a 1.3 μm wavelength band and a 1.55 μm wavelength band. 5. The waveguide type photoreceptor device according to claims 1, wherein the first and second light guide layers are formed of InGaAsP semiconductor material, AlInGaAsP semiconductor material, or GaInNAs semiconductor material. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a waveguide type photoreceptor device, and more particularly to a waveguide type photoreceptor device used for optical communications systems, etc. 2. Description of the Related Art The capacity of communications systems has been increased to satisfy the dramatically increasing demand for communications. Accordingly, there has been a need for higher-speed, higher-efficiency yet lower-cost and smaller optical communications devices. The transmission systems for optical communications use two types of signal light having different wavelength bands (or signal light with two wavelength bands). One is a 1.3 μm (wavelength) band signal light whose center wavelength is 1.3 μm, and the other is a 1.55 μm (wavelength) band signal whose center wavelength is 1.55 μm. The 1.55 μm band signal light causes only a small optical fiber loss and therefore is used for long-distance communication systems. This type of communication is referred to as the intercity communication (trunk system) and used for communications between large cities such as Tokyo and Osaka. The 1.3 μm band signal light, on the other hand, causes a large optical fiber loss but exhibits a low wavelength dispersion level and therefore is used for short-distance communication systems. This type of communication is referred to as the intracity communication and used for communications within large cities. The 1.3 μm band signal light is also used for communications between each base station and homes. Such a system is referred to as an access system. To receive these two types of signal light having the different wavelength bands (or signal light with the two wavelength bands), optical communication systems have used two waveguide type semiconductor photodiodes each adapted for signal light with one of the wavelength bands. A well-known example of a conventional waveguide type photoreceptor device is configured such that an n conductive type InGaAsP light guide layer, an intrinsic InGaAs light absorption layer, a p conductive type InGaAsP light guide layer, and a p conductive type InP cladding layer are sequentially laminated onto one another over an n conductive type InP substrate (n conductive type, p conductive type, and intrinsic semiconductor are hereinafter expressed as “n-n”, “p-”, and “i-”, respectively). The n-InGaAsP light guide layer has a thickness of 1.7 μm and a bandgap wavelength of 11.3 μm, while the p-InGaAsP light guide layer has a thickness of 0.3 μm and a bandgap wavelength of 1.3 μm (see, for example, paragraphs [0024] to [0026] and FIG. 1 of Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2001-24211). Another well-known example (a waveguide type semiconductor photoreceptor device used for optical communications systems) is configured such that a waveguide mesa made up of an n-InP cladding layer, an n+-InAlGaAs guide layer, an i-InGaAs light absorption layer, a p+-InAlGaAs guide layer, a p+-InP cladding layer, and a p+-InGaAs contact layer is formed on a semi-insulative InP substrate. The n+-InAlGaAs guide layer has a layer thickness of 0.8 μm, the i-InGaAs light absorption layer has a layer thickness of 0.5 μm, and the p+-InAlGaAs guide layer has a layer thickness of 0.1 μm (see, for example, paragraph and FIG. 13 of Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2002-203984). Still another well-known example (a 1.5-μm band 10-Gb/s waveguide type PIN-PD used for optical communications networks having a communication capacity on the order of gigabits or more) is of a mesa type having an InGaAlAs double core structure and includes a light absorption layer of In0.53Ga0.47As. See, for example, “Characteristics of 1.5-μm Band 10-Gb/s Waveguide Type PIN-PD”, Manuscript for the 50th Lecture Meeting of the Japan Society of Applied Physics, Kanagawa University, pp. 1246, 27p-H-15, Spring 2003. Conventional waveguide type photoreceptor devices are each configured of a photodiode adapted for signal light with a single wavelength band used by a target optical communications system. With an increase in the amount of transmission in optical communications systems, however, a communications network currently established for intracity communication may also be used for intercity communication. In such a case, the above conventional arrangement in which optical components (such as photoreceptor devices) are adapted only for a single wavelength complicates the configuration of each communication device in optical communications systems. Furthermore, optical components such as waveguide type photodiodes (hereinafter referred to as waveguide type PDs) adapted for signal light with a single wavelength have been difficult to operate at high speed with high sensitivity when they receive signal light with two wavelengths. A waveguide type PD has a structure in which light is confined within the waveguide portion made up of a light absorption layer and light guide layers sandwiching the light absorption layer, and the light confined within the waveguide portion is absorbed and converted into an electric signal while the light is propagating through the light guide layers and the light absorption layer. Since the waveguide type PD confines light within its waveguide portion and absorbs it by utilizing the differences between the refractive indices of the light absorption layer, the light guide layers, and the cladding layer, the appropriate refractive index of each layer varies depending on the wavelength of the signal light which the waveguide type PD is designed to receive. The device structure of a waveguide type PD for a single wavelength band can be optimized according to the wavelength band of the light to be received. A waveguide type PD for more than one wavelength, however, may have a problem in that it may have good sensitivity characteristics at one wavelength but have very bad sensitivity characteristics at another wavelength. It may even happen that the waveguide type PD has undesirable sensitivity characteristics over the entire wavelength band. For example, since increasing the differences between the refractive indices of the light guide layers and the cladding layers increases the amount of light confined within the waveguide, it may be a good idea to set the light guide layers such that they have as long a composition wavelength as possible selected from among those at which the bandgap signal light can transmit through the light guide layers. To accommodate more than one wavelength, however, the light guide layers must have a composition wavelength at which signal light with the shortest wavelength band can transmit through them. If the composition wavelength of the light guide layers is determined based on a wavelength in the shortest wavelength band of the signal light, the sensitivity of the waveguide type PD for the other wavelength bands may considerably degrade. If the n-light guide layer and the p-light guide layer sandwiching the light absorption layer have the same layer thickness (that is, these guide layers are symmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer), the mode of the light propagating within the waveguide stabilizes and thereby the amount of light propagating through the light guide layers increases, causing the problem of reduced photoelectric conversion efficiency. To solve this problem, the light guide layers may be set to have different layer thicknesses (they may be set asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer). Even with such a waveguide structure in which the light guide layers are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer, however, a waveguide type PD for more than one wavelength may have very bad sensitivity characteristics at some wavelength through it may have good sensitivity characteristics at a different wavelength. Furthermore, with a simple asymmetrical waveguide structure, the waveguide type PD may have degraded sensitivity characteristics even for signal light with a single wavelength band in some cases. Thus, it is difficult to form a waveguide type PD having a waveguide structure in which the light guide layers are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer in such a way that the waveguide type PD can operate at high speed with high sensitivity for both (signal light with) a first wavelength band and (signal light with) a second wavelength band (or another wavelength band) at the same time. In some cases, such a waveguide type PD is difficult to operate at high speed with high sensitivity even when it receives signal light with a single wavelength. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been devised to solve the above problems. It is, therefore, a first object of the present invention to provide a waveguide type photoreceptor device whose light guide layers are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer and which can operate at high speed with high sensitivity. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a waveguide type photoreceptor device comprising: a semi-insulative semiconductor substrate; and an optical waveguide layer disposed on said semiconductor substrate, having a first cladding layer of a first conductive type connected to a first electrode, a first light guide layer of the first conductive type, a light absorption layer, a second light guide layer of a second conductive type, and a second cladding layer of the second conductive type connected to a second electrode laminated onto one another over said semiconductor substrate in that order, wherein the ratio of the layer thickness of the thicker one of the first light guide layer and the second guide layer to that of the thinner one is between 1.3 and 5 both inclusive. Accordingly, A waveguide type photoreceptor device of the present invention can operate at high speed while exhibiting high light reception sensitivity for signal light with predetermined signal light wavelength bands, making it possible to easily provide a waveguide type photoreceptor device whose light reception sensitivity is high for signal light with predetermined signal light wavelength bands and which can operate at high speed. Hence, there can be constructed simplify optical communications systems, allowing their capacity to be increased at low cost. Other objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the detailed description given hereinafter. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and specific embodiments are given by way of illustration only since various changes and modifications within the scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a waveguide type photoreceptor device according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of the waveguide type photoreceptor device of FIG. 1 taken along line II-II. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the waveguide type photoreceptor device of FIG. 1 taken along line III-III. FIG. 4 is a graph showing how the sensitivity of the waveguide type photoreceptor device of the present embodiment depends on the thicknesses of the light guide layers. FIG. 5 is a graph showing how the sensitivity of the waveguide type photoreceptor device of the present embodiment depends on the wavelength of received light. In all figures, the substantially same elements are given the same reference numbers. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS A waveguide type photoreceptor device according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention will be described below using as an example a 40-Gbps buried waveguide type PIN-PD for 1.3-μm and 1.55-μm bands used as a photoreceptor device for optical communications systems. First Embodiment FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a waveguide type photoreceptor device according to an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 1, the light receiving portion 12 of the front cleaved end face of a waveguide type PIN-PD 10 receives signal light 14 indicated by the arrow. The signal light 14 has two wavelength bands: a 1.3 μm band (a first signal wavelength band) whose center wavelength λ1 is 1.3 μm; and a 1.55 μm band (a second signal wavelength band) whose center wavelength λ2 is 1.55 μm. On the top side of the PIN-PD 10 is disposed a waveguide mesa 16 including a waveguide which receives the signal light through the light receiving portion 12 of the front cleaved end face. A p-electrode 18 is disposed on the top surface of the waveguide mesa 16, while an n-electrode 20 is disposed on both sides of the waveguide mesa 16 and the top surface of the PIN-PD 10. An insulating film 22 coats portions of the top surface other than those on which the p-electrode 18 and the n-electrode 20 are disposed. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of the waveguide type photoreceptor device of FIG. 1 taken along line II-II, that is, a cross-sectional view as viewed in the signal light traveling direction (the direction of the waveguide). FIG. 3, on the other hand, is a cross-sectional view of the waveguide type photoreceptor device of FIG. 1 taken along line III-III, that is, a cross-sectional view as viewed perpendicular to the signal light traveling direction (the direction of the waveguide). It should be noted that in these figures, like numerals are used to denote like or corresponding components. Referring to FIG. 2, an n-InGaAs contact layer 26 is formed on a semi-insulative Fe-doped InP substrate 24 (a semi-insulative semiconductor substrate). On the n-contact layer 26 is disposed the waveguide mesa 16 which receives the signal light 14 through the light receiving portion 12. The waveguide mesa 16 comprises a waveguide 16a and an Fe-doped InP blocking layer 38. The waveguide 16a (an optical waveguide layer) is made up of: an n-InP cladding layer 28 (a first cladding layer) disposed on the surface of the n-contact layer 26; an n-InGaAsP light guide layer 30 (a first light guide layer) disposed on the surface of the center portion of the n-cladding layer 28; an i-InGaAs light absorption layer 32 disposed on the n-light guide layer 30; a p-InGaAsP light guide layer 34 (a second light guide layer) disposed on the surface of the light absorption layer 32; a p-InP cladding layer 36 (a second cladding layer) disposed on the surface of the p-light guide layer 34; and a p-InGaAs contact layer 40 disposed on the surface of the p-cladding layer 36. Thus, these layers are sequentially laminated onto one another. The Fe-doped InP blocking layer 38 (a low refractive index layer) is disposed on both sides of the waveguide 16a other than the p-contact layer 40 and constitutes the sides of the waveguide mesa 16. The blocking layer 38 disposed on both sides of the waveguide 16a may be formed of a material whose refractive index is lower than that of the light absorption layer 32 to increase the difference between the refractive indices of the blocking layer 38 and the waveguide 16a. This arrangement can increase the light confinement efficiency and thereby enhance the light reception sensitivity of the photoreceptor device. Furthermore, the p-electrode 18 is disposed on the surface of the p-contact layer 40, and the n-electrode 20 is disposed such that it covers both sides of the blocking layer 38 and is in contact with the surface of the n-contact layer 26. The insulating film 22 is disposed on the portion of the surface of the waveguide mesa 16 not covered with the p-electrode 18 and the n-electrode 20. Thus, the p-electrode 18 and the n-electrode 20 are electrically separated from each other by the insulating film 22. Referring now to FIG. 3, the Fe-doped InP blocking layer 38 having a cleaved end face 38a is disposed on the light receiving side (the front end) of the waveguide 16a. The Fe-doped InP blocking layer 38 is also disposed on the rear side of the waveguide 16a. That is, the waveguide 16a is buried in the Fe-doped InP blocking layer 38, and the wafer is cleaved at the blocking layer 38 to produce a chip. The waveguide 16a receives signal light through the light receiving portion 12 of the cleaved end face of the blocking layer 38. According to the present embodiment, the length of the waveguide 16a in the longitudinal direction, that is, the light traveling direction is 16 μm. The layer thicknesses of the n-cladding layer 28 and the p-cladding layer 36 are set to 1.5 μm and 0.8 μm, respectively. The layer thicknesses of the n-light guide layer 30 and the p-light guide layer 34 are set to 0.70 μm and 0.35 μm, respectively. Thus, the light guide layers have different layer thicknesses (they are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer 32). The ratio of the layer thickness of the n-light guide layer 30 (the thicker light layer) to that of the p-light guide layer 34 is 2.0. When the waveguide has an asymmetrical structure with respect to the light absorption layer as described above, the mode of the light propagating within the waveguide becomes asymmetrical. As a result, the light is diffused to the light absorption layer and thereby the amount of light absorbed by the light absorption layer increases, making it possible to provide a waveguide type photoreceptor device having high sensitivity over a wide wavelength band. The wavelength band can be widened by reducing the carrier travel time. However, since the light absorption layer 32 absorbs less light with decreasing thickness, it is appropriate that the layer thickness da of the light absorption layer 32 is set such that 0.3 μm≦da≦0.5 μm. According to the present embodiment, da is set such that da=0.5 μm. InP used as material for the n-cladding layer 28 and the p-cladding layer 36 has a composition wavelength (λa) of 0.92. Further, the composition wavelength λg of InGaAsP used as material for the n-light guide layer 30 and the p-light guide layer 34 is set such that it is larger than the refractive index (0.92) of the material of the n-cladding layer 28 and the p-cladding layer 36 and furthermore the light guide layers are transparent with respect to a 1.3 μm band light, that is, λa<λg<λ1, or preferably λa<λg<0.965 λ1. According to the present embodiment, InGaAsP having a composition wavelength (λg) of 1.2 μm is used. The n type impurities added in each n type layer are Group IV elements such as Si and S, while the p type impurities added in each p type layer are Group II elements such as Be and Zn. No impurities are added in the light absorption layer 32, which is an intrinsic semiconductor layer. The impurity concentration of each layer is set as follows. The n-contact layer 26 has an impurity concentration of 5×1018 cm−3; the n-cladding layer 28, 5×1017 cm−3; the n-light guide layer 30, 5×1017 cm−3; the p-light guide layer 34, 5×1015 cm−3 to 5×1017 cm−3 (changed stepwise); the p-cladding layer 36, 1×1018 cm−3; and the p-contact layer 40, 1×1019 cm−3. Therefore, in the waveguide 16a, the p-light guide layer 34, the n-light guide layer 30, and the light absorption layer 32 sandwiched between them form a p/i/n junction. A brief description will be made below of a method for manufacturing the PIN-PD 10. First of all, the n-InGaAs contact layer 26, the n-InP cladding layer 28, the n-InGaAsP light guide layer 30, the i-InGaAs light absorption layer 32, the p-InGaAsP light guide layer 34, the p-InP cladding layer 36, and the p-InGaAs contact layer 40 are laminated onto one another over the semi-insulative Fe-doped InP substrate 24 in that order. These layers are formed by a chemical vapor deposition method, for example, the MOCVD method such that they have predetermined thicknesses. Then, an SiO2 film is formed on the surface of the p-InGaAs contact layer 40, which is the top layer among these laminated layers, producing an (SiO2) insulating film pattern such that an insulating film is formed on the portion corresponding to the top surface of the waveguide 16a to be formed and furthermore an opening is formed therearound. This insulating pattern is used as a mask to form the waveguide 16a. At that time, etching is carried out stepwise. Specifically, the etching is (partially) stopped when the n-InP cladding layer 28 has been fully exposed, forming the front and both side portions of the waveguide 16a. Then, the etching is (completely) stopped when the InP substrate 24 has been exposed, forming the rear portion of the waveguide 16a. The damaged layers formed at the time of the dry etching are removed by wet etching, and the waveguide 16a is buried in Fe-doped InP through burying growth, forming the blocking layer 38. Then, after forming an insulating film, the waveguide mesa 16 is formed by wet etching. After that, the n-electrode 20, the insulating film 22, and the p-electrode 18 are formed. After that, the rear surface of the InP substrate 24 is etched to an appropriate depth and a rear metal for bonding is formed, completing the wafer process. In the above PIN-PD 10 designed for both a 1.3 μm band and a 1.55 μm band, the layer thicknesses of the n-light guide layer 30 and the p-light guide layer 34 are set to 0.70 μm and 0.35 μm, respectively, as described above. Description will be made below of how to determine the layer thicknesses of the n-light guide layer 30 and the p-light guide layer 34. We conducted a simulation for signal light with the two wavelengths 1.3 μm and 1.55 μm, as follows. The length of the waveguide 16a in the longitudinal direction was set to 16 μm and the sum of the layer thicknesses of the n-light guide layer 30 and the p-light guide layer 34 was set to 1.05 μm. With other device parameters set to certain values, we obtained the dependence of the sensitivity on the layer thicknesses of the light guide layers for each signal light wavelength by use of BPM (beam propagation method) when the layer thickness of the p-light guide layer 34 was changed from 0.1 μm to 0.525 μm. FIG. 4 is a graph showing how the sensitivity of the waveguide type photoreceptor device of the present embodiment depends on the thicknesses of the light guide layers. In the figure, curve a represents the dependence of the sensitivity on the thickness of the p-light guide layer for light with the wavelength 1.3 μm, while curve b represents the dependence of the sensitivity on the thickness of the p-light guide layer for light with the wavelength 1.55 μm. In both cases, as the layer thickness of the p-light guide layer increases from 0.1 μm, the sensitivity increases until each maximum value is reached and then the sensitivity slightly decreases, as indicated by curves a and b in FIG. 4. The sensitivity for the light with the wavelength 1.3 μm indicated by curve a is maximized when the layer thickness of the p-light guide layer is approximately 0.35 μm; the maximum sensitivity value is approximately 0.9 A/W. The sensitivity for the light with the wavelength 1.55 μm indicated by curve b, on the other hand, is maximized when the layer thickness of the p-light guide layer is approximately 0.3 μm; the maximum sensitivity value is approximately 0.95 A/W. These maximum sensitivity values are equal to or higher than those of a photoreceptor device configured such that the optical waveguide has a symmetrical structure in which the light guide layers sandwiching the light absorption layer have the same thickness and the layer thickness of the n- or p-light guide layer is optimized for light with the wavelengths 1.3 μm and 1.55 μm. Let d1 and d2 denote the layer thicknesses of the p-light guide layer and the n-light guide layer (d2≧d1) in μm, respectively, and r denote the ratio of d2 to d1 (r=d2/d1). In such a case, since d2+d1=1.05 μm, the value of r changes with the layer thickness d1 of the p-light guide layer, as follows. In FIG. 4, when the layer thickness d1 of the p-light guide layer is 0.1 μm, r=9.5; when d1 is 0.2 μm, r=4.25; when d1 is 0.3 μm, r=2.5; when d1 is 0.4 μm, r=1.625; and when d1 is 0.5 μm, r=1.1. If a specification requires a sensitivity level of 0.7 A/W or more, the value of r must be set such that 1.3≦r≦5 (that is, 0.46 μm≧d1≧0.175 μm). Preferably, the value of r may be set such that 1.625≦r≦3.2 (that is, 0.4 μm≧d1≧0.25 μm), which will produce a photoreceptor device having high sensitivity for light with both wavelengths 1.55 μm and 1.3 μm. According to the present embodiment, r is set to 2.0, which is within the above range. It should be noted that according to the present embodiment, the sum of the layer thicknesses of the n-light guide layer 30 and the p-light guide layer 34 is set to 1.05 μm (and a simulation is carried out using this value). However, the sum of the layer thicknesses need not necessarily be set to this particular value. For example, the same effect can be obtained when the sum of the layer thicknesses of the n-light guide layer 30 and the p-light guide layer 34 is set to any value between 0.9 and 1.2 μm. FIG. 5 is a graph showing how the sensitivity of the waveguide type photoreceptor device of the present embodiment depends on the wavelength of received light. For comparison, FIG. 5 also shows how the sensitivity of a waveguide type photoreceptor device in which the n-light guide layer and the p-light guide layer sandwiching the light absorption layer have the same layer thickness depends on the wavelength of received light. In the figure, curve a is the sensitivity curve of the waveguide type photoreceptor device according to the present invention in which the layer thicknesses of the p-light guide layer and the n-light guide layer are respectively set to 350 nm (0.35 μm) and 700 nm (0.70 μm), that is, r=2. The curve was obtained by calculating the sensitivity of the photoreceptor device when the wavelength of the incident light is changed from 1.3 μm to 1.55 μm. Curves b, c, and d are sensitivity curves (with respect to the wavelength of the received light) of the waveguide type photoreceptor device in which the n-light guide layer and the p-light guide layer sandwiching the light absorption layer have the same layer thickness. Specifically, curve b indicates the sensitivity when the layer thicknesses of the p-light guide layer and the n-light guide layer are both set to 400 nm (0.4 μm); curve c indicates the sensitivity when the thicknesses are set to 500 nm (0.5 μm); and curve d indicates the sensitivity when the thicknesses are set to 600 nm (0.6 μm). The sensitivity represented by curve b is maximized when the wavelength of the incident light is 1.3 μm within this wavelength range (from 1.3 μm to 1.55 μm), and the sensitivity decreases with increasing wavelength. The sensitivity represented by curve c is maximized when the wavelength of the incident light is 1.4 μm, and the sensitivity decreases as the wavelength increases or decreases from this value. The sensitivity represented by curve d is maximized when the wavelength of the incident light is 1.55 μm within this wavelength range, and the sensitivity decreases with decreasing wavelength. The sensitivity represented by curve a is higher than those represented by curves b, c, and d over the entire wavelength range from 1.3 μm to 1.55 μm. Further, points A and B indicate measured values of the sensitivity of an experimentally produced photoreceptor device in which the layer thicknesses of the p-light guide layer and the n-light guide layer are set to 350 nm (0.35 μm) and 700 nm (0.70 μm), respectively. Specifically, point A indicates the sensitivity value for light with the wavelength 1.3 μm (it is approximately 0.82). Point B indicates the sensitivity value for light with the wavelength 1.55 μm (it is approximately 0.9). As can be appreciated from these two measured sensitivity values indicated by points A and B, the calculated sensitivity values approximately coincide with the measured sensitivity values. That is, a single photoreceptor device can have high sensitivity for multiwavelength signal light with the wavelengths 1.3 μm and 1.55 μm. Thus, the n-light guide layer 30 and the p-light guide layer 34 sandwiching the light absorption layer 32 are set to have different layer thicknesses (these guide layers are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer 32). Furthermore, the ratio of the layer thickness of the n-light guide layer to that of the p-light guide layer, denoted by r, is set such that 1.3≦r≦5, preferably 1.625≦r≦3.2. With this arrangement, it is possible to provide a waveguide type photoreceptor device having high sensitivity for multiwavelength signal light with the wavelengths 1.3 μm and 1.55 μm. It should be noted that in the above simulation, the layer thickness of the p-light guide layer is decreased to provide an asymmetrical structure in which the light guide layers are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer. However, the layer thickness of the n-light guide layer may be decreased to provide such an asymmetrical structure, producing the same results and effects. The present embodiment was described using as an example a waveguide type photoreceptor device having high sensitivity for multiwavelength signal light with the wavelengths 1.3 μm and 1.55 μm. However, as can be seen from FIG. 5, the photoreceptor device having the waveguide structure in which the light guide layers are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer has higher sensitivity than the photoreceptor device having the waveguide structure in which the light guide layers are symmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer, and the sensitivity of the former is maximized at a wavelength of 1.4 μm. This means that the waveguide type photoreceptor device having the asymmetrical waveguide structure has high sensitivity for both single-wavelength signal light and multiwavelength signal light. Therefore, the ratio of the layer thickness of the n-light guide layer to that of the p-light guide layer, denoted by r in FIG. 4, may be set such that 1.3≦r≦5, preferably 1.625≦r≦3.2 to provide a photoreceptor device having high sensitivity for single-wavelength signal light. The present invention was described as applied to a buried waveguide type PIN-PD formed of InGaAsP material. However, AlInGaAsP material or GaInNAs material may be used instead of InGaAsP material. Since these materials are mixed crystals made up of a plurality of elements, their lattice constant and bandgap can be changed, allowing the bandgap to be changed over a very wide range using the same substrate material and lattice constant. This makes it possible to increase the degree of freedom in design and provide a photoreceptor device having higher sensitivity. InGaAsP materials have been studied and developed over the years. They are now the most common materials for photoreceptor devices for communications and provide stable characteristics. On the other hand, photoreceptor devices may be formed using AlInGaAsP materials such that the cladding layers, the light guide layers, and the light absorption layer are formed of, for example, InAlAs, InGaAlAs, and InGaAs, respectively, to obtain a predetermined refractive index difference, producing the same effect. Further, GaInNAs materials may be used to form photoreceptor devices. Their composition ratio may be changed so as to obtain a predetermined refractive index difference and produce the same effect. PDs formed of GaInNAs materials can provide a wider range of bandgap wavelengths than PDs formed of InGaAsP materials or AlInGaAsP materials. As described above, the waveguide type PIN-PD of the present embodiment is configured such that the n-light guide layer 30 and the p-light guide layer 34 sandwiching the light absorption layer 32 are set to have different layer thicknesses (these guide layers are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer 32). Furthermore, the ratio of the layer thickness of the thicker one of the p-light guide layer and the n-light guide layer to that of the thinner one, denoted by r, is set such that 1.3≦r≦5, preferably 1.625≦r≦3.2. With this arrangement, it is possible to provide a waveguide type photoreceptor device having high sensitivity for multiwavelength signal light with the wavelengths 1.3 μm and 1.55 μm. Such a waveguide type photoreceptor device can operate at high speed while exhibiting high light reception sensitivity for multiband signal light with a 1.3 μm band and a 1.55 μm band. Thus, it is possible to easily provide a waveguide type photoreceptor device which can operate at high speed with high light reception sensitivity for signal light with a plurality of wavelength bands. This can simplify optical communications systems, allowing their capacity to be increased at low cost. Thus, the photoreceptor device of the present embodiment has a waveguide structure in which the light guide layers are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer. Furthermore, the ratio of the layer thickness of the thicker one of the p-light guide layer and the n-light guide layer to that of the thinner one, denoted by r, is set such that 1.3≦r≦5, preferably 1.625≦r≦3.2. Such a photoreceptor device has higher sensitivity than photoreceptor devices having a waveguide structure in which the light guide layers are symmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer. It has higher sensitivity even for single-wavelength signal light. Therefore, it is possible to provide a photoreceptor device having high sensitivity for single-wavelength signal light as well as multiwavelength signal light. Further, according to the present embodiment, the thickness da of the light absorption layer is set such that 0.3 μm≦da≦0.5 μm. This leads to a reduced carrier travel time and widened wavelength band, making it possible to easily provide a wideband photoreceptor device. As a result, it is possible to widen the bandwidth of communications systems as well as easily increasing their capacity. Still further, the photoreceptor device of the present embodiment is configured such that the waveguide has formed on its sides an Fe-doped InP blocking layer which has a lower refractive index than the i-InGaAs light absorption layer. This arrangement can increase the light confinement efficiency and thereby enhance the light reception sensitivity of the photoreceptor device, making it possible to provide a waveguide type PIN-PD having a simple structure and exhibiting high light reception sensitivity. Still further, the photoreceptor device of the present embodiment described above is configured such that the light guide layers sandwiching the light absorption layer have different layer thicknesses (they are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer) to make asymmetrical the mode of the light propagating within the waveguide and thereby increase the sensitivity. However, the waveguide may be configured such that the light guide layers sandwiching the light absorption layer have different refractive indices to produce the same effect. Furthermore, the waveguide may be configured such that the light guide layers sandwiching the light absorption layer have different layer thicknesses and different refractive indices, also producing the same effect. The present embodiment was described using as an example a PIN-PD. However, the present invention may also be applied to photoreceptor devices which amplify a received signal therein, such as devices having a function to amplify an electric signal converted from received light (for example, avalanche photodiodes (APDs) having an intensifying layer therein), and photoreceptor devices having on the front face of its light receiving portion an SOA (semiconductor optical amplifier) which has a function to amplify a light signal. These photoreceptor devices can also produce the same effect. AlInGaAsP materials are especially used to produce APDs. An APD formed of AlInGaAsP produces low noise when amplifying a signal, as compared to an APD formed of InGaAsP materials, making it possible to form an APD having high light reception sensitivity. It goes without saying that modules containing the above photoreceptor devices can also produce the same effect. Thus, the waveguide type photoreceptor device of the present invention is useful as an optical communication device for optical communications systems such as networks for intracity communications and networks for intercity communications. Particularly, the present invention is advantageous when applied to waveguide type photoreceptor devices which must operate at high speed with high sensitivity in optical communications systems using signal light with a plurality of wavelength bands. While the presently preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described. It is to be understood these disclosures are for the purpose of illustration and that various changes and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a waveguide type photoreceptor device, and more particularly to a waveguide type photoreceptor device used for optical communications systems, etc. 2. Description of the Related Art The capacity of communications systems has been increased to satisfy the dramatically increasing demand for communications. Accordingly, there has been a need for higher-speed, higher-efficiency yet lower-cost and smaller optical communications devices. The transmission systems for optical communications use two types of signal light having different wavelength bands (or signal light with two wavelength bands). One is a 1.3 μm (wavelength) band signal light whose center wavelength is 1.3 μm, and the other is a 1.55 μm (wavelength) band signal whose center wavelength is 1.55 μm. The 1.55 μm band signal light causes only a small optical fiber loss and therefore is used for long-distance communication systems. This type of communication is referred to as the intercity communication (trunk system) and used for communications between large cities such as Tokyo and Osaka. The 1.3 μm band signal light, on the other hand, causes a large optical fiber loss but exhibits a low wavelength dispersion level and therefore is used for short-distance communication systems. This type of communication is referred to as the intracity communication and used for communications within large cities. The 1.3 μm band signal light is also used for communications between each base station and homes. Such a system is referred to as an access system. To receive these two types of signal light having the different wavelength bands (or signal light with the two wavelength bands), optical communication systems have used two waveguide type semiconductor photodiodes each adapted for signal light with one of the wavelength bands. A well-known example of a conventional waveguide type photoreceptor device is configured such that an n conductive type InGaAsP light guide layer, an intrinsic InGaAs light absorption layer, a p conductive type InGaAsP light guide layer, and a p conductive type InP cladding layer are sequentially laminated onto one another over an n conductive type InP substrate (n conductive type, p conductive type, and intrinsic semiconductor are hereinafter expressed as “n-n”, “p-”, and “i-”, respectively). The n-InGaAsP light guide layer has a thickness of 1.7 μm and a bandgap wavelength of 11.3 μm, while the p-InGaAsP light guide layer has a thickness of 0.3 μm and a bandgap wavelength of 1.3 μm (see, for example, paragraphs [0024] to [0026] and FIG. 1 of Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2001-24211). Another well-known example (a waveguide type semiconductor photoreceptor device used for optical communications systems) is configured such that a waveguide mesa made up of an n-InP cladding layer, an n + -InAlGaAs guide layer, an i-InGaAs light absorption layer, a p + -InAlGaAs guide layer, a p + -InP cladding layer, and a p + -InGaAs contact layer is formed on a semi-insulative InP substrate. The n + -InAlGaAs guide layer has a layer thickness of 0.8 μm, the i-InGaAs light absorption layer has a layer thickness of 0.5 μm, and the p + -InAlGaAs guide layer has a layer thickness of 0.1 μm (see, for example, paragraph and FIG. 13 of Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2002-203984). Still another well-known example (a 1.5-μm band 10-Gb/s waveguide type PIN-PD used for optical communications networks having a communication capacity on the order of gigabits or more) is of a mesa type having an InGaAlAs double core structure and includes a light absorption layer of In 0.53 Ga 0.47 As. See, for example, “Characteristics of 1.5-μm Band 10-Gb/s Waveguide Type PIN-PD”, Manuscript for the 50 th Lecture Meeting of the Japan Society of Applied Physics, Kanagawa University, pp. 1246, 27p-H-15, Spring 2003. Conventional waveguide type photoreceptor devices are each configured of a photodiode adapted for signal light with a single wavelength band used by a target optical communications system. With an increase in the amount of transmission in optical communications systems, however, a communications network currently established for intracity communication may also be used for intercity communication. In such a case, the above conventional arrangement in which optical components (such as photoreceptor devices) are adapted only for a single wavelength complicates the configuration of each communication device in optical communications systems. Furthermore, optical components such as waveguide type photodiodes (hereinafter referred to as waveguide type PDs) adapted for signal light with a single wavelength have been difficult to operate at high speed with high sensitivity when they receive signal light with two wavelengths. A waveguide type PD has a structure in which light is confined within the waveguide portion made up of a light absorption layer and light guide layers sandwiching the light absorption layer, and the light confined within the waveguide portion is absorbed and converted into an electric signal while the light is propagating through the light guide layers and the light absorption layer. Since the waveguide type PD confines light within its waveguide portion and absorbs it by utilizing the differences between the refractive indices of the light absorption layer, the light guide layers, and the cladding layer, the appropriate refractive index of each layer varies depending on the wavelength of the signal light which the waveguide type PD is designed to receive. The device structure of a waveguide type PD for a single wavelength band can be optimized according to the wavelength band of the light to be received. A waveguide type PD for more than one wavelength, however, may have a problem in that it may have good sensitivity characteristics at one wavelength but have very bad sensitivity characteristics at another wavelength. It may even happen that the waveguide type PD has undesirable sensitivity characteristics over the entire wavelength band. For example, since increasing the differences between the refractive indices of the light guide layers and the cladding layers increases the amount of light confined within the waveguide, it may be a good idea to set the light guide layers such that they have as long a composition wavelength as possible selected from among those at which the bandgap signal light can transmit through the light guide layers. To accommodate more than one wavelength, however, the light guide layers must have a composition wavelength at which signal light with the shortest wavelength band can transmit through them. If the composition wavelength of the light guide layers is determined based on a wavelength in the shortest wavelength band of the signal light, the sensitivity of the waveguide type PD for the other wavelength bands may considerably degrade. If the n-light guide layer and the p-light guide layer sandwiching the light absorption layer have the same layer thickness (that is, these guide layers are symmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer), the mode of the light propagating within the waveguide stabilizes and thereby the amount of light propagating through the light guide layers increases, causing the problem of reduced photoelectric conversion efficiency. To solve this problem, the light guide layers may be set to have different layer thicknesses (they may be set asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer). Even with such a waveguide structure in which the light guide layers are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer, however, a waveguide type PD for more than one wavelength may have very bad sensitivity characteristics at some wavelength through it may have good sensitivity characteristics at a different wavelength. Furthermore, with a simple asymmetrical waveguide structure, the waveguide type PD may have degraded sensitivity characteristics even for signal light with a single wavelength band in some cases. Thus, it is difficult to form a waveguide type PD having a waveguide structure in which the light guide layers are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer in such a way that the waveguide type PD can operate at high speed with high sensitivity for both (signal light with) a first wavelength band and (signal light with) a second wavelength band (or another wavelength band) at the same time. In some cases, such a waveguide type PD is difficult to operate at high speed with high sensitivity even when it receives signal light with a single wavelength. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention has been devised to solve the above problems. It is, therefore, a first object of the present invention to provide a waveguide type photoreceptor device whose light guide layers are asymmetrical to each other about the light absorption layer and which can operate at high speed with high sensitivity. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a waveguide type photoreceptor device comprising: a semi-insulative semiconductor substrate; and an optical waveguide layer disposed on said semiconductor substrate, having a first cladding layer of a first conductive type connected to a first electrode, a first light guide layer of the first conductive type, a light absorption layer, a second light guide layer of a second conductive type, and a second cladding layer of the second conductive type connected to a second electrode laminated onto one another over said semiconductor substrate in that order, wherein the ratio of the layer thickness of the thicker one of the first light guide layer and the second guide layer to that of the thinner one is between 1.3 and 5 both inclusive. Accordingly, A waveguide type photoreceptor device of the present invention can operate at high speed while exhibiting high light reception sensitivity for signal light with predetermined signal light wavelength bands, making it possible to easily provide a waveguide type photoreceptor device whose light reception sensitivity is high for signal light with predetermined signal light wavelength bands and which can operate at high speed. Hence, there can be constructed simplify optical communications systems, allowing their capacity to be increased at low cost. Other objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the detailed description given hereinafter. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and specific embodiments are given by way of illustration only since various changes and modifications within the scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. | 20040615 | 20060418 | 20050303 | 65305.0 | 0 | RUDE, TIMOTHY L | Waveguide type photoreceptor device with particular thickness ratio | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,803 | ACCEPTED | Drawworks apparatus | A drawworks having a main drum spool, a main drum shaft which passes through and is rotatably and concentrically supported by the main drum spool, an auxiliary drum spool, respective drum shafts passing through and rotatably and concentrically supported by the drum spools in a manner in which wireline pull from the spools is isolated therefrom, a clutch mechanism rotatably connected to the shafts and brake mechanisms respectively connected to the main drum spool and the auxiliary drum spool outside the working area of the drawworks. | 1. A drawworks apparatus comprising: a frame having a working area within inner surfaces thereof; a main drum spool for raising and lowering items down a well bore via a length of cable wound thereon, said main drum spool extending through and rotatably supported by said frame outside the working area thereof by a first set of bearings; a main drum shaft which passes through and is rotatably and concentrically supported by said main drum spool in a manner in which said main drum shaft is isolated from wireline pull from said main drum spool; an auxiliary drum spool for raising and lowering items down a well bore via a length of cable wound thereon, said auxiliary drum spool extending through and rotatably supported by said frame outside the working area thereof by a second set of bearings; an auxiliary drum shaft which passes through and is rotatably and concentrically supported by said auxiliary drum spool in a manner in which said auxiliary drum shaft is isolated from wireline pull from said auxiliary drum spool; a drive mechanism for rotating said main drum spool and said auxiliary drum spool, said drive mechanism providing a driving force which is input through said auxiliary drum shaft via an input chain drive, said main drum spool having a clutch for engaging said drive mechanism located outside the working area of said frame and externally separated from said input chain drive; and a first brake assembly connected to said main drum spool for reducing the rate of rotation of said main drum spool during operation of said drawworks. 2. The drawworks apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a second brake assembly connected to said auxiliary drum spool for reducing the rate of rotation of said auxiliary drum spool, said second brake assembly being connected to said auxiliary drum spool. 3. The drawworks apparatus of claim 2, wherein said second brake assembly is connected to said auxiliary drum spool via a brake flange mounted outside the working area of said frame. 4. The drawworks apparatus of claim 3, wherein said second brake assembly comprises a band brake. 5. The drawworks apparatus of claim 1, wherein said first brake assembly comprises a band brake. 6. The drawworks apparatus of claim 5, wherein said band brake is connected to said main drum spool via a pair of brake flanges mounted outside the working area of said frame. 7. The drawworks apparatus of claim 6, wherein said band brake is configured for actuation via a level which applies an adjustable braking force sufficient to reduce the rate of rotation of said main drum spool. 8. The drawworks apparatus of claim 7, wherein said band brake includes a brake band having at least one brake block mounted thereon, said brake band being connected to a rotatable brake shaft at a live end thereof via a first linkage assembly and to said frame at a dead end thereof via a second linkage assembly. 9. The drawworks apparatus of claim 8, wherein said first linkage assembly comprises a bracket and a link mechanism having a plurality of lugs thereon for connecting said bracket to said brake shaft in such a manner that prevents said brake shaft from rotating past center. 10. The drawworks apparatus of claim 9, wherein said second linkage assembly is adjustable and comprises a substantially tubular brake beam member which extends through and connected to said frame via a pair of anchors, a bell crank which is rotatably connected to each one of said anchors, and an equalizer system rotatably connected at one end to said bell crank and at another end to the dead end of said brake band. 11. The drawworks apparatus of claim 10, wherein said equalizer system comprises a threaded trunnion block sized for receipt by said bell crank, a trunnion pin having a drilled hole therein for receiving an equalizer screw, said trunnion pin being sized for receipt through respective concentric bored holes in said trunnion block and said bell crack, said drilled hole resulting in said trunnion pin being loaded in shear only. 12. The drawworks apparatus of claim 11, wherein said equalizer screw is rotatably manipulatable to adjust the linkage between said brake band and said second linkage system. 13. The drawworks apparatus of claim 1, wherein said drive mechanism comprises a chain drive mechanism. 14. The drawworks apparatus of claim 1, wherein said main drum shaft and said auxiliary drum shaft are rotatably mounted via bearings to drum spool respectively. 15. The drawworks apparatus of claim 14, wherein said bearings comprise anti-friction bearings. 16. A drawworks apparatus comprising: a frame for rotatably supporting a drum spool, said drum spool rotatably supporting a length of wire thereon for raising and lowering items down a well bore; a drive mechanism for rotating said main drum mechanism, said drive mechanism being located externally relative to said frame; a band brake assembly for reducing the rate of rotation of said main drum mechanism, said brake band assembly being connected at one end thereof to a rotatable brake shaft via a first linkage assembly and to said frame at a second end thereof via a second linkage assembly, wherein said first linkage assembly includes a bracket and link connection for connecting said bracket to said brake shaft in such a manner that prevents said brake shaft from rotating past center. 17. The drawworks apparatus of claim 16, wherein said second linkage assembly is adjustable and comprises a substantially tubular brake beam member which extends through and connected to said frame via a pair of anchors, a bell crank which is rotatably connected to each one of said anchors, and an equalizer system rotatably connected at one end to said bell crank and at another end to the dead end of said brake band assembly. 18. A drawworks apparatus comprising: a frame for rotatably supporting a drum spool, said drum spool rotatably and concentrically supporting a drum shaft therein such that said drum shaft is isolated from wireline pull from said drum spool; a drive mechanism connected to said drum shaft for driving said drum spool, said drive mechanism being positioned outside a working area of said frame; a band brake assembly for reducing the rate of rotation of said drum spool, said band brake assembly being connected at one end thereof to a rotatable brake shaft via a first linkage assembly and to said frame at a second end thereof via an adjustable second linkage assembly, wherein said second linkage assembly comprises a substantially tubular brake beam member which extends through and connected to said frame via a pair of anchors, a bell crank which is rotatably connected to each one of said anchors, and an equalizer system rotatably connected at one end to said bell crank and at another end to the dead end of said band brake assembly. 19. The drawworks apparatus of claim 18, wherein said equalizer system comprises a threaded trunnion block sized for receipt by said bell crank, a trunnion pin having a drilled hole therein for receiving an equalizer screw, said trunnion pin being sized for receipt through respective concentric bored holes in said trunnion block and said bell crack, said drilled hole resulting in said trunnion pin being loaded in shear only. 20. The drawworks apparatus of claim 19, wherein said equalizer screw is rotatably manipulatable to adjust the linkage between said brake band assembly and said second linkage system. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/483,469, filed Jun. 30, 2003. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates generally to a drawworks apparatus having a drive mechanism and a brake mechanism that are positioned externally relative to the operating area of the drawworks frame and a shaft which is isolated from wireline pull generated during operation of the drum spool. 2. Description of the Related Art The drawworks is a type of winch used in the oil well drilling and service industry as a portion of a drilling or servicing rig to raise and/or lower items such as tools and lengths of pipe from a well bore from which oil or other hydrocarbons are produced. The drawworks typically includes a large-diameter spool that typically supports a length of cable, one or more brakes, a drive system connecting the spool to a power source, and other auxiliary devices that may assist in the lowering and raising items into a well bore. However, major disadvantages plague conventional drawworks designs: for instance, a major portion of the cost of manufacturing a conventional drawworks is due to the complexity of its design. Also, a significant portion of the cost of operating a well servicing or drilling rig is maintenance. The maintenance cost is influenced greatly by the number of components requiring servicing and their accessibility. Moreover, drumshaft failures cause the loss of braking ability in conventional drawworks and are much more likely to occur in a conventional drawworks due to the fact that it carries the line pull and must also absorb shock loads transmitted through the wire line spool. Still another common problem with conventional drawworks is the pliability of the brake bands. The pliable nature of the brake bands is often caused by insufficient anchoring of the dead end of the brake band. Yet and still another problem in conventional drawworks designs occurs at the brake live end, particularly, as the brake blocks wear, the brake band wraps further around the brake flange to allow the brake live end linkage to break over center and unexpectedly release the brakes. It is still another problem with conventional drawworks designs of experiencing failure due to contamination of the clutches' frictional surfaces with oil or other foreign debris and materials. This problem is also associated with the conventional internal mounting of the brakes and other components within the drawworks frame. An additional problem associated with conventional drawworks the use of various types of seals, usually in the form of some type of labyrinth, to prevent oil from traveling to the clutch. This is not a very reliable technique and results in many drawworks failures. Yet and still a further problem associated with conventional drawworks apparatus is the fact that the wire line clamp is virtually hidden by the brake flange, the drawworks frame and guards, or the wear plates placed on the inside surface of the drum end. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is one aspect of the invention to provide a drawworks apparatus that reduces the complexity in conventional drawworks design without sacrificing performance, versatility or durability. The reduction of design complexity is accomplished by eliminating parts, which is made possible by a novel arrangement of drawworks components. It is another aspect of the invention to provide a drawworks apparatus in which those components that have been traditionally shown of frequent servicing more accessible by locating them outside of the drawworks frame. For instance, the drawworks apparatus in accordance with the invention provides a novel location for connecting the wire line spool to the drawworks frame via a set of bearings, thereby making it possible to locate the brakes externally, i.e., outside the drawworks frame and the working or operating area of the drawworks wherein the raising and lowering of equipment occurs. Two resulting benefits of arranging the brakes outside the drawworks frame are cooler running brakes and easier maintenance of the brakes. The bearings provided to connect the wire line spool to the drawworks frame are selected on the basis of size and not according to load capacity. Consequently, the fatigue-life rating greatly exceeds the life expectancy of the rest of the rig. Another advantage of locating the bearings for connecting the wire line spool to the drawworks frame in such a manner is that it removes the wire line pull from the drumshaft of the main drum spool and the sand drum spool, thereby reducing its required size and strength as well as improving its reliability. It is still another aspect of the invention to provide a drawworks apparatus that continues to provide braking function even in the event of drumshaft failure. This is a result of positioning the drumshafts relative their respective main drum spool and sand drum spool in a manner in which they are only required to carry chain pull, the weight of relatively light-weight components, and the torsional loads need to rotate the spools. This novel arrangement prevents the loss of braking capacity in the event of a drumshaft failure. Yet and still another aspect of the invention is to provide a drawworks apparatus that uses a novel design of dead-end components in a brake system that permits the use of many common components on various sizes of drawworks while utilizing the basic drawworks design. Among the common components are such major items as the drawworks frame, brake beam, bell cranks and an equalizer screw. This is either impossible or impractical for conventional drawworks designs. Thus, the cost of producing a particular piece of machinery can be reduced by using as many common components as possible and also by using components of other similar equipment. Still a further aspect of the invention is to provide a drawworks apparatus which eliminates the need for outside equipment such as cranes, gin pole trucks, and heating devices to conduct field repairs and maintenance. The use of such equipment is common for conventional drilling and well servicing rigs. For example, hubs are commonly shrink or press fitted the drive spool drum shafts on which they are mounted, and thus, heating devices such as torches are required to remove them. Because the drive system and the brake assembly of the drawworks apparatus in accordance with the invention are located outside of the working area of the drawworks frame, the drawworks components may be arranged and sized in such a manner that they can be disassembled and reassembled by hand without having to pull hubs from the drive spool drum shafts using outside equipment such as heating devices. It is still another aspect of the invention to provide a drawworks apparatus having an arrangement of working components that positions the crutches and the brakes outside both the drawworks frame, i.e., the working or operating area, and the chain drive cases. While some conventional drawworks designs locate the clutch outside the drawworks frame and the chain case, it is not physically separated from the chain case. The external mounting of the clutches and brakes in the drawworks apparatus of the invention reduces the likelihood of failure due to contamination of the clutches' frictional surfaces with oil or other foreign debris and materials. Since the clutches and brakes are used to control the raising and lowering of very heavy loads on the rig, any failure of these devices could have disastrous consequences. Yet and still an additional aspect of the invention is to provide a drawworks apparatus that positions the brakes, flanges and the clutch relative to the drawworks frame that permits ease in inspection and servicing of the wire line clamp located at the drum end side of the wire line spool. Experienced professionals in the operation of oil well drilling and well drilling and servicing rigs find it absolutely essential to keep the wire line clamp properly tightened at all times, therefore, easy accessibility is very desirable. Therefore, unlike conventional drawworks designs, there are no such obstructions on the drawworks of the present invention. The novel configuration of the drum spool allows the drumshaft bearings to be located very close to the only applied radial loads, keeping the applied bending moments to a minimum for a given chain pull. This condition permits the user of a smaller, light-weight drumshaft that would be otherwise possible, and at the same time maintains a high factor of reliability. The novel placement of the brake flange facilitates the design of a very narrow, lightweight drawworks frame. The drawworks frame in accordance with the invention may be sized sufficiently narrow so that its side panels can be attached (via a welding operation) directly to the main structural members of the carrier or trailer upon which it is mounted. The relatively large weld length afforded in this design significantly reduces to a low level the weld stresses at the point of the drawworks attachment, thereby enhancing the reliability of the weld. Moreover, since the drawworks requires no gusseting for attachment to the carrier frame, both costs and complexity in design are reduced. Accordingly, the direct attachment of the drawworks side plate to the carrier frame increases the strength and rigidity of both members. The drawworks apparatus in accordance with the invention also utilizes a strong structural member called a brake beam in which to anchor the brake band. This member is sized for a minimum deflection that yields an extremely strong member. A contributing factor in the pliable brake band used in conventional drawworks designs is the eccentric force exerted on the dead end of the brake brand. Besides being too pliable, conventional brake bands are prone to lift upwardly relative to the flange surface. This problem is cured in the drawworks apparatus of the invention by anchoring the brake bands using a component(s) that exerts a tangential pull on the brake band. The drawworks apparatus in accordance with the invention utilizes a novel feature of a dead end equalizer by incorporating a threaded trunnion block for removing the bending moment form the trunnion pin located in the bell crank. Conventional drawworks designs threads the equalizer screw through a threaded hole in the trunnion pin which absorbs the axial load placed on the equalizer screw when the brakes are applied. The drawworks apparatus of the invention utilizes a trunnion pin with a drilled rather than threaded hole through which the equilizer screw passes. This is advantageous since the trunnion pin is placed in a shear-loaded condition, essentially eliminating any bending loads. In the conventional design, the trunnion pin is strong in shear but relatively weak in bending due to both the moment arm of the applied load and the loss of material caused by the hole through which the equalizer screw passes. Unlike conventional designs, the drawworks apparatus in accordance with the invention includes a linkage system that does not permit the brake shaft to rotate over center. Such a feature is very important to crew safety since the correction of the condition on a conventional rig requires a crew member to place himself virtually inside the drawworks, where the slightest error can have fatal results. The load may drop out of control when the brakes pass over center if the operator fails to catch the load with the slips. These and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will become more apparent from the following description when taken in conjunction with the detailed drawings that show, for purposes of illustration only, the preferred embodiments of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The advantages of the invention will become more apparent to those skilled in the art in conjunction with the detailed description of the preferred embodiments of the invention, in which: FIG. 1 is a top plan of the drawworks apparatus in accordance with the invention; FIG. 2 is a top cross-sectional view of the main drum section of the drawworks apparatus; FIG. 3 is a top cross-sectional view of the sand drum section of the drawworks apparatus; FIGS. 4A and 4B are side and front cross-sectional views of the brake system of the drawworks apparatus; FIGS. 5A-5C are top cross-sectional views of the brake linkage assemblies of the drawworks apparatus. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring now to drawing FIGS. 1-5, which show in detail a winch or power transmission apparatus, commonly called a drawworks, including drawworks frame 34, main drum spool 17 and auxiliary or sand drum spool 18 in substantially parallel relation to main drum spool 17. Also provided is a suitable drive device and a brake assembly 31, 32 for main drum spool 17 and sand drum spool 18. By way of suitable bearings 14, main drum spool 17 and sand drum spool 18 are directly attached to the drawworks frame 34. Particularly, main drum spool 17 is supported for rotation on drawworks frame 34 via bearings 14 while sand drum spool 18 is supported for rotation on drawworks frame 34 via bearings 14. Central shaft 15 of main drum spool and central shaft shaft 16 of sand drum spool 18 are concentric with their respective drum spool 17, 18 and extend longitudinally outward through respective shaft bores of the spools 17, 18. Shafts 15, 16 are rotatably mounted preferably via anti-friction bearings 13 at each end of its respective drum spool 17, 18. Thus, main drum spool 17 and sand drum spool 18 are supported by frame 34, and main drum shaft 15 is supported by main drum spool 17 and sand drum shaft 16 is supported by sand drum spool 18. Accordingly, by arranging main drum spool 17 and sand drum spool 18 to support their respective drum shafts 15, 16, any applied radial loads are transmitted back to drawworks frame 34. In a manner that will be explained hereafter, the structural configuration and relationship between shafts 15, 16, drum spools 17, 18 and frame 34 is advantageous since the braking ability of the drawworks is unaffected by any failure to drum shafts 15, 16 during hoisting operation. As shown in FIG. 2, a suitable drive device 1, 2 is provided for driving main drum spool 17 and sand drum spool 18. A driving source (not shown) is connected to transmission chain 100 which is in turn connected via sprocket 5 mounted to sand drum shaft 16. Drumshaft 15 for main drum spool 17 supports clutch 29 on one end and sprocket 4 on the other end. Thus, the torque necessary to rotate main drum spool 17 is input through sprocket 4. The torque is transmitted through key 35 loaded in shear to drumshaft 15, and from there the torque is transmitted through another key 6 to the hub of friction clutch 29. Upon any application of air pressure, the torque is transmitted through clutch drive ring 31 to spider 29 mounted on the drum spool extension. Spider 21 is also the component to which one of the brake flanges 20 is mounted. The torque applied to sprocket 4 which is mounted on the end of the main drum drumshaft 15 is transmitted to sprocket 4 by way of chain drive system 1, 2, whereby driver sprocket 5 of which is located on the end of sand drum drumshaft 16. During the time that the main drum spool 17 is in operation, sand drum drumshaft 16 functions as a jackshaft, i.e., it functions as an intermediate shaft between the prime mover and the driven shaft (in this case, main drum drumshaft 15). It should be understood by those of ordinary skill that any conventional driving device known in the art may be used to drive both main drum spool 17 and sand drum spool 18. The drawworks of the invention is provided with a brake assembly 31, 32 for controlling the rotation of each drum spool 17, 18 during the operation of the drawworks apparatus, i.e., when cable is being payed out to lower items. The respective brake assemblies 31, 32 for main drum spool 17 and sand drum spool 18 includes brake shaft 45 for main drum spool 17 and brake shaft 46 for sand drum spool 18, each brake shaft 45, 46 being rotatably mounted within a shaft bore to drawworks frame 34. Main drum spool 17 is provided with a pair of brakes located at each end of frame 34 while sand drum spool 18 is provided with a single brake located opposite drive system. Brake flanges 20 are mounted to each drum spool 17, 18 on an extended portion of each respective drum spool 17, 18. The mounting of the brake flanges 20 is accomplished through the use of spider 21 with a keyed hub 22. The main drum spool 17 has two brake flanges 20 mounted on it, and are positioned externally relative to the drawworks frame 34. Sand drum spool 18 has a single brake flange 20 that is also mounted externally relative to the drawworks frame 34. Anti-friction bearings 13 are mounted within the bore of each drum spool 17, 18 to support a respective drumshaft 15, 16 in a manner which does not restrict rotation of the shafts 15, 16. This produces what is commonly known as a “live shaft.” Accordingly, the braking ability of the drawworks apparatus is unaffected by any failure to shafts 15, 16 because the brake assemblies 31, 32 are structurally connected directly to drum spools 17, 18 instead of to shafts 15, 16 (i.e., shafts 15, 16 are structurally isolated from the brake assembly). While the sand drum spool 18 has one brake flange 20 mounted on it in accordance with this aspect of the invention, it could have two brake flanges 20 attached to it. As shown in FIG. 3, the sand drum drumshaft 16 at one end is rotatably connected to sprocket 5 having two sets of sprocket teeth attached to it by way of a keyed hub 7. The opposite end of sand drum drumshaft 16 is rotatably connected to clutch 30 mounted via key 36. The torque necessary to rotate the sand drum spool 18 is input through sprocket 5 mounted on sand drum drumshaft 16, and is transmitted through key 36 which is loaded in shear to sand drum drumshaft 16. From there the torque is transmitted through key 7 loaded in shear to the hub of clutch 30, and upon application of air pressure, the torque is transmitted through clutch drive ring 32 to spider 21 mounted on an extension to sand drum spool 18. Spider 21 is also the component to which brake flange 20 for sand drum spool 18 is mounted. The torque applied to sprocket 5 which is mounted to one end of sand drum drumshaft 16 is transmitted thereto by way of chain drive system 1, 2 and 3. Chain drive system 1, 2, and 3 is also available for use in transmitting power to an assist brake, which may be in the form of a band, water or electric brake used to absorb the tremendous energy generated when the drawworks apparatus is engaged in an operation of lowering a length of pipe or casing into a well bore. As illustrated in FIGS. 4A and 4B, the drawworks in accordance with the invention utilizes band brake 19 having at least one brake blocks for reducing the speed of rotation of both main drum spool 17 and sand drum spool 18 so as to control the rate at which the length of cable from drum spools 17, 18 are payed out. As also shown in FIGS. 5A-5C, band brake 19 is mounted at a “live end” thereof via a first linkage system which includes ears 49, pin 50, retaining ring 51, link 52, to brake shaft 46 and at the “dead end” via a pivotably adjustable linkage system which includes bell crank 42 and equilizer 64. Band brake 19 may take the form of a self-energizing actuated by a force applied by the driller or operator to a torque lever or handle (not shown) to tighten brake band 19 and thereby engage the brake blocks mounted to brake band 19 with the surface of the spool 17, 18. Such actuation force may be transmitted using a pivotably adjustable linkage assembly to the “dead end” of brake bands 19. The drawworks apparatus utilizes a tubular member or brake beam 140, 141 that longitudinally extends through drawworks frame 34 and is cantilevered at ends thereof. The brake bream 140, 141 includes a pair of brake beam anchors 40 at each thereof which are welded into drawworks frame 34 to anchor the “dead end” of brake band 19 via a cantilever arrangement. Brake beam 140, 141 is advantageous in that it maintains its strength regardless of the direction of the applied dead end brake force. For the main drum spool 17, each anchor 40 of brake beam 140 extends past the side plates of drawworks frame 34, and a bell crank 42 is pivotably mounted at each respective end thereof. Preferably, brake beam anchors 40 are not welded until the size of the brake becomes known as it may become necessary to rotate it about its axis to accommodate a specific flange size. Anchors 40 at each end of brake beam 140 have lugs with holes bored therein, and are rotatable to accommodate various sizes of brakes. Thus, the line of force from the dead end of brake band 19 passes through its centerline regardless of the size of brake band 19 without the need for repositioning brake beam 140. Bell crank 42 which includes a hole bored at its pivot point is placed at the end of each anchor 40 and by way of pivot pin 41 attached thereto. A plurality of holes may be bored at the three locations in the bell crank 42: one at pivot point 41, one at the center of brake flange 20, and one at the center of brake beam anchors 40. Brake bands 19 are pivotably connected through an adjustable linkage to bell crank 42 with a pin hole through the bored holes at the center of the brake flange 20. Substantially spherical bushings (not shown) are used at both ends of linkage to ensure a free, non-binding operation, while equalizer screw 64 connects the bell cranks 42 to the “dead end” of band brakes 19. The following procedure should be used to install the equalizer screw 64: Firstly, equalizer screw 64 should be inserted longitudinally through brake beam 140 through the hole in each anchor 40. Equalizer screw 64 has left hand threads at one end and right hand threads at the other end; therefore, simply turning the screw 64 will either tighten or loosen the brake linkage. Secondly, before bell cranks 42 are attached to brake beam 140, place threaded trunnion block 55 between the lugs of the bell crank 42, making sure to align it with the trunnion pin holes of the bell crank 42. Thirdly, insert trunnion pin 80 through the bored holes in bell crank 42 and threaded trunnion block 55. Finally, take the three-pieced assembled piece, i.e., bell crank 42, trunnion block 55 and trunnion pin 80, and insert equalizer screw 64 through the hole in trunnion pin 80, then rotate equalizer screw 64 for insertion into trunnion block 55. Continue doing this until pivot pin 41 is installed to join bell crank 42 to each brake beam anchor 40. The equalizer assembly 64 is provided for main drum spool 17 to ensure that an equal braking force is placed on each brake band 19. The “live end” of brake band 19 is coupled to a rotating brake shaft 46 through a link pin 50 on one end to lugs welded to the brake shaft 46 on the other end. This linkage is similar to a convention design except that link 52 has lugs on its sides that connect bracket ears 49 to brake shaft 46 in such a manner that brake shaft 46 cannot rotate past center. Brake bands 19 are centered over brake flange 20 by a system of rollers 66, 67 and 68 and pull-off springs 72. The brake centering system holds brake bands 19 off of flange 20 during operation of the drawworks and positions brake bands 19 to properly function when actuated by an operator. Support brackets 76, 77, 78 and 79 are formed around the brake band 19 and flange 20 with an adjustable roller 66, 67 and 68 strategically placed around it. Pull-off springs 72 are provided at the live end of the brake band 19 and at the drum center line. When actuated, springs 72 pull brake band 19 back against rollers 66, 67 and 68 which are adjustable to hold brake band 19 approximately ⅛ inch off of flange 20. Sand drum brake assembly 32 is constructed similarly to main drum brake assembly 31 except that brake assembly 32 does not require an equalizer assembly since it preferably uses only one brake 19. It is apparent that innumerable variations of the preferred embodiments described hereinbefore may be utilized. However, these as well as other variations are believed to fall within the spirit and scope of the invention as covered by the claims attached herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The invention relates generally to a drawworks apparatus having a drive mechanism and a brake mechanism that are positioned externally relative to the operating area of the drawworks frame and a shaft which is isolated from wireline pull generated during operation of the drum spool. 2. Description of the Related Art The drawworks is a type of winch used in the oil well drilling and service industry as a portion of a drilling or servicing rig to raise and/or lower items such as tools and lengths of pipe from a well bore from which oil or other hydrocarbons are produced. The drawworks typically includes a large-diameter spool that typically supports a length of cable, one or more brakes, a drive system connecting the spool to a power source, and other auxiliary devices that may assist in the lowering and raising items into a well bore. However, major disadvantages plague conventional drawworks designs: for instance, a major portion of the cost of manufacturing a conventional drawworks is due to the complexity of its design. Also, a significant portion of the cost of operating a well servicing or drilling rig is maintenance. The maintenance cost is influenced greatly by the number of components requiring servicing and their accessibility. Moreover, drumshaft failures cause the loss of braking ability in conventional drawworks and are much more likely to occur in a conventional drawworks due to the fact that it carries the line pull and must also absorb shock loads transmitted through the wire line spool. Still another common problem with conventional drawworks is the pliability of the brake bands. The pliable nature of the brake bands is often caused by insufficient anchoring of the dead end of the brake band. Yet and still another problem in conventional drawworks designs occurs at the brake live end, particularly, as the brake blocks wear, the brake band wraps further around the brake flange to allow the brake live end linkage to break over center and unexpectedly release the brakes. It is still another problem with conventional drawworks designs of experiencing failure due to contamination of the clutches' frictional surfaces with oil or other foreign debris and materials. This problem is also associated with the conventional internal mounting of the brakes and other components within the drawworks frame. An additional problem associated with conventional drawworks the use of various types of seals, usually in the form of some type of labyrinth, to prevent oil from traveling to the clutch. This is not a very reliable technique and results in many drawworks failures. Yet and still a further problem associated with conventional drawworks apparatus is the fact that the wire line clamp is virtually hidden by the brake flange, the drawworks frame and guards, or the wear plates placed on the inside surface of the drum end. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is one aspect of the invention to provide a drawworks apparatus that reduces the complexity in conventional drawworks design without sacrificing performance, versatility or durability. The reduction of design complexity is accomplished by eliminating parts, which is made possible by a novel arrangement of drawworks components. It is another aspect of the invention to provide a drawworks apparatus in which those components that have been traditionally shown of frequent servicing more accessible by locating them outside of the drawworks frame. For instance, the drawworks apparatus in accordance with the invention provides a novel location for connecting the wire line spool to the drawworks frame via a set of bearings, thereby making it possible to locate the brakes externally, i.e., outside the drawworks frame and the working or operating area of the drawworks wherein the raising and lowering of equipment occurs. Two resulting benefits of arranging the brakes outside the drawworks frame are cooler running brakes and easier maintenance of the brakes. The bearings provided to connect the wire line spool to the drawworks frame are selected on the basis of size and not according to load capacity. Consequently, the fatigue-life rating greatly exceeds the life expectancy of the rest of the rig. Another advantage of locating the bearings for connecting the wire line spool to the drawworks frame in such a manner is that it removes the wire line pull from the drumshaft of the main drum spool and the sand drum spool, thereby reducing its required size and strength as well as improving its reliability. It is still another aspect of the invention to provide a drawworks apparatus that continues to provide braking function even in the event of drumshaft failure. This is a result of positioning the drumshafts relative their respective main drum spool and sand drum spool in a manner in which they are only required to carry chain pull, the weight of relatively light-weight components, and the torsional loads need to rotate the spools. This novel arrangement prevents the loss of braking capacity in the event of a drumshaft failure. Yet and still another aspect of the invention is to provide a drawworks apparatus that uses a novel design of dead-end components in a brake system that permits the use of many common components on various sizes of drawworks while utilizing the basic drawworks design. Among the common components are such major items as the drawworks frame, brake beam, bell cranks and an equalizer screw. This is either impossible or impractical for conventional drawworks designs. Thus, the cost of producing a particular piece of machinery can be reduced by using as many common components as possible and also by using components of other similar equipment. Still a further aspect of the invention is to provide a drawworks apparatus which eliminates the need for outside equipment such as cranes, gin pole trucks, and heating devices to conduct field repairs and maintenance. The use of such equipment is common for conventional drilling and well servicing rigs. For example, hubs are commonly shrink or press fitted the drive spool drum shafts on which they are mounted, and thus, heating devices such as torches are required to remove them. Because the drive system and the brake assembly of the drawworks apparatus in accordance with the invention are located outside of the working area of the drawworks frame, the drawworks components may be arranged and sized in such a manner that they can be disassembled and reassembled by hand without having to pull hubs from the drive spool drum shafts using outside equipment such as heating devices. It is still another aspect of the invention to provide a drawworks apparatus having an arrangement of working components that positions the crutches and the brakes outside both the drawworks frame, i.e., the working or operating area, and the chain drive cases. While some conventional drawworks designs locate the clutch outside the drawworks frame and the chain case, it is not physically separated from the chain case. The external mounting of the clutches and brakes in the drawworks apparatus of the invention reduces the likelihood of failure due to contamination of the clutches' frictional surfaces with oil or other foreign debris and materials. Since the clutches and brakes are used to control the raising and lowering of very heavy loads on the rig, any failure of these devices could have disastrous consequences. Yet and still an additional aspect of the invention is to provide a drawworks apparatus that positions the brakes, flanges and the clutch relative to the drawworks frame that permits ease in inspection and servicing of the wire line clamp located at the drum end side of the wire line spool. Experienced professionals in the operation of oil well drilling and well drilling and servicing rigs find it absolutely essential to keep the wire line clamp properly tightened at all times, therefore, easy accessibility is very desirable. Therefore, unlike conventional drawworks designs, there are no such obstructions on the drawworks of the present invention. The novel configuration of the drum spool allows the drumshaft bearings to be located very close to the only applied radial loads, keeping the applied bending moments to a minimum for a given chain pull. This condition permits the user of a smaller, light-weight drumshaft that would be otherwise possible, and at the same time maintains a high factor of reliability. The novel placement of the brake flange facilitates the design of a very narrow, lightweight drawworks frame. The drawworks frame in accordance with the invention may be sized sufficiently narrow so that its side panels can be attached (via a welding operation) directly to the main structural members of the carrier or trailer upon which it is mounted. The relatively large weld length afforded in this design significantly reduces to a low level the weld stresses at the point of the drawworks attachment, thereby enhancing the reliability of the weld. Moreover, since the drawworks requires no gusseting for attachment to the carrier frame, both costs and complexity in design are reduced. Accordingly, the direct attachment of the drawworks side plate to the carrier frame increases the strength and rigidity of both members. The drawworks apparatus in accordance with the invention also utilizes a strong structural member called a brake beam in which to anchor the brake band. This member is sized for a minimum deflection that yields an extremely strong member. A contributing factor in the pliable brake band used in conventional drawworks designs is the eccentric force exerted on the dead end of the brake brand. Besides being too pliable, conventional brake bands are prone to lift upwardly relative to the flange surface. This problem is cured in the drawworks apparatus of the invention by anchoring the brake bands using a component(s) that exerts a tangential pull on the brake band. The drawworks apparatus in accordance with the invention utilizes a novel feature of a dead end equalizer by incorporating a threaded trunnion block for removing the bending moment form the trunnion pin located in the bell crank. Conventional drawworks designs threads the equalizer screw through a threaded hole in the trunnion pin which absorbs the axial load placed on the equalizer screw when the brakes are applied. The drawworks apparatus of the invention utilizes a trunnion pin with a drilled rather than threaded hole through which the equilizer screw passes. This is advantageous since the trunnion pin is placed in a shear-loaded condition, essentially eliminating any bending loads. In the conventional design, the trunnion pin is strong in shear but relatively weak in bending due to both the moment arm of the applied load and the loss of material caused by the hole through which the equalizer screw passes. Unlike conventional designs, the drawworks apparatus in accordance with the invention includes a linkage system that does not permit the brake shaft to rotate over center. Such a feature is very important to crew safety since the correction of the condition on a conventional rig requires a crew member to place himself virtually inside the drawworks, where the slightest error can have fatal results. The load may drop out of control when the brakes pass over center if the operator fails to catch the load with the slips. These and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will become more apparent from the following description when taken in conjunction with the detailed drawings that show, for purposes of illustration only, the preferred embodiments of the invention. | 20040615 | 20070501 | 20050113 | 94500.0 | 1 | MARCELO, EMMANUEL MONSAYAC | DRAWWORKS APPARATUS | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,842 | ACCEPTED | Step stool tray | A step stool includes a frame and a tray coupled to the frame. The tray includes a pair of container receivers. Each container receiver is adapted to receive a container on the container receiver. | 1. A step stool comprising a frame and a tray coupled to the frame, the tray including means for receiving, one at a time, a first paint container having a generally square cylinder shape, a second paint container that has a generally circular cylinder shape and is configured to contain about the same volume of paint as the first paint container, and a third paint container that has a generally circular cylinder shape and is smaller than the second paint container, the receiving means including a larger container receiver and a smaller container receiver, the larger container receiver including a square bottom wall that has a generally square shape and a square side wall that has a generally square shape and is coupled to and surrounds the square bottom wall to retain, one at a time, the first paint container and the second paint container on the square bottom wall in a larger container recess provided by the square bottom wall and the square side wall, the smaller container receiver being recessed from the square bottom wall and including a circular bottom wall that has a generally circular shape and a circular side wall that has a generally circular shape, connects the circular bottom wall and the square bottom wall, and surrounds the circular bottom wall to retain the third paint container on the circular bottom wall in a smaller container recess provided by the circular bottom wall and the circular side wall when the first paint container and the second paint container are not located in the larger container recess. 2. The step stool of claim 1, wherein the square side wall includes first, second, third, and fourth side wall portions coupled to the square bottom wall, the first and second side wall portions are parallel to one another, the third and fourth side wall portions are parallel to one another and are coupled to and extend in generally perpendicular relation to the first and second side wall portions, and the circular side wall is spaced inwardly apart from the first, second, third, and fourth side wall portions. 3. The step stool of claim 2, wherein the tray includes a shelf that connects the third side wall portion and a rim included in the tray. 4. The step stool of claim 3, wherein the shelf is coupled to a top of the third side wall portion and to the rim at a location below the top of the rim. 5. The step stool of claim 1, wherein the frame includes a cross member, the tray includes a partition coupled to the cross member for pivotable movement of the tray about the cross member, the partition partitions the tray into a rear portion and a front portion, the rear portion includes the larger container receiver, the smaller container receiver, and recessed first and second side receivers, the larger container receiver and the smaller container receiver are positioned between the first and second side receivers, the front portion includes recessed first and second front receivers, and the partition provides portions of each of the larger container receiver, the first and second side receivers, and the first and second front receivers. 6. The step stool of claim 5, wherein the square side wall includes first, second, third, and fourth side wall portions, the first and second side wall portions are parallel to one another, the third and fourth side wall portions are parallel to one another and are coupled to and extend in generally perpendicular relation to the first and second side wall portions, and the partition includes the fourth side wall portion. 7. The step stool of claim 1, wherein the first paint container is positioned on the square bottom wall. 8. The step stool of claim 1, wherein the second paint container is positioned on the square bottom wall. 9. The step stool of claim 1, wherein the third paint container is positioned on the circular bottom wall. 10. A step stool comprising a frame and a tray coupled to the frame, the tray including a larger container receiver and a smaller container receiver, the larger container receiver including a square bottom wall that has a generally square shape and a square side wall that has a generally square shape and is coupled to and surrounds the square bottom wall to retain a larger container on the square bottom wall in a larger container recess provided by the square bottom wall and the square side wall, the smaller container receiver being recessed from the square bottom wall and including a circular bottom wall that has a generally circular shape and a circular side wall that has a generally circular shape, connects the circular bottom wall and the square bottom wall, and surrounds the circular bottom wall to retain a smaller container on the circular bottom wall in a smaller container recess provided by the circular bottom wall and the circular side wall. 11. The step stool of claim 10, wherein the square bottom wall and the circular bottom wall are parallel to one another. 12. The step stool of claim 10, wherein the square bottom wall surrounds the circular side wall. 13. The step stool of claim 10, wherein the larger container receiver and the smaller container receiver are not concentric with one another. 14. The step stool of claim 10, the square side wall includes first, second, third, and fourth side wall portions coupled to the square bottom wall, the first and second side wall portions are parallel to one another, and the third and fourth side wall portions are parallel to one another and are coupled to and extend in generally perpendicular relation to the first and second side wall portions, and the circular side wall is spaced inwardly from the first, second, third, and fourth side wall portions. 15. The step stool of claim 14, wherein the frame includes a cross member, the tray includes a first partition coupled to the cross member for pivotable movement of the tray about the cross member, a rim including spaced-apart first and second rim side portions and a rim rear portion connecting the first and second rim side portions, and spaced-apart second and third partitions extending from the first partition to the rim rear portion, the first partition extends from the first rim side portion to the second rim side portion, the first side wall portion is included in the second partition, the second side wall portion is included in the third partition, the fourth side wall portion is included in the first partition, the first partition, the second partition, the rim rear portion, and the first rim side portion cooperate to provide a side wall of a recessed first side receiver included in the tray, and the first partition, the third partition, the rim rear portion, and the second rim side portion cooperate to provide a side wall of a recessed second side receiver included in the tray. 16. The step stool of claim 15, wherein the first and second side wall portions extend farther away from the square bottom wall than the third side wall portion. 17. A step stool comprising a frame and a tray coupled to the frame, the tray including a larger container receiver and a smaller container receiver recessed from and surrounded by the larger container receiver, the larger container receiver including a square outer boundary that has a generally square shape and bounds a larger container recess formed in the larger container receiver to retain a larger container in the larger container recess, the smaller container receiver including a circular outer boundary that has a generally circular shape and bounds a smaller container recess formed in the smaller container receiver to retain a smaller container in the smaller container recess. 18. The step stool of claim 17, wherein the larger container receiver includes a flat square bottom wall that has a generally square shape, the square outer boundary is a square side wall that includes first, second, third, and fourth side wall portions coupled to the square bottom wall, the first and second side wall portions are parallel to one another, and the third and fourth side wall portions are parallel to one another and are coupled to and extend in generally perpendicular relation to the first and second side wall portions. 19. The step stool of claim 18, wherein the smaller container receiver includes a flat circular bottom wall that is generally circular and spaced apart from the square bottom wall and the circular outer boundary is a circular side wall that connects the circular bottom wall and the square bottom wall and is spaced inwardly apart from the first, second, third, and fourth side wall portions. 20. The step stool of claim 18, wherein the tray includes a rim and a shelf that is coupled to the rim and the top of the third side wall portion and the top of the third side wall portion is positioned between the square bottom wall and the tops of the first and second side wall portions. 21. The step stool of claim 17, wherein the tray includes a first side receiver and a second side receiver, the first side receiver is formed to a first side recess located between the first side wall portion and a rim included in the tray, and the second side receiver is formed to include a second side recess located between the second side wall portion and the rim. 22. The step stool of claim 21, wherein the frame includes a cross member, the tray includes a partition coupled to the cross member for pivotable movement of the tray about the cross member, and the partition provides the fourth side wall portion and portions of the first and second side receivers. 23. The step stool of claim 17, wherein the tray includes recessed first and second side receivers and the larger container receiver and the smaller container receiver are positioned between the first and second side receivers. | BACKGROUND The present disclosure relates to a step stool. More particularly, the present disclosure relates to a step stool including a tray. SUMMARY In accordance with the present disclosure, a step stool includes a frame and a tray coupled to the frame. The tray includes a larger container receiver and a smaller container receiver recessed from and surrounded by the larger container receiver. The larger container receiver has a generally square-shaped outer boundary that bounds a larger container recess formed in the larger container receiver adapted to receive a larger container (e.g., a gallon-sized paint container shaped generally as a square cylinder or a circular cylinder). The smaller container receiver has a generally circular outer boundary that bounds a smaller container recess formed in the smaller container receiver and adapted to receive a smaller container (e.g., a quart-sized paint container shaped generally as a circular cylinder). The larger container receiver includes a square bottom wall and a square side wall that provides the square-shaped outer boundary. Each of the square bottom wall and the square side wall has a generally square shape. The square side wall is coupled to and surrounds the square bottom wall to retain the larger container on the square bottom wall in the larger container recess. The smaller container receiver includes a circular bottom wall and a circular side wall that provides the circular outer boundary. Each of the circular bottom wall and the circular side wall has a generally circular shape. The circular side wall is coupled to and extends between the circular bottom wall and the square bottom wall and surrounds the circular bottom wall to retain the smaller container on the circular bottom wall in the smaller container recess. Additional features of the disclosure will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon consideration of the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments exemplifying the best mode of carrying out the disclosure as presently perceived. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The detailed description particularly refers to the following figures in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view showing a tray that is included in a step stool and formed to include a generally square-shaped larger container receiver adapted to receive a larger container (e.g., a gallon-sized first paint container shaped generally as a square cylinder, a gallon-sized second paint container shaped generally as a circular cylinder) and a generally circular smaller container receiver recessed from the larger container receiver and adapted to receive a smaller container (e.g., a quart-sized third paint container shaped generally as a circular cylinder); FIG. 2 is a side elevation view showing the step stool in a collapsed position; FIG. 3 is an enlarged top perspective view of the tray; FIG. 4 is a bottom perspective view of the tray; FIG. 5 is a top plan view of the tray showing the smaller container receiver within the larger container receiver; FIG. 6 is a sectional view taken along lines 6-6 of FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is a sectional view taken along lines 7-7 of FIG. 5; FIG. 8 is a perspective view showing the first paint container received in the larger container receiver; FIG. 9 is a top plan view showing the first paint container received in the larger container receiver; FIG. 10 is a perspective view showing the second paint container received in the larger container receiver; FIG. 11 is a top plan view showing the second paint container received in the larger container receiver; FIG. 12 is a perspective view showing the third paint container received in the smaller container receiver; and FIG. 13 is a top plan view showing the smaller container received in the smaller container receiver. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A step stool 10 includes a frame 12 and a utility tray 14 coupled to frame 12, as shown, for example, in FIG. 1. Tray 14 includes a generally square-shaped larger container receiver 16 and a generally circular smaller container receiver 18 recessed from and surrounded by larger container receiver 16, as shown, for example, in FIG. 3. Larger container receiver 16 is adapted to receive a larger container such as, for example, a gallon-sized first paint container 20 shaped generally as a square cylinder and a gallon-sized second paint container 22 shaped generally as a circular cylinder. Smaller container receiver 18 is adapted to receive a smaller container such as, for example, a quart-sized third paint container 24 shaped generally as a circular cylinder. Frame 12 includes a front unit 26 and a rear unit 28, as shown, for example, in FIGS. 1 and 2. Left and right front legs 30 of front unit 26 and left and right rear legs 32 of rear unit 28 are coupled to one another for pivotable movement of front and rear units 26, 28 between an opened position shown, for example, in FIG. 1 and a closed position shown, for example, in FIG. 2. A top step 34 located above lower steps 35 is coupled to front legs 30 for pivotable movement relative thereto and to a rear cross member 36 of rear unit 28 through a pivot link (not shown) extending between top step 34 and cross member 36 to pivot front and rear units 26, 28 between the opened and closed positions. A latch 38 is coupled to top step 34 to latch rear cross member 36 to lock front and rear units 26, 28 in the opened position and to unlatch rear cross member 36 to unlock frame 12 for movement between the opened and closed positions. Tray 14 is coupled to a top cross member 40 connecting left and right front legs 30, as shown, for example, in FIG. 4. Tray 14 includes a first partition 41 that rests on, is coupled to, and pivots on top cross member 40. A tray pivot controller 42 is coupled to tray 14 and top step 34 for pivotable movement of tray 14 between an extended position shown, for example, in FIG. 1 and a retracted position shown, for example, in FIG. 2 upon pivotable movement of top step 34. Tray pivot controller 42 includes left and right links 44 coupled to top step 34 and tray 14 for pivotable movement relative to top step 34 and tray 14. First partition 41 extends from a first rim side portion 45 of a rim 46 to a second rim side portion 47 of rim 46 to partition tray 14 into a rear portion 48 and a front portion 49, as shown, for example, in FIG. 5. Rear portion 48 includes larger and smaller container receivers 16, 18, and first and second side receivers 50, 51 adapted to receive articles therein. Larger and smaller container receivers 16, 18 are positioned between first and second side receivers 50, 51. Front portion 49 includes first and second front receivers 54, 56 adapted to receive articles therein. First partition 41 includes portions of each of larger container receiver 16, first and second side receivers 50, 51, and first and second front receivers 54, 56. Larger container receiver 16 includes a square bottom wall 58 and a square side wall 60, as shown, for example, in FIG. 5. Each wall 58, 60 has a generally square shape. Square side wall 60 is coupled to and surrounds square bottom wall 58 to retain a larger container on square bottom wall 58 in a larger container recess 62 provided by square bottom wall 58 and square side wall 60. For example, square side wall 60 is adapted to retain first paint container 20 on square bottom wall 58 when first paint container 20 is positioned in larger container recess 62, as shown, for example, in FIGS. 8 and 9. Square side wall 60 is also adapted to retain second paint container 22 on square bottom wall 58 when second paint container 22 is positioned in larger container recess 62, as shown, for example, in FIGS. 10 and 11. Square side wall 60 provides a generally square outer boundary that bounds larger container recess 62. Square side wall 60 includes a first side wall portion 64, a second side wall portion 66, a third side wall portion 68, and a fourth side wall portion 70, as shown, for example, in FIG. 5. Wall portions 64, 66, 68, 70 are coupled and extend upwardly from square bottom wall 58 when tray 14 is positioned in its extended position. First and second side wall portions 64, 66 are parallel to one another, as shown, for example, in FIG. 5. First side wall portion 64 is included in a second partition 72 that is included in rear portion 48 of tray 14 and extends from first partition 41 to a rim rear portion 74 of rim 46. Second side wall portion 66 is included in a third partition 76 that is included in rear portion 48 of tray 14 and extends from first partition 41 to rim rear portion 74 in parallel relation to second partition 72. Third and fourth side wall portions 68, 70 are parallel to one another and are coupled to and extend in generally perpendicular relation to first and second side wall portions 64, 66, as shown, for example, in FIG. 5. First and second side wall portions 64, 66 extend farther away from square bottom wall 58 than third side wall portion 68 such that the top 78 of third side wall portion 68 is positioned between square bottom wall 58 and the tops 80 of first and second side wall portions 64, 66, as shown, for example, in FIG. 6. A shelf 82 connects third side wall portion 68 and rim rear portion 74, as shown, for example, in FIG. 7. Shelf 82 is coupled to top 78 of third side wall portion 68 and rim rear portion 74 at a location below the top 84 of rim rear portion 74. Smaller container receiver 18 is recessed from square bottom wall 58, as shown, for example, 6 and 7. Smaller container receiver 18 includes a circular bottom wall 86 and a circular side wall 88. Each wall 86, 88 has a generally circular shape. Circular side wall 88 connects circular bottom wall 86 and square bottom wall 58 and surrounds circular bottom wall 86 to retain a smaller container on circular bottom wall 86 in a smaller container recess 90 provided by circular bottom wall 86 and circular side wall 88. For example, circular side wall 88 is adapted to retain third paint container 24 on circular bottom wall 86 when third paint container 24 is positioned in smaller container recess 90, as shown, for example, in FIGS. 12 and 13. Circular side wall 88 provides a generally circular outer boundary that bounds smaller container recess 90. Smaller container receiver 18 is spaced inwardly from square side wall 60, as shown, for example, in FIG. 5. Illustratively, container receivers 16, 18 are not concentric with one another. It is within the scope of this disclosure for container receivers 16, 18 to be concentric with one another. Bottom walls 58, 86 are flat and parallel to one another. Square bottom wall 58 surrounds circular side wall 88. First side receiver 50 includes a side wall 92 and a bottom wall 94 coupled thereto, as shown, for example, in FIG. 3. Walls 92, 94 cooperate to provide a first side recess 96. First partition 41, second partition 72, rim rear portion 74, and first rim side portion 45 cooperate to provide side wall 92. First side recess 96 is located between first side wall portion 64 and first rim side portion 45. Second side receiver 51 includes a side wall 98 and a bottom wall 100 coupled thereto, as shown, for example, in FIG. 3. Walls 98, 100 cooperate to provide a second side recess 102. First partition 41, third partition 76, rim rear portion 74, and second rim side portion 47 cooperate to provide side wall 98. Second side recess 102 is located between second side wall portion 66 and second rim side portion 47. Larger and smaller container receivers 16, 18 provide means for receiving, one at a time, first paint container 20 having a generally square cylinder shape, second paint container 22 that has a generally circular cylinder shape and is configured to contain about the same volume of paint as first paint container 20, and third paint container 24 that has a generally circular cylinder shape and is smaller than second paint container 22. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present disclosure relates to a step stool. More particularly, the present disclosure relates to a step stool including a tray. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In accordance with the present disclosure, a step stool includes a frame and a tray coupled to the frame. The tray includes a larger container receiver and a smaller container receiver recessed from and surrounded by the larger container receiver. The larger container receiver has a generally square-shaped outer boundary that bounds a larger container recess formed in the larger container receiver adapted to receive a larger container (e.g., a gallon-sized paint container shaped generally as a square cylinder or a circular cylinder). The smaller container receiver has a generally circular outer boundary that bounds a smaller container recess formed in the smaller container receiver and adapted to receive a smaller container (e.g., a quart-sized paint container shaped generally as a circular cylinder). The larger container receiver includes a square bottom wall and a square side wall that provides the square-shaped outer boundary. Each of the square bottom wall and the square side wall has a generally square shape. The square side wall is coupled to and surrounds the square bottom wall to retain the larger container on the square bottom wall in the larger container recess. The smaller container receiver includes a circular bottom wall and a circular side wall that provides the circular outer boundary. Each of the circular bottom wall and the circular side wall has a generally circular shape. The circular side wall is coupled to and extends between the circular bottom wall and the square bottom wall and surrounds the circular bottom wall to retain the smaller container on the circular bottom wall in the smaller container recess. Additional features of the disclosure will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon consideration of the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments exemplifying the best mode of carrying out the disclosure as presently perceived. | 20040614 | 20070109 | 20051215 | 98478.0 | 0 | MAGUIRE, LINDSAY M | STEP STOOL TRAY | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,862 | ACCEPTED | System and method for monitoring electrolyte levels in a battery | A measuring device is used in conjunction with a programmable controller for monitoring electrolyte levels in the battery. According to one implementation, the measuring device is located in a battery and is configured to detect when the electrolyte level in the battery falls below a particular level. The controller is in electrical communication with the electrolyte detection device. The controller is configured to: (i) receive a signal from the electrolyte level detection device indicating when the electrolyte level in the battery has fallen below the particular level; (ii) introduce a wait-period after the signal is received; and (iii) enable an indicator to indicate that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled when the wait-period expires. | 1. A system for monitoring the electrolyte level in a battery, comprising: a measuring device, located in the battery, configured to detect when the electrolyte level in the battery falls below a particular level; and a controller, in electrical communication with the measuring device, configured to (i) receive a signal from the measuring device indicating when the electrolyte level in the battery has fallen below the particular level, (ii) introduce a wait-period after the signal is received, and (iii) enable an indicator to indicate that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled after the wait-period expires. 2. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein during the wait-period the controller is further configured to enable the indicator to indicate that the electrolyte level in the battery is approaching a lowest recommended electrolyte level as a forewarning to actually providing the indication that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled. 3. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein the wait-period is a programmable period of time. 4. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein the controller comprises a counter configured to countdown a programmable period of time to determine the wait-period. 5. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein the controller comprises a charging-cycle module, configured to monitor how many cycles of charging the battery experiences as a function of determining the wait-period. 6. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein the controller comprises a water-loss estimation module, configured to estimate a rate of electrolyte loss for the battery as a function of the age of the battery, and adjust the wait-period accordingly. 7. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein the indicator is one or more lights that are deactivated when enabled to signify that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled. 8. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein the particular level is even with and/or above one or more separators in the battery. 9. The system as recited in claim 1, wherein when the indicator is enabled to indicate that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled, the electrolyte level is below the particular level as well as one or more separators in the battery. 10. A battery, comprising: a probe, located in a cell of the battery, configured to detect when electrolyte level in the battery falls below a particular level; and a controller, in electrical communication with the probe, configured (i) to receive a signal from the probe indicating when the electrolyte level in the battery has fallen below the particular level, (ii) introduce a wait-period after the signal is received, and (iii) enable an indicator to signify that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled when the wait-period expires. 11 The battery as recited in claim 10, further comprising a positive plate, a negative plate, and a separator between the plates, wherein the probe comprises a sensor tip that is positioned above tops of the positive plate, the negative plate, and the separator plate. 12. The battery as recited in claim 10, further comprising a positive plate, a negative plate, and a separator between the plates, wherein the particular level is above the top of the positive plate, the top of the negative plate, and the top of the separator plate, and below a maximum electrolyte level for the cell. 13. The battery as recited in claim 10, further comprising an electrical circuit connecting the controller to the probe, the electrical circuit configured to enable the signal to be sent to the controller when the probe detects that the electrolyte level is below the particular level. 14. A method of monitoring electrolyte levels in a battery, comprising: detecting when the electrolyte level in the battery falls below a particular level; introducing a wait-period when the electrolyte level in the battery is detected to have fallen below the particular level, and indicating that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled after the wait-period expires. 15. The method as recited in claim 14, wherein the electrolyte level at the particular level is above a lowest safe level before the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled. 16. The method as recited in claim 14, further comprising determining the wait-period by counting down a programmable-countdown-time after the electrolyte level in the battery falls below the particular level. 17. The method as recited in claim 14, further comprising determining the wait-period by monitoring how many charging cycles the battery experiences after the electrolyte level in the battery falls below the particular level. 18. The method as recited in claim 14, further comprising determining the wait-period by estimating a rate of electrolyte loss for the battery as a function of the age of the battery, after the electrolyte level in the battery falls below the particular level. 19. A system of monitoring electrolyte levels in a battery, comprising: means for monitoring the electrolyte level when the electrolyte level in the battery is being refilled; means for introducing a refill-wait-period when the electrolyte in the battery rises to the particular level; means for detecting whether the electrolyte level remains at the particular level after the refill-wait-period expires; and means for enabling an indicator indicating that the electrolyte level in the battery has reached a safe operational level, if the electrolyte level remains at the particular for the duration the refill-wait-period. 20. The system as recited in claim 18, wherein the means for detecting is performed by a probe and the refill-wait-period is programmable duration to account for accidental splashing of fluids on the probe when refilling the battery with electrolyte. 21. A method of monitoring electrolyte levels in a battery, comprising: detecting when the electrolyte level in the battery falls below a particular level; introducing a first wait-period when the electrolyte level in the battery is detected to have fallen below the particular level; detecting whether the electrolyte level in the battery rises above the particular level during the first wait-period; and resetting the first wait-period if the electrolyte level in the battery rises above the particular level during the first wait-period. 22. The method as recited in claim 21, further comprising: introducing a second wait-period, after the first wait-period expires, if the electrolyte level in the battery does not rise above the particular level during the first wait-period. 23. The method as recited in claim 21, further comprising: introducing a second wait-period, after the first wait-period expires, if the electrolyte level in the battery does not rise above the particular level during the first wait-period; and indicating that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled, after the second wait-period expires. 24. A system for monitoring electrolyte levels in a battery, comprising: an electrolyte detection device, located in a cell of the battery, configured to detect when the electrolyte level in the battery falls below a particular level; and a controller, coupled to the electrolyte detection device, configured to (i) introduce a first wait-period when the electrolyte level in the battery is detected to have fallen below the particular level; (ii) monitor, as indicated by the electrolyte detection device, whether the electrolyte level in the battery rises above the particular level during the first wait-period; and (iii) reset the first wait-period if the electrolyte level in the battery rises above the particular level, as indicated by the electrolyte detection device, during the first wait-period. 25. The system as recited in claim 24, wherein the controller is further configured to (iv) introduce a second wait-period, after the first wait-period expires, if the electrolyte level in the battery does not rise above the particular level, as indicated by the electrolyte detection device, during the first wait-period; and (v) indicate that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled, after the second wait-period expires. 26. The system as recited in claim 24, wherein the system is resident with the battery. 27. One or more computer readable media having stored thereon a plurality of instructions that when executed by one or more processors of a battery monitoring system to: receive a signal indicating when an electrolyte level in a battery falls below a particular level; introduce a wait-period after the signal is received; and enable an indicator to activate signifying that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled, after the wait-period expires. 28. A controller, comprising: an input terminal, configured to receive a signal indicating when an electrolyte level in a battery falls below a particular level; a wait module, configured to introduce a wait-period after the signal indicating when the electrolyte level in the battery has fallen below the particular level is received; and an output terminal, configured to send a signal to an indicator, the signal indicating that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled after the wait-period expires. 29. The controller as recited in claim 28, a wherein the wait-period is a programmable period of time. 30. The controller as recited in claim 28, wherein the wait module comprises a counter configured to countdown a programmable period of time to determine the wait-period. 31. The controller as recited in claim 28, wherein the wait module comprises a charging-cycle module, configured to monitor how many cycles of charging the battery experiences as a function of determining the wait-period. 32. The controller as recited in claim 28, wherein the wait module comprises a water-loss estimation module, configured to estimate a rate of electrolyte loss for the battery as a function of the age of the battery, and adjust the wait-period accordingly. 33. A system for monitoring the electrolyte level in a battery, comprising: a measuring device for sensing whether the electrolyte level in the battery is above or below the electrolyte detection device; and a controller, in electrical communication with the probe, operable in one of a selectable test mode and non-test mode, wherein when the test mode is selected the controller enables the measuring device to be energized for sensing whether the electrolyte level in the battery is above or below the electrolyte detection device, and wherein when the non-test mode is selected the controller enables the measuring device to be de-energized. 34. The system as recited in claim 33, wherein the controller is further configured to repetitively switch between the test mode and the non-test mode and consequently cause the measuring device to be energized and de-energized repetitively over time. 35. The system as recited in claim 33, further comprising a switch and a power supply, wherein the controller is configured to cause the switch to couple the power supply to the measuring device when the controller is in the test mode. 36. The system as recited in claim 33, further comprising a switch and a power supply, wherein the controller is configured to cause the switch to decuple the power supply from the measuring device when the controller is in the non-test mode. 37. The system as recited in claim 33, wherein when the controller causes the measuring device to be energized, a high current is supplied to the electrolyte detection device. 38. The system as recited in claim 33, wherein when the controller causes the measuring device to be energized, a high current is supplied to the electrolyte detection device, wherein the high current is approximately 100 milliamperes. 39. A power management system for managing current usage of a probe, the probe used for sensing the electrolyte level in a battery, comprising: means for enabling the probe to be energized; means for receiving a signal from the probe indicating whether the electrolyte level in the battery is above or below the probe when the probe is energized; means for enabling the probe to be de-energized; and means for enabling the probe to be repetitively energized and de-energized over time. 40. The power management system as recited in claim 39, wherein the means for enabling the probe to be repetitively energized and de-energized over time comprises a programmable controller. 41. The power management system as recited in claim 39, wherein the means for means for receiving the signal is an input terminal of a programmable controller. 42. The power management system as recited in claim 39, wherein when the probe is enabled to be energized, a high current is supplied to the probe. 43. A battery, comprising: a system for monitoring the electrolyte level in a battery, the system comprising: a probe for sensing the electrolyte level in the battery; and a controller, in electrical communication with the probe, operable in one of a selectable test mode and non-test mode, wherein when the test mode is selected the controller enables the probe to be energized for sensing whether the electrolyte level in the battery is above or below the probe, and wherein when the non-test mode is selected the controller enables the probe to be de-energized | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present patent application claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. Nos. 60/477,989 and 60/484,855 filed on Jun. 12, 2003 and Jul. 3, 2003, respectively. The contents of the aforementioned applications are fully incorporated by reference herein. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to batteries, and more specifically, to monitoring electrolyte levels in batteries. BACKGROUND Many industrial batteries, for example fork truck batteries, contain an electrolyte solution used for storing and conducting electrical power. Over time water in the electrolyte solution evaporates from the battery causing the electrolyte solution level (the “electrolyte level”) to fall. If the electrolyte level falls below a minimal acceptable level in a battery, serious problems can occur to the battery such as reduced electrical power output and/or permanent damage. For example, if the electrolyte level drops below the top edge of a negative plate in the cell of a battery, the negative plate is exposed to air, which rapidly causes the negative plate to oxidize. To address this problem, numerous devices have been proposed for monitoring the electrolyte level in the battery to ensure that the water is replenished before the electrolyte level drops below the minimal acceptable level. For instance, devices mounted outside the cell of a battery that indicate when the electrolyte level is low are now in common use, see e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,936,382, entitled Battery Electrolyte Level Monitor, issued Aug. 10, 1999, incorporated herein by reference. The common principle for most of these devices is a metal probe inserted through the cover of a pilot cell in the battery. Typically, when the tip of the probe touches the electrolyte, the probe sends a signal (via electrical circuitry) to an indicator, such as an alarm or a light, indicating that the electrolyte level in the battery is satisfactory. On the other hand, when the electrolyte level drops below the tip of the probe, it sends another signal to the indicator that the time for re-watering the battery is imminent. One drawback with these probe-based devices is they cannot easily read the electrolyte level below the top edges of battery separators. Separators are porous plastic sheets that keep the plates apart electronically, but permit ionic current flow between them. If the metal tip of the probe should touch the wet separator in general, or have any ionic contact with the separator whatsoever, for example through a droplet of electrolyte, or tarry substance, or wet particulate matter, etc., then this may cause the probe to continue sending a signal indicating that the electrolyte level is satisfactory, even though the electrolyte may have fallen below the acceptable level. In other words, the probe causes the indicator to illicit a false indication that the electrolyte level is satisfactory, when in fact, it is too low. As a result, most battery manufacturers have kept their probe tips above the separators and require watering more frequently than is actually needed. However, now there is a demand for batteries that are designed for very low maintenance, i.e., very long watering intervals. That is, there is a desire to allow the electrolyte levels to drop to a level that is well below the level of the separators, such as to the tops of the plates. To make the probes more accurate at measuring the electrolyte levels below the separators without touching them, a mechanical “spreader” or shield is used to wedge the separators apart so that the probe can descend between them without touching them or having any ionic tracking paths to the separators. One limitation with this mechanical solution is the tight tolerances involved. For example, the separators even in a large battery cell may be only a few millimeters apart, and much less on smaller cells. Therefore, the risk of ionic contact with the separators is quite high, which results in a false signal. Still another limitation with spreader designs is that a hole must be provided in the cell's cover which is aligned perfectly above the positive plate; otherwise, the probe will not fit precisely and may damage the separators. Existing punch-out holes in many batter cell covers, used routinely for level probes—generally do not line up with the plates and cannot be used in conjunction with the spreader designs. The result is a second set of holes must be drilled into the cell covers, which adds labor cost and inconvenience. Thus, there is currently no inexpensive and accurate way to measure electrolyte levels in batteries once the electrolyte levels fall below the top of the separators. Another drawback associated with current probe designs is their failure to recognize when the electrolyte level in a battery cell falls below the level of the probe. Many times an indirect current path can still exist from the tip of the probe, along the length of the probe, around the inside of a battery cell and finally down the cell wall to the lowered electrolyte level. Although this path is of a higher resistance than a direct current path from the probe tip submerged in the electrolyte, the indirect current path may still cause a false indication. SUMMARY A system and method for monitoring electrolyte levels in a battery is described. According to one implementation, the system comprises a measuring device and a controller. The measuring device is located in a battery and is configured to detect when the electrolyte level in the battery falls below a particular level. The controller is in electrical communication with the measuring device. The controller is configured to: (i) receive a signal from the measuring device indicating when the electrolyte level in the battery has fallen below the particular level; (ii) introduce a wait-period after the signal is received; and (iii) enable an indicator to indicate that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled after the wait-period expires. The following description, therefore, introduces the broad concept of using a measuring device, such as a probe-based system, in conjunction with a programmable controller for monitoring the electrolyte level in a battery. The controller is configured to introduce a wait-period after receiving a signal from a measuring device indicating that the electrolyte level in a battery cell has fallen below a particular level, e.g., a level above one or more separators in the battery cell. The wait-period is intended to coincide with an approximate time it takes the electrolyte level to fall from the particular level above the separators to a level below the separators but above the top of plates in the battery cell. The controller introduces the wait-period without having to physically measure the electrolyte level, after the electrolyte level drops below the top of the separators in the battery cell. Accordingly, the controller waits for the wait-period to expire before enabling an indicator (e.g., an alarm, a light, a message, etc.) to indicate that the battery should be refilled. The controller also eliminates the need to physically insert a measuring device below the separators where there is a high likelihood of touching the separators or making ionic contact with them. That is, the novel systems and methods described herein are able to provide an indication of the electrolyte level below the separators without a risk of touching the separators or making ionic contact with them. As such, a probe can be inserted in standard punch-out holes provided in the casing of the battery. No drilling or lining-up of the probe with the plates is required, reducing labor costs and inconveniences associated with painstakingly attempting to insert the probe between the separators as may be the case with conventional solutions as described above in the Background. According to another implementation, the electrolyte level in a battery is monitored when fluid is being added to the battery, i.e., the battery is being refilled. When the electrolyte level rises to a particular level a refill-wait-period is introduced. If the electrolyte level is detected to remain at the particular level for the duration of the refill-wait-period, then an indicator is enabled indicating that the electrolyte level in the battery has reached at least a desired level. The refill-wait-period is programmable duration that may be used to account for accidental splashing of fluids on a measuring device that performs level detection of the electrolyte when refilling the battery with fluid. According to still another implementation, the electrolyte level is monitored in a battery to detect when the electrolyte level falls below a particular level. A first wait-period is introduced when the electrolyte level in the battery is detected to have fallen below the particular level. The electrolyte level is then monitored to detect whether it rises back above the particular level during the first wait-period. If the electrolyte level in the battery does rise above the particular level during the first wait-period, then the first wait-period is reset. However, if the electrolyte level in the battery does not rise above the particular level during the first wait-period, then a second wait-period is introduced after the first wait-period expires. When the second-wait period expires, an indicator is enabled indicating that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled. The first wait-period may account for situations when the battery probe temporarily emerges from the electrolyte, such as when the battery is in motion or tilted on an angle. To ensure that this does not cause a false indication that the battery needs to refilled, the first wait-period is continually reset each time the probe reenters the electrolyte. Only after the first wait-period expires before being reset, i.e., when the probe remains emerged from the electrolyte for the duration of the first-wait period, is the second-wait period initiated. According to yet another implementation, a power management system is used to control power supplied to a probe. The system selectively energizes and de-energizes the probe over time. When the probe is energized, a high current is supplied to the probe to reduce the probability of a false connectivity indication that the probe is submerged in electrolyte, when in fact the electrolyte is below the probe. Periodically, switching between the energized and non-energized states enables the overall average current draw to remain relatively low over time despite supplying a high current to the probe. The relatively high current enables the current draw between direct and indirect paths to be large and easily distinguishable, increasing the accuracy of electrolyte level detection without incurring a penalty for using a higher current. This and other implementations will be described below when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The detailed description is described with reference to the accompanying figures. In the figures, the left-most digit(s) of a reference number identifies the figure in which the reference number first appears. FIG. 1 illustrates a cross-sectional view of an exemplary aqueous battery in which it is desirous to monitor electrolyte levels therein. FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic diagram of an exemplary implementation of a controller shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 illustrates an alternative schematic diagram of another exemplary implementation of the controller shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary method for monitoring electrolyte levels in a battery. FIG. 5 illustrates a more detailed exemplary method for monitoring electrolyte levels in a battery. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Exemplary Battery FIG. 1 illustrates a cross-sectional view of an exemplary aqueous battery 102, such as a lead acid or nickel-cadmium battery, in which it is desirous to monitor electrolyte levels therein. Battery 102 includes: a container 104, a negative plate 106(1), a positive plate 106(2), a separator 108, and a vent 112. It is to be appreciated that additional components (not shown) can be included in battery 102. For example, additional plates, separators, vents, and so forth may be included in battery 102. Additionally, battery 102 may comprise additional cells that are not necessarily located in the same container 104. It is assumed that those skilled in the art are familiar with the basic components as well as the operational principles of an aqueous battery. During charging of battery 102, water is electrolyzed to hydrogen and oxygen gases exit container 104 via vent 112. The result is a gradual lowering of the electrolyte level in battery 102. Exemplary Monitoring System Accordingly, connected to battery 102 is a novel monitoring system 126 for monitoring the electrolyte level in battery 102. In the exemplary implementation, monitoring system 126 comprises a measuring device 128, an indicator 130, and a controller 132. In one implementation, monitoring system 126 monitors three levels of electrolyte (electrolyte levels) in battery 102: a lowest electrolyte level 114, an interim level 120, and a highest level 124. The lowest electrolyte level 114 is the lowest safe level for electrolyte solution should be allowed to reach, which coincides to the tops 118(1) and 118(2) of the plates 106(1) and 106(2). Interim level 120 coincides with the top 122 of separator 108 and highest level 124 represents a maximum electrolyte height recommended by the manufacturer of the battery and is usually the level after the battery 102 has been refilled with water or some other type of solution. Other levels may also be monitored by the monitoring system 128. Measuring device 128 may be any type of device configured to detect when the electrolyte level in the battery falls below a particular level. For example, in one implementation measuring device 128 comprises a probe 134 inserted through a hole (not shown) in the top 136 of container 104. Probe 134 senses whether its tip 138 is submerged in the electrolyte or the electrolyte level is below the tip 138 of probe 134. In other words, probe 134 is configured to detect whether the electrolyte level is above or below the particular level coinciding with tip 138, which in one implementation also coincides with the interim level 120. It is also possible that the particular level may coincide with other levels in the battery, higher than the interim level or potentially lower than the top 122 of separator 108. In alternative implementations, probe 134 may be inserted from the side 137 of container 104 instead of the top 136. Additionally, it is also possible to have multiple probes located in battery 102 (whether from the side or top), for measuring the electrolyte levels in different cells and/or different electrolyte levels. It should be appreciated to those skilled in the art that the measuring device 128 may take various other forms, such as a strip, an optical sensor, or some other type of measuring device capable of sensing whether the electrolyte level falls below a particular level. Indicator 130 is a device capable of providing an indication to people that the battery may need to be serviced. For instance, in one implementation, indicator 130 is a light that remains illuminated when the electrolyte level is satisfactory, and is turned-OFF, i.e., extinguished or deactivated, signaling that the time for refilling the battery is imminent. Alternatively, the light may be illuminated when it is time for refilling and deactivated when the electrolyte level is satisfactory. In other implementations, it is also possible for the indicator to may be configured to provide different types of indications as the electrolyte level approaches the lowest recommended electrolyte level 114. For example, the indicator 130 may provide a forewarning indication of a different color, such as yellow, indicating that the electrolyte level is quickly approaching the lowest recommended electrolyte level 114. A red light may then be illuminated when the electrolyte level actually reaches the lowest safe level, which coincides to the tops 118(1) and 118(2) of the plates 106(1) and 106(2). In alternative implementations, indicator 130 may take various forms including: an audio alarm, a message displayed on a display device such as a user-interface on a dashboard, a message indicating whether the electrolyte level is satisfactory or not such as an e-mail message sent over a network, multiple lights having various potential colors, an analog or digital gauge showing a full and recommended refilling levels, a combination of any of the aforementioned formats, and other potential indicators. Controller 132 is a control module that controls the operation of monitoring system 126, such as when to enable indicator 130 to signal (i.e., indicate) that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled. In one implementation, controller 132 is connected to measuring device 128 and indicator 130 via a link 131, such as a wired or wireless link. Accordingly, controller 132 is in “electrical communication” with measuring device 128 and indicator 130. In one implementation, controller 132 includes one or more processor(s) 150 that can be configured to implement the inventive techniques described herein. Processor(s) 150 process various instructions to control the operation of the monitoring system 126 and possibly to communicate with other electronic and computing devices. Controller 132 may also include one or more memory components 152 such as volatile or non-volatile memory (also collectively referred to as computer readable media). For example, controller 132 may include a firmware component 154 that is implemented as a permanent memory module stored in memory components 152. Firmware 154 is programmed and tested like software, and may be distributed with battery 102 (or separately on a disk or over the Internet such as in the form of an update). Firmware 154 can be implemented to coordinate operations monitoring system 126 such as controlling the indicator 130, and contains programming constructs used to perform such operations. Thus, memory components 152 may store various information and/or data such as configuration information, operating parameters about the battery, charging information, and other information. For example, contained within memory components 152 are modules that contain code, such as in the form of firmware 154 and/or logic, used by controller 132 to monitor whether the electrolyte level is above or below a particular level. It is to be appreciated that the components and processes described with reference to controller 132 can be implemented in software, firmware, hardware, or combinations thereof. By way of example, a programmable logic device (PLD) or application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) could be configured or designed to implement various components and/or processes discussed herein. Controller 132 may include an input 137, which is one or more variety of components such as pin(s) on a microprocessor chip configured to receive one or more signals from measuring device 128. The signals indicate whether the electrolyte level in the battery is above or below a particular level, such as interim level 120. The signals themselves may be logical signals such as logical “one” indicating that the electrolyte level has dropped below the particular level and logical “zero” indicating that the electrolyte level is above a particular level, or vice versa. Controller 132 may also include an output 139 configured to transmit a signal to indicator 130 to induce indicator 130 to provide an indication (visual and/or auditory) whether the electrolyte level in the battery 102 should be refilled or not and potentially other indications. Like input 137, output 139 represents one or more variety of components such as pin(s) on a microprocessor chip configured to transmit one or more signals. Having introduced the various components of a exemplary battery and monitoring system 126, it is now possible to describe specific functionality provided by monitoring system 126. Wait Period Controller 132 receives a signal (either active high or active low) from measuring device 128 indicating when the electrolyte level in battery 102 has fallen below the interim level 120. At this point after the signal is received, controller 132 introduces a wait-period. The wait-period is intended to coincide with an approximate time it takes the electrolyte level to fall from the particular level above the separators to a level below the separators but above the tops 118(1) and 118(2) of the plates 106(1) and 106(2). Controller 132 introduces the wait-period without having to physically measure the electrolyte level, after the electrolyte level drops below the top 122 of separator 108. Accordingly, controller 132 waits for the wait-period to expire before enabling indicator 130 (e.g., an alarm, a light, a message, etc.) to indicate that the time for refilling the battery should be performed. Controller 132 when used in conjunction with a measuring device eliminates the need to physically insert measuring devices below a separator 108 where there is a high likelihood of touching the separator 108 or making ionic contact with it. That is, monitoring system 126 provides an indication of the electrolyte level below a separator without risking touching the separators or making ionic contact with them. As such, a probe can be inserted in standard punch-out holes provided in the container 104 of battery 102. No drilling or lining-up of a measuring device 128 (such as a probe) with plates 106 is required, reducing labor costs and inconveniences associated with painstakingly attempting to insert the probe between the separators as may be the case with conventional solutions as described above in the Background. Using a programmable controller 132 also facilitates providing an extremely low maintenance battery, i.e., a battery with very long watering intervals. The extra increment of time gained between water operations attained by introducing the wait-period in accordance with the novel implementations described herein, reduces the water intervals and adds commercial value to the battery. By allowing the electrolyte level to drop to the top of the plates 106, well below the tops of one or more separators, extends the water maintenance interval time over that of most batteries with conventional probe-based detection systems. In essence the battery is considered to be a lower maintenance battery. In one implementation, controller 132 includes a wait-module 156 configured to introduce the wait-period after the signal is received from the measuring device 128 indicating that the electrolyte level in the battery has fallen below a particular level, such as the interim level 120. In one implementation, the wait-period is a programmable period of time that may be predetermined and programmed into controller 132. The wait-period may include any period of time, but typically ranges from hours-to several days. For example, for most batteries it is anticipated that the wait-period will range from one or more days to about 50 days or more, before controller 132 enables indicator 130 to indicate that the time for refilling battery 102 has arrived. Wait-module 156 may determine the wait-period several different ways. For instance, in one implementation, the wait-period is a programmable period of time. Controller 132 may comprise a counter 158 configured to countdown the programmable period of time to determine the wait-period. According to another implementation, controller 132 may comprise a charging-cycle module 160, which is configured to monitor how many cycles of charging the battery experiences as a function of determining the wait-period, i.e., the period of time used by counter 158 to countdown. According to this implementation, controller 132 would be configured keep track of charging cycles. According to another implementation, controller 132 may comprise a water-loss estimation module 162, configured to estimate a rate of electrolyte loss for the battery as a function of the age of the battery, and adjust the wait-period (i.e., the period of time used by counter 158 to countdown) accordingly. For example, water-loss estimation module 162 may take into account variable water consumption rates of old versus new batteries containing antimonial grids. According to yet another implementation, controller 132 may comprise a temperature/charge-rate compensation module 164 to further estimate a wait-period. Thus, the wait-period may be preset or be dynamically adjusted to account for various parameters, such as the age of the battery, temperatures, charging cycles, water-rate-loss, etc. First and Second Wait Periods According to still another implementation, controller 132 monitors the electrolyte level battery 102 to detect when the electrolyte level falls below a particular level, such as interim level 120. This time another wait-period is introduced called, a “first wait-period” when the electrolyte level in the battery is detected to have fallen below the particular level. The electrolyte level is then monitored to detect whether it rises back above the particular level during the first wait-period. If the electrolyte level in the battery does rise above the particular level during the first wait-period, then the first wait-period is reset (a counter is reset). However, if the electrolyte level in the battery does not rise above the particular level during the first wait-period, then a second wait-period (typically a longer “wait-period” such as described above) is introduced after the first wait-period expires. When the second-wait period expires, controller 132 enables indicator 130 to indicate that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled. The first wait-period is designed to account for situations when measuring device 128 temporarily emerges from the electrolyte, such as when the battery is in motion or tilted on an angle. To ensure that this does not cause a false indication that the battery needs to refilled, the first wait-period is continually reset each time the probe reenters the electrolyte. Only after the first wait-period expires before being reset, i.e., when the measuring device 128 remains emerged from the electrolyte for the duration of the first-wait period, does the controller 132 initiate the second-wait period. In one implementation, the first wait-period is a programmable period of time that may be predetermined and programmed into controller 132. The first wait-period may include any period of time, but typically ranges for only a few seconds to several minutes. For example, the first wait period may be set to start after about three seconds, and if the measuring device 128 does not remain the electrolyte for about 30 continuous seconds, then the second wait-period will be initiated. Wait-module 156 may determine the “first wait-period” several different ways. For instance, in one implementation controller 132 may comprise a counter 166 configured to countdown the programmable period set for the first wait-period. For instance, counter 166 counts may be set to start after about three seconds (another counter, not shown, may be used to start the initial count period) and if the measuring device 128 does not remain the electrolyte for about 30 continuous seconds, then the second wait-period will be initiated. Otherwise, counter 166 will be reset if the measuring device 128 is re-immersed in electrolyte before reaching the end of the 30 second countdown period (i.e., the first wait-period). Refill Wait-Period According to another implementation, monitoring system 126 also monitors the electrolyte level in battery 102 when fluid is being added to battery 102. When the electrolyte level rises to a particular level, controller 132 introduces a refill-wait-period. If the electrolyte level is detected to remain at the particular level for the duration of the refill-wait-period, then controller 132 enables indicator 130 to indicate that the electrolyte level in the battery 102 has reached at least a desired level. The refill-wait-period is programmable for a duration that may be used to account for accidental splashing of fluids on measuring device 128 when refilling the battery with fluid. For instance, a mere splash of acid onto a probe could reset the logic in controller 132 and enable the indicator 130 to indicate that the battery 102 is full. This may cause a maintenance operator servicing the battery to think that the cell(s) of the battery are full when they are not, which may cause confusion. Accordingly, an appropriate time delay (the refill-wait-period) configured in controller 132, ensures that the indicator does not indicate that cell(s) of battery 102 are full until measuring device 128 makes continuous contact with the electrolyte for the period of the time delay. For instance, in one implementation controller 132 may also include a refill module 170 configured to introduce the refill-wait-period. In one implementation, the refill wait-period may be set for several seconds, i.e., such as two to ten seconds or enough to account for accidental splashing. A counter 172 may countdown the re-fill period to ensure that the electrolyte level makes continuous contact with the measuring device 128 before enabling controller 132 to enable indicator 130. Power Management According to yet another implementation, controller 132 may comprise a power management module 176 to control power supplied to the measuring device 128. That is, controller 132 selectively energizes and de-energizes the measuring device 128 over time. When the measuring device 128 is energized, a high current is supplied to the measuring device to reduce the probability of a false connectivity indication that the measuring device 128 is submerged in electrolyte, when in fact the electrolyte is below the electrolyte detection device. Periodically, switching between the energized and non-energized states enables the overall average current draw (or voltage draw) to remain relatively low over time despite supplying a high current (or voltage) to the measuring device device. Whereas, the relatively high current enables the current draw between direct and indirect paths to be large and easily distinguishable, therefore increasing the accuracy of electrolyte level detection without incurring a higher current draw. In one implementation, the high current supplied to the measuring device is about approximately 100 milliamperes, however, the high current could also be greater or smaller. For instance, the high current could be less than 100 milliamperes, so long as the high current is distinguishable from the indirect current paths. In one implementation, controller 132 selects (i.e., switches) between a test mode and a non-test mode. During the test mode, controller 132 energizes measuring device 128 to enable the measuring device 128 to ascertain whether the electrolyte level is above or below a particular level. During the non-test mode controller 132 deactivates (or de-energizes power to) measuring device 128. In one implementation, controller switches between the test mode and non-test mode about every second. However, during the period of the test mode controller 132 only requires a few milliseconds to determine the status of the measuring device 128, i.e., whether the electrolyte level is above or below the measuring device 128. Thus, energizing the measuring device 128 for only a few milliseconds before de-energizing it, allows current draw over time to remain on average at about five milliamperes, or equivalent to constantly energizing the measuring device 128 with a smaller current. Although controller 132 is shown to include various distinct functional blocks (a wait module 156, a water-loss estimation module 162, a refill module 170, etc.), it is understood that when actually implemented in the form of computer-executable instructions, logic, firmware, and/or hardware, that the functionality described with reference to each block may not exist as separate identifiable modules. Controller 132 may also be integrated with other components or as a module in a larger system. Exemplary Implementations of Control Module FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic diagram of an exemplary implementation of the controller 132 shown in FIG. 1. Referring to FIG. 2, an input 231 of the controller 132 is coupled to a measuring device 126 (FIG. 1). Input 231 is coupled to the base 232 of transistor 233 across resistor 235 and is also coupled across resistor 237 to terminal 239, which is coupled to −VE potential of battery 102. Resistor 237 serves as a current to voltage translator, creating a voltage drop across resistor 237 when current flows from input 231 to terminal 239. Resistor 235 serves to limit the amount of current that flows to base 232 of transistor 233. When measuring device 128 (FIG. 1) is immersed in the electrolyte contained in container 104 (FIG. 1), the electrolyte functions to close the circuit between first input 231 and terminal 239. This creates a voltage drop across resistor 235 sufficient to drive transistor 233 into saturation. When transistor 233 is on, the circuit path from terminal 238 to terminal 239 is closed through resistor 244. This results in causing a low level logic or logical zero being applied to pin 4 of a microcontroller 240. When measuring device 126 is not immersed in the electrolyte, the circuit between input 231 and terminal 239 is opened. This causes the potential between the base 232 of transistor 233 and the drain of terminal of transistor 233 to become zero and transistor 233 turns off. This will cause pin 4 of microcontroller 240 to realize an input voltage equal to terminal 238 i.e., +VE. This is equivalent of a logical one provided to pin 4. Microcontroller 240 is programmed to recognize the change from a logical zero to a logical one on pin 4 as an indication that the measuring device 126 is no longer immersed in the electrolyte in battery 102, and control indicator 130 (which in this implementation comprises two LEDs), which is coupled to microcontroller 240 after one or more wait-periods according to preprogrammed set of conditions. In the exemplary implementation illustrated in FIG. 2, microcontroller 240 is a 12F629 chip manufactured by Microchip of Chandler, Ariz., USA. It is, however, understood that one of skill in the art would appreciate that numerous chips and/or other devices could be used in place of this specific microcontroller 240. A clock circuit 245 comprising a crystal controlled clock 246 and a set of capacitors 247 and 248 facilitate control of indicator 130 by microcontroller 240. Clock circuit 245 provides the time mechanism required to allow microcontroller 240 to control indicator 130 in accordance with preprogrammed conditions. FIG. 3 illustrates an alternative schematic diagram of another exemplary implementation of controller 132 shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 includes the addition of a switch 302 coupled to both the microcontroller 240 and measuring device 128. Microcontroller 240 operates in a selectable test mode and non-test mode. When microcontroller 240 selects the test mode, microcontroller 240 enables power to be supplied to measuring device 128. That is, the microcontroller 240 causes the switch 302 to couple the power supply +VE/−VE to measuring device 128 when the microcontroller is in the test mode, which energizes the measuring device and allows microcontroller 240 to determine whether the electrolyte level in the battery is above or below a particular level. When in the non-test mode, microcontroller 240 disconnects (decouples) measuring device 128 enabling the measuring device 128 to be de-energized. Repetitively switching between the test mode and the non-test mode causes the measuring device to be energized and de-energized repetitively over time, which allows a high current to be supplied to the measuring device 128, when in the test mode. Methods of Operation FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary method 400 for monitoring electrolyte levels in a battery. Method 400 enables the electrolyte levels to be monitored below the tops of separators in a battery without having to actually insert a sensor below the separators. Method 400 includes blocks 402, 404, 406 and 408 (each of the blocks represents one or more operational acts). The order in which the method is described is not to be construed as a limitation, and any number of the described method blocks can be combined in any order to implement the method. Furthermore, the method can be implemented in any suitable hardware, software, firmware, or combination thereof. In a decisional block 402, the electrolyte level in the battery is monitored to detect whether it falls below a particular level. For example, controller 132 (FIG. 1) detects whether tip 138 (FIG. 1) of probe 134 (FIG. 1) is submerged in the electrolyte or the electrolyte level is below the tip 138 (FIG. 1), which generally coincides with a level the top 122 (FIG. 1) of separator 108 (FIG. 1) in battery 102 (FIG. 1). If the electrolyte level is not below the particular level, then according to the NO branch of decisional block 402, method 400 loops back and continues to monitor the electrolyte level. If the electrolyte level falls below the particular level, then according to the YES branch of decisional block 402 method 400 proceeds to block 404. In block 404, if the electrolyte falls below the particular level a signal is received by the controller 132 (FIG. 1) indicating that electrolyte level is below the particular level. In block 406, a wait-period is introduced when the electrolyte level in the battery 102 is detected to have fallen below a particular level. For example, controller 132 starts a counter 158 that counts down a particular period of time. In block 408, a warning is made that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled after the wait-period expires. For example, controller 132 sends a signal to indicator 130 enabling it to indicate (light, sound an alarm, display a message, etc.) that water should be added to battery 102. FIG. 5 illustrates a more detailed exemplary method for monitoring electrolyte levels in a battery. Method 500 includes blocks 551, 553, 555, 557, 559, 561, 563 and 565 (each of the blocks represents one or more operational acts). The order in which the method is described is not to be construed as a limitation, and any number of the described method blocks can be combined in any order to implement the method. Furthermore, the method can be implemented in any suitable hardware, software, firmware, or combination thereof. In block 551 an indicator is turned-OFF (in this example when the indicator is turned-OFF it is actually enabled—meaning that the electrolyte level needs to be refilled). In a decisional block 553 a determination is made whether a measuring device has been in the electrolyte for a short period time, such as several seconds. If according to the YES branch of decisional block 553, the measuring device has been immersed in the electrolyte for the short period of time (e.g., three seconds), method 500 proceeds to block 555. If according to the NO branch of decisional block 553, the measuring device has not been immersed in the electrolyte for the short period of time, then method 500 proceeds back to block 551. In block 555 an indicator is enabled. For example, a light (e.g., light emitting diode) is turned-ON, meaning the indicator is actually indicating that the electrolyte level is satisfactory and does not need to be refilled. In a decisional block 557, a determination is made whether the measuring device remains immersed in the electrolyte for another short duration of time. For example, a determination is made whether the measuring device 128 (FIG. 1) remains in the electrolyte for thirty continuous seconds. If according to the NO branch of decisional block 557, if the measuring device does not remain in the electrolyte, method 500 proceeds to block 553. If according to the YES branch of decisional block 557, if the measuring device does remain the electrolyte, method 500 proceeds to block 559. In block 559 a timer for a clock is initiated, i.e., a counter starts counting down the wait-period. However, according to the YES branch of decisional block 561, if the measuring device remains in the electrolyte the counter will either be reset or will not count-down, and method 500 returns to block 559. If according to the NO branch of decisional block 561, if the measuring device does not remain in the electrolyte, method 500 proceeds to block 563 and the counter counts down the wait-period, (whether predetermined or dynamically chosen depending on various parameters such as age of the battery, charging cycles, water loss rate, etc.). Once the wait-period expires, e.g., counter finishes counting down the wait-period, method 500 proceeds to block 551 and turns-off indicator 130 (e.g., enables indicator to indicate that aqueous solution should be added to battery 102 because the electrolyte level has most likely reached the tops of the battery plates. Although the invention has been described in language specific to structural features and/or methodological acts, it is to be understood that the invention defined in the appended claims is not necessarily limited to the specific features or acts described. Rather, the specific features and acts are disclosed as exemplary forms of implementing the claimed invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Many industrial batteries, for example fork truck batteries, contain an electrolyte solution used for storing and conducting electrical power. Over time water in the electrolyte solution evaporates from the battery causing the electrolyte solution level (the “electrolyte level”) to fall. If the electrolyte level falls below a minimal acceptable level in a battery, serious problems can occur to the battery such as reduced electrical power output and/or permanent damage. For example, if the electrolyte level drops below the top edge of a negative plate in the cell of a battery, the negative plate is exposed to air, which rapidly causes the negative plate to oxidize. To address this problem, numerous devices have been proposed for monitoring the electrolyte level in the battery to ensure that the water is replenished before the electrolyte level drops below the minimal acceptable level. For instance, devices mounted outside the cell of a battery that indicate when the electrolyte level is low are now in common use, see e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,936,382, entitled Battery Electrolyte Level Monitor , issued Aug. 10, 1999, incorporated herein by reference. The common principle for most of these devices is a metal probe inserted through the cover of a pilot cell in the battery. Typically, when the tip of the probe touches the electrolyte, the probe sends a signal (via electrical circuitry) to an indicator, such as an alarm or a light, indicating that the electrolyte level in the battery is satisfactory. On the other hand, when the electrolyte level drops below the tip of the probe, it sends another signal to the indicator that the time for re-watering the battery is imminent. One drawback with these probe-based devices is they cannot easily read the electrolyte level below the top edges of battery separators. Separators are porous plastic sheets that keep the plates apart electronically, but permit ionic current flow between them. If the metal tip of the probe should touch the wet separator in general, or have any ionic contact with the separator whatsoever, for example through a droplet of electrolyte, or tarry substance, or wet particulate matter, etc., then this may cause the probe to continue sending a signal indicating that the electrolyte level is satisfactory, even though the electrolyte may have fallen below the acceptable level. In other words, the probe causes the indicator to illicit a false indication that the electrolyte level is satisfactory, when in fact, it is too low. As a result, most battery manufacturers have kept their probe tips above the separators and require watering more frequently than is actually needed. However, now there is a demand for batteries that are designed for very low maintenance, i.e., very long watering intervals. That is, there is a desire to allow the electrolyte levels to drop to a level that is well below the level of the separators, such as to the tops of the plates. To make the probes more accurate at measuring the electrolyte levels below the separators without touching them, a mechanical “spreader” or shield is used to wedge the separators apart so that the probe can descend between them without touching them or having any ionic tracking paths to the separators. One limitation with this mechanical solution is the tight tolerances involved. For example, the separators even in a large battery cell may be only a few millimeters apart, and much less on smaller cells. Therefore, the risk of ionic contact with the separators is quite high, which results in a false signal. Still another limitation with spreader designs is that a hole must be provided in the cell's cover which is aligned perfectly above the positive plate; otherwise, the probe will not fit precisely and may damage the separators. Existing punch-out holes in many batter cell covers, used routinely for level probes—generally do not line up with the plates and cannot be used in conjunction with the spreader designs. The result is a second set of holes must be drilled into the cell covers, which adds labor cost and inconvenience. Thus, there is currently no inexpensive and accurate way to measure electrolyte levels in batteries once the electrolyte levels fall below the top of the separators. Another drawback associated with current probe designs is their failure to recognize when the electrolyte level in a battery cell falls below the level of the probe. Many times an indirect current path can still exist from the tip of the probe, along the length of the probe, around the inside of a battery cell and finally down the cell wall to the lowered electrolyte level. Although this path is of a higher resistance than a direct current path from the probe tip submerged in the electrolyte, the indirect current path may still cause a false indication. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>A system and method for monitoring electrolyte levels in a battery is described. According to one implementation, the system comprises a measuring device and a controller. The measuring device is located in a battery and is configured to detect when the electrolyte level in the battery falls below a particular level. The controller is in electrical communication with the measuring device. The controller is configured to: (i) receive a signal from the measuring device indicating when the electrolyte level in the battery has fallen below the particular level; (ii) introduce a wait-period after the signal is received; and (iii) enable an indicator to indicate that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled after the wait-period expires. The following description, therefore, introduces the broad concept of using a measuring device, such as a probe-based system, in conjunction with a programmable controller for monitoring the electrolyte level in a battery. The controller is configured to introduce a wait-period after receiving a signal from a measuring device indicating that the electrolyte level in a battery cell has fallen below a particular level, e.g., a level above one or more separators in the battery cell. The wait-period is intended to coincide with an approximate time it takes the electrolyte level to fall from the particular level above the separators to a level below the separators but above the top of plates in the battery cell. The controller introduces the wait-period without having to physically measure the electrolyte level, after the electrolyte level drops below the top of the separators in the battery cell. Accordingly, the controller waits for the wait-period to expire before enabling an indicator (e.g., an alarm, a light, a message, etc.) to indicate that the battery should be refilled. The controller also eliminates the need to physically insert a measuring device below the separators where there is a high likelihood of touching the separators or making ionic contact with them. That is, the novel systems and methods described herein are able to provide an indication of the electrolyte level below the separators without a risk of touching the separators or making ionic contact with them. As such, a probe can be inserted in standard punch-out holes provided in the casing of the battery. No drilling or lining-up of the probe with the plates is required, reducing labor costs and inconveniences associated with painstakingly attempting to insert the probe between the separators as may be the case with conventional solutions as described above in the Background. According to another implementation, the electrolyte level in a battery is monitored when fluid is being added to the battery, i.e., the battery is being refilled. When the electrolyte level rises to a particular level a refill-wait-period is introduced. If the electrolyte level is detected to remain at the particular level for the duration of the refill-wait-period, then an indicator is enabled indicating that the electrolyte level in the battery has reached at least a desired level. The refill-wait-period is programmable duration that may be used to account for accidental splashing of fluids on a measuring device that performs level detection of the electrolyte when refilling the battery with fluid. According to still another implementation, the electrolyte level is monitored in a battery to detect when the electrolyte level falls below a particular level. A first wait-period is introduced when the electrolyte level in the battery is detected to have fallen below the particular level. The electrolyte level is then monitored to detect whether it rises back above the particular level during the first wait-period. If the electrolyte level in the battery does rise above the particular level during the first wait-period, then the first wait-period is reset. However, if the electrolyte level in the battery does not rise above the particular level during the first wait-period, then a second wait-period is introduced after the first wait-period expires. When the second-wait period expires, an indicator is enabled indicating that the electrolyte level in the battery should be refilled. The first wait-period may account for situations when the battery probe temporarily emerges from the electrolyte, such as when the battery is in motion or tilted on an angle. To ensure that this does not cause a false indication that the battery needs to refilled, the first wait-period is continually reset each time the probe reenters the electrolyte. Only after the first wait-period expires before being reset, i.e., when the probe remains emerged from the electrolyte for the duration of the first-wait period, is the second-wait period initiated. According to yet another implementation, a power management system is used to control power supplied to a probe. The system selectively energizes and de-energizes the probe over time. When the probe is energized, a high current is supplied to the probe to reduce the probability of a false connectivity indication that the probe is submerged in electrolyte, when in fact the electrolyte is below the probe. Periodically, switching between the energized and non-energized states enables the overall average current draw to remain relatively low over time despite supplying a high current to the probe. The relatively high current enables the current draw between direct and indirect paths to be large and easily distinguishable, increasing the accuracy of electrolyte level detection without incurring a penalty for using a higher current. This and other implementations will be described below when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | 20040614 | 20101012 | 20050106 | 59703.0 | 1 | PACHECO, ALEXIS BOATENG | SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR MONITORING ELECTROLYTE LEVELS IN A BATTERY | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,915 | ACCEPTED | Cable or the like protection and guide device | To provide a cable or the like protection and guide device, which can suppress the sliding contact noise by reliably limiting a linear position and a bending position exhibited during the movement of the cable or the like, and at the same time, which can reduce a setting space by suppressing the impact noise and wear of a connecting pin piece on a connecting pin hole even if the height size of the link body is decreased. A connecting pin piece 13, convexly provided on a link body 10, which forms a cable or the like protection and guide device, includes stopper surfaces 13a, 13a, which are parallel to the upper edge center portion and the lower edge center portion of the side plates 11 and are oppositely disposed across a bending center point O and a pair of front, and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces 13b, 13b, which are oppositely disposed across the bending center point O. Further a connecting pin hole 14, concavely provided in said link body 10, includes a pair of linear position maintaining surfaces 14a, which are parallel to the upper edge center portion and the lower edge center portion of the side plate 10, and are oppositely disposed across the bending center point O, bending position limiting surfaces 14b, which are oppositely disposed across the bending center point O in a plane symmetry, and a pair of arc-shaped inner circumferential surfaces 14c oppositely disposed across said bending center point O in a plane symmetry to be brought into sliding contact with said connecting pin pieces 13. | 1. A cable or the like protection and guide device for protecting and guiding a cable or the like in a cable inserting space, having a number of longitudinal cross-sectional link bodies in each of which a connecting plate is provided, in a laterally bridged manner, at an upper edge center portion and a lower end portion of a pair of the respective side plates oppositely displaced on the right and left sides, in which a connecting pin piece convexly provided on one end side of said side plate in the connecting direction toward a side, and a connecting pin hole concavely provided on the other side of said side plate in the connecting direction are mutually fitted to adjacent link bodies and in which said link bodies are articulably connected to each other, characterized in that said connecting pin piece includes a pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces, which are parallel to said upper edge center portion and said lower edge center portion and are oppositely disposed across a bending center point of said adjacent link bodies, and a pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces which are continuous to said stopper surfaces and oppositely disposed across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies, and said connecting pin hole includes a pair of linear position maintaining surfaces, which are parallel to said upper edge center portion and said lower edge center portion and are oppositely disposed across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies to simultaneously abut on said pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces of said connecting pin piece, bending position limiting surfaces, which are formed at a given bending limiting angle to said linear position maintaining surface and are oppositely disposed across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies in a plane symmetry to simultaneously abut on said pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces of said connecting pin piece, and a pair of arc-shaped inner circumferential surfaces oppositely disposed across said bending center point in a plane symmetry to be rotatably brought into sliding contact with said pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces of said connecting pin pieces. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a cable or the like protection and guide device, which accommodates a cable or the like composed of a flexible body such as a cable, a hose or the like, which supplies energy such as electric power, compressed air or the like to a movable machine, and can stably and reliably protect and guide the cable or the like even during the movement of the movable machine. BACKGROUND As one example of a cable or the like protection and guide device for protecting and guiding a cable or the like composed of a flexible body such as a cable, a hose or the like, a protection and guide chain has been well known in which lower ends of a pair of upright pieces oppositely disposed are formed in a U-shape in a front view by a bottom plate, a shaft hole is provided in an arc-shaped front portion of each upright piece, a number of link members each provided with a shaft by protruding the shaft from an outside surface to an arc-shaped rear portion of the upright piece, are articulably connected with each other by fitting said shaft into said shaft hole between the adjacent link members, and a stopper mechanism is provided at the connecting portion to limit the bending angle of said link body, and in which a stopper pawl on said shaft and a stopper hole portion to limit a movable range of said stopper pawl is provided in said shaft hole. Patent Reference 1: Publication of Japanese Patent No. 3115995 (on page 1, FIGS. 3 to 5). PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED BY THE INVENTION However, in the conventional protection and guide chain disclosed in the above-mentioned publication of Japanese patent No. 3115995, the size of the outer diameter of the shaft protruding at the arc-shaped rear portion of the upright portion or the shaft form limited by the height size of the link member and an arrangement form of the stopper pawl so that they are formed in comparatively small outer diameter size and shaft form. Thus, in a case where the chain was used for a long period of time, sliding wear between the shaft protruding in the arc-shaped rear portion of the upright piece and the shaft hole provided in the arc-shaped front portion of the upright piece, advances, and there was a problem that a tensile strength in the longitudinal direction of the chain is remarkably reduced by sliding wear between the shaft and shaft hole. Further, there was a problem that the more distantly the bottom plate is bridged from the bending center points, which function by the shafts and the shaft holes because the height size of the link body cannot be decreased, the more wobbling of the cable or the like accommodated in connected link members occurs in the vertical direction so that the cable or the like and the bottom plate are brought into sliding contact with each other and the generation of wear becomes easy. In a case where to decrease a setting space of a protection and guide chain the height size of the link member is particularly designed to be small, since a stopper mechanism comprising a stopper pawl and a stopper hole portion must ensure a setting space, which the stopper mechanism is sufficient to function, the above-mentioned outer diameter size of the shaft and the shaft form have further tight design and there was a problem that the shaft protruding at the arc-shaped rear portion of the upright piece can be damaged. Further, when the above-mentioned outer diameter size of the shaft and the shaft form is designed in a large scale so as to endure use for a long period of time, the size of the outer diameter size of the shaft must be decreased and the surface pressure of the stopper pawl, which receives from the stopper hole portion is increased so that the stopper pawl is liable to wear and damage. Additionally, there was a problem that since the setting position of the stopper pawl is spaced apart from the vicinity of the bending center portion to the radial direction, a collision speed with respect to the stopper hole portion is increased and the collision energy is increased so that impact noise of a stopper pawl becomes more apparent. Further, since said stopper mechanism is provided at only one position distant from the bending center point, a bending load, which generates in the adjacent link bodies at the bending of the chain, must be shared and an excessive load with respect to a shaft mainly having a pivoting function cannot be avoided. Thus, there is a problem that breakage of the shaft is accelerated. Accordingly, the problems to be solved by the invention, i.e., the objects of the present invention are to solve problems of the above-mentioned prior arts and to provide a cable or the like protection and guide device, which can suppress the sliding contact noise by reliably limiting a linear position and a bending position exhibited during the movement of the cable or the like, and at the same time, which can reduce a setting space by suppressing the impact noise and wear of a connecting pin piece on a connecting pin hole even if the height size of the link body is decreased. MEANS FOR SOLVING THE PROBLEMS The present invention solves the above-described problems by the fact that a cable or the like protection and guide device for protecting and guiding a cable or the like in a cable inserting space, having a number of longitudinal cross-sectional link bodies in each of which a connecting plate is provided, in a laterally bridged manner, at the upper edge center portion and the lower end portion of a pair of the respective side plates oppositely displaced on the right and left sides, in which a connecting pin piece convexly provided on one end side of said side plate in the connecting direction toward a side, and a connecting pin hole concavely provided on the other side of said side plate in the connecting direction are mutually fitted to adjacent link bodies and in which said link bodies are articulably connected to each other, is characterized in that said connecting pin includes a pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces, which are parallel to said upper edge center portion and said lower edge center portion and are oppositely disposed across bending center points of said adjacent link bodies, and a pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces which are continuous to said stopper surfaces and oppositely disposed across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies, and said connecting hole includes a pair of linear position maintaining surfaces, which are parallel to said upper edge center portion and said lower edge center portion and are oppositely disposed across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies in a plane symmetry to simultaneously abut on said pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces of said connecting pin piece, bending position limiting surfaces, which are formed at a given bending limiting angle to said linear position maintaining surface and are oppositely disposed across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies in a plane symmetry to simultaneously abut on said pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces of said connecting pin piece, and a pair of arc-shaped inner circumferential surfaces oppositely disposed across said bending center point in a plane symmetry to be rotatably brought into sliding contact with said pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces of said connecting pin pieces. EFFECTS OF THE INVENTION In the cable or the like protection and guide device according to the present invention, a connecting pin piece, which connects adjacent link bodies to each other, includes a pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces, which are parallel to the upper edge center portion and the lower edge center portion of the pair of side plates oppositely disposed on the right and left sides and are oppositely disposed across a bending center point of said adjacent link bodies, and, a pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces which are continuous to said stopper surfaces and oppositely disposed across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies. Further connecting pin hole, which connects adjacent link bodies while cooperating with said pin piece, includes a pair of linear position maintaining surfaces, which are parallel to the upper edge center portion and the lower edge center portion oppositely disposed on the right and left side, and are oppositely disposed across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies to simultaneously abut on said pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces of said connecting pin pieces, bending position limiting surfaces, which are formed at a given bending limiting angle to said linear position maintaining surface, and are oppositely disposed across the bending center point of the adjacent link bodies in a plane symmetry to simultaneously abut on said pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces of said connecting pin pieces, and a pair of arc-shaped inner circumferential surfaces oppositely disposed across said bending center point in a plane symmetry to be rotatably brought into sliding contact with said pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces of said connecting pin pieces. That is, (1) Since the connecting pin piece, which connects adjacent link bodies to each other, includes a pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces, which are oppositely disposed across a bending center point of said adjacent link bodies, when the cable or the like protection and guide device of the present invention is compared with a conventional protection and guide chain in which a stopper mechanism is provided at only one position spaced apart from a bending center point and impact noise is generated, it can disperse a bending load, which generates in adjacent link members at any time of the linear positioning and bending positioning so that the stress concentration to the bending center portion of a connecting pin piece can be avoided. Thus according to the device of the present invention, impact noise, which is liable to generate in the connecting pin piece can be significantly suppressed and at the same time it suppresses breakage of the connecting pin piece whereby tensile strength can be ensured for a long period of time. (2) Since the connecting pin piece, which connects adjacent link bodies to each other, includes a pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces which are continuous to said stopper surfaces and oppositely disposed across the bending center point of the adjacent link bodies, when the cable or the like protection and guide device of the present invention is compared with a conventional protection and guide chain in which an outer diameter size of a shaft and a shaft form are small design, even if the height size of the link body is decreased, a sufficiently large outer diameter size enough to rotatably sliding contact with an arc-shaped inner circumferential surface of the connecting pin hole can be ensured. Thus, a stable and smooth operation between the linear position and the bending position is realized and at the same time wear between the connecting pin piece and the connecting pin hole can be suppressed. Further, since the height size of the link body having a rectangular cross-section can be decreased, vertical wobbling of the cable or the like accommodated in a number of connected link bodies is suppressed whereby the contact noise is reduced and sliding contact wear between connecting plates disposed at upper and lower end connecting center portions of the link body and the cable or the like. (3) Since a connecting pin hole, which cooperates with said pin piece, includes a pair of linear position maintaining surfaces, which are parallel to the upper edge center portion and the lower edge center portion oppositely disposed on the right and left side, and are oppositely disposed across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies in a plane symmetry to simultaneously abut on said pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces of said connecting pin pieces, this linear position maintaining surfaces are supported while abutting on a pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces provided on the connecting pin pieces across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies in a plane symmetry to simultaneously abut on the pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces of said connecting pin piece. Thus, a linear position exhibited at the movement of the cable or the like can be reliably maintained. Further, since the linear position maintaining surfaces are in a spaced condition in parallel with each other in the vertical plane in a linear position through a bending position, wear and contact noise due to sliding contact, which were generated in a conventional protection and guide chain, can be avoided. (4) Since a connecting pin hole, which cooperates with said pin piece, includes bending position limiting surfaces, which are formed at a given bending limiting angle to said linear position maintaining surface, and are oppositely disposed across the bending center point of the adjacent link bodies in a plane symmetry to simultaneously abut on said pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces of said connecting pin pieces. Thus, these bending position limiting surfaces are supported while abutting on a pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces provided on the connecting pin pieces across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies in a plane symmetry, and the bending positions of the adjacent link bodies are fixedly limited at a desired bending limiting angle. Accordingly, the cable or the like can be reliably protected and guided in a cable-inserting space where a number of adjacent link bodies are connected to each other while being bent. (5) Since a connecting pin hole, which cooperates with said pin piece, includes a pair of arc-shaped inner circumferential surfaces oppositely disposed across said bending center point in a plane symmetry to be rotatably brought into sliding contact with said pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces of said connecting pin pieces, when the cable or the like protection and guide device of the present invention is compared with a conventional protection and guide chain in which an outer diameter size of a shaft and a shaft form are small design, even if the height size of the link body is decreased, a sufficiently large outer diameter size enough to rotatably sliding contact with an arc-shaped outer circumferential surface of the connecting pin hole can be ensured. Thus, a stable and smooth operation between the linear position and the bending position is realized and at the same time wear between the connecting pin piece and the connecting pin hole can be suppressed. The invention will be better understood when reference is made to the BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS, DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION AND CLAIMS which follow hereinbelow. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an outer view of a link body used in a cable or the like protection and guide device, which is one example of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a use form showing a linear position of the cable or the like protection and guide device, which is one example of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a use form showing a bending position of the cable or the like protection and guide device, which is one example of the present invention. A better understanding of the invention will be had when reference is made to the DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION and CLAIMS which follow hereinbelow. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION To protect and guide a cable or the like in a cable-inserting space where adjacent link bodies are articulably connected in large numbers, the cable or the like protection and guide device of the present invention includes a number of longitudinal cross-sectional link bodies in each of which connecting plates are provided, in a laterally bridged manner, at the upper edge center portion and the lower end portion of a pair of the respective side plates oppositely displaced on the right and left sides, and adjacent link bodies in which a connecting pin piece convexly provided on one end side of said side plate in the connecting direction toward a side, and a connecting pin hole concavely provided on the other side of said side plate in the connecting direction are mutually fitted and further the adjacent link bodies are articulably connected to each other. Further, to suppress sliding contact noise by reliably limiting the linear position and the bending position exhibited at the movement of the cable or the like and to suppress the impact noise and wear of the connecting pin piece with respect to the connecting pin hole even if a height size of the link body is reduced, whereby tensile strength is increased and a setting space is decreased, a connecting pin piece, which connects adjacent link bodies to each other, includes a pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces, which are parallel to the upper edge center portion and the lower edge center portion of the pair of side plates oppositely disposed on the right and left sides and are oppositely disposed across a bending center point of said adjacent link bodies, and, a pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces which are continuous to said stopper surfaces and oppositely disposed across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies. Further connecting pin hole, which connects adjacent link bodies while cooperating with said pin piece, includes a pair of linear position maintaining surfaces, which are parallel to the upper edge center portion and the lower edge center portion oppositely disposed on the right and left side, and are oppositely disposed across the bending center point of said adjacent link bodies to simultaneously abut on said pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces of said connecting pin pieces, bending position limiting surfaces, which are formed at a given bending limiting angle to said linear position maintaining surface, and are oppositely disposed across the bending center point of the adjacent link bodies in a plane symmetry to simultaneously abut on said pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces of said connecting pin pieces, and a pair of arc-shaped inner circumferential surfaces oppositely disposed across said bending center point in a plane symmetry to be rotatably brought into sliding contact with said pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces of said connecting pin pieces. It is noted that a link body used in the cable or the like protection and guide device according to the present invention may be made of any one of a plastic and a metal. Particularly, in a case where the link body is made of a plastic, a connecting pin piece is integrally molded with the link body. However, to further suppress the impact noise due to the connecting pin piece the link body may be molded by an attachable separate member, which can select a plastic material suitable for suppressing noise. And one end side and the other end side in the connecting direction, forming a side plate of said link body may be used if the adjacent link bodies include a step form at a degree of not-interfered with each other even if they are overlapped in nest conditions. However, to reliably fit a connecting pin piece convexly provided on a side of the above-mentioned side plate and a connecting pin hole concavely provided on the adjacent side plate to each other without being projected from each other a step form of a degree of half the plate thickness of the plate thickness is further preferred. The shapes of the end portions of the one end side where the connecting pin piece of the side plate is convexly provided, and the other end side where the connecting pin hole is concavely provided, may each include an arc-shaped end surface at a degree of not-interfered with each other even if they are overlapped in nest conditions. However, to complement the linear position maintaining function and the bending position limiting function of the above-mentioned connecting pin piece and the connecting pin hole, shaping of a linear position complementary surface and a bending position complementary surface by removing a part of the arc-shaped end surface or the like is further preferable. EXAMPLE A cable or the like protection and guide device, which is one example of the present invention, will be described with reference to drawings. FIG. 1 is an outer view of a link body used in the cable or the like protection and guide device, which is one example of the present invention, FIG. 2 is a use mode view showing a linear position of the cable or the like protection and guide device, which is one example of the present invention, and FIG. 3 is a use mode view showing a bending position of the cable or the like protection and guide device, which is one example of the present invention. First, to form a cable inserting space for protecting and guiding a cable or the like C consisting of a flexible body such as a cable, a hose or the like, the cable or the like protection and guide device of the present example comprises rectangular cross-sectional link bodies 10 articulably connected to each other in large numbers, each of which is molded of a synthetic resin, as shown in FIG. 1. In this rectangular link body 10, connecting plates 12, 12 are provided on the upper edge center portion and the lower edge center portion of a pair of side plates 11, 11 oppositely disposed on the right and left side (horizontally) in laterally bridged conditions. Further a connecting pin piece 13 convexly provided toward the side on one end side of each of said side plates 11, 11 in the connecting direction thereof and a connecting pin hole 14 concavely provided on the other end side of each of said side plates 11, 11 in the connecting direction thereof, are fitted to each other in adjacent link bodies. The one end side and the other end side in the connecting direction of said side plate 11 are not interfered with each other even if adjacent link bodies 10, 10 are overlapped in nest conditions. Further, to reliably fit the connecting pin piece convexly provided on a side of the side plate 11 and the connecting pin hole 14 concavely provided in the adjacent side plate 11 to each other without being projected from each other, a step form of a degree of half the thickness M of the side plate 11 is adopted. Next, a concrete fitting form between the connecting pin piece 13 and the connecting pin hole 14, which is the most characteristic in the cable or the like protection and guide device of the present example will be described in detail based on FIG. 1. The connecting pin piece 13 includes a pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces 13a, 13a, which are disposed in parallel with the upper edge center portion and lower edge center portion of a pair of side plates oppositely disposed on the right and left side, and are oppositely disposed across a bending center point O between adjacent link bodies 10, 10, and a pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces 13b, 13b, which are continuous to these stopper surfaces 13a, 13a respectively and are oppositely disposed across a bending center point O between the adjacent link bodies 10. And said connecting pin hole 14 includes linear position maintaining surfaces 14a, 14a, which are disposed in parallel with the upper edge center portion and the lower edge center portion, and oppositely disposed across a bending center point O between the adjacent link bodies 10, 10 in a plane symmetry and further maintains linear positions of the link bodies 10, 10 by simultaneously abutting on the pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces 13a, 13a; bending position limiting surfaces 14b, 14b, which are formed at a desired bending limiting angle α with respect to the linear position maintaining surfaces 14a, 14a, and are oppositely disposed across a bending center point O between the adjacent link bodies 10, 10 in a plane symmetry and further limits bending positions of the link bodies 10, 10 by simultaneously abutting on the pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces 13a, 13a; and arc-shaped inner circumferential surfaces 14c, 14c, which are oppositely disposed across a bending center point O between the adjacent link bodies 10, 10 in a plane symmetry and are rotatably brought into sliding contact with the pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces 13b, 13b of said connecting pin piece 13. In the case of the present invention, if the shapes of the one end side of the side plate 11 where the connecting pin piece 13 is convexly provided, and of the other end side of the side plate 11 where the connecting pin hole 14 is concavely provided, include arc-shaped end surfaces 11a at a degree of not-interfered with each other even if they are pivoted in nest conditions, they may be used. In the cable or the like protection and guide device of the present example, parts of said arc-shaped end surface 11a are removed to form a linear position complementary surface 11b and a bending position complementary surface 11c so that both of the complementary surfaces 11b and 11c can complement the linear position maintaining function and the bending position limiting function by the above-mentioned connecting pin piece 13 and the connecting pin hole 14. The thus obtained cable or the like protection and guide device of the present example not only can safely and reliably protect and guide a cable or the like C in a linear position or a bending position as shown in FIGS. 2 to 3, but also can exert the following peculiar action and effect. That is, since the connecting pin piece 13, which connects its own link body 10 to the adjacent link body 10, includes a pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces 13a, 13a, as compared with a conventional protection and guide chain, a bending load generated in adjacent link bodies 10, 10 can be dispersed onto the pair of upper and lower stopper surfaces 13a, 13a at any time of a linear position and a bending position so that the stress concentration to the bending center point of the connecting pin piece 13 can be avoided. Thus according to the device of the present invention, impact noise, which is liable to generate in the connecting pin piece 13 can be significantly suppressed and at the same time it suppresses breakage of the connecting pin piece 13 whereby tensile strength can be ensured for a long period of time. And since said connecting pin piece 13 includes a pair of front and rear arc-shaped outer circumferential surfaces 13b, 13b, as compared with a conventional protection and guide chain, even if the height size H of the link body 10 is decreased, a sufficiently large outer diameter size enough to rotatably sliding contact with an arc-shaped inner circumferential surface 14c of the connecting pin hole 14 can be ensured. Thus, a stable and smooth operation between the linear position and the bending position is realized and at the same time wear between the connecting pin piece 13 and the connecting pin hole 14 can be suppressed. Further, since the connecting pin hole 14, which cooperates with said connecting pin piece 13, includes linear position maintaining surfaces 14a, the linear position maintaining surfaces are supported while abutting on the stopper surfaces 13a of the connecting pin piece 13a. Thus, a linear position exhibited at the movement of the cable or the like C can be reliably maintained. Further, since the linear position maintaining surfaces are in a spaced condition in parallel with each other in the vertical plane in a linear position through a bending position, wear and contact noise due to sliding contact, which were generated in a conventional protection and guide chain, can be avoided. And since said connecting pin hole 14 includes bending position limiting surfaces 14b, these bending position limiting surfaces 14b are supported while abutting on the stopper surfaces 13a of the connecting pin piece 13. Further, the bending positions of the adjacent link bodies are fixedly limited at a desired bending limiting angle. Accordingly, the cable or the like C can be reliably protected and guided in a cable- inserting space where a number of adjacent link bodies 10, 10 are connected to each other while being bent. Further, since said connecting pin hole 14 includes arc-shaped inner circumferential surfaces 14c, when the cable or the like protection and guide device of the present invention is compared with a conventional protection and guide chain, even if the height size H of the link body is decreased, a sufficiently large outer diameter size enough to rotatably sliding contact with an arc-shaped outer circumferential surface 13b of the connecting pin hole 13 can be ensured. Thus, a stable and smooth operation between the linear position and the bending position is realized and at the same time wear between the connecting pin piece 13 and the connecting pin hole 14 can be suppressed. Further, in the cable or the like protection and guide device of the present example, parts of said arc-shaped end surface 11a are removed to form a linear position complementary surface 11b and a bending position complementary surface 11c so that both of the complementary surfaces 11b and 11c can complement the linear position maintaining function and the bending position limiting function by the above-mentioned connecting pin piece 13 and the connecting pin hole 14. Accordingly, a concentrated load to the connecting pin piece 13 is avoided so that the breakage of the connecting pin piece 13 is further suppressed, and tensile strength of the device can be ensured. Thus, the effects are very large. DESCRIPTION OF REFERENCE NUMERALS 10 . . . Link body 11 . . . Side plate 11a . . . Arc-shaped end surface 11b . . . Linear position complementary surface 11c . . . Bending position complementary surface 12 . . . Connecting plate 13 . . . Connecting pin piece 13a . . . Stopper surface 13b . . . Arc-shaped outer circumferential surface 14 . . . Connecting pin hole 14a . . . Linear position maintaining surface 14b . . . Bending position limiting surface 14c . . . Arc-shaped inner circumferential surface C . . . Cable or the like α . . . Bending center point M . . . Thickness of side plate 11 H . . . Height size α . . . Bending limiting angle The invention has been described by way of examples only and those skilled in the art will readily recognize that certain changes and modifications may be made to the examples without departing from the spirit and scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>As one example of a cable or the like protection and guide device for protecting and guiding a cable or the like composed of a flexible body such as a cable, a hose or the like, a protection and guide chain has been well known in which lower ends of a pair of upright pieces oppositely disposed are formed in a U-shape in a front view by a bottom plate, a shaft hole is provided in an arc-shaped front portion of each upright piece, a number of link members each provided with a shaft by protruding the shaft from an outside surface to an arc-shaped rear portion of the upright piece, are articulably connected with each other by fitting said shaft into said shaft hole between the adjacent link members, and a stopper mechanism is provided at the connecting portion to limit the bending angle of said link body, and in which a stopper pawl on said shaft and a stopper hole portion to limit a movable range of said stopper pawl is provided in said shaft hole. Patent Reference 1: Publication of Japanese Patent No. 3115995 (on page 1, FIGS. 3 to 5). | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is an outer view of a link body used in a cable or the like protection and guide device, which is one example of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a use form showing a linear position of the cable or the like protection and guide device, which is one example of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a use form showing a bending position of the cable or the like protection and guide device, which is one example of the present invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? A better understanding of the invention will be had when reference is made to the DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION and CLAIMS which follow hereinbelow. | 20040614 | 20070213 | 20050210 | 99929.0 | 1 | JONES, DAVID B | CABLE OR THE LIKE PROTECTION AND GUIDE DEVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,866,916 | ACCEPTED | System and method for carrying out liquid and subsequent drying treatments on one or more wafers | Systems for processing microelectronic substrates in a process chamber that incorporate improved technology for transitioning from a wet process to a dry process (especially transitioning from rinsing to drying). At least a portion of residual liquid remaining in fluid supply lines after a wet treatment is removed via a pathway that avoids purging directly onto the substrates. Related methods are also included in the present invention. | 1. A system for processing microelectronic substrates, comprising: a process chamber in which one or more microelectronic substrates may be positioned during a process; a fluid delivery pathway through which a fluid can be dispensed onto the substrates positioned in the process chamber; a fluid removal pathway fluidly coupled to the fluid delivery pathway in a manner such that at least a portion of a residual liquid in the fluid delivery pathway can be withdrawn from the fluid delivery pathway without purging at least the residual liquid portion directly onto the one or more substrates. 2. A spray processor system, comprising: a process chamber in which one or more microelectronic substrates may be positioned during a process; and a fluid delivery system in fluid communication with the process chamber, wherein the fluid delivery system comprises: a fluid delivery pathway through which a fluid can be dispensed onto the substrates positioned in the process chamber; a fluid removal pathway fluidly coupled to the fluid delivery pathway in a manner such that at least a portion of a residual liquid in the fluid delivery pathway can be withdrawn from at least a portion of the fluid delivery pathway without purging at least the portion of the residual liquid directly onto the one or more substrates; and a fluid by-pass pathway fluidly coupled to the fluid delivery pathway and the fluid by-pass pathway in a manner such that, when a gas flows through the fluid by-pass pathway, a vacuum is applied to at least a portion of the fluid delivery pathway and the fluid removal pathway. 3. A method of processing one or more microelectronic substrates, comprising the steps of: positioning one or more microelectronic substrates in a process chamber; dispensing a liquid into the process chamber and onto the one or more substrates through a fluid delivery pathway; stopping dispensing of the liquid, wherein an amount of residual liquid remains in the fluid delivery pathway; causing at least a portion of the residual liquid to be removed from the fluid pathway through a fluid removal pathway such that said portion of the residual liquid is not purged directly onto the substrates; and drying the substrates. 4. A method of processing one or more microelectronic substrates, the method comprising the steps of: positioning one or more microelectronic substrates in a process chamber; dispensing a first liquid flow into the process chamber and onto the one or more substrates via a first fluid delivery pathway; dispensing a second liquid flow into the process chamber and onto the one or more substrates via a second fluid delivery pathway; stopping dispensing of the first liquid flow, wherein an amount of residual liquid remains in the first fluid delivery pathway; while the dispensing of the second liquid flow is occurring, purging the first fluid delivery pathway into the process chamber; after stopping purging of the first fluid delivery pathway, stopping the dispensing of the second liquid flow, wherein a residual amount of liquid remains in the second fluid delivery pathway; and removing at least a portion of the residual amount of liquid in the second fluid delivery pathway through a fluid removal pathway such that said portion of the residual amount of liquid in the second fluid delivery pathway is not purged onto the substrates. 5. A spray processor system, comprising: a process chamber in which one or more microelectronic substrates may be positioned during a process; a fluid delivery pathway through which a fluid can be dispensed onto the substrates positioned in the process chamber; a fluid by-pass through which a fluid can be diverted from the fluid delivery pathway; a first valve coupling the fluid delivery pathway and the fluid by-pass, wherein the first valve in a normal state is open to allow a fluid to continue to flow through the fluid delivery pathway and is closed to block flow of a fluid into the fluid by-pass from the fluid delivery pathway, and wherein the first valve in an actuated state is closed to block flow of a fluid downstream through the fluid delivery pathway and is open to allow flow of a fluid from the fluid delivery pathway to the fluid by-pass; a fluid removal pathway located relatively downstream from the fluid by-pass when the first valve is in a normal state; and a second valve coupling the fluid removal pathway to the fluid delivery pathway, wherein the second valve in a normal state is open to allow a fluid to continue to flow through the fluid delivery pathway and is closed to block a flow of a fluid into the fluid removal pathway from the fluid delivery pathway, and wherein the second valve in an actuated state is open to allow fluid communication between the fluid removal pathway and at least a portion of the fluid delivery pathway between the second valve and the process chamber. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to technology for fabricating microelectronic devices using spray processor tools. More particularly, the present invention relates to processes including aspects in which a spray processor tool is used to contact one or more device precursors with a liquid (e.g., especially a rinsing liquid) and subsequently to dry the precursors. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The microelectronic industry relies on a variety of wet/dry process recipes in the manufacture of a variety of microelectronic devices. The microelectronic industry can utilize a variety of configured systems to carry out such wet/dry processes. Many such systems are in the form of spray processor tools. A spray processor tool generally refers to a tool in which one or more treatment chemicals, rinsing liquids, and/or gases are sprayed onto one or more wafers either singly or in combination in a series of one or more steps. This is in contrast to wet bench tools where wafers are immersed in a fluid bath during the course of processing. In a typical spray processor tool, fluid is sprayed onto the wafer(s) while the wafer(s) are supported upon a rotating platen such as a turntable, chuck, or the like. Examples of spray processor systems include the MERCURY® or ZETA® spray processor systems available from FSI International, Inc., Chaska, Minn.; the SCEPTER™ or SPECTRUMS spray processor systems available from Semitool, Inc., Kalispell, Mont.; a spray processor system available from SEZ AG, Villach, Austria and sold under the trade designation SEZ 323; and the like. Typical recipes for spray processor tools may include process steps involving subjecting wafer(s) first to one or more wet processes (e.g., chemical treatments and/or rinsing treatments) after which the wafer(s) then are dried. For example, a conventional rinse/dry sequence may involve first spraying a rinsing liquid onto stacks of wafer(s) supported upon a rotating turntable in a process chamber. Rinsing is stopped and the plumbing used to deliver the rinse liquid is then purged into the process chamber. A drying gas may then be introduced into the chamber through the same or different plumbing to dry the wafer(s). One way by which the effectiveness of a particular process recipe can be assessed is by measuring the degree to which particles are added to wafer(s) following a treatment in accordance with the process recipe. It is generally desirable that the number of added particles (i.e., added particles=measured particles after process recipe—measured particles before process recipe) is consistently as low as possible. Some process recipes may perform well with respect to added particles only within a relatively narrow range of process parameters. For example, a conventional rinse/dry recipe may be practiced so as to yield consistently low added particles only when the rinse liquid is within a particular temperature range (e.g., moderately warm). Yet, this same recipe might suffer from unduly high and/or inconsistent added particles if the rinse liquid is at a temperature outside such range (e.g., if the rinse liquid is chilled or hot). This temperature restriction can limit the practical utility of such a recipe. For instance, it might otherwise be desirable to be able to use very hot rinse liquid to reduce cycle time, inasmuch as the hotter liquid might rinse wafer(s) faster and dry faster. Further, it might otherwise be desirable to be able to use very cold rinse liquid to treat temperature sensitive substrates. In short, conventional rinse/dry sequences may tend to be unduly temperature sensitive with respect to added particles, often at the expense of process flexibility. As microelectronic device features become smaller and smaller, the size restrictions upon added particles become more stringent. For example, for larger-sized features, monitoring added particles that are greater than 150 nm in size (Such a specification is often referred to as “particles >150 nm” or another similar reference.) might be sufficient to help ensure acceptable device quality. However, for smaller features, monitoring particles >90 nm, or >65 nm, or even smaller added particles may be desirable. Some conventional rinse/dry sequences may perform well with less stringent monitoring, but may not perform as well as might be desired when monitoring smaller added particles. There is a continuing need, therefore, in the microelectronics industry to carry out wet/dry process recipes with consistently lower added particles. In particular, there is a continuing need in this area to provide approaches that are more temperature insensitive and/or that provide lower added particles even when more stringent monitoring standards, e.g., standards such as >90 nm, >65 nm, or the like, are applied. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides improved technology for carrying out a sequence of one or more wet liquid treatments (especially rinsing) and subsequent drying treatments when processing one or more wafers. More specifically, the present invention provides an improved way to transition from a wet treatment to a drying treatment in a manner that dramatically reduces added particles that might otherwise be observed following a more conventional wet/dry sequence. The present invention appreciates that the character of this transition can significantly impact added particle performance. The present invention is especially useful in carrying out a rinse/dry recipe in a spray processor tool. The invention is most beneficially practiced at least to carry out a transition between a final rinsing treatment and a subsequent drying treatment practiced in a spray processor tool, after which the wafer(s) would be removed from the tool. Indeed, we have obtained very neutral added particle data for particles having a size greater than 65 nanometers (nm) on 300 millimeter (mm) wafers when using a stand-alone rinse/dry treatment in a spray processor tool of the present invention. See FIGS. 2a, 2b, 3a, and 3b, discussed further below, for data demonstrating this. Dramatically improved performance with respect to added particles is not the only observed benefit. We have also observed the significant benefit that process performance in terms of added particles is relatively insensitive to the temperature of the rinse liquid. That is, improved performance with respect to added particles can be obtained regardless of whether the rinse liquid temperature is cold, ambient, warm, or hot. The ability to practice rinsing practically at any desired temperature in which the rinsing medium exists as a liquid without an undue increase in added particles offers tremendous flexibility with respect to the kinds of rinsing and drying recipes that can be used as well as the kinds of wafers that can be processed. This advantage is in stark contrast to a more conventional methodology that tends to provide optimum performance only for rinse liquid within a relatively narrow range of temperatures. Faster cycle times may be achieved by being able to rinse with hot rinse liquid (e.g., 60 C to 100 C) in some embodiments without undue risk that the use of hot liquid will cause too great an increase in added particles. Quite simply, hotter rinse liquid tends to evaporate faster and wafers rinsed with hotter liquid can be dried more rapidly than wafers rinsed with cooler liquid. Moreover, hotter rinse liquid can be used to heat the process chamber, which can reduce the time needed to dry the wafers and the chamber. For example, a particular recipe involving the use of warm water (35 C) required 400 seconds (6.7 minutes) of drying time. Using hot rinsing water (85 C), this drying time can be dramatically reduced by 4.5 minutes while still providing very neutral added particles. The present invention is based, at least in part, upon a practical, technical solution for the problem that added particles may result as a consequence of the manner by which a process recipe transitions from a wet treatment, e.g., rinsing, to a drying treatment. A conventional process, for example, may involve a recipe in which wafers are rinsed, then the rinse lines are purged into the process chamber, and then the wafers are dried. While not wishing to be bound by theory, we believe that such unguarded, bare purging is a significant cause of added particles. We have observed that a mist or aerosol of the liquid is generated when liquid lines are purged into the process chamber. Except perhaps over a relatively narrow temperature range, this mist or aerosol may settle as fine droplets onto the surfaces of the drying wafers. These droplets may then be detected as light point defects, and hence as added particles. The number of added particles tends to be greatest with respect to smaller particles, e.g., particles less than about 90 nm in size. In short, unguarded, bare purging of liquid according to conventional methodologies is believed to be a source of added particles in which the number of added particles is a strong function of the temperature of the purged liquid. In one mode of practice, the present invention incorporates suckback functionality, preferably via aspirating, into at least a portion of the plumbing through which a treatment liquid, especially a rinsing liquid, is dispensed into a process chamber. This allows at least a portion of residual liquid remaining in the corresponding supply line(s) to be removed via suckback rather than being removed solely via purging into the chamber after the primary flow or spray of the liquid into the chamber is stopped. By sucking back at least a portion of residual rinse liquid, a lesser amount of aerosol or mist is generated that would be able to impact the wafer surfaces. Also, while not wishing to be bound by theory, we believe that as soon as the wafer surfaces start to dry, the surfaces become vulnerable to spotting. Further, faster drying tends to increase this vulnerability. Thus, purging tends to be more problematic in terms of added particles when wafer surfaces are dry or partially dry as purging occurs. Such a problem can especially be present when, for example, a wafer(s) is being spun in a process chamber during purging. Spinning wafer(s) tend to dry or begin to dry in a time period shorter than the time period for purging to be completed. In other words, purging takes more time than drying. As purging continues, there comes a time when mist/aerosol associated with purging therefore contacts relatively dry wafer surfaces. Consequently, the longer purge cycle makes spinning wafer surfaces more vulnerable to spotting. The present invention also includes embodiments in which one or more liquid supply lines are purged into the process chamber while one or more other supply lines are used to wet the wafer surfaces. After the former lines are purged, flow through the latter lines can be stopped after which such latter lines are emptied via sucking back the residual liquid. The present invention is significant in that it allows at least some purging, if desired, to occur into the process chamber while the wafer surface(s) are still wet and protected from the aerosol or mist that tends to accompany purging. Alternatively, purging into the chamber can be avoided completely in the transition from a wet treatment to a drying treatment if the sucking back functionality is used to remove all of the residual liquid through the supply lines. Thus, the embodiments discussed above contemplate that, at least at the end of a rinsing treatment, at least a portion of the residual liquid in liquid supply line(s) is not purged directly into the process chamber, but rather is removed from the equipment via a different pathway. Sucking back is just one way of supplying the removal energy by which such residual liquid may be withdrawn. Other removal strategies with appropriate valving, additional plumbing, and/or the like, for instance, may involve using pressure to blow residual liquid from the lines to a destination, e.g., a drain or recycle, other than directly into the process chamber. Thus, it can be appreciated that any conventional system now or hereafter known that purges residual liquid, especially rinse liquid, into a process chamber could benefit from using sucking back functionality in accordance with the present invention. In another mode of practice, the present invention provides a process recipe in which at least a portion of a remaining treatment liquid, especially a rinsing liquid, is not purged into the process chamber. Instead, the remaining portion of the treatment liquid is simply left standing in the corresponding supply line(s) until after the one or more wafers are removed from the process chamber. After the wafer(s) are removed from the process chamber, the remaining treatment liquid can be sucked back or safely purged into the process chamber. The present invention also includes embodiments in which one or more liquid supply lines are purged into the process chamber while one or more other supply lines are used to wet the wafer surfaces. After the former lines are purged, flow through the latter lines can be stopped, after which the wafer(s) are removed followed by purging or sucking back of such latter lines. This aspect of the present invention is significant in that it allows at least some purging, if desired, to occur into the process chamber while the wafer surface(s) are still wet and protected from the aerosol or mist that tends to accompany purging. Alternatively, purging into the chamber can be avoided completely in the transition from a wet treatment to a drying treatment if all of the residual liquid in the supply lines is simply left standing. In one aspect, a system for processing microelectronic substrates according to the present invention includes a process chamber in which one or more microelectronic substrates may be positioned during a process, a fluid delivery pathway through which a fluid can be dispensed onto the substrates positioned in the process chamber, and a fluid removal pathway fluidly coupled to the fluid delivery pathway in a manner such that at least a portion of a residual liquid in the fluid delivery pathway can be withdrawn from the fluid delivery pathway without purging at least the residual liquid portion directly onto the one or more substrates. In another aspect, a spray processor system according to the present invention includes a process chamber in which one or more microelectronic substrates may be positioned during a process and a fluid delivery system in fluid communication with the process chamber. The fluid delivery system includes a fluid delivery pathway through which a fluid can be dispensed onto the substrates positioned in the process chamber, a fluid removal pathway fluidly coupled to the fluid delivery pathway in a manner such that at least a portion of a residual liquid in the fluid delivery pathway can be withdrawn from at least a portion of the fluid delivery pathway without purging at least the portion of the residual liquid directly onto the one or more substrates, and a fluid by-pass pathway fluidly coupled to the fluid delivery pathway and the fluid by-pass pathway in a manner such that, when a gas flows through the fluid by-pass pathway, a vacuum is applied to at least a portion of the fluid delivery pathway and the fluid removal pathway. In another aspect, a method of processing one or more microelectronic substrates according to the present invention includes the steps of positioning one or more microelectronic substrates in a process chamber, dispensing a liquid into the process chamber and onto the one or more substrates through a fluid delivery pathway, stopping dispensing of the liquid, wherein an amount of residual liquid remains in the fluid delivery pathway, causing at least a portion of the residual liquid to be removed from the fluid pathway through a fluid removal pathway such that said portion of the residual liquid is not purged directly onto the substrates, and drying the substrates. In another aspect, a method of processing one or more microelectronic substrates according to the present invention includes the steps of positioning one or more microelectronic substrates in a process chamber, dispensing a first liquid flow into the process chamber and onto the one or more substrates via a first fluid delivery pathway, dispensing a second liquid flow into the process chamber and onto the one or more substrates via a second fluid delivery pathway, stopping dispensing of the first liquid flow such that an amount of residual liquid remains in the first fluid delivery pathway, purging the first fluid delivery pathway into the process chamber while the dispensing of the second liquid flow is occurring, stopping the dispensing of the second liquid flow after stopping purging of the first fluid delivery pathway such that a residual amount of liquid remains in the second fluid delivery pathway, and removing at least a portion of the residual amount of liquid in the second fluid delivery pathway through a fluid removal pathway such that said portion of the residual amount of liquid in the second fluid delivery pathway is not purged onto the substrates. In another aspect, a spray processor system according to the present invention includes a process chamber in which one or more microelectronic substrates may be positioned during a process, a fluid delivery pathway through which a fluid can be dispensed onto the substrates positioned in the process chamber, a fluid by-pass through which a fluid can be diverted from the fluid delivery pathway, a first valve coupling the fluid delivery pathway and the fluid by-pass, a fluid removal pathway located relatively downstream from the fluid by-pass when the first valve is in a normal state, and a second valve coupling the fluid removal pathway to the fluid delivery pathway. The first valve in a normal state is open to allow a fluid to continue to flow through the fluid delivery pathway and is closed to block flow of a fluid into the fluid by-pass from the fluid delivery pathway, and wherein the first valve in an actuated state is closed to block flow of a fluid downstream through the fluid delivery pathway and is open to allow flow of a fluid from the fluid delivery pathway to the fluid by-pass. The second valve in a normal state is open to allow a fluid to continue to flow through the fluid delivery pathway and is closed to block a flow of a fluid into the fluid removal pathway from the fluid delivery pathway, and wherein the second valve in an actuated state is open to allow fluid communication between the fluid removal pathway and at least a portion of the fluid delivery pathway between the second valve and the process chamber. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The understanding of the above mentioned and other advantages of the present invention, and the manner of attaining them, and the invention itself can be facilitated by reference to the following description of the exemplary embodiments of the invention taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of a spray processor tool according to the present invention. FIG. 2a shows a graph representing the “true adders” having a size greater than 65 nanometers for Comparison Example A and Examples 1-3. FIG. 2b shows a graph representing the range of “true adders” having a size greater than 65 nanometers for all three test wafers per run for Comparison Example A and Examples 1-3. FIG. 3a shows a graph representing the “delta” for defects having a size greater than 65 nanometers for each run for Comparison Example A and Examples 1-3. FIG. 3b shows a graph representing the range of “delta” values for all three test wafers per run for Comparison Example A and Examples 1-3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The embodiments of the present invention described below are not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed in the following detailed description. Rather the embodiments are chosen and described so that others skilled in the art may appreciate and understand the principles and practices of the present invention. FIG. 1 shows a representative manner by which principles of the present invention may be incorporated into the rinse and drying componentry of a wafer processing system 10 such as the MERCURY® or ZETA® spray processor systems available from FSI International, Inc., Chaska, Minn. These systems advantageously are available to process both 200 mm and 300 mm wafers. Specifically, the rinse and drying componentry is modified so as to incorporate aspirating functionality to allow suck back of liquids, preferably during the course of a transition from a rinsing treatment to a drying treatment as described below. Except for such modification of the rinse and drying componentry as described herein, system 10 in this illustrative mode of practice otherwise may be identical to the commercially available MERCURY® or ZETA® spray processor systems, and other conventional componentry of such systems is not shown for purposes of clarity. System 10 includes spray processor tool 12 that generally includes housing 14 and lid 16 enclosing chamber 18. Liquids and/or gases may be introduced into chamber 18 through center spray post 20, which descends from lid 16. The introduction of material through center spray post 20 is schematically indicated by arrows directed away from center spray post 20 and into chamber 18. Rotatable turntable 24 is coupled to motor 34 by shaft 32 such that rotatable turntable 24 can rotate about the axis of shaft 32 as indicated by the arrow around shaft 32. Posts 26 extend from turntable 24 so as to support one or more carriers 28 in which one or more wafers (not shown) are held during the course of treatment(s). Rotatable turntable 24 and one or more post(s) 26 can provide another pathway by which liquids and/or gases may be introduced into chamber 18 as indicated by the arrows directed away from turntable 24 and away from the top of support posts 26 and into chamber 18. Rotary union 36 is fluidly coupled to motor 34 by coupling 38 and helps to deliver liquids and/or gases from a supply source to the rotating environment inside chamber 18. A particularly preferred embodiment of a rotary union 36 is described in Assignee's co-pending application titled “Rotary Unions, Fluid Delivery Systems, and Related Methods,” in the names of Benson et al., bearing Attorney Docket No. FSI0135/US, and filed Mar. 12, 2004, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference. One or more sidebowl spray post(s) 22 are positioned in chamber 18 and provide another pathway by which liquids and/or gases may be introduced into chamber 18 as indicated by the arrows directed away from sidebowl spray post(s) and into chamber 18. In the particular embodiment shown, rinsing liquid(s) and drying gas(es) may be introduced into chamber 18 through any of center spray post 20, turntable 24/supports 26, and/or sidebowl spray post(s) 22. Other kinds of process liquid or gaseous process chemicals can be conveniently introduced into chamber 18 through center spray post 20 via one or more line(s) depicted schematically as other chemical line 39. A preferred embodiment of rinsing and drying componentry incorporating aspirating functionality will now be described in more detail. A rinse liquid such as deionized water is supplied to system 10 via supply line 40 from one or more water sources (not shown). The water preferably is filtered and purified in accordance with good practice in the microelectronics industry. Filtering and purification componentry (not shown) may be incorporated into system 10 and/or may be external to system 10. From supply line 40, the rinse liquid is conveyed to center spray post 20 via lines 41a, 41b and 41c. One or more gases, such as nitrogen, are supplied to center spray post 20 from a supply source (not shown) via lines 42a and 42b and then via lines 41b and 41c. The flow of liquid and gas to center spray post 20 through lines 41a, 41b, 41c, 42a, and 42b is controlled by valves 44, 46, and 48. Valve 44 as shown is normally closed with respect to gas flow and is actuated to allow gas to flow from line 42a to 42b. Valve 46 is normally open to allow gas to flow from line 42b to 41b, but is normally closed with respect to the flow of liquid from line 41a to 41b. When valve 46 is actuated, liquid may flow through the valve, while the flow of gas is blocked. Valve 48 controls the flow of liquid or gas from line 41b to center spray post 20 via line 41c, or otherwise may divert the flow of liquid and/or gas, as the case may be, to drain 50 via line 52. Valve 48 is normally open so as to allow flow of fluid from line 41b to 41c. When actuated, valve 48 diverts the flow of fluid through check valve 51, via line 52. Check valve 51 can be connected to one or more other components designed to receive such fluids. As shown, check valve 51 is connected to drain 50, and prevents the flow of liquid (or gas) from flowing back from drain 50 and into valve 48. From supply line 40, the rinse liquid is conveyed to side bowl spray post 22 via lines 52a, 52b, 52c, and 52d. One or more gases, such as nitrogen, are supplied to side bowl spray post 22 from a supply source (not shown) via lines 56a and 56b and then via lines 52b, 52c, and 52d. The gas supply source may be the same or different from the supply source that supplies gas to the center spray post 20. The flow of gas and/or liquid through lines 52b, 52c, and 52d may be diverted to aspirator 58 via lines 60 or 62, respectively. From aspirator 58, fluids may flow thru check valve 64, via line 66. Check valve 64 can be connected to one or more other components designed to receive such fluids. As shown, check valve 64 is connected to drain 67, and prevents the flow of liquid (or gas) from flowing back from drain 67 and into aspirator 58. Drain 67 may be the same or different from drain 50. Spray processor systems according to the present invention advantageously incorporate a treatment liquid removal functionality with respect to at least one fluid supply line so as to be able to remove at least a portion of a treatment liquid from the fluid supply without having to purge all of the liquid into a process chamber of the spray processor tool. Aspirator 58 is a common type of device that makes use of the Bernoulli principle to help provide such removal functionality. When a fluid, such as a gas in the case of system 10, is forced through a smooth constriction in the device, the fluid velocity increases. This lowers the pressure. In other words, a vacuum is established which, with valves 72 and 74 appropriately set, may be used to aspirate or suck back liquid from side bowl spray post 22 for transport to another location, such as, for example, for disposal through drain 67. A representative mode of practice to accomplish this in the context of a rinsing and drying sequence of treatments will be described further below. Many suitable embodiments of aspirators are commercially available from a number of commercial sources. One illustrative embodiment of an aspirator found to be suitable in the practice of the invention is commercially available under the trade designation GALTEK® from Entegris, Inc., Chaska, Minn. The flow of fluid(s) to side bowl post 22 is controlled by valves 68, 70, 72, and 74. Valve 68 as shown is normally closed with respect to gas flow and is actuated to allow gas to flow from line 56a to valve 70 via line 56b. Valve 70 is normally open to allow gas to flow from line 56b to line 52b, but is normally closed with respect to the flow of liquid from line 52a to 52b. When valve 70 is actuated, liquid may flow through valve 70, while the flow of gas is blocked. Valve 72 may be used to divert fluid, gas and/or liquid, from line 52b to aspirator 58, via line 60. In its normal state, valve 72 is set so that fluid flows from line 52b to 52c. When valve 72 is actuated, fluid is diverted from line 52b to line 60. Valve 72 includes a snubber 76 that sufficiently delays the return of valve 72 to its normal condition such that any excess gas pressure present in lines 56b and/or 52b is released to drain 67 via aspirator 58 and lines 60 and 66 and not into chamber 18 (discussed below). Valve 74 may be used to divert/pull fluid from line 52c and 52d to aspirator 58, via line 62, depending upon how it is set. In its normal state, valve 74 is set so that fluid flows from line 52c to side bowl post 22, via line 52d. When actuated, lines 52c and 52d and side bowl spray post 22 are in fluid communication with line 62 and aspirator 58. Thus, for instance, when valves 68, 72, and 74 are simultaneously actuated together as schematically depicted by dotted line 86, gas flowing through lines 56a, 56b, 52b and 60 to aspirator 58 via valve 72 creates a vacuum or suction effect in lines 52c, 52d, and 62, and in side bowl spray post 22. As a consequence, liquid in lines 52c, 52d, and 62, and in side bowl spray post 22 is sucked back through aspirator 58 in the presence of this vacuum effect. After sucking back liquid in lines 52c, 52d, and 62, and side bowl spray post 22, valves 68, 72, and 74 can simultaneously return to their normal state (as schematically depicted by dotted line 86), subject to a delay provided by snubber 76. Snubber 76 on valve 76 is set to provide a time delay that sufficiently delays the return of valve 72 to its normal state such that any excess gas pressure present in lines 56b and/or 52b is released to drain 67 via aspirator 58 and lines 60 and 66 and not into chamber 18 via lines 52c and 52d and side bowl spray post 22. If any excess gas pressure in lines 56b and/or 52b is directed through lines 52c and 52d and side bowl spray post 22 when valves 72 and 74 are returned to their normal state, residual liquid that may be present in lines 52c and/or 52d and/or side bowl spray post 22 may be caused to form a short burst of mist/aerosol from the excess pressure and be discharged into chamber 18. This is undesirable because such mist/aerosol can contact the dry wafers in chamber 18 and add particles to the wafers, especially since drier wafers are more sensitive to mist/aerosols. Dotted line 86 schematically depicts that valves 68, 72, and 74 are actuated together, subject to the snubber 76 delaying the return of valve 72 when the valves 68, 72, and 74 are returned to their normal states. As mentioned, rotatable turntable 24 and one or more post(s) 26 can provide another pathway by which liquids and/or gases may be introduced into chamber 18. For example, as shown, from supply line 40, the rinse liquid is conveyed to turntable 24 and support posts 26 via lines 78a and 78b, and one or more gases, such as nitrogen, are supplied to turntable 24 and support posts 26 from a supply source (not shown) via lines 80a and 80b, and then via line 78b. The gas supply source may be the same or different from the supply source that supplies gas to the center spray post 20 and/or side bowl spray post 22. The flow of liquid and gas to turntable 24 and support posts 26 through lines 78a, 78b, 80a and 80b is controlled by valves 82 and 84. Valve 82 as shown is normally closed with respect to gas flow and is actuated to allow gas to flow from line 80a to 80b. Valve 84 is normally open to allow gas to flow from line 80b to line 78b, but is normally closed with respect to the flow of liquid from line 78a to 78b. When valve 84 is actuated, liquid may flow through valve 84, while the flow of gas is blocked. Valves 44, 46, 48, 68, 70, 72, 74, 82, and 84 may be of any type or combinations of any types such as pneumatic, electronic, and the like. Pneumatically controlled embodiments are preferred because they are inherently more reliable when used in a harsh environment containing chemicals, chemical fumes, and frequent washdowns. These are available from a wide range of commercial sources such as Entegris, Inc., Chaska, Minn.; and Saint Gobain, San Jose, Calif. Rinse liquid(s) may be supplied to any one or more of center spray post 20, side bowl spray post 22, or turntable 24/support posts 26 at any suitable supply rate(s) and temperature(s) as might be reasonably desired, such as in accordance with conventional practices, or as described herein, and/or as described in applicants co-pending application that is referenced above. Flow rates and temperatures will depend upon a variety of factors including the nature of the recipe being carried out, the nature of the wafer(s) being treated, the type of equipment being used, and the like. In the context of the MERCURY or ZETA spray processor systems commercially available from FSI International, Inc., typical flow rates of rinse liquid(s) preferably are in the range of 2 liters/minute to 12 liters/minute at any desired temperature at which freezing or boiling of the rinse liquid(s) generally is avoided. If the liquid(s) are to be heated and/or chilled, suitable equipment (not shown) for heating or chilling the liquid(s) may be incorporated into system 10 and/or be external to system 10. The system 10 allows suck back functionality to be applied to the side bowl spray post 22 during the course of one or more treatments. Such functionality advantageously and preferably is applied during at least a portion of a rinse treatment, especially during the terminal portion of a rinse treatment as a transition is made from rinsing to drying. It has been found that applying suck back functionality during at least a portion of such a transition advantageously provides very consistent and very neutral added particle results. The degree to which particles are added to a wafer following a treatment is one way in which the effectiveness of a particular process recipe can be assessed. It is generally desirable that the number of added particles is consistently as low as possible. Using conventional methodologies, such results can be difficult to achieve except for using rinse liquid at a temperature within a relatively narrow range. This is especially the case with respect to very small added particles, e.g., particles whose size is about 90 nm or less. Practice of the present invention greatly improves performance with respect to added particles. This is explained further in the examples below and is graphically depicted in FIGS. 2a, 2b, 3a, and 3b, discussed below. As illustrated in FIG. 1 with respect to system 10, an aspirator device is incorporated only in the plumbing leading to side bowl spray post 22 so as to provide a suck back capability with respect to side bowl spray post 22. In alternative embodiments, similar suck back capability may be provided with respect to the plumbing leading to center post 20 and/or turntable 24/support posts 26 in addition to or in lieu of that provided with respect to side bowl spray post 22. Representative modes of practicing the present invention using system 10 of FIG. 1 in which suck back functionality is practiced during a transition from rinsing to drying will now be described. In a first phase, a typical rinsing and drying sequence may involve setting valves 44, 46, 48, 68, 70, 72, 74, 82, and 84 to dispense rinse liquid onto wafers through center post 20, sidebowl spray post 22, and optionally turntable 24/supports 26. Specifically, valves 46, 70, and 84 are actuated, and the other valves are in their normal state. An aqueous rinse liquid may be at a temperature in the range of OC to about 100 C. Other kinds of rinse liquids generally would be at a temperature above the freezing point but below the boiling point. A typical flow rate of rinsing liquid through center spray post 20 is in the range of 5 to 8 liters per minute (1 pm). A typical flow rate of rinsing liquid through sidebowl spray post 22 is in the range of 8 to 13 1 pm. A typical flow rate of rinsing liquid through turntable 24 and supports 26 is in the range of 8 to 13 1 pm (rinsing liquid, and the flowrate thereof, is supplied to turntable 24 and supports 26 together). Turntable 24 may rotate at one or more speeds during such rinsing in the range of 5 rpm to 500 rpm. Rinsing in this fashion may continue for any desired time interval such as 30 seconds to 10 minutes. In the next phase, the center spray post 20, the turntable 24, and the supports 26 are purged while the wafers continue to be wetted through side bowl spray post 22. Valve 44 is actuated and valves 46 and 48 are in their normal state so that pressurized purging gas purges residual liquid from lines 41b and 41c and central spray post 20 into process chamber 18. Valve 82 is actuated and valve 84 is in its normal state so that pressurized purging gas purges residual liquid from lines 78b, turntable 24, and supports 26 into process chamber 18. Because the wafers are well wetted by the flow of rinsing liquid through side bowl spray post 22, the risk that purging might cause undue water spots on the wafer surfaces is greatly minimized. A variety of purging gases may be used. Representative examples include nitrogen, carbon dioxide, combinations of these, and the like. The purging gas typically may be supplied at a pressure of 10 to 40 psi, a temperature of 20 to 30 C, at a flow rate of 2 to 10 scfm. In the next phase, purging through center spray post 20, turntable 24, and supports 26 is stopped while rinsing liquid continues to flow through sidebowl spray post 22. This may be accomplished by causing valves 44, 46, and 48 to be in their normal states so that no gas or liquid flow to center spray post 20 and by causing valves 82 and 84 to be in their normal states so that no gas or liquid flows through turntable 24 and supports 26. This phase preferably continues for a short time interval, e.g., from 1 to 20 seconds, so that there is a little delay between this phase and the next phase. Longer time intervals may be used, if desired (e.g., if the buffer time is used to accomplish other process tasks) but a longer delay can unnecessarily lengthen cycle time. In the next phase, the flow of rinsing liquid through side bowl spray post 22 is stopped and aspiration occurs to suck back and direct residual rinsing liquid to drain 67. To accomplish this, valves 68, 72 and 74 are actuated while valve 70 is in its normal state. Consequently, liquid flow through side bowl spray post 22 is stopped. Preferably, this flow is stopped as rapidly as practical as water spotting, and hence added particles, tends to increase with increased stopping time. Additionally, purging gas flows through line 56a, line 56b, line 52b, line 60, aspirator 58, line 66, check valve 64, and into drain 67. This creates a vacuum in side bowl spray post 22, line 52c, line 52d, and line 62, helping to remove residual liquid to drain 67. A drying phase now occurs. Any suitable method of drying one or more wafers in a spray processor can be used at this point, such as by, for example, spin drying the wafer(s) in the chamber 18 and, optionally, while discharging a drying gas into chamber 18 (e.g., applying a drying gas directly to the surfaces of a wafer(s)). For example, a drying phase may involve setting valves 44, 46, 48, 68, 70, 72, 74, 82, and 84 to dispense drying gas onto wafers through one or more of center post 20, sidebowl spray post 22, and turntable 24/supports 26. Specifically, valves 46, 48, 70, 72, 74, and 84 are in their normal state (i.e., unactuated), and valves 44, 68, and 82 are in their normal state (note: in this drying phase, valves 72 and 74 are not actuated with valve 68 as they are in the purging phase described above). A variety of drying gases may be used. Representative examples include air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, argon, isopropyl alcohol, combinations of these, and the like. The drying gas may be supplied at a pressure of from 10 to 40 psi, a temperature of from 20 to 30° C., at a flow rate of from 2 to 10 scfm. Also, as mentioned, spin-drying can be used, alone or in combination, with the application of a drying gas. For example, spin-drying may involve rotating turntable 24 at one or more speeds in the range of 5 rpm to 500 rpm, while dispensing drying gas onto the wafer(s) through one or more of center post 20, sidebowl spray post 22, and turntable 24/supports 26. Drying in this fashion may continue for any desired time interval such for about 5 minutes. The present invention will now be further described with respect to the following illustrative examples. METHODOLOGY FOR COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE A AND EXAMPLES 1-3 New, 300-mm, bare silicon test wafers are used in Comparative Example A and Examples 1-3. The wafers are first removed from their shipping container and loaded into a FOUP, which is used to transport test wafers within the clean-room. The FOUP includes a total of 25 wafer slots. The test wafers are loaded into slots 1, 13 and 25 with the remaining 22 slots being filled with dummy wafers. Once moved into the FOUP, the test wafers, but not the dummy wafers, are analyzed by measuring the defects on the wafers using a non-patterned wafer inspection tool having model number SP1-TBI and commercially obtained from KLA Tencor, San Jose, Calif. After programming the wafer inspection tool to inspect the three test wafers in slots 1, 13, and 25, the FOUP is moved into the wafer inspection tool where each test wafer (in slots 1, 13, and 25) is removed from its respective slot and analyzed, one at a time. After a test wafer is removed from the FOUP, it is moved into a scanning chamber in the inspection tool where a laser scans the wafer for defects. This metrology system reports the location and size of all defects on a wafer surface. This report is termed the “pre-count” of defects prior to processing for each of the test wafers. After scanning, the FOUP including the wafers is loaded into a ZETA® spray processor for processing. The ZETA® spray processor transfers 25 wafers from a FOUP into a wafer process cassette that has 27 wafer slots. The two additional wafer slots provide slots for cover wafers at the top and bottom of the cassette. The reason for this is to ensure that each test wafer has at least one wafer above and at least one wafer below it while being processed. Due to the robotics inside the material handling system, the order of the wafers is inverted when moved from the FOUP into the process cassette. Therefore, the wafer that came from slot 1 in the FOUP will be placed in slot 26 in the process cassette, wafer 13 will go to slot 14 and wafer 25 will go to slot 2. The spray processor also requires that the turntable be balanced to reduce potential vibration while spinning the wafers. This balancing is achieved by placing another cassette opposite the first cassette on the rotating turntable. Because only 25 wafers come from the FOUP, the remaining two slots are loaded with dummy wafers that are stored in the material handling system. Once the two cassettes are loaded into the process chamber, there are a total of 54 wafers split between two process cassettes including three test wafers in one cassette. Now, the wafers are ready to be subjected to a process recipe in the ZETA® spray processor commercially available from FSI International, Inc., Chaska, Minn. The process recipe used to treat wafers in Comparative Example A and Examples 1-3 is referred to as a post-ash clean process which has two chemical steps separated by a rinsing step. The second chemical step is followed by a final rinse/dry step. The first chemical step involves a treatment liquid that is a mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide. This treatment liquid is commonly referred to as a “piranha” treatment. The ratio of these chemicals is 4 parts sulfuric acid and 1 part hydrogen peroxide. When mixed, these two chemicals create an exothermic reaction heating the solution to approximately 80 C. This solution is dispensed onto the wafers in the process chamber, which are spinning at 60 rpm. This mixture is dispensed at a flowrate of approximately one (1) 1 pm for 240 seconds. Following the “piranha” treatment, the wafers, chamber and plumbing are rinsed and purged with various combinations of hot DI water at about 95 C, cold DI water at about 17-23 C and nitrogen gas. The purpose of this rinse is to completely remove all traces of the “piranha” chemistry from the system prior to dispensing the next chemicals. The last chemical step involves a treatment liquid that is a mixture of ammonium hydroxide, hydrogen peroxide and DI water. This chemical step is commonly referred to as an “SC1” clean. The SC1 mixture is dispensed at a total flow rate of about 2 liters per minute and at a temperature of about 55 C. The mixture is dispensed onto the wafers in the process chamber, which are spun at speeds ranging from 20 to 300 rpm. The total chemical exposure time in the SC1 step is approximately 235 seconds. The chemical dilution for the SC1 mixture is typically 1 part ammonium hydroxide, two parts hydrogen peroxide and 42 parts DI water. Upon completion of the SC1 chemical step, the wafers are subjected to a final rinse/dry step. Comparative Example A and Examples 1-3 differ from each other only in how the final rinse/dry step is performed in each example. In general, during the final rinse/dry step, the wafers, the plumbing, and the chamber are rinsed and purged with various combinations of hot DI water, cold DI water and nitrogen. By the end of the final rinse/dry step, the DI water is completely removed from the wafers, plumbing, and chamber so that they are completely dry. This is done by appropriately turning off the DI rinse functions and switching to nitrogen functions in the high speed dry mode of the ZETA® spray processor. Transitioning between rinsing and drying during the final rinse/dry step for Comparative Example A and Examples 1-3 is specifically described below. In general, nitrogen gas is dispensed through the turntable/posts (i.e., “chamber drying” orfices) and center spray post (center atomizing orifices and left side orifices (i.e., “wafer-drying” orifices) during the final drying phase of the ZETA® spray processor. During the final drying phase, the wafers, the plumbing, and the process chamber are dried as the wafers are spun at about 300 rpm for 5 minutes. The final wafer temperature is measured using the RTDs mounted on the sidewall of the ZETA® spray processor. After the final drying is completed, the wafers are removed from the process chamber and then moved back into the FOUP. Next, the test wafers in slots 1, 13, and 25 are again analyzed by measuring the defects on the wafers using a non-patterned wafer inspection tool. This metrology system scans a wafer and reports the location and size of all defects on a wafer surface. This report is termed the “post-count” of defects after processing for each of the test wafers. The data collected for each wafer (i.e., pre-count and post-count) is presented as a “true adders” value and a “delta” value. The “true adders” value is obtained by counting the number of defects reported in the “post-count” that are at new locations on the wafer surface that were not observed in the “pre-count” report. For example, suppose 2 defects were reported in a “pre-count” at positions on a wafer surface having X-Y coordinates 1,1 and 2,2 respectively. If 3 defects were reported in a “post-count” at positions on the wafer surface having X-Y coordinates 1,1, 3,3, and 4,4, there would be 2 defects reported in the “post-count” having new locations not reported in the “pre-count.” Thus, the “true adders” value for this data would be 2. The “delta” value is obtained subtracting the “pre-count” value from the “post-count” value reported for each test wafer. For example, if a test wafer had a “pre-count” value 100 and a “post-count” value of 90, the “delta” value for that wafer would be −10. COMPARISON EXAMPLE A For Comparison Example A, forty-eight process runs were performed using three test wafers per run (i.e., a total of 144 test wafers). During each process run and after the wafers are subjected to an SC1 chemical step as described above, the wafers are subjected to a conventional final rinse/dry step. The conventional rinse/dry step includes dispensing cold DI water (about 20 C) through the center spray post and side bowl spray post and onto the wafers. The DI water flow rate through the center spray post is between about 6 and 10 1 pm (typically about 8 1 pm), and the flow rate through the side bowl post is about 10 1 pm. The wafers are rotated on the turntable at about 60 rpm. The DI water dispensed through the center spray post is atomized with 3 cfm of nitrogen gas at ambient temperature and a pressure of about 30-35 psi. Nitrogen gas was also dispensed through the “chamber dry” orifices. This rinsing (i.e., dispensing of DI water) continues for 30 seconds. After the dispensing of DI water terminated, the rotation of the turntable was slowed to 10 rpm. The DI water supply lines leading to the “wafer-drying” orifices (i.e., the left side orifices) of the center spray post and side bowl spray post were purged into the chamber using nitrogen gas for 90 seconds. Nitrogen gas is also dispensed through the “chamber dry” orifices. After purging for 90 seconds, the turntable speed is increased to 300 rpm for 5 minutes. During this 5 minute period, the wafers and chamber become dry. The wafer temperature at the end of the final drying phase was approximately 5 C above ambient, or 23 C. The pre-count and post-count data for Comparison Example A is illustrated in FIGS. 2a, 2b, 3a, and 3b. The data to the left of line 210 in FIG. 2a shows the “true adders” having a size greater than 65 nanometers for the 48 test runs (each run is the average “true adders” for the three test wafers in slots 1, 13, and 25). The data to the left of line 220 in FIG. 2b shows the range of “true adders” values for all three test wafers per run. For example, if the wafers added −20, 25 and 100 particles the range would be 120. The data to the left of line 310 in FIG. 3a shows the “delta” for defects having a size greater than 65 nanometers for each run. The data to the left of line 320 in FIG. 3b shows the range of “delta” values for all three test wafers per run. This data for the conventional final rinse/dry shows a significant range of particles added. EXAMPLE 1 For each process run and after the wafers are subjected to an SC 1 chemical step as described above, the wafers are subjected to a final rinse/dry step according to the present invention. The rinsing (i.e., dispensing of DI water) for 30 seconds in the final rinse/dry step of Comparative Example A is performed in Example 1, except that the rinse water temperature is lower. The transition between final rinse and final dry is different than in Comparison Example A. At the end of the 30 seconds, the rotation of the turntable continues at 60 rpm and DI water continues to be dispensed from side bowl spray post as the DI water supply line leading to the “wafer-drying” orifices (i.e., the left side orifices) of the center spray post is purged into the chamber using nitrogen gas for 85 seconds. Nitrogen gas is also dispensed through the “chamber dry” orifices. After purging for 85 seconds, the rotation of the turntable is slowed to 10 rpm and the DI water supply line leading to the side bowl spray post is aspirated to remove the residual DI water in the supply line (i.e., the DI water supply line leading to the side bowl spray post is not purged into the process chamber). After aspirating the side bowl spray post, the turntable speed is increased to 300 rpm for 15 minutes. During this 15-minute period, the wafers and chamber become dry. The wafer temperature at the end of the final drying phase was approximately the same as the cold DI supplied to the system, which can vary between 17 and 21 C. EXAMPLE 2 For each process run and after the wafers are subjected to an SC 1 chemical step as described above, the wafers are subjected to a final rinse/dry step according to the present invention. The rinsing (i.e., dispensing of DI water) for 30 seconds in the final rinse/dry step of Comparative Example A is performed in Example 2. The transition between final rinse and final dry is different than in Comparison Example A. At the end of the 30 seconds, the rotation of the turntable continues at 60 rpm and DI water continues to be dispensed from side bowl spray post as the DI water supply line leading to the “wafer-drying” orifices (i.e., the left side orifices) of the center spray post is purged into the chamber using nitrogen gas for 85 seconds. Nitrogen gas is also dispensed through the “chamber dry” orifices. After purging for 85 seconds, the rotation of the turntable is slowed to 10 rpm and the DI water supply line leading to the side bowl spray post is aspirated to remove the residual DI water in the supply line (i.e., the DI water supply line leading to the side bowl spray post is not purged into the process chamber). After aspirating the side bowl spray post, the turntable speed is increased to 300 rpm for 5 minutes. During this 5-minute period, the wafers and chamber become dry. The wafer temperature at the end of the final drying phase was approximately SC above ambient, or 23 C. EXAMPLE 3 For each process run and after the wafers are subjected to an SC1 chemical step as described above, the wafers are subjected to a final rinse/dry step according to the present invention. The rinsing (i.e., dispensing of DI water) for 30 seconds in the final rinse/dry step of Comparative Example A is performed in Example 3, except that the rinse water temperature is higher. The transition between final rinse and final dry is different than in Comparison Example A. At the end of the 30 seconds, the rotation of the turntable continues at 60 rpm and DI water continues to be dispensed from side bowl spray post as the DI water supply line leading to the “wafer-drying” orifices (i.e., the left side orifices) of the center spray post is purged into the chamber using nitrogen gas for 85 seconds. Nitrogen gas is also dispensed through the “chamber dry” orifices. After purging for 85 seconds, the rotation of the turntable is slowed to 10 rpm and the DI water supply line leading to the side bowl spray post is aspirated to remove the residual DI water in the supply line (i.e., the DI water supply line leading to the side bowl spray post is not purged into the process chamber). After aspirating the side bowl spray post, the turntable speed is increased to 300 rpm for 1 minute. During this 1-minute period, the wafers and chamber become dry. The wafer temperature at the end of the final drying phase was significantly above ambient temperature by using rinse water having a temperature up to about 95 C. The pre-count and post-count data for Examples 1-3 is illustrated in FIGS. 2a, 2b, 3a, and 3b. The data to the right of line 210 in FIG. 2a shows the “true adders” having a size greater than 65 nanometers for the runs in Examples 1-3 (each run is the average “true adders” for the three test wafers in slots 1, 13, and 25). The data to the right of line 220 in FIG. 2b shows the range of “true adders” values for all three test wafers per run in Examples 1-3. The data to the right of line 310 in FIG. 3a shows the “delta” for defects having a size greater than 65 nanometers for each run in Examples 1-3. The data to the right of line 320 in FIG. 3b shows the range of “delta” values for all three test wafers per run in Examples 1-3. This data of Examples 1-3 demonstrates the improved performance with respect to added particles and flexibility of rinse water temperature when using final rinse/dry hardware and procedures according to the present invention. Other embodiments of this invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art upon consideration of this specification or from practice of the invention disclosed herein. Various omissions, modifications, and changes to the principles and embodiments described herein may be made by one skilled in the art without departing from the true scope and spirit of the invention which is indicated by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The microelectronic industry relies on a variety of wet/dry process recipes in the manufacture of a variety of microelectronic devices. The microelectronic industry can utilize a variety of configured systems to carry out such wet/dry processes. Many such systems are in the form of spray processor tools. A spray processor tool generally refers to a tool in which one or more treatment chemicals, rinsing liquids, and/or gases are sprayed onto one or more wafers either singly or in combination in a series of one or more steps. This is in contrast to wet bench tools where wafers are immersed in a fluid bath during the course of processing. In a typical spray processor tool, fluid is sprayed onto the wafer(s) while the wafer(s) are supported upon a rotating platen such as a turntable, chuck, or the like. Examples of spray processor systems include the MERCURY® or ZETA® spray processor systems available from FSI International, Inc., Chaska, Minn.; the SCEPTER™ or SPECTRUMS spray processor systems available from Semitool, Inc., Kalispell, Mont.; a spray processor system available from SEZ AG, Villach, Austria and sold under the trade designation SEZ 323; and the like. Typical recipes for spray processor tools may include process steps involving subjecting wafer(s) first to one or more wet processes (e.g., chemical treatments and/or rinsing treatments) after which the wafer(s) then are dried. For example, a conventional rinse/dry sequence may involve first spraying a rinsing liquid onto stacks of wafer(s) supported upon a rotating turntable in a process chamber. Rinsing is stopped and the plumbing used to deliver the rinse liquid is then purged into the process chamber. A drying gas may then be introduced into the chamber through the same or different plumbing to dry the wafer(s). One way by which the effectiveness of a particular process recipe can be assessed is by measuring the degree to which particles are added to wafer(s) following a treatment in accordance with the process recipe. It is generally desirable that the number of added particles (i.e., added particles=measured particles after process recipe—measured particles before process recipe) is consistently as low as possible. Some process recipes may perform well with respect to added particles only within a relatively narrow range of process parameters. For example, a conventional rinse/dry recipe may be practiced so as to yield consistently low added particles only when the rinse liquid is within a particular temperature range (e.g., moderately warm). Yet, this same recipe might suffer from unduly high and/or inconsistent added particles if the rinse liquid is at a temperature outside such range (e.g., if the rinse liquid is chilled or hot). This temperature restriction can limit the practical utility of such a recipe. For instance, it might otherwise be desirable to be able to use very hot rinse liquid to reduce cycle time, inasmuch as the hotter liquid might rinse wafer(s) faster and dry faster. Further, it might otherwise be desirable to be able to use very cold rinse liquid to treat temperature sensitive substrates. In short, conventional rinse/dry sequences may tend to be unduly temperature sensitive with respect to added particles, often at the expense of process flexibility. As microelectronic device features become smaller and smaller, the size restrictions upon added particles become more stringent. For example, for larger-sized features, monitoring added particles that are greater than 150 nm in size (Such a specification is often referred to as “particles >150 nm” or another similar reference.) might be sufficient to help ensure acceptable device quality. However, for smaller features, monitoring particles >90 nm, or >65 nm, or even smaller added particles may be desirable. Some conventional rinse/dry sequences may perform well with less stringent monitoring, but may not perform as well as might be desired when monitoring smaller added particles. There is a continuing need, therefore, in the microelectronics industry to carry out wet/dry process recipes with consistently lower added particles. In particular, there is a continuing need in this area to provide approaches that are more temperature insensitive and/or that provide lower added particles even when more stringent monitoring standards, e.g., standards such as >90 nm, >65 nm, or the like, are applied. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides improved technology for carrying out a sequence of one or more wet liquid treatments (especially rinsing) and subsequent drying treatments when processing one or more wafers. More specifically, the present invention provides an improved way to transition from a wet treatment to a drying treatment in a manner that dramatically reduces added particles that might otherwise be observed following a more conventional wet/dry sequence. The present invention appreciates that the character of this transition can significantly impact added particle performance. The present invention is especially useful in carrying out a rinse/dry recipe in a spray processor tool. The invention is most beneficially practiced at least to carry out a transition between a final rinsing treatment and a subsequent drying treatment practiced in a spray processor tool, after which the wafer(s) would be removed from the tool. Indeed, we have obtained very neutral added particle data for particles having a size greater than 65 nanometers (nm) on 300 millimeter (mm) wafers when using a stand-alone rinse/dry treatment in a spray processor tool of the present invention. See FIGS. 2 a , 2 b , 3 a , and 3 b , discussed further below, for data demonstrating this. Dramatically improved performance with respect to added particles is not the only observed benefit. We have also observed the significant benefit that process performance in terms of added particles is relatively insensitive to the temperature of the rinse liquid. That is, improved performance with respect to added particles can be obtained regardless of whether the rinse liquid temperature is cold, ambient, warm, or hot. The ability to practice rinsing practically at any desired temperature in which the rinsing medium exists as a liquid without an undue increase in added particles offers tremendous flexibility with respect to the kinds of rinsing and drying recipes that can be used as well as the kinds of wafers that can be processed. This advantage is in stark contrast to a more conventional methodology that tends to provide optimum performance only for rinse liquid within a relatively narrow range of temperatures. Faster cycle times may be achieved by being able to rinse with hot rinse liquid (e.g., 60 C to 100 C) in some embodiments without undue risk that the use of hot liquid will cause too great an increase in added particles. Quite simply, hotter rinse liquid tends to evaporate faster and wafers rinsed with hotter liquid can be dried more rapidly than wafers rinsed with cooler liquid. Moreover, hotter rinse liquid can be used to heat the process chamber, which can reduce the time needed to dry the wafers and the chamber. For example, a particular recipe involving the use of warm water (35 C) required 400 seconds (6.7 minutes) of drying time. Using hot rinsing water (85 C), this drying time can be dramatically reduced by 4.5 minutes while still providing very neutral added particles. The present invention is based, at least in part, upon a practical, technical solution for the problem that added particles may result as a consequence of the manner by which a process recipe transitions from a wet treatment, e.g., rinsing, to a drying treatment. A conventional process, for example, may involve a recipe in which wafers are rinsed, then the rinse lines are purged into the process chamber, and then the wafers are dried. While not wishing to be bound by theory, we believe that such unguarded, bare purging is a significant cause of added particles. We have observed that a mist or aerosol of the liquid is generated when liquid lines are purged into the process chamber. Except perhaps over a relatively narrow temperature range, this mist or aerosol may settle as fine droplets onto the surfaces of the drying wafers. These droplets may then be detected as light point defects, and hence as added particles. The number of added particles tends to be greatest with respect to smaller particles, e.g., particles less than about 90 nm in size. In short, unguarded, bare purging of liquid according to conventional methodologies is believed to be a source of added particles in which the number of added particles is a strong function of the temperature of the purged liquid. In one mode of practice, the present invention incorporates suckback functionality, preferably via aspirating, into at least a portion of the plumbing through which a treatment liquid, especially a rinsing liquid, is dispensed into a process chamber. This allows at least a portion of residual liquid remaining in the corresponding supply line(s) to be removed via suckback rather than being removed solely via purging into the chamber after the primary flow or spray of the liquid into the chamber is stopped. By sucking back at least a portion of residual rinse liquid, a lesser amount of aerosol or mist is generated that would be able to impact the wafer surfaces. Also, while not wishing to be bound by theory, we believe that as soon as the wafer surfaces start to dry, the surfaces become vulnerable to spotting. Further, faster drying tends to increase this vulnerability. Thus, purging tends to be more problematic in terms of added particles when wafer surfaces are dry or partially dry as purging occurs. Such a problem can especially be present when, for example, a wafer(s) is being spun in a process chamber during purging. Spinning wafer(s) tend to dry or begin to dry in a time period shorter than the time period for purging to be completed. In other words, purging takes more time than drying. As purging continues, there comes a time when mist/aerosol associated with purging therefore contacts relatively dry wafer surfaces. Consequently, the longer purge cycle makes spinning wafer surfaces more vulnerable to spotting. The present invention also includes embodiments in which one or more liquid supply lines are purged into the process chamber while one or more other supply lines are used to wet the wafer surfaces. After the former lines are purged, flow through the latter lines can be stopped after which such latter lines are emptied via sucking back the residual liquid. The present invention is significant in that it allows at least some purging, if desired, to occur into the process chamber while the wafer surface(s) are still wet and protected from the aerosol or mist that tends to accompany purging. Alternatively, purging into the chamber can be avoided completely in the transition from a wet treatment to a drying treatment if the sucking back functionality is used to remove all of the residual liquid through the supply lines. Thus, the embodiments discussed above contemplate that, at least at the end of a rinsing treatment, at least a portion of the residual liquid in liquid supply line(s) is not purged directly into the process chamber, but rather is removed from the equipment via a different pathway. Sucking back is just one way of supplying the removal energy by which such residual liquid may be withdrawn. Other removal strategies with appropriate valving, additional plumbing, and/or the like, for instance, may involve using pressure to blow residual liquid from the lines to a destination, e.g., a drain or recycle, other than directly into the process chamber. Thus, it can be appreciated that any conventional system now or hereafter known that purges residual liquid, especially rinse liquid, into a process chamber could benefit from using sucking back functionality in accordance with the present invention. In another mode of practice, the present invention provides a process recipe in which at least a portion of a remaining treatment liquid, especially a rinsing liquid, is not purged into the process chamber. Instead, the remaining portion of the treatment liquid is simply left standing in the corresponding supply line(s) until after the one or more wafers are removed from the process chamber. After the wafer(s) are removed from the process chamber, the remaining treatment liquid can be sucked back or safely purged into the process chamber. The present invention also includes embodiments in which one or more liquid supply lines are purged into the process chamber while one or more other supply lines are used to wet the wafer surfaces. After the former lines are purged, flow through the latter lines can be stopped, after which the wafer(s) are removed followed by purging or sucking back of such latter lines. This aspect of the present invention is significant in that it allows at least some purging, if desired, to occur into the process chamber while the wafer surface(s) are still wet and protected from the aerosol or mist that tends to accompany purging. Alternatively, purging into the chamber can be avoided completely in the transition from a wet treatment to a drying treatment if all of the residual liquid in the supply lines is simply left standing. In one aspect, a system for processing microelectronic substrates according to the present invention includes a process chamber in which one or more microelectronic substrates may be positioned during a process, a fluid delivery pathway through which a fluid can be dispensed onto the substrates positioned in the process chamber, and a fluid removal pathway fluidly coupled to the fluid delivery pathway in a manner such that at least a portion of a residual liquid in the fluid delivery pathway can be withdrawn from the fluid delivery pathway without purging at least the residual liquid portion directly onto the one or more substrates. In another aspect, a spray processor system according to the present invention includes a process chamber in which one or more microelectronic substrates may be positioned during a process and a fluid delivery system in fluid communication with the process chamber. The fluid delivery system includes a fluid delivery pathway through which a fluid can be dispensed onto the substrates positioned in the process chamber, a fluid removal pathway fluidly coupled to the fluid delivery pathway in a manner such that at least a portion of a residual liquid in the fluid delivery pathway can be withdrawn from at least a portion of the fluid delivery pathway without purging at least the portion of the residual liquid directly onto the one or more substrates, and a fluid by-pass pathway fluidly coupled to the fluid delivery pathway and the fluid by-pass pathway in a manner such that, when a gas flows through the fluid by-pass pathway, a vacuum is applied to at least a portion of the fluid delivery pathway and the fluid removal pathway. In another aspect, a method of processing one or more microelectronic substrates according to the present invention includes the steps of positioning one or more microelectronic substrates in a process chamber, dispensing a liquid into the process chamber and onto the one or more substrates through a fluid delivery pathway, stopping dispensing of the liquid, wherein an amount of residual liquid remains in the fluid delivery pathway, causing at least a portion of the residual liquid to be removed from the fluid pathway through a fluid removal pathway such that said portion of the residual liquid is not purged directly onto the substrates, and drying the substrates. In another aspect, a method of processing one or more microelectronic substrates according to the present invention includes the steps of positioning one or more microelectronic substrates in a process chamber, dispensing a first liquid flow into the process chamber and onto the one or more substrates via a first fluid delivery pathway, dispensing a second liquid flow into the process chamber and onto the one or more substrates via a second fluid delivery pathway, stopping dispensing of the first liquid flow such that an amount of residual liquid remains in the first fluid delivery pathway, purging the first fluid delivery pathway into the process chamber while the dispensing of the second liquid flow is occurring, stopping the dispensing of the second liquid flow after stopping purging of the first fluid delivery pathway such that a residual amount of liquid remains in the second fluid delivery pathway, and removing at least a portion of the residual amount of liquid in the second fluid delivery pathway through a fluid removal pathway such that said portion of the residual amount of liquid in the second fluid delivery pathway is not purged onto the substrates. In another aspect, a spray processor system according to the present invention includes a process chamber in which one or more microelectronic substrates may be positioned during a process, a fluid delivery pathway through which a fluid can be dispensed onto the substrates positioned in the process chamber, a fluid by-pass through which a fluid can be diverted from the fluid delivery pathway, a first valve coupling the fluid delivery pathway and the fluid by-pass, a fluid removal pathway located relatively downstream from the fluid by-pass when the first valve is in a normal state, and a second valve coupling the fluid removal pathway to the fluid delivery pathway. The first valve in a normal state is open to allow a fluid to continue to flow through the fluid delivery pathway and is closed to block flow of a fluid into the fluid by-pass from the fluid delivery pathway, and wherein the first valve in an actuated state is closed to block flow of a fluid downstream through the fluid delivery pathway and is open to allow flow of a fluid from the fluid delivery pathway to the fluid by-pass. The second valve in a normal state is open to allow a fluid to continue to flow through the fluid delivery pathway and is closed to block a flow of a fluid into the fluid removal pathway from the fluid delivery pathway, and wherein the second valve in an actuated state is open to allow fluid communication between the fluid removal pathway and at least a portion of the fluid delivery pathway between the second valve and the process chamber. | 20040614 | 20090707 | 20051215 | 93412.0 | 0 | BLAN, NICOLE R | SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR CARRYING OUT LIQUID AND SUBSEQUENT DRYING TREATMENTS ON ONE OR MORE WAFERS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,867,148 | ACCEPTED | LIGHT FIXTURE ACCESSORY CONNECTOR AND MOUNTING BRACKET | A light fixture assembly with a bracket for attaching a light fixture accessory to a stem of the light fixture assembly, the bracket being realeasably adjustable to substantially any position along a length of the stem, the light fixture assembly also having an interface for attaching various light fixture accessories to the bracket. | 1. A light fixture for housing a lamp comprising: a head for holding the lamp; a base; a stem connecting said head and said base; a bracket releasably connectable to said stem such that said bracket is movable to substantially any position along a length of said stem; at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to said bracket; and an interface for detachably connecting said light fixture accessory to said bracket; wherein said at least one light fixture accessory is movable to substantially any position along the length of said stem. 2. The light fixture according to claim 1 further comprising a fastener for engaging with said stem to firmly hold said bracket to said stem. 3. The light fixture according to claim 2 wherein the fastener comprises a collar that encircles at least a portion of said stem 4. The light fixture according to claim 3 wherein said fastener further comprises a screw located in said collar, said screw being adjustable such that said collar coacts with said stem to firmly hold said bracket to said stem. 5. The light fixture according to claim 4 wherein said screw directly engages with said stem. 6. The light fixture according to claim 4 wherein said collar comprises a clamp. 7. The light fixture according to claim 1 wherein said interface comprises a sliding connector. 8. The light fixture according to claim 7 wherein said sliding connector comprises a tombstone connector. 9. The light fixture according to claim 1 wherein said interface comprises a slot connector. 10. The light fixture according to claim 1 wherein said interface comprises a bayonet connector. 11. The light fixture according to claim 1 wherein said at least one light fixture accessory is selected from the group consisting of: a tray attachment, a picture frame attachment, an article holder attachment, a utility basket attachment, a clock attachment, and combinations thereof. 12. The light fixture according to claim 1 further comprising a data connector. 13. The light fixture according to claim 12 wherein said data connector comprises a USB connector. 14. The light fixture according to claim 13 wherein said USB connector is located on said stem. 15. The light fixture according to claim 14 wherein a wiring for said USB connector extends through an interior section of said stem. 16. The light fixture according to claim 1 further comprising a DC or AC power connector. 17. The light fixture according to claim 1 wherein said light fixture comprises a desk lamp. 18. The light fixture according to claim 1 wherein said light fixture comprises a floor lamp. 19. A light fixture for housing a lamp comprising: a head for holding the lamp; a base; a stem connecting said head and said base; a bracket releasably connectable to said stem such that said bracket is movable to substantially any position along a length of said stem; at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to said bracket; and an interface for detachably connecting said light fixture accessory to said bracket; wherein said interface engages said bracket to said at least one light fixture accessory to securely hold said bracket at a selected position along a length of said stem. 20. The light fixture according to claim 19 wherein said bracket is detachably connectable to said stem. 21. The light fixture according to claim 20 wherein said bracket is elastically deformable such that it may be fit around said stem. 22. The light fixture according to claim 20 wherein said interface comprises an interference connection such that when said at least one light fixture accessory is attached to said bracket, said bracket compresses around said stem. 23. The light fixture according to claim 22 wherein said bracket comprises a frusto-conical shape. 24. The light fixture according to claim 22 wherein said interface comprises a frusto-conical section. 25. The light fixture according to claim 20 wherein said interface comprises a plate with a bayonet connector that engages with said bracket to securely hold said bracket at a selected position along a length of said stem. 26. The light fixture according to claim 20 wherein said interface comprises a body portion for fitting against said stem, the body portion having at least one protrusion for engaging with said at least one light fixture accessory. 27. The light fixture according to claim 26 wherein said body portion has at least two protrusions for engaging with said at least one light fixture accessory. 28. The light fixture according to claim 26 wherein said bracket further comprises a fastener for engaging with said stem to hold said bracket to said stem at a selected position along the length of said stem. 29. A light fixture for housing a lamp comprising: a head for holding the lamp; a base; a stem connecting said head and said base; a mounting element connectable to said stem such that said mounting element may be positioned at substantially any position along a length of said stem; and at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to said mounting element; wherein said at least one light fixture accessory is movable to substantially any position along the length of said stem. 30. The light fixture according to claim 29 wherein said mounting element comprises two-sided tape. 31. The light fixture according to claim 30 wherein the two-sided tape is removable from said stem such that said at least one light fixture accessory is movable to substantially any position along the length of said stem. 32. The light fixture according to claim 31 wherein said at least one light fixture accessory comprises an elongated interface section in a direction of the length of said stem for receiving the two-sided tape. 33. A light fixture for housing a lamp comprising: a head for holding the lamp; a base; a stem connecting said head and said base; a mounting element connectable to said stem such that said mounting element may be positioned at a selected position along a length of said stem; and at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to said mounting element. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a light fixture with a mounting accessory, and more specifically to a light fixture with a detachably connectable accessory that may be fully adjustable to a desired height relative to the light fixture. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Free standing lamps have been utilized in various applications for many years. For instance, desk lamps have be utilized to provide directional lighting for work surfaces, while floor lamps have provided both direct and indirect area lighting. Both desk lamps and floor lamps are increasingly desirable for work spaces as opposed to fixed lighting in for instance the ceiling, especially with the widespread use of computers and high energy costs through out the nation. Work space however, has become increasingly limited and expensive. Individuals have attempted to pack as much into a small work space as reasonably possible with unsatisfactory results. For instance, cluttered work spaces leads to lower productively along with lost or missing items and/or work. It is also important to maintain a clean and dignified look and feel to an office, especially if an individual is doing business with the public. A messy and cluttered workspace can leave a negative impression on a potential client. With the widespread use of computers and computer peripherals, large quantities of tangled cords hanging off of workspaces (i.e. desks) and running along the floor have become the norm in many offices. This too adds to the overall clutter in the workspace. Various approaches have been taken to increase working surface areas. For instance, U.S. Pat. No. 4,836,403 to Blackman teaches use of a multi-use tray that is attachable to a table leg or to a vehicle window sill. While this multi-use tray may provide additional surface area in a car or for instance, for a kitchen table, this device is not adaptable for use in an office environment to increase surface area on and around for instance, an individual's desk. In addition, various trays have been utilized in the medical industry such as U.S. Pat. No. 6,457,683 to Armstrong, Sr. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,114,023 to Lavin, both of which disclose an adjustable tray for holding various medical equipment. Again however, neither of these devices are adaptable for use in for instance, an office environment to increase working surface area on and around for instance, an individual's desk. Still further, U.S. Design Pat. No. 476,509 to Orsino et al. (“the '509 patent”) discloses a lighted computer pole having shelves. This computer pole however, is adapted for use in a computer room rather than in an office. For instance, attachment means are provided to attach the top portion of the computer pole to the ceiling and the bottom portion to the floor. This device is not practical for use on for instance, an individual's desk. Still further, the '509 patent does not teach that the shelves are detachably removable or adjustable. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION What is desired then is a light fixture assembly that will facilitate a cleaner and neater workspace. It is further desired to provide a light fixture assembly that will provide for an increase in the surface area of a workspace. It is further desired to provide a light fixture assembly that will facilitate the connection of computer peripherals and limit the clutter associated with large quantities of cords. It is still further desired to provide a light fixture assembly that will increase the surface area of a workspace with an adjustable height accessory feature. It is yet further desired to provide a light fixture assembly that incorporates wiring therein for the electrical connection of various computer peripherals. In one advantageous embodiment a light fixture for housing a lamp is provided comprising a head for holding the lamp, a base, and a stem connecting the head and the base. The light fixture further comprises a bracket releasably connectable to the stem such that the bracket is movable to substantially any position along a length of the stem, at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to the bracket, and an interface for detachably connecting the light fixture accessory to the bracket. The light fixture is still further provided such that the at least one light fixture accessory is movable to substantially any position along the length of the stem. In another advantageous embodiment a light fixture for housing a lamp is provided comprising a head for holding the lamp, a base, and a stem connecting the head and the base. The light fixture further comprises a bracket releasably connectable to the stem such that the bracket is movable to substantially any position along a length of the stem, and at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to the bracket. The light fixture still further comprises an interface for detachably connecting the light fixture accessory to the bracket. The light fixture is yet further provided such that the interface engages the bracket to the at least one light fixture accessory to securely hold the bracket at a selected position along a length of the stem. In still another advantageous embodiment a light fixture for housing a lamp is provided comprising a head for holding the lamp, a base, and a stem connecting the head and the base. The light fixture further comprises a mounting element connectable to said stem such that said mounting element may be positioned at substantially any position along a length of said stem, and at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to the mounting element. The light fixture is still further provided such that the at least one light fixture accessory is movable to substantially any position along the length of the stem. In yet another advantageous embodiment a light fixture for housing a lamp is provided comprising a head for holding the lamp, a base, and a stem connecting the head and the base. The light fixture further comprises a mounting element connectable to the stem such that the mounting element may be positioned at a selected position along a length of the stem, and at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to the mounting element. The invention and its particular features and advantages will become more apparent form the following detailed description considered with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an illustration of one advantageous embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2A is a top view of one advantageous embodiment of the bracket. FIG. 2B is a top view of another advantageous embodiment of the bracket. FIG. 3A is a perspective view of the bracket according to FIG. 2A with a sliding connector interface. FIG. 3B is a perspective view of the bracket according to FIG. 2A with a slot connector interface. FIG. 3C is a perspective view of the bracket according to FIG. 2A with a bayonet connector interface. FIG. 4A is a perspective view of the bracket according to FIG. 3A. FIG. 4B is a perspective view of the bracket according to FIG. 3B. FIG. 4C is a perspective view of the bracket according to FIG. 3C. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of a tray attachment according to FIG. 1. FIG. 6 is a side view of the tray attachment according to FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a picture frame attachment according to FIG. 1. FIG. 8 is another perspective view of the picture frame attachment according to FIG. 7. FIG. 9 is a perspective view of an article holder attachment according to FIG. 1. FIG. 10 is another perspective view of the article holder attachment according to FIG. 9. FIG. 11 is a perspective view of a utility basket attachment according to FIG. 1. FIG. 12 is another side view of the utility basket attachment according to FIG. 11. FIG. 13 is a perspective view of a clock attachment according to FIG. 1. FIG. 14A is an illustration of a USB series “A” connector according to FIG. 1. FIG. 14B is an illustration of a USB series “B” connector according to FIG. 1. FIG. 15 is an illustration of another embodiment of the present invention illustrating a tray attachment. FIG. 16 is an illustration of still another embodiment of the present invention illustrating a saddle-bag tray attachment. FIG. 17A is an illustration of one advantageous embodiment of the bracket. FIG. 17B is an illustration of the connection of a tray attachment to the bracket according to FIG. 17A. FIG. 17C is a sectional view of the bracket and tray engaged according to FIG. 17B. FIG. 18A is an illustration of still another advantageous embodiment of the bracket. FIG. 18B is an illustration of the mounting of the bracket according to FIG. 18A. FIG. 18C is an illustration of the connection of a tray attachment to the bracket according to FIG. 18B. FIG. 18D is cross sectional view of the connection of a tray attachment to the bracket according to FIG. 18B. FIG. 19A is an illustration of another advantageous embodiment of the bracket. FIG. 19B is an illustration of the mounting of the bracket according to FIG. 19A. FIG. 19C is an illustration of the locking of the bracket according to FIG. 19B. FIG. 19D is an illustration of the connection of a tray attachment to the bracket according to FIG. 19C. FIG. 20A is an illustration of another advantageous embodiment of the bracket and a tray attachment. FIG. 20B is an illustration of the mounting of the bracket to the tray attachment according to FIG. 20A. FIG. 21A is an illustration of another advantageous embodiment illustrating a mounting element and a tray attachment. FIG. 21B is an illustration of removal of the mounting element according to FIG. 21A. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Referring now to the drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate corresponding structure throughout the views. A light fixture assembly 100 is illustrated in FIG. 1. Light fixture assembly 100 comprises a head 102 for receiving a lamp (not shown). While head 102 is illustrated as a generally oval shape, it may comprise any desired shape and/or size and further may incorporate features such as a handle according to the application. The lamp (not shown) may comprise any type of lamping such as for instance, incandescent, compact fluorescent, halogen, metal halide, high pressure sodium, High Intensity Discharge (HID), or any other lamping appropriate for the application. Also illustrated in FIG. 1 is base 104. Base 104 is provided to support light fixture assembly 100 in an upright position and may comprise any size, shape and/or weight which will vary depending upon the size and height of light fixture assembly 100. Still further provided is stem 106 which is illustrated as an elongated member having generally flat front side 108. Stem 106 is received at a proximal end in base 104 and at a distal end by head 102. It should be noted that while distal end of stem 106 is illustrated as being flexible and adjustable this is not required. The distal end of stem 106 may be for instance, preformed to desired curvature or may be straight. Typically however, for task lighting it is preferable to be able to adjust the location of the head and therefore the direction of the lighting. Head 102, base 104 and stem 106 may comprise any suitable material such as for instance, a rigid plastic, a metal composite or composition, or combinations thereof. In addition, light fixture assembly 100 may comprise any finish and color desired to match an interior design of a workspace. Electrical power is supplied to light fixture assembly 100 via wiring 110, which may comprise any suitable material and/or design based upon the application. Also illustrated in FIG. 1 is bracket 112. Bracket 112 is releasably connected to stem 106 such that it may be adjusted to substantially any position along the length of stem 106. Bracket 112 may comprise any suitable rigid material such as for instance, a rigid plastic, a metal composite or composition, or combinations thereof. Bracket 112 is further illustrated with fastener 114, which in this embodiment comprises a screw that is engagable with stem 106 to firmly hold bracket 112 to stem 106 in substantially any desired position along the length of stem 106. Still further illustrated in FIG. 1 is light fixture accessory 116, which is detachably connectable to bracket 112. Light fixture accessory 116 is detachably connectable to bracket 112 by means of interface 118 which can be seen in greater detail and will be discussed in connection with in FIGS. 2-3. Also shown located on stem 106 is connector 120. Connector 120 may comprise a data and/or power connection. For instance, the data connection may comprise a Universal Serial Bus (USB) connector for connecting a computer peripheral (not shown) to a client workstation (not shown). Alternative USB connector layouts are further illustrated in FIGS. 14A and 14B. It is contemplated that many differing connection types may be desired and/or utilized. Still further, connector 120 may comprise an AC or DC power connector for power various pieces of equipment. It is contemplated that the client workstation (not shown) may comprise any of personal computer and may run for instance, Microsoft Windows®. 95, 98, 2000, Millenium®, NT®, Windows CE®, Palm® OS, Unix, Linux®, Solaris®, OS/2®, BeOS®, MacOS® or any other operating system or platform. Still further, it is contemplated that the client workstation (not shown) may also be or include any microprocessor-based machine such as an Intel® x86-based device or Motorola 68K or PowerPC device, microcontroller or other general or special purpose device operating under programmed control. While connector 120 is illustrated at a particular location along the length of stem 106, it is contemplated that connector 120 may be located substantially anywhere along the length of stem 106. In addition, connector 120 may comprise one or more USB connectors variously located along a length of stem 106. It should be noted that light fixture assembly 100 is shown in FIG. 1 with stem 106 cut away illustrating that the length of stem 106 will varying depending upon the desired application. For instance, stem 106 will be relatively short when light fixture assembly 100 is utilized as a desk lamp to be positioned on a work surface of a desk or table. Alternatively, stem 106 will be relatively long when light fixture assembly 100 is utilized as a floor lamp with base 104 placed on the floor and head 102 extending up and beyond a work surface to be illuminated. Referring now to FIGS. 2A and 2B, a top view of bracket 112 and cross-sectional view of stem 106 is illustrated. In FIGS. 2A and 2B bracket 112 may comprise any suitable material such as for instance, a rigid plastic, a metal composite or composition, or combinations thereof. As can be seen from FIG. 2A, bracket 112 in this advantageous embodiment comprises a generally flat portion 122 that mates against flat front side 108 of stem 106. Bracket 112 further comprises sides (124, 126) each of which are connected on one end to opposite sides of flat portion 122. The opposite ends of sides (124, 126) that are not connected to flat portion 122 curve slightly inward toward each other forming a partially closed collar, with sides (124, 126) generally follow a curvature of a back side of stem 106. While bracket 112 is shown as a partially closed collar, it is contemplated that bracket 112 may be fully closed or open to a greater degree than illustrated. Also shown in FIG. 2A is fastener 114, which in this embodiment comprises a screw that is engagable with stem 106. Fastener 114 in this embodiment directly engages with stem 106 such that upon tightening of the screw, bracket 112 will be rigidly held in place relative to stem 106. FIG. 2B illustrates another embodiment of bracket 112 shown generally as a clamp arrangement. Again, a generally flat portion 122 of bracket 112 mates against flat front side 108 of stem 106, while sides (124, 126) are each connected on one end to opposite sides of flat portion 122. In this embodiment, opposite ends of sides (124, 126) extend toward each other to form a clamp arrangement with fastener 114, comprising a screw, connecting the opposite sides to each other such that upon tightening of the screw, sides (124, 126) will be drawn inward to engage with stem 106 to rigidly hold bracket 112 in place relative to stem 106. FIGS. 2A and 2B further shown interface 118 illustrated in dashed lines and will be discussed in connection with FIGS. 3A-3C. Referring now FIGS. 3A-3C and 4A-4C, these are perspective views of various advantageous embodiments of the present invention illustrating various configurations for interface 118. For instance, FIG. 3A illustrates interface 118 in a sliding connector configuration with interface 118 comprising a tombstone shape, i.e. having an elongated height with a squared off lower portion and a rounded upper portion. FIG. 4A further illustrates this embodiment using a sliding connector configuration. The tombstone shaped connector is illustrated having a base section 128 that is connected to flat portion 122 of bracket 112 and an upper section 130 that has a lip 132 that extends beyond base section 128. Also illustrated in FIG. 4A is light fixture accessory 116 with opening 134, which is dimensioned to receive the tombstone shaped connector, which may be slid into opening 134 from below as indicated by the arrow. Opening 134 is dimensioned to be slightly larger than base section 128 but slightly smaller than upper section 130 such that lip 132 retains the tombstone shaped connection in opening 134. In another advantageous embodiment, FIG. 3B illustrates interface 118 in a slot connector configuration with interface 118 comprising an elongated rectangular shaped opening. FIG. 4B further illustrates a side view of this advantageous embodiment using a slot connector configuration. Interface 118 here comprises a dog-legged shaped connector 138 which may be attached to light fixture accessory 116. Connector 138 is slid into the elongated rectangular shaped opening at an angle until it seats against a shoulder portion 140 of interface 118. In addition, lip 142 extends downward to engage with connector 138 such that it retains connector 138 in the elongated rectangular shaped opening. In still another advantageous embodiment, FIG. 3C illustrates interface 118 in a bayonet connector configuration with interface 118 comprising a circular shape having protrusions 136 extending from opposing sides of interface 118. FIG. 4C further illustrates this embodiment using a bayonet connector configuration. The circular shaped connector is illustrated having a base section 128 that is connected to flat portion 122 of bracket 112 and an upper section 130 that has protrusions 136 that extends beyond base section 128. still further illustrated in FIG. 4C is light fixture accessory 116 with opening 134, which is dimensioned to receive the circular shaped connector, which may be inserted into opening 134 from the front as indicated by the arrow. Opening 134 is dimensioned to be slightly larger than base section 128 and upper section 130, but slightly smaller than protrusions 136 such that upon a twisting motion as indicated by the arrows, protrusions 136 engage with the edges of opening 134 to retain the circular shaped connection in open 134. FIGS. 5 and 6 illustrate a further embodiment of the present invention with light fixture accessory 116 comprising a tray attachment. In this embodiment, tray attachment may utilize for instance, any of the interface 118 embodiments discussed in connection with FIGS. 3A-3C and 4A-4C. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of the tray attachment, while FIG. 6 comprises a side view. Tray attachment may be utilized with light fixture assembly 100 whether it is a desk lamp or a floor lamp providing additional working space for the individual. It is contemplated that tray attachment will comprise a sturdy material such as for instance a rigid plastic so that it may be utilized to hold relatively heavy objects such as for example, a computer peripheral thereby freeing up surface working space on for instance, an individuals desk. Bracket 112 and therefore the tray attachment is fully adjustable along the length of stem 106 such that the height of the computer peripheral relative to the work surface may be adjusted as desired. In addition, a USB connector is provided in stem 106 for connection of the computer peripheral to the computer, with wiring for the USB connector running along the interior of stem 106 to further reduce clutter in and around the worksurface. FIGS. 7 and 8 illustrate a further embodiment of the present invention with light fixture accessory 116 comprising a picture frame attachment. Again, this embodiment of light fixture accessory 116 may effectively utilize any of the interface 118 embodiments discussed in connection with FIGS. 3A-3C and 4A-4C. The picture frame attachment includes a supporting rod 144 that extends generally perpendicular to stem 106 and outward from bracket 112. Attached at opposing ends of supporting rod 144 are picture frames 146, which may be variously sized (i.e. 4×6, 5×7, 6×8, etc.) to hold a picture(s). Picture frames 146 are provided having a front transparent portion 148 and a rear portion 150 such that a picture may be inserted between the two portions and be securely held therein (FIG. 8). Picture frames 146 may comprise any suitable transparent material such as for instance, a semi-rigid transparent plastic or acrylic. In addition, rear portion 150 may or may not comprise a transparent material. It is further contemplated that bracket 112 is provided such that supporting rod 144 is rotatably adjustable relative to bracket 112 and/or picture frames 146 are rotatably adjustable about supporting rod 144. It is still further contemplated that picture frames 146 are detachably connectable to supporting rod 144 such that for instance, differing sized picture frames 146 may be attached thereto. FIGS. 9 and 10 illustrate still another embodiment of the present invention with light fixture accessory 116 comprising a article holder attachment. This embodiment of light fixture accessory 116 may also utilize any of the interface 118 embodiments discussed in connection with FIGS. 3A-3C and 4A-4C. The article holder attachment is generally shaped to hold for instance, magazines, books and/or periodicals having a open top for insertion of articles therein as illustrated in FIG. 9. Still further, it is contemplated that the article holder may have a rear wall 152 that is detachably connectable to side walls 154 and is connected at a bottom edge to a front wall 156. The article holder may be sized to accommodate for instance, an 8½×11 magazine, but any size may be used as desired. FIGS. 11 and 12 illustrate yet another embodiment of the present invention with light fixture accessory 116 comprising a utility basket attachment, which may be attached to bracket 112 by means of interface 118 as previously discussed in connection with FIGS. 3A-3C and 4A-4C. The utility basket may comprise for instance, an open top container as illustrated in FIG. 11. The utility basket is provided with a rigid frame 158 defining the top opening to which the utility basket material is attached. The utility basket may comprise any size desired and by be utilized for instance, as a waste basket (FIG. 12) or as a container to hold article that would normally take up working space on the work surface. Again, the utility basket, by means of bracket 112, may be adjusted to substantially any height along the length of stem 106. FIG. 13 is an illustration of still another embodiment of the light fixture accessory 116 comprising a clock attachment which may be attached to bracket 112 by means of interface 118 as previously discussed. FIGS. 14A and 14B illustrate alternative embodiments of connector 120 in greater detail. Connector 120 may comprise for instance, a USB connector for connecting an electronic device (not shown) to a client workstation (not shown), such as a personal computer. FIG. 14A illustrates a USB series “A” type plug, while FIG. 14B illustrates a USB series “B” type plug, both of which are variously used with electronic devices and peripheral devices. Wiring for connector 120 may extend through an interior space (not shown) of stem 106 and out through base 104 for connection to the client workstation (not shown). This wiring may be integral to wiring 110 or may be run separately. In addition, it is contemplated that any number of connectors 120 may be situated along the length of stem 106 as desired. Still further in one advantageous embodiment, connector 120 is flush mounted to stem 106 to facilitate adjustment of bracket 112 to substantially any position along the length of stem 106. FIG. 15 is another embodiment of the light fixture accessory 116 comprising another tray attachment. FIG. 16 is still another embodiment of the light fixture accessory 116 comprising a saddle-bag tray attachment. An elongated attachment portion 159 is provided on the tray attachment illustrated in FIGS. 15 and 16, which is designed to abut stem 108. Light fixture accessory 116 may in one advantageous embodiment be permanently attached to stem 108 in a selected or desired location. For instance, light fixture accessory 116 may engage with a notch located in stem 108 or be attached in a non-removable manner. It is contemplated that the tray attachments in FIGS. 15 and 16 may comprise any desired material and/or color. Typically the tray attachments will comprise a molded or formed polymer material providing a rugged and light weight tray attachment. FIG. 17A is an advantageous embodiment of bracket 112. In this embodiment, bracket 112 comprises a frusto-conical surface 160, being larger in diameter at a bottom portion 162 than a top portion 164. In this embodiment bracket 112 is elastically deformable such that it is detachably connectable to stem 108. Once attached to stem 108, bracket 112 may be slid along a length of stem 108 to any desired position. After stem 108 is adjusted to a desired position, light fixture accessory 116 may then be attached to bracket 112 by fitting light fixture accessory 116 over bracket 112 as illustrated in FIG. 17B. Light fixture accessory 116 is provided with walls 166, 168 which engage with frusto-conical surface 160 as shown in FIG. 17C to create an interference fitting. As walls 166, 168 of light fixture accessory 116 engage with frusto-conical surface 160, bracket 112 is compressed about stem 108 such that bracket 112 essentially locks into position and is no longer slidable along the length of stem 108. To disengage bracket 112 such that it may be adjusted to another position along the length of stem 108, one simply applies an upward force on light fixture accessory 116 to detach it from bracket 112, which in turn releases the inward pressure on bracket 112. FIG. 18A is still another embodiment of bracket 112. In this embodiment, bracket 112 is provided with living hinges 170 such that bracket 112 may be opened to fit around stem 108 as illustrated in FIG. 18B. Bracket 112 in this embodiment is provided with interface 118, which comprises a frusto-conical section as seen in FIG. 18B. Interface 118 is provided with front surface 172, which is designed to fit against fitting light fixture accessory 116. Interface 118 is also provided with outer walls 174, 176 that taper inward and upward to firmly hold light fixture accessory 116 to bracket 112 once engaged. The upward taper of walls 174, 176 serves to compress interface 118 to stem 108 as light fixture accessory 116 is firmly seated thereon forming an interference connection. In addition, the inward taper of walls 174, 176 serves to hold light fixture accessory 116 firmly to bracket 112 once seated thereon. Attachment of light fixture accessory 116 to bracket 108 is a simple matter as shown in FIG. 18C. Light fixture accessory 116 is merely slid down on top of bracket 112 such that walls 178, 180 of light fixture accessory 116 engage with walls 174, 176 of interface 118 as illustrated in FIG. 18D. To release bracket 112 is the same procedure as disclosed in connection with FIGS. 17A-C, one simply applies an upward force on light fixture accessory 116 to detach it from bracket 112, which in turn releases the inward pressure on bracket 112. FIG. 19A is yet another embodiment of bracket 112. In this embodiment bracket 112 comprises an elastically deformable material that may be fit around stem 108 as illustrated in FIG. 19B. Bracket 112 further comprises protrusions 182, 184 that include posts 186, 188 with end portions 190, 192 respectively. As illustrated in FIG. 19B, a plate 194 is further provided having arcuate slots 196, 198 designed to engage with protrusions 182, 184 respectively. As can be seen in FIG. 19C, plate 194 is fitted onto protrusions 182, 184 and is then rotated as shown to lock bracket 112 to stem 108. Arcuate slots 196, 198 spiral inward such that when plate 194 is turned as indicated in FIG. 19C, bracket 112 is drawn inward thereby clamping to stem 108. Once plate 194 is firmly attached to bracket 112, light fixture accessory 116 may then be attached to bracket 112 as shown in FIG. 19D. light fixture accessory 116 may comprise for instance, slots 200, 202 (FIG. 20A) that can engage with plate 194. Removal may be accomplished by lifting up of light fixture accessory 116 to detach it from plate 194, and then twisting plate 194 in the reverse direction than the direction applied. This in turn releases the inward pressure on bracket 112 such that it may again be adjusted along the length of stem 108. While some embodiments of bracket 112 teach use of a elastically deformable material or use of living hinges, it is contemplated that both are interchangeable with each other and either may be utilized in any of the embodiments. FIG. 20A is still another embodiment of bracket 112 and light fixture accessory 116. In this embodiment, bracket 112 comprises a rear mounted bracket assembly having protrusions 204, 206 extending from a body portion 208 of bracket 112. Protrusions 204, 206 are designed to engage with slots 200, 202 located in light fixture accessory 116 respectively. Also provided on bracket 112 in this embodiment is fastener 210. Application of bracket 112 is a simple matter as illustrated in FIG. 20B. Light fixture accessory 116 is abutted to stem 108 while bracket 112 is slid upward along stem 108 such that protrusions 204, 206 engage with slots 200, 202. Once protrusions 204, 206 are fully seated in slots 200, 202, fastener 210 may be rotated to engage with stem 108 to firmly hold bracket 112 to stem 108. FIG. 21A is still another embodiment of the present invention. In this embodiment light fixture accessory 116 is provided with elongated attachment portion 159. Mounting element 212 is provided to attach light fixture accessory 116 to stem 108 at a selected position. Mounting element 212 may comprise any means for attaching elongated attachment portion 159 to stem 108 and in one advantageous embodiment comprises for instance, two-sided tape, Velcro or any other appropriate attachment means. Once the two-sided tape is affixed to stem 108, elongated attachment portion 159 may then be affixed to the second side of the tape. Adjustment of light fixture accessory 116 along stem 108 may happen if the tape is removed as illustrated in FIG. 21B. The two-sided tape may simply be pulled along the length of stem 108 causing the adhesive to detach from both elongated attachment portion 159 and stem 108. Readjustment along stem 108 would then require affixing additional two-sided tape at the next selected location. Although the invention has been described with reference to particular ingredients and formulations and the like, these are not intended to exhaust all possible arrangements or features, and indeed many other modifications and variations will be ascertainable to those of skill in the art. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Free standing lamps have been utilized in various applications for many years. For instance, desk lamps have be utilized to provide directional lighting for work surfaces, while floor lamps have provided both direct and indirect area lighting. Both desk lamps and floor lamps are increasingly desirable for work spaces as opposed to fixed lighting in for instance the ceiling, especially with the widespread use of computers and high energy costs through out the nation. Work space however, has become increasingly limited and expensive. Individuals have attempted to pack as much into a small work space as reasonably possible with unsatisfactory results. For instance, cluttered work spaces leads to lower productively along with lost or missing items and/or work. It is also important to maintain a clean and dignified look and feel to an office, especially if an individual is doing business with the public. A messy and cluttered workspace can leave a negative impression on a potential client. With the widespread use of computers and computer peripherals, large quantities of tangled cords hanging off of workspaces (i.e. desks) and running along the floor have become the norm in many offices. This too adds to the overall clutter in the workspace. Various approaches have been taken to increase working surface areas. For instance, U.S. Pat. No. 4,836,403 to Blackman teaches use of a multi-use tray that is attachable to a table leg or to a vehicle window sill. While this multi-use tray may provide additional surface area in a car or for instance, for a kitchen table, this device is not adaptable for use in an office environment to increase surface area on and around for instance, an individual's desk. In addition, various trays have been utilized in the medical industry such as U.S. Pat. No. 6,457,683 to Armstrong, Sr. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,114,023 to Lavin, both of which disclose an adjustable tray for holding various medical equipment. Again however, neither of these devices are adaptable for use in for instance, an office environment to increase working surface area on and around for instance, an individual's desk. Still further, U.S. Design Pat. No. 476,509 to Orsino et al. (“the '509 patent”) discloses a lighted computer pole having shelves. This computer pole however, is adapted for use in a computer room rather than in an office. For instance, attachment means are provided to attach the top portion of the computer pole to the ceiling and the bottom portion to the floor. This device is not practical for use on for instance, an individual's desk. Still further, the '509 patent does not teach that the shelves are detachably removable or adjustable. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>What is desired then is a light fixture assembly that will facilitate a cleaner and neater workspace. It is further desired to provide a light fixture assembly that will provide for an increase in the surface area of a workspace. It is further desired to provide a light fixture assembly that will facilitate the connection of computer peripherals and limit the clutter associated with large quantities of cords. It is still further desired to provide a light fixture assembly that will increase the surface area of a workspace with an adjustable height accessory feature. It is yet further desired to provide a light fixture assembly that incorporates wiring therein for the electrical connection of various computer peripherals. In one advantageous embodiment a light fixture for housing a lamp is provided comprising a head for holding the lamp, a base, and a stem connecting the head and the base. The light fixture further comprises a bracket releasably connectable to the stem such that the bracket is movable to substantially any position along a length of the stem, at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to the bracket, and an interface for detachably connecting the light fixture accessory to the bracket. The light fixture is still further provided such that the at least one light fixture accessory is movable to substantially any position along the length of the stem. In another advantageous embodiment a light fixture for housing a lamp is provided comprising a head for holding the lamp, a base, and a stem connecting the head and the base. The light fixture further comprises a bracket releasably connectable to the stem such that the bracket is movable to substantially any position along a length of the stem, and at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to the bracket. The light fixture still further comprises an interface for detachably connecting the light fixture accessory to the bracket. The light fixture is yet further provided such that the interface engages the bracket to the at least one light fixture accessory to securely hold the bracket at a selected position along a length of the stem. In still another advantageous embodiment a light fixture for housing a lamp is provided comprising a head for holding the lamp, a base, and a stem connecting the head and the base. The light fixture further comprises a mounting element connectable to said stem such that said mounting element may be positioned at substantially any position along a length of said stem, and at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to the mounting element. The light fixture is still further provided such that the at least one light fixture accessory is movable to substantially any position along the length of the stem. In yet another advantageous embodiment a light fixture for housing a lamp is provided comprising a head for holding the lamp, a base, and a stem connecting the head and the base. The light fixture further comprises a mounting element connectable to the stem such that the mounting element may be positioned at a selected position along a length of the stem, and at least one light fixture accessory detachably connectable to the mounting element. The invention and its particular features and advantages will become more apparent form the following detailed description considered with reference to the accompanying drawings. | 20040614 | 20060613 | 20051215 | 70695.0 | 1 | CAMPBELL, THOR S | LIGHT FIXTURE ACCESSORY CONNECTOR AND MOUNTING BRACKET | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,867,157 | ACCEPTED | Dynamic service delivery platform for communication networks | A method of managing dynamic services that are provided over a network, the method involving: storing rules for controlling admission to the network; keeping track of state of the network; receiving a request for establishing a session over the network; and using both the stored rules and the state of the network to determine whether to grant the request for establishing the session. | 1. A method of managing dynamic services that are provided over a network, said method comprising: storing rules for controlling admission to the network; keeping track of state of the network; receiving a request for establishing a session over the network; and using both the stored rules and the state of the network to determine whether to grant the request for establishing the session. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said stored rules also include rules for controlling quality of service (QoS) and said received request also requests QoS for the requested session, said method further comprising: using the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for the received session request, said one or more policy decisions for implementing QoS for the established session; and sending the one or more policy decisions to a termination device that is responsible for supporting the session that is established 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said network is characterized by a control plane and a data plane, and wherein both passively monitoring and receiving requests for services takes place in the control plane. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein keeping track of state of the network involves keeping track of information about QoS enabled sessions that are active on the network 5. The method of claim 1, wherein keeping track of state of the network involves passively monitoring state of the network. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein keeping track of state of the network involves monitoring usage of network resources. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein monitoring usage of network resources involves polling network elements for usage information 8. The method of claim 5, wherein the stored rules also include usage-based rules. 9. The method of claim 5, wherein keeping track of state of the network involves monitoring usage of resources by active QoS enabled sessions. 10. The method of claim 1 further comprising: using the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for establishing a certain level of QoS for the service request; and sending the one or more policy decisions to a network termination device through which the requested session will be established. 11. The method of claim 1 further comprising: using the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for establishing a certain level of QoS for the service request; and sending the one or more policy decisions to a network termination device for adapting a data pipe that was configured to handle the requested session. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the network is a cable network. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the network is a DSL network. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein receiving said request for establishing a session involves receiving the request from an application manager. 15. The method of claim 1, wherein storing rules for controlling admission to the network involves dynamically loading the rules. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein dynamically loading the rules involves loading the rules in a compiled form. 17. The method of claim 1, wherein using both the stored rules and the state of the network involves employing a higher priority for latency sensitive applications. 18. The method of claim 2 further comprising distributing implementation of the steps of storing rules, keeping track of state of the network, and using both the stored rules and the state of the network to determine whether to grant the request for establishing the session and for generating one or more policy decisions for the received session request among a set of hierarchically arranged policy servers. 19. A method of providing dynamic services over a network, said method comprising: storing rules for controlling admission to the network; keeping track of state of the network; receiving requests for establishing sessions over the network; and using the stored rules and the state of the network to manage admission control responsive to the requests for establishing sessions over the network. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein said stored rules also include rules for controlling quality of service (QoS), said method further comprising using the stored rules to manage QoS for sessions that are created in response to the received requests for establishing sessions. 21. An apparatus for managing dynamic services that are provided over a network, said network including a network termination device, said apparatus comprising: a processor system; an interface which enables communication over the network with the network termination device; and a memory system which stores rules for controlling admission to the network and program code which when executed on the processor system causes the apparatus to: keep track of state of the network; process a received request for establishing a session over the network; and use both the stored rules and the state of the network to determine whether to grant the request for establishing the session. 22. The apparatus of claim 21, wherein the memory also stores rules for controlling quality of service (QoS), and wherein the program code when executed on the processor system also causes the apparatus to: use the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for the received session request, said one or more policy decisions for implementing QoS for the established session; and send the one or more policy decisions to said network termination device. | This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/477,970, filed Jun. 12, 2003, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/547,314, filed Feb. 24, 2004. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This present invention relates generally to the field of communications and networking, and particularly to delivery of services over broadband infrastructures. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The network-resources needed to deliver a service are constrained by the interconnecting technologies that make up the network. Due to business reasons, the capacity of the service provider's network cannot grow linearly with the addition of new end users. As a result, the service provider must perform what is referred to as oversubscription. This means the same resources in the network are sold multiple times to different end users. Oversubscription is based on the principle that not all users will be consuming their data pipe simultaneously. The service provider estimates how much simultaneous usage there will be of the network and provides some maximum limits to the amount of resources used by each data pipe. During times of congestion (i.e., many end users trying to access the network at the same time with traffic levels exceeding what the network can handle) the quality of service associated with the sessions may degrade substantially because the network cannot differentiate between those sessions that require special treatment and others that do not require such special treatment. This results in the resources consumed by a service (or an aggregate of services) being limited by the characteristics of the data pipe to the end user. For example, in a video-on-demand application (e.g., where a user requests a video clip or movie) if an end user wishes to download streaming video from a content provider (i.e., a dynamic service) via today's static data pipe the viewing experience would likely be much poorer than the viewing experience one would get by watching traditional broadcast TV. The reason for this is that there is a certain amount of bandwidth that is needed for the video frames to be delivered which if not made available by the network, results in poor viewing quality (e.g. jerky, frame loss, etc.) for the user. Currently, a service provider access network is based on best effort delivery of content, which can be inadequate compared to the quality of service needed for such service delivery. This is especially true in a shared contention based access network where multiple users contend for the same set of network resources. One of the issues plaguing service providers today is the existence of bandwidth hogs. The phrase bandwidth hogs refers to the typically smaller percentage of users/end points which use up a majority of the delivery network resources. Today, there is no easy or graceful means by which the service provider can control the access for those bandwidth hogs because of the static nature of the data pipes. A bandwidth hog can consume as much bandwidth as allowed by the data pipe, for as long as the end point wants to, and the sessions associated with bandwidth hogs compete for the same resources needed by other non-bandwidth hog related sessions. The properties of the static data pipe are such that there may be some minimum and maximum bandwidth made available for the subscriber or end user. Currently, once provisioned, this availability of bandwidth cannot be changed without re-provisioning. Thus static provisioning results in the inefficient utilization of network resources. Provisioning is the act of statically configuring the service profile of the subscriber or end user in either some customer premise equipment and or any intermediate network elements participating in the delivery of the service. In the case of the customer premise equipment (cable modem), a rebooting of the device is necessary in order to be provisioned. The service provider has a limited set of resources in its network, and thus has to ensure that the resources available in its network can satisfy the needs of the end users that it has agreed to take on as customers. The end user uses the data pipe to receive content from another location in either the service provider's network, or beyond. The end user can also use the data pipe to send content from the local (in home or business) site to the remote end, which can either be another content provider or a peer (e.g. another end user in the service provider's network) or any other legitimate entity that can receive such content. Regardless of the type of content the end user wishes to transfer over the data pipe, be it for an on-demand streaming video application, or a telephony application, or Instant Messaging application (with or without the video component), or just Internet browsing, the data traffic associated with the dynamic service is constrained by the resources that were statically provisioned for the end user. Today, the model for offering differentiated services to the end user is Tiered Services (e.g., bronze, silver, gold). Service providers offer a tiered service model in which the characteristics of the data pipe may differ based on the tier that the end user or subscriber has subscribed to. Tiered services do not address the needs of dynamic services because the tier to customer association is static, and the tier and its associated characteristics are also static. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In general, in one aspect, the invention features a method of managing dynamic services that are provided over a network. The method involves: storing rules for controlling admission to the network; keeping track of state of the network; receiving a request for establishing a session over the network; and using both the stored rules and the state of the network to determine whether to grant the request for establishing the session. Other embodiments include one or more of the following features. The stored rules also include rules for controlling quality of service (QoS) and the received request also requests QoS for the requested session, and the method further involves: using the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for the received session request, the one or more policy decisions for implementing QoS for the established session; and sending the one or more policy decisions to a termination device that is responsible for supporting the session that is established. The network is characterized by a control plane and a data plane, and wherein both passively monitoring and receiving requests for services takes place in the control plane. Keeping track of state of the network involves keeping track of information about QoS enabled sessions that are active on the network. Keeping track of state of the network involves passively monitoring state of the network. Keeping track of state of the network involves monitoring usage of network resources. Monitoring usage of network resources involves polling network elements for usage information. The stored rules also include usage-based rules. Keeping track of state of the network involves monitoring usage of resources by active QoS enabled sessions. The method also involves: using the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for establishing a certain level of QoS for the service request; and sending the one or more policy decisions to a network termination device through which the requested session will be established. The method also involves: using the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for establishing a certain level of QoS for the service request; and sending the one or more policy decisions to a network termination device for adapting a data pipe that was configured to handle the requested session. The network is a cable network or a DSL network. Receiving the request for establishing a session involves receiving the request from an application manager. Storing rules for controlling admission to the network involves dynamically loading the rules. Dynamically loading the rules involves loading the rules in a compiled form. Using both the stored rules and the state of the network involves employing a higher priority for latency sensitive applications. The method also involves distributing implementation of the steps of storing rules, keeping track of state of the network, and using both the stored rules and the state of the network to determine whether to grant the request for establishing the session and for generating one or more policy decisions for the received session request among a set of hierarchically arranged policy servers. In general, in another aspect, the invention features a method of providing dynamic services over a network, wherein the method involves: storing rules for controlling admission to the network; keeping track of state of the network; receiving requests for establishing sessions over the network; and using the stored rules and the state of the network to manage admission control responsive to the requests for establishing sessions over the network. In general, in still another aspect, the invention features an apparatus for managing dynamic services that are provided over a network, wherein the network includes a network termination device. The apparatus includes: a processor system; an interface which enables communication over the network with the network termination device; and a memory system which stores rules for controlling admission to the network and program code which when executed on the processor system causes the apparatus to: keep track of state of the network; process a received request for establishing a session over the network; and use both the stored rules and the state of the network to determine whether to grant the request for establishing the session. Other embodiments include the following features. The memory also stores rules for controlling quality of service (QoS), and the program code when executed on the processor system also causes the apparatus to: use the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for the received session request, the one or more policy decisions for implementing QoS for the established session; and send the one or more policy decisions to said network termination device. Dynamically controlling the characteristics of the data pipe permits a delivery network operated by a service provider to be able to change the characteristics or even limit the access of the data pipes associated with the bandwidth hogs dynamically. In an alternative model, a service provider will be able to monetize the extra usage of its network resources by such bandwidth hogs. The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of the architecture of a cable network for delivering services. FIG. 2 illustrates the use of topology data to perform admission control. FIG. 3 illustrates the use of topology data to dynamically route service requests. FIG. 4 is a flow diagram of the topology discovery process and correlation algorithm. FIG. 5 shows a hierarchical arrangement of policy servers. FIG. 6 shows a policy servers in a peer-to-peer relationship with each other. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Architecture: FIG. 1 is a high level diagram of a service provider's network 10. It includes an application server (AS) 12; multiple Cable Modem Termination Systems (CMTSs) 14, which function as gateways to one or more access networks 16; and a policy server (PS) 18, which manages admission control and Quality of Service on behalf of application server 12. These elements are typically connected to a network 20 (e.g. the Internet) over which they are able to communicate with each other. Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) 22, such as personal computers or set top boxes, are connected to the access networks 16 through Cable Modems (CM) 24. The CMTS, which is a device that sits at a cable head-end, functions as a data switching system designed to route data to and from many cable modem users over a multiplexed network interface. It integrates upstream and downstream communications over the access networks (e.g. a cable data network) to which it is connected. The CMTS implements a protocol (e.g. the DOCSIS RFI MAC protocol) to connect to cable modems over the access network. DOCSIS refers to the set of Data-Over-Cable Service Interface Specifications, which defines how to transmit data over cable networks in a standard fashion (see DOCSIS 1.0, 1.1, and 2.0). RFI is the DOCSIS Radio Frequency Interface specification defining MAC and Physical Layer interfaces between CMTS and CM network elements. The CMTS operates over a spectrum that is divided into multiple 6 MHz-wide channels. Each channel typically has a capacity of about 30-40 Mbps. Physically, the CMTS typically includes multiple blades each of which supports n channels (where n is typically equal to 4). Each blade is held in a corresponding slot in the CMTS. Application server 12, which is managed by a content provider, is the entity that delivers the content to the applications on CPEs 22 connected to cable modems 24. On the Internet, common examples of such servers include the Yahoo web server; file upload servers; video servers; Xbox servers, etc. There is also an application manager (AM) 26 which is a system that interfaces to policy server 18 for requesting QoS-based service on behalf of an end-user or network management system. Typically, application manager 26 is implemented as part of application server 12, as indicated. Cable modems 24 enable other Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) 22 to connect to access network 16 and receive cable services. In the described embodiment, the cable modem is a 64/256 QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) RF receiver that is capable of delivering up to 30 to 40 Mbps of data in a 6 MHz cable channel. Data from the user is modulated using a QPSK/16 QAM transmitter with data rates from 320 kbps to 10 Mbps (where QPSK refers to Quadrature Phase Shift Keying modulation). The upstream and downstream data rates can be flexibly configured using cable modems to match subscriber needs. Policy server 18 is a system that primarily acts as an intermediary between application manager 26 and CMTS(s) 14. It applies network policies to requests from the application managers and proxies messages between the application manager and CMTS. In the described embodiment, it implements the functionality that is specified by the Packet Cable Multimedia (PCMM) standards (e.g. see PacketCable Multimedia Architecture Framework Technical Report PKT-TR-ARCH-V01-030627) as well as the extended functionality described herein. In its capacity as an intermediary, policy server 18 grants QoS for different requesters based on policy rules established by the operator of the network or service, and affects the QoS by pushing down policy decisions to the termination devices (e.g. the CMTSs). Its extended functionality includes keeping track of and monitoring the state of the network (what is happening on the network, the state of the sessions, etc.) and making policy decisions based on the state of the network. In general, the described embodiment enables the delivery of dynamic services over communication networks. The delivery of a service involves: a user (also referred to as an end-user) of the service; a delivery network that facilitates the delivery of the service (e.g. access network 16), and a provider of the content for the service. The delivery network (or access network 16) is owned by an entity generally referred to as a service provider. A user of the service generally includes any human operator or machine that can invoke the service. A user or subscriber could be a residential, business, or any other legitimate customer of the service provider. A provider of content for the service is referred to as a content provider. The source for the content could be owned and managed by the service provider in which case the content is referred to as local content. Alternatively, the source for the content could be owned and managed by some entity other than the service provider in which case the content is referred to as 3rd party content. Typically, the dynamic service that is being delivered is a service that a legitimate user can invoke on-demand and that is provided by one or more content providers and delivered over one or more delivery networks owned by one or more service providers. In the case of the cable network embodiment described herein, examples of dynamic services include but are not restricted to: voice and video telephony; video-on-demand; Internet data service; and gaming, time-based and volume-based services. For any service to be delivered to the user of the service, a path, referred to as a data pipe is provided between the content provider and the user. Typically, the service provider is the entity that is responsible for the delivery network and the provisioning of the data pipe. The data pipe is a logical conduit that traverses one or more physical network elements and provides connectivity to deliver data between two end-points that participate in a service. The delivery of content, be it either video, voice/telephony or Internet data, is provided to the broadband user either at the home or business over such a data pipe to the home or business, where the data pipe is established through static or configured means. Provisioning of the data pipe is the process of configuring, managing, and activating an electronic service (e.g., telephone, video). Currently, terminology is mixed in that provisioning also refers to the automation of the actual provisioning process. Provisioning, as used herein, implies the process as opposed to the automation of such process. Although the process may be automated, provisioning, as it is known in the prior art, is static, which means that it is incapable of automatically adapting the data pipe to satisfy a customer requesting dynamic services. The data pipe is used to support sessions between communicating entities. A session refers to the flow of information between two (2) or more end points that is participating in the request for and delivery of the service (e.g. Video-on-demand, Gaming, telephony/voice, file sharing, etc). A session thus represents a dynamic context associated with an instance of a dynamic service invocation. A session includes all data flows that are needed to provide the service and all resources used on various elements through which the data pipe traverses. For a voice call, a session would map to the connection between end users which results when a user makes a telephone call to the callee. Such a voice session includes all the network resources utilized to complete the call. For a multimedia messaging service, a session includes the video, voice and data traffic (content) along with network resources needed to provide the messaging service. Control Plane: In the described embodiment, the policy server operates solely in the control plane to monitor and control CMTSs and CMs. By “control plane” we mean the signaling or control aspects associated with the setting up, managing, and tearing down of the data pipe. All the entities among the network's elements that participate in the signaling aspects form the control plane of the service provider network. In contrast, there is also a data plane, which refers to the elements that participate in the transfer of data over the data pipe between two end-points that participate in a service. All the entities among the network's elements that participate in the transfer of data form the data plane of the service provider network. For instance, for a Video-on-demand Service—where a user can order a movie on-demand—any network entity that is involved in the data pipe and the actual transfer of the movie content, is considered the data plane. In other words, the data associated with the session does not flow through the policy server. The policy server deals with only the signaling aspects of the dynamic session where signaling refers to only those messages which pertain to the session establishment, management, and teardown. It is worth noting that any instrumentation (e.g. monitoring or control) that resides in the data plane will involve inspecting the data that flows through the data pipe and this would, of course, give rise to privacy issues. In contrast, any instrumentation that resides solely in the control plane does not involve inspecting the data that flows through the pipe thus does not give rise to privacy issues. Monitoring Function: To implement the extended functionality, the policy server keeps track of the state of the network by maintaining state of all sessions that are currently active and by passively monitoring certain information that is being recorded at the various relevant network devices and components. This knowledge about how the network resources are being used is then used to enforce policy. For example, the policy server uses it to limit resources that are being used by a particular application on the blade or channel level. For example, suppose a request for service comes in and the policy server knows through its monitoring function that the network is presently congested, it can implement a rule that does not admit new requests if network is congested. As noted, the policy sever collects and maintains data on two kinds of session flows, namely, the QoS enabled sessions and the non-QoS enabled sessions. Since any QoS enabled sessions must go through the policy server, the policy server knows exactly what kind of application is involved, the subscriber that is using it, and other usage-related details for those sessions. The policy server keeps track of this information at multiple levels including per CMTS, per blade, per channel, per cable modem, per application, per subscriber, per subscriber tier. In addition, for these QoS enabled sessions, the policy server keeps track of what sessions exist; how much bandwidth is consumed by each session; and what kind of QoS parameters are being used for each session. The non-QoS enabled sessions, on the other hand, do not go through the policy server. Those other sessions are handled by the network on a “best effort” basis, which means that they all compete for the available resources on an equal basis. So, the policy server does not know a priori any details about those sessions. To acquire information about those flows, the policy server monitors various MIBs that are maintained by the CMTSs and cable modems to ascertain measures of the network traffic associated with these best effort flows. It monitors this data by polling the relevant MIBs on a periodic basis, e.g. every 20-30 minutes. In addition, it also gathers this data for various levels including the CMTS, the blade, the port, the channel, and the cable modem. The traffic data that is gathered in this way represents aggregate data for all packets that are being handled by the particular level. In other words, the monitored packet counts include all packets associated with best effort sessions as well as those associated with the QoS enabled sessions. Since the policy server knows the bandwidths that have been reserved or allocated for the QoS enabled sessions, it subtracts out those numbers from the aggregate counts to arrive at an estimate of the count for the best efforts sessions. Since the QoS enabled sessions are not likely to be continually operating at their allocated bandwidths, the estimates of the best effort flows will tend to understate the magnitude of those flows. In addition, since in the described embodiment the data is polled only every 20-30 minutes, the counts do not represent real time numbers. But these approximations of the state of the network provide sufficiently useful information on which to base meaningful policy decisions. The policy servers can use techniques for improving the quality of the monitoring data. For example, to put the monitored information in a more useful form, the policy server can analyze the information over time to identify trends in usage and predict near term future network state. In addition, at certain times, the policy server is able to get more accurate data regarding usage of particular channels or sessions and when that opportunity arises the policy server can use that data to improve its view of the state of the network. For example, when a particular session is torn down, the policy server can obtain an accurate count of the total number of packets that were handled by the session in both the upstream and downstream directions. At those times, the policy server incorporates the more accurate counts into its computations to arrive at more accurate estimates of the aggregate numbers for the best effort sessions. Of course, it is also possible to generate data that is closer to real time data by polling more frequently. However, the price paid for doing that is degradation in the service that the network delivers. Polling more frequently will consume bandwidth that could otherwise be used for delivering the service. So, selecting the polling frequency and the amount of data that is gathered requires a compromise between accuracy of the collected data and service level. The policy server enhances the efficiency of the access network utilization by also keeping track of the following (typically by reading the information in the appropriate MIB): a) Channel Characteristics of the CMTS: This includes information such as the QAM scheme that the channel is operating on in the upstream and downstream direction. Typical downstream QAM schemes are 64-QAM or 256-QAM. Typical upstream modulation schemes are QPSK or 16-QAM. Depending on the “noise” in a given channel, CMTSs can dynamically change the QAM scheme from a scheme that allows transmission at higher speeds to one that allows transmission at lower speeds and vice versa. This affects the “capacity” of a channel and needs to be monitored constantly to accommodate any increase or decrease in the capacity of the channel. It can be critical for ensuring efficient utilization of the access network b) Dynamic Channel Changes: Depending on the usage of a particular channel, the CMTS can dynamically assign a different channel to a group of cable modems. It is important to monitor and, in some cases, control this process from the policy server. For example, if the CMTS suddenly assigns a “new” channel to a group of CMs that were working on an “old” channel, it leads to reduced traffic on the “old” channel while the “new” channel now has traffic flowing through it. These changes are detected in real-time and this information is taken into account when making decisions to ensure efficient network utilization. c) Primary/Secondary Port Changes: CMTSs may have Primary and Secondary ports serving groups of CMs for enhanced reliability and redundancy. Simply explained, it could work such that: Port 1 Primary for CM Group 1 Secondary for CM Group 2 Port 2 Primary for CM Group 2 Secondary for CM Group 1 If Port 2 fails in this situation then Port 1 will take over the functions and load of Port 2. Such changes are tracked and taken into account in making admission control decisions. Policy Enforcement: The policy server acts as a gatekeeper for dynamic services. By acting as the intermediary device between end points and multiple content providers, it authenticates for services, activates the services by ensuring the necessary resources are available, and participates in the billing aspect of the dynamic service. When a dynamic service is about to be activated, the content provider or the end point requesting the service requests for service from the policy server. In general, the policy server does two things—admission control and QoS control. First, the policy server performs admission control of the request to ensure that the service can be provided, and then performs the necessary actions to the involved network elements in the data path to ensure that the resources are available for the service. Some of the admission control policies are controlled by the service provider and these policies are used to control such things as: which applications are allowed to request for resources, which content providers are allowed to gain and request for resources from the service provider's network, which end users are allowed to request for which types of services, and how much resources can be requested by the various entities such as the content server and the end user. If admission control passes, the session can proceed and is given the required Quality of Service through the network for good delivery. If admission control fails, the session cannot proceed. Admission control can fail due to 1) request by unauthorized content provider or end user, 2) insufficient resources in the network to provide required Quality of Service. If admission control fails for reason 2, then the content provider may choose to deliver the content anyway, but at a degraded service level. Once admission control passes through all rule checking, the policy server figures out what kind of QoS will be needed for that particular application. And then it communicates policy decisions to the CMTS to implement that level of QoS. That is, it tells the CMTS to set up certain QoS regarding jitter, latency, bandwidth, etc.—to provide the appropriate experience for the application. For example, it is able to create a flow that has low jitter, low latency characteristics. The DOCSIS standard with which the CMTS complies enables one to request this by instructing the CMTS to use, for example, an appropriate one of the available scheduling mechanisms. In a local database, the policy server stores a set of policy rules, including usage-based rules that take into account what has been authorized into the network and/or taking into account the monitored state of the network. The policy server uses the policy rules to generate policy decisions in response to requests for services. Given the amount of detail that the policy server collects about the state of the network, the policy server is able to exercise rather fine-grained admission control for a particular application as well as for a particular subscriber. Using a topology discovery process that is based on analyzing the monitored state of the network and the network elements, the policy server generates and maintains a table indicating where each particular requester is located (i.e., behind which CMTS). More specifically, the policy server uses the subscriber information in session setup request to determine which CMTS/blade/channel is involved. Then, it figures out all of the policy decisions that need to be enforced, and then sends those policy decisions to the appropriate CMTS. And the CMTS enforces the decisions for the session that is being set up. The policy decisions are defined and pushed to the CMTS at the time the session is set up and they typically remain valid for as long as the session exists. The policy server is used to manage network resources (e.g. bandwidth) and is intended to be customized by allowing the network or service operator to add site-specific policies to define how the resources are to be managed. Given that the described embodiment is implemented in a cable network environment, the following discussion will refer to a request for bandwidth as a “gate”. When bandwidth is requested, a set of parameters that define how the bandwidth is to be used is also specified. These parameters are used when the policies are evaluated in order to determine whether the request should be approved. The “gate” exists as long as the bandwidth is being used. When the gate is terminated or deleted, the bandwidth is no longer available. The sets of parameters referred to above are identified and defined in various publicly available specifications with which commercially available devices comply. In addition to specifying how to allocate bandwidth, the parameters also specify how to process packets flowing through the network, how much bandwidth to allocate to particular types of applications, setting up windows establishing minimum and maximum limits for traffic flows, how to set up reservations for bandwidth, rules for dropping packets, etc. The specifications include, for example, the Packet Cable Multimedia specifications implemented by Cable Labs and to which the reader is referred for more details. The policy server is configured with a set of policy rules. Each policy rule includes a set of conditions that are used to determine when the policy is relevant, and a set of actions that are performed when those conditions are met. The actions can be performed on one gate or a set of gates. This is determined by gate selection criteria associated with the policy actions. The policy server evaluates the policies in response to events that are external to the policy server. Those events are referred to as “policy triggers.” The following discusses each of these aspects of policy management and further defines some of the features that are supported. Policy Conditions Policy conditions are expressed in terms of objects that define information about the state of the network and the information associated with gate requests received by the policy server. Each of these objects has a collection of related information that is available in the polices. This includes the following types of information: Information that is configured through the management interface Information that is collected from external database Information that is collected from external network devices Information that is computed based on network resource utilization The configured information includes manually entered configuration information. For example, the service provider may want to identify certain applications servers that connect to the policy server and associate those application servers with particular applications. With this information, if the policy server receives a request from a particular application server, it can automatically determine what application is associated with that service and thereby know what QoS will be required for the request. For example, a request that is associated with a voice application would need to receive a high priority service; whereas, a request for a temporary movie download could be given a low priority. Such associations can be based on manually configured information. The external databases include those databases that are maintained by the Multiple Service Operators (MSOs) or the Service Providers. They might typically include subscriber information, information used to manage the network and subscriber access, and other information that would be useful in defining policies. One specific example is a mapping of subscriber IP to tier of service to which that subscriber is entitled. The information collected from external network devices refers to the data that is maintained in and obtainable from various MIBs. This information includes: CMTS, blade, and channel packet traffic; and configuration information about the CMTSs and cable modems. An example of a set of objects that can be used in policy conditions is: Subscriber The end user of the service provided by the service provider/MSO/operator Subscriber Tier The service plan or bundled set of services that is associated with the subscriber. Application Manager/Application Server Application The application associated with a gate (a single application can be associated with multiple App Mgrs or App Servers). Gate CMTS CMTS Blade CMTS Channel Region or Zone This represents an administrative, geographical or organizational subset of the network. It can also represent the entire network. Triggering Event This is the event that triggered the policy evaluation. Time The current time of day can be used in conditions although it is not really an “object” in the same sense as many of the others listed. Network State The state of the network as perceived by the policy server when the request for resources are being made. Other objects The policy engine is extensible and allows additional attributes to be defined on existing objects; also allows new object types to be defined for policy evaluation. Within a single policy it is possible to have multiple conditions, based on different objects or based on the same object. Policy Triggers A policy evaluation is “triggered” by events that are external to the policy server. The list that follows defines some of the events that can trigger policy evaluation: Gate creation requests from an Application Manager. Gate modification requests from an Application Manager. Gate deletion requests from an Application Manager. Gate time limit reached. The time limit associated with a gate previously created by this policy server was reached. Gate volume limit reached. The volume limit associated with a gate previously created by this policy server was reached. Congestion detected. Network state is tracked by keeping usage statistics of all sessions for the objects described in the section on Policy Conditions. It is also tracked by monitoring the actual network devices (by polling SNMP MIBs for example). It is possible to define usage levels at which the network is considered to be congested and these levels can be used to trigger policies to deal with the congestion. The objects for which congestion levels can be defined include: Subscriber Application Application Manager/Application Server CMTS CMTS Blade CMTS Channel Region Policy Actions There are a number of actions that can be performed when the conditions associated with a policy are met. They are summarized in the following table. Note that some actions only make sense for certain types of triggering events. Reject Gate Request Authorize Gate Request; authorize the request meeting requirements specified in the request Authorize Gate Request with modified parameters, including: Reduced or elevated traffic priority Usage-based or time-based traffic limits Reduced (or increased) bandwidth allocations Enabling special features (such as electronic surveillance or the ability for the gate to survive Cable-Modem reboots). Delete Selected pre-existing Gates (based on selection criteria) in order to “make room” for new authorized request Change parameters of Selected pre-existing Gates (based on selection criteria), including: Reducing (or elevating) traffic priority Adding usage-based or time-based traffic limits Reducing bandwidth allocations Generate notification event (such as an SNMP trap, or an email to operations, or generate a logging event) Other actions (the product supports the ability to extend the predefined set of actions programmatically). Selection Criteria: Certain actions can be applied to multiple gates. These actions support gate selection criteria that allow the policy writer to specify the subset of pre-existing gates on which the action should be performed. The selection criteria allows the policy server to select gates based on: Subscriber Tier associated with Gate Application associated with Gate Application Manager/Application Server associated with Gate CMTS associated with Gate CMTS Blade associated with Gate CMTS Channel associated with Gate Usage statistics associated with Gate Policy Examples To illustrate the information defined above, here are some examples of policies that the product can support: 1. For a particular application or set of applications, provide flows with specific bandwidth and QoS priority. For example, video conferencing application receives 384/768 up/down bandwidth, Real Time Polling type priority (VBR equivalent) 2. For a particular application or set of applications, provide flows with specific bandwidth and QoS priority based on time of day. For example, game service receives 512/512 up/down bandwidth and Non-Real Time Polling type priority between 6 am and 6 pm, and 256/512 at other times. 3. For a set of subscribers (based on bundle/tier), access to an application is authorized during particular times. During these times, specific bandwidth and QoS characteristics are applied. For example, subscriber A has purchased a Gaming Bundle which provides access to an increased bandwidth and QoS service for game sessions between the hours of 6 pm and 6 am. 4. For a particular device (CMTS/blade/channel), a dynamic flow can be created providing specific bandwidth and QoS characteristics based on current network resource usage. For example, a dynamic request for higher bandwidth for a gaming session is only allowed if bandwidth utilization for the CMTS is at less than 60% capacity. 5. Within a portion of the network, some bandwidth should be reserved for specific types of applications. For example, within a region, 30% of the bandwidth must be reserved for VOIP applications. 6. For a particular server inside an MSO network, do not allow dynamic flows to be created if the server's current usage is at capacity. For example, the total amount of bandwidth that should be allocated to a particular Video-on-demand server should be no greater than 1.5 Gb/sec 7. If certain subscribers are using bandwidth to a degree that it substantially impacts the network performance within a region, then take some actions to reconcile the situation (note: this is the “bandwidth hog” example). For example, any subscriber who's “default best-effort flow” uses more than 10% of the available bandwidth for his CMTS for a period of one week should have his network traffic priority lowered and should have his subscriber record red-flagged for appropriate action by the network operator. Policy Distribution: Policies for the policy server are written using a web-based management interface. This interface allows a user to select from a collection of predefined templates for conditions and actions that can be customized by the policy writer. The policy editor provides an extension mechanism so that new templates (for both conditions and actions) can be added to the policy editor. When the policy writer has selected all the conditions and actions for a policy it is ready to be deployed to one (or more) policy servers. At this point the policy can be saved for later editing, or it can be deployed immediately. When a policy (or set of policies) are being deployed to a policy server, each policy is translated into a standard programming language. This representation is compiled into byte codes that can be executed in a standard interpreter for that programming language. In the event that the policy editor cannot support the type of policy needed, this approach provides an extension mechanism which is to write the policy directly in the standard programming language. This also allows for the policy editor to be replaced or augmented by an alternate method for defining policies that can be translated into the same programming language and the rest of the policy infrastructure does not require any changes. The compiled polices are combined into a “policy library” that can be deployed to the policy server(s). The interpreter for the compiled policies (described above) is built into the policy server so that the policies can be executed by the policy server to process bandwidth requests. After the policy library is distributed to the policy server(s), the compiled policies are dynamically loaded into the interpreter. The dynamic loading of the policies means that the policy server can reload new policies without stopping or rebooting which is very important because some of the supported applications require high levels of availability. Furthermore, because the policies are compiled, they can be executed quickly even when applications require very low latency for processing bandwidth requests. Support for Latency-Sensitive Applications Because some of the applications that are supported by the policy server are very sensitive to session setup latency, the policy server has special support for these applications built into the policy engine. When a policy is created it is possible to specify whether the policy should be used for evaluating all requests or if it should be skipped for latency sensitive applications. This allows the policy server to process requests for latency sensitive applications faster because fewer policies will be evaluated to validate those requests. The policy server also implements a “fast path” for requests from latency sensitive applications which allows these requests to receive higher priority for all processing (not just policy processing). The special treatment of application requests which are latency sensitive, enable the policy server to introduce minimal delay into the session setup process, thereby enabling the application to maintain its low session setup times. Topology Discovery: In order for the service provider to be able to dynamically adjust the Quality of Service attributes of the data pipe to the end user, the service provider employs a mechanism by which it associates a session request or dynamic service request with the location of the end user. This is done in a dynamic fashion, i.e., at the time that the request is received. The ability to perform this association dynamically is key to being able to dynamically adjust the Quality of Service properties of the data pipe at the time of setting up the session. The policy server dynamically discovers the locations of the end points of the session and the intermediate network elements in the path of the data associated with the content flow. The policy server uses the end point ID (either IP address, or Fully Qualified Domain Name) of the end user to discover the intermediate network elements in the path to the end user. For example, in cable networks that deliver broadband Internet Access, one can resolve the end point ID of the end user to an IP address corresponding to the client or PC. Then it can use the IP address of the end user to resolve the IP address of the CMTS which serves the cable modem to which the end user is attached. IN a similar manner, the policy server uses a MAC address of the end point to resolve the CMTS to which the cable modem is attached. Once the policy server discovers the intermediate network elements that deliver the data pipe to the end user, it makes adjustments to those network elements so that the necessary resources are made available to the dynamic session. In general, in an access network, hosts are located behind edge or access routers. As noted above, in the high speed cable data network described herein, the hosts are located behind CMTSs, as illustrated in FIG. 1. The policy server employs a topology discovery process to figure out behind which CMTS each subscriber is located and it maintains and updates that information in a table. When the policy server receives a request for services for a particular subscriber, the policy server refers to the table to learn where the CMTS for that subscriber is located. Once the relevant CMTS is identified, the policy server issues the resource reservation request to the CMTS. The topology discovery that is implemented by the policy server automatically detects the physical components (e.g. CMTS, blades, channels, cable modems, and CPE devices) that make up an MSO's access network. It does this by getting routing table information and subscriber management information from the CMTSs. As previously above, each CMTS maintains in various standards-specified MIB tables a volume of information among which there is information representing the state of the CMTS, of the associated cable modems, and of the corresponding CPE devices. Though a mapping of subscriber to CMTS is not directly readable from the MIBs, that mapping can be constructed by extracting certain appropriate information and intelligently analyzing that information. Referring to FIG. 1, a data collector 50 within the policy server executes the topology discovery process according to which it periodically polls the CMTSs, collates and analyzes the polled data, and then makes the results available to the policy server. When polling the CMTSs, the data collector uses SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) to retrieve the relevant information from a particular set of MIBs. SNMP is a well-known protocol for gathering statistical data about network traffic and the behavior of network components. The policy server uses this extracted to construct a mapping of IP subnets to CMTSs. When the data collector uses SNMP to periodically poll the CMTS MIBs to retrieve their state information, the retrieved information arrives as a set of unrelated tables defined by the individual MIBs. The data collector correlates the tables to produce a cohesive view of the network topology, including the relationships between CPE devices, cable modems, CMTS channels, CMTS blades, and CMTSs. The details of the correlation algorithm are described below in connection with FIG. 4. Finally, the data collector makes the topology data available to the policy server which uses it to perform certain functions. For example, the policy servers uses it to enforce policies that rely on specific topology information, such as rejecting requests that would cause the cumulative reserved bandwidth on a particular channel in a CMTS to exceed a given threshold. A more detailed example illustrating this is shown in FIG. 2. In this example, the application server through the application manager requests a 2 Mbps capacity channel in both the upstream and downstream directions for CPE 1.2.3.4. The policy server has a stored policy which says to reject any request that would cause the channel's reserved upstream bandwidth to exceed 10 Mbps. The policy server checks its database containing the mapping information generated through its policy discovery process to locate which CMTS is handling CPE 1.2.3.4. The topology data indicates that CPE 1.2.3.4 maps to CMTS X, blade Y, and channel Z. Based on knowing which CMTS/blade/channel is involved, the policy server checks its oterh data base of monitored information to determine that channel Z currently has 9 Mbps of reserved upstream traffic. thus, adding the requested session for CPE 1.2.3.4 would cause the upstream bandwidth the exceed the 10 Mbps upper limit. So, the policy server rejects the request for services for CPE 1.2.3.4. Also, the policy server uses the topology information to dynamically route PCMM requests to the appropriate CMTS, as illustrated in FIG. 3. In this case, the application manager issues a PCMM service request for CPE 1.2.3.4 to the policy server. Since each PCMM request includes the IP address of the requesting CPE device, the policy server uses this information to locate the CMTS by performing a match of the IP address of the subscriber against the subnet information learned by polling the CMTSs in the network. In this example, the policy server determines from its stored topology data that CPE 1.2.3.4 is handled by CMTS C. So, the policy server forwards the appropriate policy decisions to CMTS C to provide the requested service. The policy server also maintains usage statistics based on topology data, such as the number of gates installed on a particular CMTS blade. These statistics represent the current state of the network and are instrumental in policy enforcement. In addition, various charts and reports can be generated based on usage statistics to illustrate the operational health of the network. Topology Discovery Algorithm This section describes the algorithm used by the data collector to correlate the retrieved MIB tables. The result is a cohesive view of the network topology, including the relationships between CPE devices, cable modems, CMTS channels, CMTS blades, and CMTSs. For each CMTS, the data collector performs the sequence of operations depicted in FIG. 4. First, it polls following MIB tables (phase 100) and stores the information locally: DOCS-SUBMGT-MIB: docsSubMgtCpeIpTable DOCS-IF-MIB: docsIfCmtsCmStatusTable DOCS-IF-MIB: docsIfDownstreamChannelTable DOCS-IF-MIB: docsIfUpstreamChannelTable ENTITY-MIB: entPhysicalTable ENTITY-MIB: entAliasMappingTable IF-MIB: ifTable IP-FORWARD-MIB: ipCidrRouteTable Then, the data collector walks the data in the docsSubMgtCpeIpTable that represents all of the CPE devices connected to the CMTS (phase 102). For each row in this table, it reads the docsIfCmtsCmStatusIndex field and uses it to look up the corresponding row from the docsIfCmtsCmStatusTable (phase 104). The corresponding row from the docsIfCmtsCmStatusTable represents the cable modem associated with the CPE device. From each row (i.e., for each cable modem associated with the CPE device), the data collector reads the docsifCmtsCmStatusDownChannelIfIndex fields and it also reads the docsIfCmtsCmStatusUpChannelIfIndex fields. The information in these fields is used to identify the downstream and upstream channels and the blades corresponding to those channels, as follows. It uses the information read from the docsIfCmtsCmStatusDownChannelIfIndex field to look up the corresponding row from the docsIfDownstreamChannelTable (phase 106). The corresponding row represents the CMTS downstream channel that is connected to the cable modem. Similarly, it uses the information read from the docsIfCmtsCmStatusUpChannelIfIndex field to look up the corresponding row from the docsIfUpstreamChannelTable (phase 108). In this case, the corresponding row represents the CMTS upstream channel that is connected to the cable modem. It also uses information read from the docsIfCmtsCmStatusDownChannelIfIndex to find the CMTS blade that corresponds to the downstream channel (phase 110). It does this as follows. It converts the docsIfCmtsCmStatusDownChannelIfIndex to an entPhysicalIndex via the entAliasMappingTable. Then, it uses the entPhysicalIndex to look up the corresponding row in the entPhysicalTable. That row represents the downstream channel. It reads the downstream channel's entPhysicalContainedIn field, and uses that information to look up the containing entity in the entPhysicalTable. The containing entity represents either the MAC layer or the blade that contains the downstream channel. The entPhysicalClass field will indicate what it represents. If the containing entity represents the MAC layer, then the data collector reads the entPhysicalContainedIn field and uses that information to look up the containing entity in the entPhysicalTable, which represents the blade. Finally, the data collector reads the blade's entPhysicalContainedIn field and uses that information to look up the containing entity for the blade in the entPhysicalTable. In this case, the containing entity represents the slot that holds the blade. The entPhysicalParentRelPos field gives the index of the blade. The data collector uses the docsIfCmtsCmStatusUpChannelIfIndex to find the CMTS blade that corresponds to the upstream channel, in a fashion that is parallel to the description given in the previous phase (phase 112). Finally, the data collector walks the data in the ipCidrRouteTable in order to create a list of the subnets for CPE devices and cable modems on the CMTS (phase 114). For each row, it reads the ipCidrRouteIfIndex field and uses that information to look up the corresponding row in the ifTable. If the resulting row has an ifType field that does not equal docsCableMaclayer(127), then the data collector prunes it out of the list phase 118). From this extracted information, the data collector generates a list of subscriber data. Each record in that list is identified by the corresponding IP address (or fully qualified domain name) of the CPE (also referred to as the subscriber). Each record identifies the elements to which the CPE is connected, i.e., the CMTS IP address, blade index, channel index, and modem MAC address. Negative Acknowledgements: If the resource request fails because the CMTS cannot locate the subscriber based on the IP address issued in the request by the policy server, the data collector uses this information to learn that the IP address to CMTS mapping has changed. This can happen when the IP address changes are made to the network between the times the data collector polls the network, and the request coming in during the “window” when the information became stale. The data collector server re-polls the network to get updated information, and based on the new information retries the request to the now current CMTS. Policy Server Routing: The routing methodology described earlier for routing PCMM requests to the appropriate CMTS can be extended to allow for more complex topologies of cooperating policy servers in order to simplify the interface with application managers. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 3, the policy servers can be organized in a hierarchical manner, where one policy server acts as a gateway to forward requests from application managers to the appropriate one of a group of other policy servers at a lower level. (See FIG. 5) Alternatively, the policy servers can act as peers, as illustrated in FIG. 6. In that case, the application manager forwards a request to one of the policy servers and that policy server forwards it to the appropriate one of the other policy servers. Using multiple policy servers in this way has the advantage of enabling one to split up the rule processing. This is particularly true for the hierarchical approach in which the policy rules can be distributed in a hierarchical manner so that certain types of rules are enforced at one level and other types of rules are enforced at the lower level. For example, the top level could be tier level or per subscriber gross level rules and the lower level could be finer grained rules. Splitting up the rule processing in this way makes the architecture more scalable. Though the data collector is shown as part of the policy server, it could be a separate component. In addition, if it is a separate component, it could service multiple policy servers. That is, it could provide its gathered information to multiple different policy servers. The policy server is implemented on a platform that includes one or more processors, interfaces that enable it to communicate with the application manager and the CMTSs, and memory for storing the extracted MIB tables, the lists of subscriber data, and the code which implements the above-described functionality. Other Embodiments: While the above-described embodiments involved a cable network, the ideas presented herein can be applied to any broadband or other network (whether optical, wired, or wireless) in which dynamic services are provided. For example, other network environments in which the ideas could be implemented include a DSL (Digital Subscriber Loop) network and an Enterprise network. In addition, the same concepts are applicable regardless of whether the service is peer-to-peer based or content provider to end user based. Other embodiments are within the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The network-resources needed to deliver a service are constrained by the interconnecting technologies that make up the network. Due to business reasons, the capacity of the service provider's network cannot grow linearly with the addition of new end users. As a result, the service provider must perform what is referred to as oversubscription. This means the same resources in the network are sold multiple times to different end users. Oversubscription is based on the principle that not all users will be consuming their data pipe simultaneously. The service provider estimates how much simultaneous usage there will be of the network and provides some maximum limits to the amount of resources used by each data pipe. During times of congestion (i.e., many end users trying to access the network at the same time with traffic levels exceeding what the network can handle) the quality of service associated with the sessions may degrade substantially because the network cannot differentiate between those sessions that require special treatment and others that do not require such special treatment. This results in the resources consumed by a service (or an aggregate of services) being limited by the characteristics of the data pipe to the end user. For example, in a video-on-demand application (e.g., where a user requests a video clip or movie) if an end user wishes to download streaming video from a content provider (i.e., a dynamic service) via today's static data pipe the viewing experience would likely be much poorer than the viewing experience one would get by watching traditional broadcast TV. The reason for this is that there is a certain amount of bandwidth that is needed for the video frames to be delivered which if not made available by the network, results in poor viewing quality (e.g. jerky, frame loss, etc.) for the user. Currently, a service provider access network is based on best effort delivery of content, which can be inadequate compared to the quality of service needed for such service delivery. This is especially true in a shared contention based access network where multiple users contend for the same set of network resources. One of the issues plaguing service providers today is the existence of bandwidth hogs. The phrase bandwidth hogs refers to the typically smaller percentage of users/end points which use up a majority of the delivery network resources. Today, there is no easy or graceful means by which the service provider can control the access for those bandwidth hogs because of the static nature of the data pipes. A bandwidth hog can consume as much bandwidth as allowed by the data pipe, for as long as the end point wants to, and the sessions associated with bandwidth hogs compete for the same resources needed by other non-bandwidth hog related sessions. The properties of the static data pipe are such that there may be some minimum and maximum bandwidth made available for the subscriber or end user. Currently, once provisioned, this availability of bandwidth cannot be changed without re-provisioning. Thus static provisioning results in the inefficient utilization of network resources. Provisioning is the act of statically configuring the service profile of the subscriber or end user in either some customer premise equipment and or any intermediate network elements participating in the delivery of the service. In the case of the customer premise equipment (cable modem), a rebooting of the device is necessary in order to be provisioned. The service provider has a limited set of resources in its network, and thus has to ensure that the resources available in its network can satisfy the needs of the end users that it has agreed to take on as customers. The end user uses the data pipe to receive content from another location in either the service provider's network, or beyond. The end user can also use the data pipe to send content from the local (in home or business) site to the remote end, which can either be another content provider or a peer (e.g. another end user in the service provider's network) or any other legitimate entity that can receive such content. Regardless of the type of content the end user wishes to transfer over the data pipe, be it for an on-demand streaming video application, or a telephony application, or Instant Messaging application (with or without the video component), or just Internet browsing, the data traffic associated with the dynamic service is constrained by the resources that were statically provisioned for the end user. Today, the model for offering differentiated services to the end user is Tiered Services (e.g., bronze, silver, gold). Service providers offer a tiered service model in which the characteristics of the data pipe may differ based on the tier that the end user or subscriber has subscribed to. Tiered services do not address the needs of dynamic services because the tier to customer association is static, and the tier and its associated characteristics are also static. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In general, in one aspect, the invention features a method of managing dynamic services that are provided over a network. The method involves: storing rules for controlling admission to the network; keeping track of state of the network; receiving a request for establishing a session over the network; and using both the stored rules and the state of the network to determine whether to grant the request for establishing the session. Other embodiments include one or more of the following features. The stored rules also include rules for controlling quality of service (QoS) and the received request also requests QoS for the requested session, and the method further involves: using the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for the received session request, the one or more policy decisions for implementing QoS for the established session; and sending the one or more policy decisions to a termination device that is responsible for supporting the session that is established. The network is characterized by a control plane and a data plane, and wherein both passively monitoring and receiving requests for services takes place in the control plane. Keeping track of state of the network involves keeping track of information about QoS enabled sessions that are active on the network. Keeping track of state of the network involves passively monitoring state of the network. Keeping track of state of the network involves monitoring usage of network resources. Monitoring usage of network resources involves polling network elements for usage information. The stored rules also include usage-based rules. Keeping track of state of the network involves monitoring usage of resources by active QoS enabled sessions. The method also involves: using the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for establishing a certain level of QoS for the service request; and sending the one or more policy decisions to a network termination device through which the requested session will be established. The method also involves: using the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for establishing a certain level of QoS for the service request; and sending the one or more policy decisions to a network termination device for adapting a data pipe that was configured to handle the requested session. The network is a cable network or a DSL network. Receiving the request for establishing a session involves receiving the request from an application manager. Storing rules for controlling admission to the network involves dynamically loading the rules. Dynamically loading the rules involves loading the rules in a compiled form. Using both the stored rules and the state of the network involves employing a higher priority for latency sensitive applications. The method also involves distributing implementation of the steps of storing rules, keeping track of state of the network, and using both the stored rules and the state of the network to determine whether to grant the request for establishing the session and for generating one or more policy decisions for the received session request among a set of hierarchically arranged policy servers. In general, in another aspect, the invention features a method of providing dynamic services over a network, wherein the method involves: storing rules for controlling admission to the network; keeping track of state of the network; receiving requests for establishing sessions over the network; and using the stored rules and the state of the network to manage admission control responsive to the requests for establishing sessions over the network. In general, in still another aspect, the invention features an apparatus for managing dynamic services that are provided over a network, wherein the network includes a network termination device. The apparatus includes: a processor system; an interface which enables communication over the network with the network termination device; and a memory system which stores rules for controlling admission to the network and program code which when executed on the processor system causes the apparatus to: keep track of state of the network; process a received request for establishing a session over the network; and use both the stored rules and the state of the network to determine whether to grant the request for establishing the session. Other embodiments include the following features. The memory also stores rules for controlling quality of service (QoS), and the program code when executed on the processor system also causes the apparatus to: use the stored rules to generate one or more policy decisions for the received session request, the one or more policy decisions for implementing QoS for the established session; and send the one or more policy decisions to said network termination device. Dynamically controlling the characteristics of the data pipe permits a delivery network operated by a service provider to be able to change the characteristics or even limit the access of the data pipes associated with the bandwidth hogs dynamically. In an alternative model, a service provider will be able to monetize the extra usage of its network resources by such bandwidth hogs. The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. | 20040614 | 20131126 | 20050428 | 72085.0 | 0 | DADA, BEEMNET W | Dynamic service delivery platform for communication networks | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,867,182 | ACCEPTED | Testing frame work in a distributed environment | The invention concerns a testing framework, comprising a first computer system, adapted for communication with nodes in a distributed node environment, first code, capable of creating a task manager, second code adapted for defining tasks, including test tasks, third code, capable of creating a task agent, test related data, a test launcher capable of interacting with said first code for starting a task manager in said first computer system, of delivering test related data to said task manager, and, upon the sending of the third code to remote nodes, capable of requesting the starting of one or more task agents on said remote nodes, the task manager responding to the test related data for providing said one or more task agents with said test related data, said one or more task agents responding to said test related data for retrieving respective tasks available in the second code, said task manager being capable of thereafter monitoring the execution of such tasks. | 1. A testing framework, comprising a first computer system, adapted for communication with nodes in a distributed node environment, first code, capable of creating a task manager, second code adapted for defining tasks, including test tasks, third code, capable of creating a task agent, test related data, a test launcher capable of interacting with said first code for starting a task manager in said first computer system, of delivering test related data to said task manager, and, upon the sending of the third code to remote nodes, capable of requesting the starting of one or more task agents on said remote nodes, the task manager responding to the test related data for providing said one or more task agents with said test related data, said one or more task agents responding to said test related data for retrieving respective tasks available in the second code, said task manager being capable of thereafter monitoring the execution of such tasks. 2. The testing framework of claim 1, wherein the first code is further capable of creating a node manager for a remote node under control of the task manager, the node manager being capable of requesting to an initialization daemon in this remote node, the creation of a task agent in this remote node. 3. The testing framework of claim 2, wherein the node manager is adapted to monitor a given remote node. 4. The testing framework as claimed in any of claims 2 to 3, wherein the task manager is further adapted to send the test related data to the node manager, the node manager being adapted to send the test related data to the task agent. 5. The testing framework as claimed in any of claims 1 to 4, wherein the task agent is adapted to create, in its node, a task instance in a waiting to start state. 6. The testing framework as claimed in any of the preceding claims, wherein the test related data comprise task execution conditions, the task manager being adapted to exchange synchronization messages with task agents responsive to said task execution conditions, the task manager thus monitoring the synchronization of the task instance executions. 7. The testing framework of claim 6, wherein said synchronization messages comprise a “start” message to be sent to a task agent, with the task agent starting the execution of a corresponding task instance. 8. The testing framework system of claim 7, wherein said synchronization messages comprise a “stop” message to be sent to a task agent, with the task agent stopping the execution of a corresponding task instance. 9. The testing framework of claim 7, wherein responsive to its start, the task instance is adapted to send a “started” state message to the task manager. 10. The testing framework as claimed in any of claims 7 to 9, wherein responsive to the end of its execution, the task instance is adapted to send a “finished” state message to the task manager. 11. The testing framework system as claimed in any of claims 7 to 10, wherein responsive to its start or to the end of its execution, the task instance is adapted to send a user defined message to the task manager. 12. The testing framework as claimed in any of claims 9 and 11, wherein the task instance is adapted to send the “started” state message or the user defined message with a task time-out to the task agent adapted to monitor said task time-out. 13. The testing framework as claimed in any of claims 10 to 12, wherein responsive to the “finished” state message or responsive to a user defined message from the task received before a reached task time-out, the task agent is adapted to delete the task time-out, else, the task agent is adapted to send a task time-out error message to the task manager. 14. The testing framework as claimed in any of the claims 2 to 4, wherein the node manager is adapted to detect a node state change and to send a node state change message to the task manager. 15. The testing framework as claimed in any of the claims 2 to 4, wherein the task manager is adapted to store the test related data and to update said test related data according to received messages. 16. The testing framework as claimed in any of the preceding claims, wherein the task manager is further adapted to send messages and task results to a test in execution, said test comprising the first code, a plurality of tasks defined by the second code and by the test related data. 17. The testing framework of claim 15, wherein the task manager is further adapted to monitor a time-out relative to the execution of the test. 18. The testing framework as claimed in any of the preceding claims, wherein the test launcher is adapted to start a series of tests comprising the first code, a plurality of tasks defined by the second code and by the test related data. 19. The testing framework as claimed in any of the preceding claims, wherein the first code comprises the task manager to create a log manager adapted to create log files for task results in a directory structure. 20. The testing framework as claimed in any of the preceding claims, wherein the second code comprises templates adapted for a user to build configuration files, tasks and a test comprising the first code, a plurality of tasks defined by the second code and by the test related data. 21. The testing framework as claimed in any of the preceding claims, wherein the first computer system comprises environment development tools adapted for a user to create a package comprising user defined tests and adapted to install such a package on any distributed node environment. 22. The testing framework as claimed in any of the preceding claims, wherein the first computer system also comprises a fourth code capable of analyzing the task results in order to provide the test result. 23. A testing method executable on a first computer system, adapted for communication with nodes in a distributed node environment, comprising: a. creating in said first computer system a task manager, b. sending code for creation of task agent to remote nodes, and requesting the starting of one or more task agents on said remote nodes, c. delivering test related data to said task manager which provides said one or more task agents with said data, d. retrieving, by said one or more task agents, respective tasks responsive to said test related data, and e. monitoring the execution of such tasks. 24. The testing method of claim 23, wherein step a. further comprises creating a node manager for a remote node under control of the task manager, and step b. further comprises sending code for creation of task agent to remote nodes by the node manager and requesting by this node manager to an initialization daemon in this remote node, the creation of a task agent in this remote node. 25. The testing method of claims 23 and 24, wherein step c. comprises c1. sending the test related data from the task manager to the node manager, send the test related data from the node manager to the task agent. 26. The testing method as claimed in any of claims 23 to 25, wherein step d. comprises creating, by a task agent and in its node, a task instance in a waiting to start state. 27. The testing method as claimed in any of claims 23 to 25, wherein step e. comprises exchanging synchronization messages between the task manager and the task agent responsive to the test related data of step b. comprising task execution conditions, the task manager thus monitoring the executions of the task instances. 28. The testing method of claim 27, wherein step e. further comprises e1. sending a start message by the task manager to a task agent starting the execution of the corresponding task instance. 29. The testing method of claim 28, wherein responsive to the start of the task instance execution of step e1., step e. comprises e2. sending a “started” state message by the task instance to the task manager. 30. The testing method of claim 28, wherein responsive to the start of the task instance execution of step e1., step e. comprises e2. sending a user defined message by the task instance to the task manager. 31. The testing method as claimed in any of claims 27 to 30, wherein step e. comprises e3. sending a stop message by the task manager to the task agent stopping the execution of the task instance. 32. The testing method as claimed in any of claims 28 to 31, wherein responsive to the end of the task instance execution, step e. comprises e3. sending a “finished” state message by the task instance to the task manager. 33. The testing method as claimed in any of claims 28 to 31, wherein responsive to the end of the task instance execution, step e. comprises e3. sending a user defined message by the task instance to the task manager. 34. The testing method of claims 30 and 31, wherein step e. comprises if a “finished” state message or a user defined message from the task received before a reached task time-out e3. deleting the task time-out by the task agent, else, e3. sending a task time-out error message to the task manager. 35. The testing method as claimed in any of claims 23 to 34, wherein step e. comprises detecting a node state change by the node manager which sends a node state change message to the task manager. 36. The testing method as claimed in any of claims 23 to 35, wherein step c. comprises storing the test related data by the task manager and step c. comprises updating said test related data responsive to received messages. 37. The testing method as claimed in any of claims 23 to 36, wherein step e. comprises sending messages and task results by the task manager to a test in execution relative to steps a. to e. and comprising a plurality of tasks defined by the test related data. 38. The testing method of claim 37, wherein step e. further comprises, for the task manager, monitoring a time-out relative to the execution of the test. 39. The testing method as claimed in any of claims 23 to 38, wherein steps a. to e. are repeated sequentially for the execution of a series of tests. 40. The testing method as claimed in any of claims 23 to 39, wherein step e. further comprises analyzing the task results in order to provide the test result. 41. The testing method as claimed in any of claims 23 to 40, wherein step a. further comprises creating a log manager adapted to create log files for task results in a directory structure. 42. A software product, comprising the code for use in the first computer system as claimed in any of claims 1 through 22. | BACKGROUND The invention relates to the testing of applications or products, more particularly that run in a distributed environment. A distributed environment comprises a group of interconnected machines, also called nodes, that share information and resources. Applications or products using such an environment have to be tested in order to simulate a controlled real functioning, to detect possible errors and to validate and verify such products or applications. To test these applications or products on a single machine, a test may be developed as known. Development and management of such a test is quite easy as it runs on a single machine and operating system. On the contrary, developing a distributed test on such environment is becoming incrisingly difficult for the developer to manage and synchronize the various parts of the test that are running on the distributed environment. Moreover, the development of such a test in a distributed environment is made more difficult since machines in a distributed environment support different architectures, e.g. different operating systems, hardware and so on. Such difficulties limit the development of a complex test in distributed environment. SUMMARY The invention concerns a testing framework that comprises a first computer system adapted for communication with nodes in a distributed node environment, first code, capable of creating a task manager, second code, capable for defining tasks, including test tasks, third code, capable of creating a task agent, test related data, a test launcher capable of interacting with said first code for starting a task manager in said first computer system, of delivering test related data to said task manager, and, upon the sending of the third code to remote nodes, capable of requesting the starting of one or more task agents on said remote nodes, the task manager responding to the test related data for providing said one or more task agents with said test related data, said one or more task agents responding to said test related data for retrieving respective tasks available in the second code, said task manager being capable of thereafter monitoring the execution of such tasks. The invention also concerns a testing method executable on a first computer system, adapted for communication with nodes in a distributed node environment, comprising: a. creating in said first computer system a task manager, b. sending code for creation of task agent to remote nodes, and requesting the starting of one or more task agents on said remote nodes, c. delivering test related data to said task manager which provides said one or more task agents with said data, d. retrieving, by said one or more task agents, respective tasks responsive to said test related data, and e. monitoring the execution of such tasks. Other features will be found in the claims appended to this specification. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Still other features and advantages of the invention will appear in the light of the detailed description below and the associated drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a general diagram of a node in a distributed computer system; FIG. 2 is a general diagram representing the main server of the invention connected to a distributed environment to test according to the invention; FIG. 3 shows a first embodiment of the different tools of the main server of the invention; FIG. 4 shows a second embodiment of the different tools of the main server of the invention; FIG. 5 shows an exemplary diagram of the execution of task scenario process managed by the main server of FIG. 3 in nodes of the distributed environment of FIG. 2; FIG. 6 is an exemplary diagram of the data organization in a database of the main server; FIG. 7A is the beginning of a flow chart of the processes initialization managed by the main server according to the invention; FIG. 7B is the continuation of the flow chart of FIG. 7A; FIG. 8 is a flow chart of the task initialization managed by the main server according to the invention; FIG. 9A is the begining of a flow chart describing the task scenario process execution according to the invention; FIG. 9B is the continuation of the flow chart of FIG. 9A; FIG. 10A is the begining of a flow chart describing the processes ending managed by the main server according to the invention; FIG. 10B is the continuation of the flow chart of FIG. 10A. SPECIFICATION A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material which is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure, as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright and/or author's rights whatsoever. Additionally, the detailed description is supplemented with the following Exhibit: Exhibit A contains specific API functions, Exhibit B contains code example for tasks and task scenario process according to the invention. These Exhibits are placed apart for the purpose of clarifying the detailed description, and of enabling easier reference. They nevertheless form an integral part of the description of embodiments of the present invention. This applies to the drawings as well. Embodiments of this invention may be implemented in a network comprising computer systems, also called machines or nodes. The hardware of such computer systems is for example as shown in FIG. 1, where in the computer system N: 1 is a processor; 2 is a program memory, e.g. an EPROM for BIOS; 3 is a working memory, e.g. a RAM of any suitable technology (SDRAM, SRAM, RAM EDO or DRAM for example); and 7 is a network interface device connected to a communication medium 9, itself in communication with other computers. Network interface device 7 may be an Ethernet device, a serial line device, or an ATM device, inter alia. Medium 9 may be based on wire cables, fiber optics, or wireless-communications, for example. Data may be exchanged between the components of FIG. 1 through a bus system 8, schematically shown as a single bus for simplification of the drawing. As is known, bus systems may often include a processor bus, e.g. of the PCI type, connected via appropriate bridges to e.g. an ISA bus and/or an SCSI bus. A group of such interconnected machines defines a distributed environment and such machines share information and resources. Applications, products running on such distributed environment have to be tested in order to simulate a controlled real functioning, to detect possible errors, to validate and verify the applications or products work correctly. Developing a complex test for such distributed applications or products running on these interconnected machines implies management and synchronization of the various parts of the test that are running on different machines. Moreover, the management of such a test in a distributed environment is that much difficult since machines in a distributed environment support different architectures, e.g. different operating systems and/or hardware. The retrieval and the analysis of results of such a test are also becoming incrisingly complex in a distributed environment. Such difficulties limit the development of complex tests in distributed environment. In the following description, a computer system or machine is called node for generalization. FIG. 2 shows a distributed environment comprising an exemplary group of nodes as described in FIG. 1 and a main server according to the invention. An index i is an integer used for example for the designation Ni of a node i. An index j is an integer used for example for the designation the switch SWj managing a subnet Sj. Each node Ni, e.g. N1, N2 and N3 in FIG. 2, uses a physical link Lj-Ni, e.g. L1-N1, L1-N2 and L1-N3 in FIG. 2, to be connected to a first communication medium called subnet S1. This subnet S1 is managed by a switch SW1 in order to establish a communication between nodes Ni. For redundancy and security reasons, each node Ni may also use a physical link L2-Ni to be connected to a second communication medium called subnet S2. This subnet S2 is managed by a switch SW2 in order to establish a communication between nodes. A main server MS may be linked to each node using at least one of the physical links. FIG. 2 shows another embodiment in case a test requires that all available physical links have to be connected to provide isolated subnets. For example in this case and other cases, it is foreseen that the main server MS is linked to a subnet S3 and each node Ni is linked to this subnet via a logical link L3-Ni. A logical network interface is created on one of the physical network interfaces of each node. Nodes Ni of FIG. 2 represent a first group of nodes TB1, TB1 meaning first Test Bed. The expression Test Bed designates the group of nodes on which various parts of a test may be executed via management of the main server as described hereinafter. Other nodes of other groups (or other test beds) may be linked to the main server via the subnet S3. Declared as “trusted” remote hosts, the main server and the nodes of the Test Bed can communicate between them and access the local system as local user without the supply of a password. The main server has the permission to create processes on any nodes in the Test Bed and the nodes to access the local system of the main server. In one embodiment using a Solaris operating system, a local resource is shared through NFS (Network File System) on a server with a remote host, e.g. using a remote access command as the “mount” command of Solaris. The invention is not limited to this embodiment, other embodiments using Windows NT, Linux, UNIX or other operating systems are also possible. The main server provides a test server TS and a logging server LS. These servers may be two different servers as described hereinafter or a single server comprising the functionalities of the test and logging servers. The test server provides a framework that allows a developer to decompose a complex test in a set of tasks to monitor, to specify which tasks to be launched and on which application of which node, to monitor and synchronize tasks from the test server. Thus, the test runs on the test server and manages the execution of the tasks on different applications of different nodes. The framework supports nodes running on different operating systems. The framework is based on a framework package installed on the test server. Other explanation will forward hereinafter. In the following description, the term “task” designates a sequence of instructions defining for example a part of a test to be executed on a node. A “scenario” may be a test and comprises a set of instructions comprising the creation (also called the initialization or the launching) of the internal components in the framework and in the different nodes. the creation of the task instances (also called initialization) using the synchronization of tasks i.e. the execution conditions of tasks for different applications. the start of tasks when a specific function is called, the post mortem analysis of task results and the decision concerning the scenario result, the end of logging and the end of the scenario. In one embodiment, a scenario may be done as indicated in Exhibit B1. In this embodiment, this scenario comprises the initialization of the internal components in the framework and in the different nodes as indicated in B1-1 and B1-2. This internal components initialization will be hereinafter described in FIGS. 7A and 7B and enables respectively to manage the execution of the scenario and tasks and to log the results of the scenario and tasks; the initialization of the task instances A, B, C using the synchronization of tasks i.e. the execution conditions of tasks for different applications as indicated in B1-3. This task instance creation will be hereinafter described in FIG. 8; the start of tasks when the function defined in B1-4 is called; the post mortem analysis of task results and the decision concerning the scenario result as indicated in B1-5, the end of logging as indicated in B1-6 and the end of the scenario as indicated in B1-7. Other embodiments may be written in different coding styles and languages. The scenario may comprise other instructions as the clean-up of some tasks by the framework. During the scenario execution, the scenario may be called “scenario process”. The logging server provides functionalities to create log files for scenario and tasks, e.g. to retrieve traces of what instructions was done to arrive to some results, this can be useful for debugging. These log files may be created during the execution of a scenario as described hereinafter. FIG. 3 shows two levels in the main server according to the invention, more specifically in the test server. In these two levels, the elements of the framework package of the invention, installed on the test server, are partially defined. Other elements of the framework package will be described in FIG. 4. A package is a collection of files and directories in a main architecture, e.g. a tree architecture. The framework package installed on the test server comprises different elements such as internal components (also called framework core files), user API's, templates and development environment tools. The API level (Application Program Interface Level) comprises libraries being a set of APIs used during the running of one or several scenario processes in the test server: the synchronization API 16, the scenario API 15, the task API 14, the Database API 18, the logging API 22 and the test launcher commands 17. The framework package provides internal components to be executed at the execution level. Components, managing the execution of a scenario, are in a binary form or script in the framework package: Task manager binary 13, Node manager binary 12, Task agent binary 11, Log manager binary 23. This invention may be embodied in different ways. The entire construction of the test framework may be devoted to the test server. If so, the test server will have to use remote installation facilities existing in each node, e.g. namely “remote access daemons”, which will then be sent scripts or other similar commands from the test server. Upon receipt of such a script, the node will start a local task agent, for use in this invention. Such an embodiment of this invention is however dependant upon the existence and operation of the above discussed remote access facilities which are not or not entirely, supported by certain Operating System (OS). Another possibility is to have “node installation” packages for installation in the nodes, to develop a resident task agent when the node is (re)booted, with the task manager then just having to call and start the task agent. This embodiment is described hereinafter in more detail. Typically, the node installation comprises: an Init Daemon binary 10, called by the node manager and adapted to start the task agent, an Architecture node retrieval script, (optional) Boot time script. Once installed on a node, the Init Daemon instance is listening on a port and waits for the node manager order to launch the task agent instance as described hereinafter. The internal components as Task manager binary 13, Node manager binary 12, Task agent binary 11 and Log manager binary 23 are used, responsive to a scenario request launched by a test launcher as seen hereinafter, to be executed and to create Task manager process, Node manager instance for each node defined in the Test Bed configuration file, Task agent instance for each node in the Test Bed configuration file and Log manager process. For simplification, Task manager process, Node manager instance, Task agent instance and Log manager process are also respectively called Task manager, Node manager, Task agent and Log manager. In the case of a test server separated from a logging server, the logging server is linked to the test server in the same manner as a node of the Test Bed. Thus, the Log API 22 and the Log manager binary 23 can be shared on the test server side and, using the remote access, the Logging server accesses to the Log API 22 and the Log manager binary 23 so that the Log manager process runs on the Logging server. At the execution level, a user can create files or scripts using the templates provided by the framework package. A template provides a script or file structure comprising for example the mandatory functions for the framework to work properly. These functions are also defined in the API level. In FIG. 3, the dashed arrows symbolize that a user can use the functions of the API level to adapt the created files/script, e.g. the task API can be used to create a task. Moreover, the dashed arrows symbolize that the client may call the API level when using the corresponding services, e.g. a task instance calls the log API. The user creates tasks scripts 26 using, e.g. a task template in the framework package. A task script which is executed on a node is called a task instance. At a given instant, a task script can be executed in different task instances to test different applications on different nodes. The user creates scenario scripts 28 using e.g. a scenario template in the framework package. The user creates the property files 30 using e.g. a configuration file template in the framework package. These property files may comprise configuration files, e.g. configuration files comprising the framework configuration data, node configuration data (called Test Bed configuration files) or configuration files comprising information used in one or several determined scenarios (called Scenario configuration files). The test bed configuration files also comprise the environment information concerning the log base directory where log files will be stored (directory which may be retrieved by for the logging server using the remote access), the addresses of the test server, the address of the logging server, the port number of the test server for internal communication, the port number for the framework to communicate with the logging server. Environment information may comprise additional information. These property files may be object oriented files. The framework define class files comprising classes with attributes like java classes. These property files comprise class instances which assign to the attributes of the class their current value. A checker of the framework checks the syntinx/semantic errors in the property files. These property files support user defined classes. In the following description, the test related data comprise task information such as execution condition, node information or any other information or data related to the task synchronization in the test. As described hereinafter in FIG. 8, task information are sent from the scenario to the task manager process, the node manager instance and the task agent instance. The task manager process communicates with the node manager instances, each node manager instance communicating with a task agent instance on its node, each task agent instance communicating with a task instance. A task script 26 may be defined by a user using task APIs and task template. Exhibit B2 illustrates an example of a task structure according to the invention and comprising the different parts in a non exhaustive way: the task specific procedures comprise functions defined by the user and which may use the task API 14; in the example B2-1, the function sends two notifications “STARTED” and “FINISHED” using the task API. Other APIS provided by the framework may also be used, except the scenario API. the task initializes itself to the Task Agent instance or cleans up and exit if there is a problem (B2-2), the task blocks and waits for the Task Manager process (via the node manager instance and the task agent instance) to send a notification to start (B2-3), the task name is user defined and the user calls the HM-StartLogging function of the Logging API to create a task log file (B2-4), the task specific procedure is called and its result is analysed to determined whether the task is successful or not. The task result is sent to the Task Manager process (via the node manager instance and the task agent instance) (B2-5) and stored in the task log file and in memory, the task is blocked, waiting for the the Task Manager process (via the node manager instance and the task agent instance) to send a message to finish (B2-6) the logging services are then closed and the task stops (B2-7). The task described hereinabove is only an example of task structure. Other functions or parameters may be used, such as the type of task which may be of finite execution or of infinite execution. The task script 26 may be seen as a software code defining task and more specifically test task. Task APIs and task template may be seen as software code for a user to define task and more specifically test task. The different APIs are now described. The scenario API 15 comprises command functions to be called in the scenario to interact with the internal framework of the test server: a command function (HM-InitScenario( )) that initialises the internal components of the framework as described in the process initialization of FIGS. 7A and 7B, a command function (HM-EndScenario( )) that cleans up and close the internal components initialized with HM-InitScenario( ), a command function (HM-NotifyScenarioResult( )) that stores the result of a scenario in a log file of the logging server, a command function (HM-CheckResult( )) that returns the result of the task instance in the scenario after its execution, a command function (HM-GetResults ( )) that returns the list of the results of the task instances in the scenario after its execution, a command function (HM-CheckResults ( )) that gets the list of the results of the task instances in the scenario after its execution and checks if the list of results match a list of expected values, a command function (HM-MonitorTasks ( )) that signals to the Task Manager process that no other task information is to be registered in other synchronization command as described hereinafter and that sends a start message to the Task Manager process to begin the monitoring and the execution of the various task instances. A monitoring time-out is sent to the Task Manager process which is responsible to start and stop the task instances according to execution conditions defined hereinafter. This command function is responsible to block until a message is sent by the Task Manager process to the scenario, e.g. a message signalizing all the registered results of the task instances or a monitoring time-out error if results miss. Afterwords, new task instances may be registered and monitored if the user wishes. Other monitoring functions may be assigned to this command function according to the invention. The task API 14 comprises command functions to be in the task script and to be called in the task instance to interact with the task agent instance: a command function (HM-InitTask( )) that initializes the task instance, connects and registers the task instance to the corresponding Task agent instance, a command function (HM-EndTask( )) that closes all communication between the task instance and the corresponding Task Agent instance, a command function (HM-WaitForSignal( )) that blocks the task instance in its current state until the Task Manager process sends a message to unblock. a command function (HM-NotifyCondition(condition-tag)) that notifies a condition notification. A condition notification comprises the current execution state of the task instance, e.g two execution states may be “Started” when the task instance has started and “Finished” when the task instance has finished. Other execution states of the task instance may be defined by the user as user defined strings, also called user defined messages. This may be an “amount of bytes transferred” when the amount of bytes transferred from a file to another has been executed by a task instance. These are called user defined condition notifications. These notifications are sent by the task instance and are received by the task manager process via the task agent instance and the node manager instance. These notifications enables some of the managers to update their database and the task manager process to decide to start or stop other task instances. a command function (HM-NotifyTaskResult(result-value)) that writes the result of a task instance in an appropriated log file and sends the result to the framework. The Synchronization API 16 comprises synchronization commands, called execution conditions, which describe the execution relationships between one task instance and a set of other task instances. These synchronization commands have, as input parameters, the task and the node on which a task instance is initialized and may define an execution condition (e.g. start/stop condition) of the task relative to the execution state of another indicated task (e.g. started/finished state). When the MonitorTask( ) function is called in the scenario, a start indication (e.g. a message) is sent to the Task Manager which checks the execution conditions (synchronization commands) in its database to begin the monitoring and the execution of some task instances on nodes. Thus, these execution conditions enable the Task Manager to synchronize the execution (e.g. the start and/or the stop of the task execution) of tasks instances on different nodes of a group of nodes, e.g. according to conditions reached by other tasks, also called execution states of tasks: the synchronization command A1-1 that runs a determined task (task) on a specified node (node) with a set of parameters. This synchronization command A1-1 does not specify any relationship with other tasks. The set of parameters may comprise task parameters and context parameters, e.g. a flag defining if a task instance is created in a synchronous or asynchronous mode with a specified timeout value (sync-flag), a flag defining if the task instance currently running on a node is re-created as soon as the node is available after a scheduled node reboot (ha-flag); the synchronization command A1-2 that runs a task instance when a user wishes to schedule the start of a task (task) on a node (node) when some other tasks instances, which may be a list of tasks (taskIDList), reach some conditions, which may be a list of conditions (ConditionList), e.g. execution states of task instances. A set of parameters is also defined; the synchronization command A1-3 that runs a task instance when a user wishes a task instance (task) to start on a node (node) at the begining of a scenario and to schedule the stop of the task instance when other specified task instances (taskIDList) reach some conditions (ConditionList). A set of parameters is defined; the synchronization command A1-4 is a combination of A1-2 and A1-3. A1-4 runs a task instance when a user wishes to schedule the start of a task instance (task) on a node (node) when some other tasks instances (taskIDListStart) reach some conditions (ConditionList-Start), e.g.execution state of task instances. The task instance is running until other specified task instances (taskIDListFinish) reach some conditions (ConditionListFinish). The created task instance A1-4 performs a set of operations in an infinite loop. A set of parameters is defined; the synchronization command A1-5 that runs a task when a user wishes a task instance (task) to start on a node (node) at the beginning of a scenario and to schedule the stop of the task instance when all other task instances have finished running and declared it. A set of parameters is defined; the synchronization command A1-6 is similar to A1-2 but differs from it in the fact that the task instance, once finished, is re-initialised whenever similar conditions to start re-appears. the synchronization commands A1-7, A1-8, A1-9, A1-10 are respectively similar to A1-2, A1-3, A1-4, A1-5, A1-6 but differs from them in the fact that the start conditions, respectively end conditions (e.g. the list of conditions) that the task instances have to reach in order for a task instance to be created, respectively stopped on a node, are linked with operands such as AND, OR, NOT operands. In the command functions A1-7, A1-8, A1-9, A1-10, if there are several conditions that the task instances have to reach, these conditions are implicitely linked with an AND operand. A start complex boolean expression, respectively an end complex boolean expression (CondExpr for A1-7, A1-8, A1-9, CondExprStart and CondExprFinish for A1-10) is thus created in the command functions A1-7, A1-8, A1-9, A1-10; complex task scenario process is thus advantageously supported by the invention. The synchronization functions enables a user to define an execution condition for a task instance on a node. This execution condition is in relation with the execution state of another task instance or other task instances running on different nodes of the group. The Database API 18 comprises command functions to create and access a database. These command functions may be used by the scenario process when reading the property files. Thus, the scenario process creates a database comprising property files to be passed to the framework and the task scenario processes. As seen, these property files may be user defined and provided in the form of files, e.g. text files. They comprise node configuration files, on which task instances will be applied, and defining the task scenario configuration files. In an exemple of the invention, the property files are organized in an object oriented structure. Thus, the command functions may also provide known oriented object functions to read and/or write in the property files of the created database to update such a database. The Logging API 22 comprises command functions to create a log file (HM-StartLogging( )) for a scenario process, a task instance or any components of the main server, to close the created log file (HM-FinishLogging( )), to write information in the created log file (HM-Log( )) to retrieve the location of the created log file in a log directory structure. The logging server is adapted to use these functions in order to registered the created log files in the log directory structure 24. FIG. 4 shows the same elements as in FIG. 3 and other elements of the framework package. These elements are now described in reference with FIG. 4. The launcher 32 (or test launcher) enables a user to launch a scenario or a series of multiple scenarios in sequence, also called a scenario sequence or test campaign. This launcher is adapted to interact with the software code defined to execute functions in the scenario to start the task manager, the node managers, the task agents and to deliver test related data to the task manager. The framework package provides a template to create a campaign file 33 defining the sequence of the several scenarios to execute for example in a given order. The property files 30 define the group of nodes for the scenario sequence. The log manager may create log files, and, from them, create a summary report that can be used from a web browser. A front-end graphical unit interface (GUI) may be used to enable a user to build a scenario sequence from existing scenario elements, associated to tasks. The framework package also comprises tools for the user to compile the workspace and to create a set of test packages on the server, a package being a collection of files and directories as seen. A test package may contain elements of the framework package as the framework core files, templates, user API's, launcher command and elements built by the user as the campaign files, the scenarios and the tasks, the configuration files. The test package is preferably installed on the main server using e.g. a standard Solaris package command functions, and is reachable by nodes (e.g. with NFS, Network File System) on which task instances are to be created. In this case, the test package directory is shared by the main server and nodes. In another embodiment, the test package may be installed on each of these nodes. By building such package(s), the software product can be easily installed or transferred in another distributed environment. In other words, the framework provides tools for building (compiling) and create an architecture (directory) containing all the scenarios and related files to provide the tests as a product. Using the elements of a test package, any user defined scripts or files in the test packages may be user modified and other scripts may be created by the user. A test package may be thus framework package independant. At a given instant, several scenario processes can execute different task instances to test different applications. FIG. 5 is a logical view of the main server and its interactions with nodes of a test bed. This FIG. 5 will be described in relation with the flow-charts of FIGS. 6 to 9. Flow chart 7A, 7B, 8, 9A, 9B, 10A, 10B are build in order to facilitate the reading of such flow-chart. Using different columns, the flow-charts illustrate in which internal component the different operations are executed. In the different flow-charts, forwarding a received message may be also implemented as a transmission of a message which may comprise partially the information or data of the received message. In the flow-chart of FIG. 6, the internal components of the framework are initialized through the HM-InitScenario( ) function F1 of a launched scenario SC1 of FIG. 5. Nodes on which task instances may be created are defined in test bed configuration files, i.e. in the property files database DF of FIG. 5. At operation 700, a user starts manually the Remote Access Service (Init Daemon instance ID1 in node N1 and ID2 in node N2) on the remote nodes. At operation 702, the scenario SC1 creates a database DF in the first memory using the Database API 18 of FIG. 3 to read the test bed configuration files. The scenario process creates the Task manager process TM on the test server. It may also use a property database DF for storing environment information, like log server name, node daemon port number, nodes to be used in the test. The scenario process waits for the Task Manager to connect. At operation 704, the task manager process creates the log manager process LM on the logging server LS and gives the required information as environment information to enable the Logging server to create a log structure LST in a memory. This log structure is adapted to store log files in different directories for scenario log files, task log files or other. At operation 704, the Task Manager process TM registers itself with the log manager LM to create a Task manager log file in the log structure LST. The Task Manager connects itself with the scenario process. At operation 706, the scenario process gives node information to the Task Manager. This node information comprises node name, node architecture, node OS type, node reboot time-out using the Property database DF, task manager port number. At operation 708, the node information are received by the Task Manager process which updates its internal database DTM in creating a node record as hereinafter described in reference with FIG. 6. The Task Manager process TM creates Node Manager instances NM1, NM2 for each node N1, N2 which are in the Test Bed Configuration file and for which node information have been received. The Task Manager process also sends node information such as architecture and node reboot timeout to each Node Manager instance. The Task Manager process TM waits for all Node Manager instances NM1, NM2 to establish a connection. At operation 710, each Node Manager instance establishes a connection with the Task Manager process TM. The node manager instance NM registers itself with the log manager process LM to create a node manager log file in the log structure LST. If the creation of the task agent is a local creation, i.e. in the test server, the node manager instance (NM3) launches a local Task agent instance (TA3). If the creation of the task agent is a remote creation, i.e. in a remote node, a node manager instance (NM1, NM2) establishes a connexion with the Init Daemon instance (ID1, ID2) and sends to the Init Daemon instance environment, mount point (or communication point) and task agent information, which may be code capable of creating a task agent . Each Node Manager Instance waits for the Task agent instance to connect once done the complete initialization of the Task agent instance (TA1 in node N1; TA2 in node N2). At operation 711, the Init Daemon instance retrieves information from the node manager, sets up the environment, creates the mount point or communication point and launches the Task agent instance on the node (TA1 in node N1; TA2 in node N2). At operation 712, the task agent instance establishes a connection with the log manager process to create a task agent log file in the log structure LST. The task agent instance also establishes a connection with Node Manager instance and sends a “node-init-ok” message. At operation 714, the Node Manager instance establishes a connection with and sends an “init-OK” message to the Task Manager process. At operation 716, if all Node Manager instances have sent an “init-OK” message, the Task manager process informs the scenario process that the initialization of all internal components is done. The task Manager process sends a “complete” message to the scenario. At operation 718, the internal initialization is finished, the HM-InitScenario( ) function ends. An initialization software code is provided to execute the operation of the flow chart of FIGS. 7A, 7B and 8 upon interaction of the test launcher. FIG. 8 illustrates the task initialization according to the invention. At operation 720, the scenario process creates a message comprising task information such as the task utilities F2 of FIG. 5, this message being sends to the Task Manager process. At operation 722, responsive to reception of the task information, the Task Manager process stores the task information in its database DTM in a second memory. In the example of FIG. 6, three records are added to the node record: the task record 52, the condition record 53 and the dependency record 54. The task manager process TM sends the task information to each node manager instance which stores the task identification locally in its database and sends partially this task information to the task agent instance at operation 724. The task agent instance stores some task information locally in a task agent database DAT. It then searches all known directories in the test server to retrieve the task script to create the task instance on the node. The task agent instance uses the mounting point. The task agent is thus adapted to retrieve tasks available in the software code (e.g. task scripts) defining the tasks. If found, the task instance is creates on the node and the task agent instance waits for the task to register itself. At operation 728, the HM-InitTask ( ) function of the task API is launched on the node. The task instance is created and establishes a connection with the task agent instance on the test server using the remote access point. The task instance registers to the task agent instance signifying that the task instance waits for a “start” message, in order to start the task instance execution. At operation 730, the Task Agent instance receives the registration (rgn) message from the task instance, updates its database and sends a registration message of the task instance, e.g. forwards the registration message received from the task instance, to the node manager instance. At operation 732, the node manager instance receives the registration message and sends a registration message of the task instance to the Task Manager process, e.g. forwards the registration message received from the task agent. At operation 734, the Task Manager process receives the registration messages from node manager instances, updates its database DTM and sends a message to the scenario comprising the state of the task instances as “initialized”. At operation 738, the scenario process updates its database and returns the Task identifier (task ID) unique for a task instance and ends the task initialization. To communicate between the logging server and the task manager process, the node manager instance, the task agent instance, the scenario process and the task instances, socket-based messaging API is used. The framework of FIG. 5 comprises launcher L adapted to start and to manage a test campaign defined by several scenario processes started on the test server. The test launcher may enable a user to define the scenario processes to be launched in a test campaign and to define the test bed configuration to be used for the execution of the test campaign. The test launcher is also used to start a test and thus interacting with the initialization code for the creation of the management components and for the sending of test related data to the task manager process. The log manager LM is adapted to create log files for task results in a directory structure LST defining the test campaign comprising the scenario process results, itself comprising the task instance results. The task manager process, the node manager instance, the task agent instance, the launcher, log manager are processes managing the execution of task instances on nodes and may be seen as task management processes. First, second and third memories may be distinct memories or portions of a memory. FIG. 6 is hereinabove described in detail. Records comprise task information such as task parameters and execution condition. The task record 52 comprises the “task identifier (task ID)”, this field is the key of the record, the “task node” being the node that the task will be launched on, the “task type”, the “task name”, the “task arguments”, the “task synchronization flag” being asynchronous or synchronous, the “task time-out” the “task state” being the current state of the task (not-registered, initialised, running, rebooting, killed, exit-abnormal, timed-out, finished, not-run) the “ha aware flag” defining if the task instance is recreated if the node reboots, the “task result” being the result of the task as a list of return codes, “communication point” being the path to communicate between the task instance on the node and the logging server. The condition record 53 comprises the following records: the “task ID (condition)” defines the identification of the task that will send the condition notification message (or task state message) that the scenario is interested in, this is the key of the record, the “task ID list” defines the list of the tasks that depend upon the condition of the preceding “task ID (condition)”. The task instance will be created or stopped once the condition stored in the “condition list” below is reached. This list of task ID corresponds to the indexes to the task record 52. the “condition type” corresponds to the action to be carried out on the task when the condition(s) have been reached, e.g. to start or to stop the task, the “condition list” corresponds to the list of conditions that each task in the “Task ID list” attribute is waiting for, the “condition met flag” corresponds to a flag adapted to determine whether or not all conditions have been met for a certain task to start or to stop, the “dependency index list” corresponds to the list of indexes to the various dependency records of record 54. The dependency record 54 comprises the following records: the “dependency index” corresponds to the index number of the dependency record, i.e. the key to the record, the “task ID list (condition)” corresponds to the list of conditions that are dependent upon each other, the “dependency number” corresponds to the number of conditions that have to be met, the “current number of dependencies met” corresponds to the number of conditions already met, the “regular expression string” corresponds to the string holding the regular expression describing the relationship between all the condition records, e.g. boolean expression as seen. The node record 50 comprises the following records: the “node name” corresponds to the key of the node record; there is one node record for every node used by the scenario, the “task ID list” corresponds to the task IDs that are to be run on the node during the scenario, the “node state” corresponds to the current node state and may have the different values, e.g. node-stopped, node-rebooting, node-running, node-scheduled-to-reboot, the “node architecture” corresponds to a string that define the hardware type, sender type, Operating system type, e.g. sparc-sun-solaris the node “OS type” the “node reboot time-out” corresponds to the time-out value associated to the maximum time allowed for the node to reboot, the “communication point” corresponds to the path to communicate between the node and the test server. FIG. 9A and 9B illustrates the scenario process execution following the internal components and task initialization of FIGS. 7A, 7B and 8. At operation 740, the HM-MonitorTasks( ) function F3 of FIG. 5 in the scenario process is called. The scenario process sends to the task manager process a “start” message (e.g. a “notify start task” indication) and a monitoring time-out to start along with the scenario process to be executed. The scenario process waits for results and state messages from the task manager process. At operation 741, the task manager process receives the “start” message from the scenario process. It refers to its database DTM and gets the task to be started according to the executions conditions stored in the condition record. The task manager process sends a message indicating to start, e.g. forwards the “start” message, or a user defined string, to the appropriated node manager instance(s) and begins a timer to monitor the monitoring time-out. At operation 742, the node manager instance receives the message indicating to start and sends another message indicating to start, e.g. forwards the message received from the task manager process, to the corresponding Task agent instance. At operation 743, the task agent instance receives the message and sends a message indicating to start to the correct task instance in the node, e.g. forwards the message received from the node manager instance. At operation 744, the task instances unblocks and connects to the logging server if required. Using the HM-Notify-condition( ) function of the task API, it sends a condition notification message (e.g. a state message) comprising the execution state “started” of the task instance to the task agent. At operation 745, the task instance executes user defined task code. At operation 746, the task agent instance receives the “started” state message and registered it with the task time-out. The “started” state message is sent to the node manager instance. At operation 747, the node manager instance updates its database and sends the “started” state message to the task manager process. At operation 748, the task manager process updates its database and sends a “started” state message to the scenario process. Then, it searches in its database if execution conditions of some tasks are fullfilled with the execution state “started” of the task instance. In this case, the task instance(s), for which the execution condition(s) is (are) fullfilled, is (are) started/stopped. As seen, the execution condition comprises stop execution condition and start execution condition. These execution conditions are defined in the HM-run( ) function for the task. For each task instance to be started, the flow-chart continues at operation 741, for each task instance to be stopped, the flow-chart continues at operation 751. For the task to be stopped, these are the tasks executed in an infinite loop and waiting for a task stop to stop their execution. The other task executed in a finite loop stops at the end of their execution. For these tasks, flow-chart continues at operation 755. At operation 751, the task manager process sends a “stop” message (e.g. a “notify stop task” message) for each task to be stopped to the relevant Node manager instances. At operation 752, the node manager instances receive the “stop” message and forwards it to the task agent instance on the corresponding node using the remote access. At operation 753, each task agent instance receive the “stop” message and sends it to the correct task instance. At operation 754, the task instance receives the message and continues at operation 755. At operation 755, the task ends and sends a task state notification message “finished” and a result message to the task agent instance. The task instance is also blocked in a waiting state to be executed again or to definitely finish. At operation 756, the task agent instance receives the “finished” state message and the result message and forwards the messages to the node manager instance. The task agent instance cancels the task time-out. At operation 757, the node manager instance receives the “finished” state message and the result message and forwards the messages to the task manager process. The node manager instance deletes the task information from the database. At operation 758, the task manager process receives the “finished” state message and the result message and forwards the messages to the scenario process. The task manager process updates its database. Then, it searches in its database if execution conditions of some tasks are fullfilled with the execution state “finished” of the task instance. As in operation 748, for each task instance to be started, the flow-chart continues at operation 741, for each task instance to be stopped, the flow-chart continues at operation 751. Operation 741 to 748 and operation 751 to 758 can be executed in parallel for different task instances and if execution conditions of task are fullfilled according to other task execution state(s). To monitor the execution conditions, the condition record and the dependency record of FIG. 6 are used and updated by the task manager process. At operation 760, the task manager process has received all results from all tasks. In this case, it sends a “monitor stop” to the scenario to stop the monitor function. The monitoring time-out is canceled. At operation 761, the scenario process receives the “monitor stop” message and the call of the HM-monitorTasks( ) function is over. The scenario process analyses the task results sent by the task manager process. Thus, the scenario process comprises a function to receive and analyze the task results in order to provide the test result. Obtained results are compared to expected results after operation 758. In case of a monitoring time-out, if the monitoring time-out is reached before all task results were received by the task manager process, a time-out error message is sent to the scenario process. The role of the task agent during the task execution of FIG. 9A and 9B i.e. once the task has started on the node. At operation 746, the task agent receives a “started” condition (i.e. a task state message) from the task, the task state message “started” specifying in this case that the execution of the task has just started on the node. The task agent registers the task time-out for the task. If the task time-out is reached before the task state message specifying “finished” is received by the task agent from the task, then the task agent sends an error message to the node manager instance (not shown in FIG. 9B). Else, responsive to the “finished” task state message, the task agent deletes the task time-out and closes communication between the task agent and the task at operation 756. The node manager process sends an error message to the task manager process which updates its internal database for this task instance with this error message for example. Moreover, the node manager instance monitors the node state changes, e.g. the reboot of the node. If a node reboots, the node manager instance detects this node state change and sends a node state change message to the task manager process which updates its internal database. According to the task information of its internal database, and particularly according to the ha aware flag parameter in the execution condition, the node manager instance recreates a task agent on the rebooted node. The task agent also recreates the task instance. In the hereinabove description, other task state messages may be used according to the invention, such as user defined messages. Concerning the log manager process once initialized, the task manager process, the node manager process, the task agent process register with the log manager process. The scenario, the tasks register wtih the log manager process using the logging API as seen. The internal communication with the log manager process may use socket-base messaging. Once registered, the task manager process, the node manager process, the task agent process send logging message to the log manager. The Logging server is a mean to retrieve and to store scenario and task results and component information of the test server. Other means retrieving results may also be used according to the invention. Moreover, operations in the flow chart concerning the logging server and its use may be optional. FIGS. 10A and 10B represent a flow-chart illustrating the end of the scenario. At operation 770, the scenario process finishes the logging. It then sends an end scenario message to and closes communication paths with the task manager (TM). At operation 772, the Task manager (TM) receives the end scenario message and sends an end scenario message to each node manager instance (NM). It also cleans up the internal records in its database DTM, closes the communication paths with the node managers and finishes the task manager logging. At operation 774, node manager instances receive the end scenario messages. If the task agent managed by a node manager instance is in the test server (local), the node manager instance sends directly an end message to the task agent. If the task agent managed by a node manager instance is in a remote node, and in case of an Init daemon instance in this node, the node manager instance connects to the Init Daemon instance and sends to it an end scenario message before disconnects from it. The node manager instance cleans up its internal records, closes the communication paths with the task agent instance. It also finishes the node manager logging. At operation 776, the Init Daemon instance receives an end scenario message from the node manager instance and sends an end scenario message to the task agent instance on the node. At operation 778, the task agent instance receives the message, cleans up its internal records, ensures that no tasks are running and finishes the Task agent logging. The scenario process is thus finished at operation 780. As an example only, flow-charts of FIGS. 7A, 7B and of FIGS. 10A and 10B illustrate the use of a Init Daemon instance as a remote access service. As seen, this Init Daemon instance is optional if the operating system on the node supports a remote access service. In this case, in FIG. 7A, the node manager instance establishes a connexion with the node using the remote access service and creating the mount point. The node manager instance then copies the task agent script on the remote node and sends a command to start the script which creates the corresponding task agent instance. The communication between the node manager instance and the task instance is enabled. Advantageously, the invention is a task execution system providing management components in order to manage a simple or complex synchronization of tasks on different nodes of a node group. Moreover, the task execution system of the invention provides tools to build task scenario process defining the complex synchronization of tasks. This invention also encompasses embodiments in software code, especially when made available on any appropriate computer-readable medium. The expression “computer-readable medium” includes a storage medium such as magnetic or optic, as well as a transmission medium such as a digital or analog signal. The invention covers a software product comprising the code for use in the task execution system. The invention is not limited to the hereinabove features of the description. Exhibit A A1 Synchronization API A1-1 HM-Run (node, task, task-args, sync-flag, ha-flag) A1-2 HM-RunWhen (taskIDList, ConditionList, node, task, task-args, ha-flag) A1-3 HM-RunUntil (node, task, task-args, taskIDList, ConditionList, ha-flag) A1-4 HM-RunWhenUntil (TaskIDListStart, conditionListStart, node, task, task-args, TaskIDListFinish, conditionListFinish, ha-flag) A1-5 HM-RunUntilLast (node, task, task-args, ha-flag) A1-6 HM-RunWhenever (taskIDList, ConditionList, node, task, task-args, ha-flag) A1-7 HM-BRunWhen (condExpr, node, task, task-args, ha-flag) A1-8 HM-BRunUntil (node, task, task-args, condExpr, ha-flag) A1-9 HM-BRunWhenUntil (condExprStart, node, task, task-args, condExprFinish, ha-flag) A1-10 HM-RunWhenever (condExpr, node, task, task-args, ha-flag) Exhibit B B1 Scenario Example B1-1 Scenario Initialization B1-1 Scenario Initialization Set result [ HM-InitScenario ] If {$result == −1 } { HM-NotifyScenarioResult “Unresolved” HM-EndScenario } B1-2 Start Logging set scenarioName “Scenario1” HM-StartLogging “Scenario1” B1-3 Initialization of tasks to be run using synchronization API HM-Run(Node 1, A) HM-Run(Node 2, B) HM-RunWhen(B=FINISHED, Node 3, C) B1-4 Start of tasks HM-MonitorTasks( ) B1-5 Scenario result HM-NotifyScenarioResult “passed” B1-6 Finish Logging HM-FinishLogging B1-7 End Scenario HM-EndScenario B2 Task Example B2-1 Task specific procedures proc <FunctionName> { } { HM-NotifyCondition “STARTED” HM-NotifyCondition “FINISHED” return 0 } B2-2 Task Initialization set taskName “task1” set result [HM-InitTask] if { $result == −1 } { HM-Log “error” “initializing function $taskname” HM-notifyTaskResult “UNRESOLVED” HM-Endtask B2-3 Block Waiting for the signal to begin Set ProcID [HM-WaitForSignal] B2-4 Start Logging HM-StartLogging “Task” $taskName $procID B2-5 User specific part set result [ <functionName> ] if { $result == −1 } { HM-NotifyTaskResult “FAILED” } else { HM-NotifyTaskResult “PASSED” } B2-6 Block waiting for the signal to finish HM-WaitForSignal B2-7 Stop Logging HM-FinishLogging HM-EndTask | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The invention relates to the testing of applications or products, more particularly that run in a distributed environment. A distributed environment comprises a group of interconnected machines, also called nodes, that share information and resources. Applications or products using such an environment have to be tested in order to simulate a controlled real functioning, to detect possible errors and to validate and verify such products or applications. To test these applications or products on a single machine, a test may be developed as known. Development and management of such a test is quite easy as it runs on a single machine and operating system. On the contrary, developing a distributed test on such environment is becoming incrisingly difficult for the developer to manage and synchronize the various parts of the test that are running on the distributed environment. Moreover, the development of such a test in a distributed environment is made more difficult since machines in a distributed environment support different architectures, e.g. different operating systems, hardware and so on. Such difficulties limit the development of a complex test in distributed environment. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The invention concerns a testing framework that comprises a first computer system adapted for communication with nodes in a distributed node environment, first code, capable of creating a task manager, second code, capable for defining tasks, including test tasks, third code, capable of creating a task agent, test related data, a test launcher capable of interacting with said first code for starting a task manager in said first computer system, of delivering test related data to said task manager, and, upon the sending of the third code to remote nodes, capable of requesting the starting of one or more task agents on said remote nodes, the task manager responding to the test related data for providing said one or more task agents with said test related data, said one or more task agents responding to said test related data for retrieving respective tasks available in the second code, said task manager being capable of thereafter monitoring the execution of such tasks. The invention also concerns a testing method executable on a first computer system, adapted for communication with nodes in a distributed node environment, comprising: a. creating in said first computer system a task manager, b. sending code for creation of task agent to remote nodes, and requesting the starting of one or more task agents on said remote nodes, c. delivering test related data to said task manager which provides said one or more task agents with said data, d. retrieving, by said one or more task agents, respective tasks responsive to said test related data, and e. monitoring the execution of such tasks. Other features will be found in the claims appended to this specification. | 20040614 | 20100420 | 20050127 | 58787.0 | 0 | AFOLABI, MARK O | TESTING FRAMEWORK FOR COMMUNICATION IN A DISTRIBUTED ENVIRONMENT | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,867,304 | ACCEPTED | Apparatus and methods for self-powered communication and sensor network | A measurement and communication system for use with a tubular string, comprises a tubular string having a plurality of self-powered, autonomous telemetry stations disposed at predetermined locations along the tubular string. Each autonomous telemetry station is adapted to receive at least one first signal and transmit at least one second signal related to the at least one first signal. Power is extracted from potential energy sources proximate each autonomous telemetry station. A method of communicating information along a tubular string comprises, disposing an autonomous telemetry station at predetermined locations along the tubular string. A preferred transmission path is autonomously determined at each of the autonomous telemetry stations. Information is transmitted along the tubular string according to the autonomously determined preferred path. | 1. A communication system for use with a jointed tubular, comprising: a tubular string, said tubular string having a plurality of sections connected by a plurality of connection joints; and an autonomous telemetry station disposed proximate each of said plurality of connection joints, said autonomous telemetry station adapted to receive a first signal and transmit a second signal related to said first signal. 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the autonomous telemetry station comprises: a receiver for receiving said first signal; a transmitter for transmitting said second signal; a controller having a processor and a memory, said controller acting according to programmed instructions to control said receiver and said transmitter according to a predetermined protocol; and a power source for supplying power to said autonomous telemetry station. 3. The system of claim 2, wherein the power source is adapted to extract energy from a downhole potential energy source proximate to said autonomous telemetry station. 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the downhole potential energy source comprises a fluid flowing in said tubular string. 5. The system of claim 3, wherein the downhole potential energy source comprises vibrational movement of said tubular string. 6. The system of claim 2, wherein the power source comprises at least one of (i) a piezoelectric element, (ii) a microturbine generator, (iii) a galvanic cell, (iv) a magneto-hydrodynamic generator, (v) an eccentric mass generator, (vi) a rolling ball generator, (vii) an electric battery, (viii) a thermoelectric generator, and (ix) a fuel cell. 7. The system of claim 4, wherein the power source comprises a piezoelectric element. 8. The system of claim 7, further comprising a protuberance inserted in said flowing fluid wherein said protuberance causes turbulent eddies in said flowing fluid, said turbulent eddies interacting with said piezoelectric element to generate electrical power. 9. The system of claim 8, wherein the piezoelectric element is embedded in an extension tube disposed a predetermined distance in said tubular string. 10. The system of claim 8, wherein the piezoelectric element is a piezo-polymer film attached along at least a portion of an extension tube wherein said extension tube is disposed in said tubular string. 11. The system of claim 8, wherein the piezoelectric element comprises a plurality of piezo-polymer film streamer elements adapted to flutter in the flowing fluid for generating power. 12. The system of claim 2, further comprising an extension tube connected to said autonomous telemetry station, said extension tube extending a predetermined distance along a section of the tubular string. 13. The system of claim 12, further comprising a conductor embedded in said extension tube. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the conductor is at least one of (i) an electrical conductor, (ii) an acoustical conductor, and (iii) an optical conductor. 15. The system of claim 12, wherein the extension tube is made from an elastomer material 16. The system of claim 12, wherein the extension tube is made from an expandable material selected from the group consisting of (i) a plastic, (ii) a fiber-reinforced composite, and (iii) a metal. 17. The system of claim 2, wherein the receiver and the transmitter are adapted to communicate using at least one of (i) an acoustic transmission, (ii) a radio frequency transmission, (iii) a low frequency electromagnetic transmission, (iv) an optical transmission, (v) an inductive back reflectance transmission. 18. The system of claim 1, wherein the autonomous telemetry station is a substantially torus shape and has a predetermined compliance such that said autonomous telemetry station is captured in each connection during assembly. 19. The system of claim 2, wherein each autonomous telemetry station has a unique communication address. 20. The system of claim 2, further comprising a downhole tool and a surface controller. 21. The system of claim 20, wherein the downhole tool is chosen from the group consisting of (i) a measurement while drilling tool, and (ii) a logging while drilling tool. 22. The system of claim 2, wherein each of the autonomous telemetry stations at each of the plurality of connections in the tubular string acts according to programmed instructions to adaptively determine an acceptable communication path. 23. The system of claim 2, wherein the autonomous telemetry station comprises a plurality of autonomous telemetry stations, each of said autonomous telemetry stations at a connection providing a separate communication channel according to a predetermined protocol. 24. The system of claim 23, wherein the predetermined protocol directs each of the autonomous telemetry modules to transmit one of (i) an independent data stream, (ii) a redundant data stream, and (iii) multiple channels for a single data stream. 25. The system of claim 2, further comprising a first sensor in said autonomous telemetry station for detecting a first parameter of interest. 26. The system of claim 25, wherein the first parameter of interest is one of (i) a pressure sensor for measuring pressure of a flowing fluid inside the tubular string; (ii) a pressure sensor for measuring pressure of a flowing fluid outside the tubular string; (iii) a temperature sensor for measuring drill string temperatures; (iv) a vibration sensor for measuring local drill string vibration; (v) a sensor for measuring power source voltage; (vi) a sensor for measuring strain in the tubular string proximate the autonomous telemetry station; and (vii) a sensor for measuring a parameter of interest of a formation surrounding the borehole. 27. The system of claim 1, wherein the tubular string comprises at least one of (i) a drill string; (ii) a casing string; (iii) a production tubing string; (iii) a water well; (iv) a pipeline; (v) an injection well; and (vi) a monitoring well. 28. The system of claim 2, further comprising a waveguide attached to and extending substantially the length of each tubular section. 29. The system of claim 28, wherein the waveguide is an optical waveguide. 30. The system of claim 29, wherein the autonomous telemetry station further comprises an optical coupling material at least partially surrounding said autonomous telemetry station, and wherein said optical coupling material optically couples the optical waveguide on both sides of the autonomous telemetry station. 31. The system of claim 30, wherein the optical coupling material is transparent. 32. The system of claim 31, wherein the optical coupling material has a reflective material embedded therein. 33. The system of claim 30, wherein the optical coupling material is translucent. 34. The system of claim 30, wherein the optical coupling material is a viscous gel material. 35. The system of claim 28, wherein at least a portion of the waveguide comprises a magnetic material for adhering said waveguide to an internal diameter of the tubular section. 36. The system of claim 2, further comprising an instrumented sub disposed between at least two of said plurality of sections, said instrumented sub comprising a second sensor for detecting at least one second parameter of interest. 37. The system of claim 36, wherein the second sensor comprises at least one of (i) a pressure sensor, (ii) a temperature sensor, (iii) a strain sensor, (iv) a chemical species sensor, (v) a fluid resistivity sensor, and (vi) a fluid flow sensor. 38. The system of claim 30, further comprising an optical fiber providing a redundant transmission path. 39. The system of claim 15, wherein the extension tube has a relaxed outer diameter greater than an inner diameter of the tubular section. 40. The system of claim 39, wherein the extension tube is stretched a predetermined amount to reduce the outer diameter of the extension tube to allow installation of said extension tube in said tubular section. 41. A method for communicating along a jointed tubular in a borehole, comprising: extending a tubular string in the borehole, said tubular string having a plurality of sections connected by a plurality of connection joints; and disposing an autonomous telemetry station proximate each of said plurality of connection joints, said autonomous telemetry station adapted to receive a first signal and transmit a second signal related to said first signal. 42. The method of claim 41, wherein the autonomous telemetry station comprises: a receiver for receiving said at least one first signal; a transmitter for transmitting said at least one second signal; a controller having a processor and a memory, said controller acting according to programmed instructions to control said receiver and said transmitter according to a predetermined protocol; and a power source for supplying power to said autonomous telemetry station. 43. The method of claim 41, wherein the power source is adapted to extract energy from a downhole potential energy source proximate to said autonomous telemetry station. 44. The method of claim 43, wherein the downhole potential energy source comprises a fluid flowing in said tubular string. 45. The method of claim 43, wherein the downhole potential energy source comprises vibrational movement of said tubular string. 46. The method of claim 42, wherein the power source comprises at least one of (i) a piezoelectric element, (ii) a microturbine generator, (iii) a galvanic cell, (iv) a magneto-hydrodynamic generator, (v) an eccentric mass generator, (vi) a rolling ball generator, (vii) an electrical battery, (viii) a thermoelectric generator, and (ix) a micro fuel cell. 47. The method of claim 44, wherein the power source comprises a piezoelectric element. 48. The method of claim 47, further comprising a protuberance inserted in said flowing fluid wherein said protuberance causes turbulent eddies in said flowing fluid, said turbulent eddies interacting with said piezoelectric element to generate electrical power. 49. The method of claim 48, wherein the piezoelectric element is embedded in an extension tube disposed a predetermined distance in said tubular string. 50. The method of claim 48, wherein the piezoelectric element is a piezo-polymer film attached along at least a portion of an extension tube wherein said extension tube is disposed in said tubular string. 51. The method of claim 48, wherein the piezoelectric element comprises a plurality of piezo-polymer film streamer elements adapted to flutter in the flowing fluid for generating power. 52. The method of claim 42, further comprising an extension tube connected to said autonomous telemetry station, said extension tube extending a predetermined distance along a section of the tubular string. 53. The method of claim 52, further comprising a conductor embedded in said extension tube. 54. The method of claim 53, wherein the conductor is at least one of (i) an electrical conductor, (ii) an acoustical conductor, and (iii) an optical conductor. 55. The method of claim 52, wherein the extension tube is made from an elastomer material 56. The method of claim 52, wherein the extension tube is made from a plastic material. 57. The method of claim 42, wherein the receiver and the transmitter are adapted to communicate using at least one of (i) an acoustic transmission, (ii) a radio frequency transmission, (iii) a low frequency electromagnetic transmission, (iv) an optical transmission, (v) an inductive back reflectance transmission. 58. The method of claim 41, wherein the autonomous telemetry station is substantially torus shape and has a predetermined compliance such that said autonomous telemetry station is captured in each connection during assembly. 59. The method of claim 42, wherein each autonomous telemetry station has a unique communication address. 60. The method of claim 42, further comprising a downhole tool and a surface controller. 61. The method of claim 60, wherein the downhole tool is chosen from the group consisting of (i) a measurement while drilling tool, and (ii) a logging while drilling tool. 62. The method of claim 42, wherein each of the autonomous telemetry stations at each of the plurality of connections in the tubular string acts according to programmed instructions to adaptively determine which autonomous stations provide an acceptable data path. 63. The method of claim 42, wherein the autonomous telemetry station comprises a plurality of autonomous telemetry stations, each of said autonomous telemetry stations at a connection providing a separate communication channel according to a predetermined protocol. 64. The method of claim 63, wherein the predetermined protocol directs each of the autonomous telemetry modules to transmit one of (i) an independent data stream, (ii) a redundant data stream, and (iii) multiple channels for a single data stream. 65. The method of claim 42, further comprising a sensor in said autonomous telemetry station for detecting a parameter of interest. 66. The method of claim 65, wherein the parameter of interest is one of (i) a pressure sensor for measuring pressure of a flowing fluid inside the tubular string; (ii) a pressure sensor for measuring pressure of a flowing fluid outside the tubular string; (iii) a temperature sensor for measuring drill string temperatures; (iv) a vibration sensor for measuring local drill string vibration; (v) a sensor for measuring power source voltage; (vi) a sensor for measuring strain in the tubular string proximate the autonomous telemetry station; and (vii) a sensor for measuring a parameter of interest of a formation surrounding the borehole. 67. The method of claim 41, wherein the tubular string comprises at least one of (i) a drill string; (ii) a casing string; (iii) a production tubing string; (iii) a water well; and (iv) a pipeline. 68. The method of claim 42, further comprising a waveguide attached to and extending substantially the length of each tubular section. 69. The method of claim 68, wherein the waveguide is an optical waveguide. 70. The method of claim 69, wherein the autonomous telemetry station further comprises an optical coupling at least partially surrounding said autonomous telemetry station, and wherein said optical coupling material optically couples the optical waveguide on both sides of the autonomous telemetry station. 71. The method of claim 70, wherein the optical coupling material is one of translucent and transparent. 72. The method of claim 70, wherein the optical coupling material has reflective material embedded therein. 73. The method of claim 70, wherein the optical coupling material is a viscous gel material. 74. The method of claim 55, wherein the extension tube has a relaxed outer diameter greater than an inner diameter of the tubular section. 75. The method of claim 74, stretching the extension tube a predetermined amount to reduce the outer diameter of the extension tube and allow installation of said extension tube in said tubular section. 76. A method for determining a drilling parameter distribution along a drilling tubular in a wellbore, comprising; extending a tubular string in the borehole, said tubular string having a plurality of sections connected by a plurality of connection joints; disposing an autonomous telemetry station proximate each of said plurality of connection joints, said autonomous telemetry station adapted to receive a first signal and transmit a second signal related to said first signal, said autonomous telemetry station having a sensor for detecting a drilling parameter proximate said autonomous telemetry station; detecting the drilling parameter at each autonomous telemetry station; and transmitting said drilling parameter to a surface processor for use by a drilling operator. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the drilling parameter is one of (i) drag on the drilling tubular; (ii) torque on the drilling tubular; (iii) drilling vibration level of the drilling tubular; (iv) drilling whirl of the drilling tubular; (v) annular drilling fluid pressure; (vi) annular drilling fluid temperature; and (vii) drilling fluid equivalent circulating density. 78. A communication system for use with a jointed tubular, comprising: a tubular string, said tubular string having a plurality of sections connected by a plurality of connection joints; an autonomous telemetry station disposed proximate each of said plurality of connection joints, said autonomous telemetry station adapted to receive a first signal and transmit a second signal related to said first signal; and a power source for supplying power to said autonomous telemetry station, wherein the power source is adapted to extract energy from a downhole potential energy source proximate to said autonomous telemetry station. 79. The system of claim 78, wherein the downhole potential energy source comprises a fluid flowing in said tubular string. 80. The system of claim 79, wherein the downhole potential energy source comprises vibrational movement of said tubular string. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/478,237, filed Jun. 13, 2003, and of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/491,567, filed Jul. 31, 2003. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT Not applicable BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to transmission of information along a tubular string, and more particularly to a system of autonomous telemetry stations positioned along the tubular string for low-power, adaptive communication and measurement. 2. Description of the Related Art The oilfield industry currently uses two extremes of communication within wellbores. The classification of these two extremes relate to the timing of the wellbore construction, typically during the wellbore construction and after construction during the operation of the wellbore for production of hydrocarbons. During the drilling and completion phases, communication is accomplished using a form of mud pulse telemetry commonly utilized within measurement while drilling (MWD) systems. Alternative methods of telemetry, such as low frequency electromagnetic and acoustics, have been investigated and found to be of limited or specialized use. In general MWD telemetry is bound by the speed of sound and the viscous properties in the drilling fluid, thus data rates for mud pulse telemetry seldom exceed 10 bits per second. An increase in the number and complexity of downhole sensors in MWD systems has increased the need for higher data rates for the telemetry link. Also, introduction of rotary closed loop steering systems has increased the need for bi-directional telemetry from the top to the bottom of the well. Industry efforts to develop high data rate telemetry have included methods to incorporate fiber optic or wire technology into the drillstring, transmitting acoustic signals through the drill string, and transmitting electromagnetic signals through the earth surrounding the drill string. U.S. Pat. No. 4,095,865 to Denison, et al, describes sections of drill pipe, pre-wired with an electrical conductor, however each section of pipe is specially fabricated and difficult and expensive to maintain. Acoustic systems suffer from attenuation and filtering effects caused by reflections at each drill joint connection. Attempts have been made to predict the filtering effects, for example see U.S. Pat. No. 5,477,505 to Drumheller. In most such techniques, signal boosters or repeaters are required on the order of every 1000 feet. To date, the only practical and commercial method of MWD telemetry is modulation of mud flow and pressure with it's relatively slow data rate. Once a well is drilled and completed, special sensors and control devices are commonly installed to assist in operation of the well. These devices historically have been individually controlled or monitored by dedicated lines. These controls were initially hydraulically operated valves (e.g. subsurface safety valves) or were sliding sleeves operated by shifting tools physically run in on a special wireline to shift the sleeve, as needed. The next evolution in downhole sensing and control was moving from hydraulic to electric cabling permanently mounted in the wellbore and communicating back to surface control and reporting units. Initially, these control lines provided both power and data/command between downhole and the surface. With advances in sensor technology, the ability to multiplex along wires now allows multiple sensors to be used along a single wire path. The industry has begun to use fiber optic transmission lines in place of traditional electric wire for data communication. A common element of these well operation sensors and devices is the sending of power and information along the installed telemetry path. The telemetry path is typically installed in long lengths across multiple sections of jointed tubular. Thus, the installation of the telemetry path is required after major tubulars are installed in the well. The devices along the telemetry path must comply with a common interface and power specification. Any malfunction in the line puts the power transmission and communication in jeopardy. Thus, there is a demonstrated need for higher data rate telemetry systems with bi-directional transmission capability that are less susceptible to communication and power interruptions for use with jointed tubulars. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect of the present invention, a measurement and communication system for use with a tubular string, comprises a plurality of spaced apart, autonomous telemetry stations disposed at predetermined locations along the tubular string. Power is extracted from potential energy sources proximate each autonomous telemetry station. Each of the plurality of autonomous telemetry stations is adapted to receive at least one first signal and transmit at least one second signal related to the at least one first signal. In another aspect, a method of communicating information along a tubular string comprises disposing a plurality of spaced apart, autonomous telemetry stations at predetermined locations along the tubular string. A preferred transmission path is autonomously determined at each of the autonomous telemetry stations. Information is transmitted along the tubular string according to the autonomously determined preferred path. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For detailed understanding of the present invention, references should be made to the following detailed description of the preferred embodiment, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like elements have been given like numerals, wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing of a drilling system having a jointed tubular string in a borehole according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a schematic drawing of a jointed connection having an autonomous telemetry station disposed therein, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is an electrical schematic of a circuit for providing power from a piezoelectric device, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a schematic drawing of a galvanic power source, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a schematic drawing of an autonomous telemetry station having an extension sleeve extending into an adjacent section of drill string, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a schematic drawing of an autonomous telemetry station having an extension sleeve extending substantially the length of a section of drill string, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a schematic drawing of method of expanding a sleeve into a section of drill string, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 8A,B are schematic drawings of a method of installing an elastic sleeve into a section of drill string, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a schematic of multiple transmission paths along a jointed tubular string, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 10A,B are schematic drawings of an autonomous telemetry station having a plurality of telemetry modules therein, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 11A,B are schematic drawings of a piezoelectric power generator according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 12A-D are schematic drawings of waveguide devices for use with the present invention; FIG. 13 is a schematic drawing depicting a magneto-hydrodynamic power generator for use as a power source according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a schematic drawing of an eccentric mass generator for use in an autonomous telemetry station according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 15A,B are schematic drawings of a rolling ball generator for use in an autonomous telemetry station according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 16A,B are schematic drawings of a section of drill string having a waveguide attached thereto, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 17A,B are schematic drawings of a micro turbine generator in a drill string, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 18 is a schematic drawing of a micro turbine generator supplying power to multiple autonomous telemetry stations, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 19 is a schematic drawing of a galvanic power source utilizing the drill string section as a cathode, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 20 is a schematic drawing of a galvanic cell having anode and cathode electrically insulated from the drill string section, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 21 is a schematic drawing of an instrumented sub inserted in a drill string, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 22A-C are schematic drawings of an optical communication system, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 23 is a schematic drawing showing a system for detecting multi-phase flow in a wellbore, according to an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 24 is a schematic drawing of a system for creating flow eddies and generating power therefrom, according to an embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In one preferred embodiment, see FIG. 1, and described herein as an example and not as a limitation, a drilling operation has a conventional derrick 10 for supporting a drill string 3 in a borehole 2, also called a wellbore. Drill string 3 comprises multiple sections of drill pipe 1 connected together by threaded connections 4. A bottomhole assembly 9 is attached to the bottom end of drill string 3 and has a drill bit 8 attached to a bottom end thereof. Drill bit 8 is rotated to drill through the earth formations. Bottom hole assembly 9 comprises multiple sections of drill collars 6 and may have a measurement while drilling (MWD) system 7 attached therein, above bit 8. Drill collar sections 6 and MWD system 7 are connected through threaded connections 5. Measurement while drilling and/or logging while drilling (LWD) systems are well known in the art. Such systems commonly measure a number of parameters of interest regarding the drilling operation, the formations, surrounding the borehole 2 and the position and direction of the drill bit 8 in the borehole 2. Such systems may include downhole processors (not shown) to provide open or closed loop control, in conjunction with a steerable system (not shown), of the borehole 2 path toward a predetermined target in the subterranean formations. Drilling fluid 11, commonly called drilling mud, is pumped by pump 16 through the drill string 3, exits the bit 8, and returns back to the surface in the annulus 12 between drill string 3 and borehole 2. Drilling flow rates may commonly range from the order of 100 gpm to in excess of 1000 gpm, depending, at least to some extent, on the borehole size and the ability of the fluid to remove the cuttings from the borehole. The potential energy in the drilling fluid flowing through the drill string is typically well in excess of 100 kilowatts. Located at each of the threaded connections 4 and 5 is an autonomous telemetry station (ATS) 20, see FIG. 2, located between internal shoulders of the pin section 21 and the box section 22 making up the threaded connection 4 of two sections of drill pipe 1. ATS 20 is a torus, or donut, shaped ring captured by the pin shoulder, also called pin nose, 46 and the boreback box shoulder 47. In one preferred embodiment, ATS 20 comprises a signal receiver 25, a signal transmitter 23, a controller 24, and a power source (not shown). ATS 20 may also contain sensors (not shown) for measuring parameters of interest related to the drilling process and the formations surrounding the borehole 2. The components of ATS 20 may be encapsulated in a suitable compliant material, for example an elastomer, such that ATS 20 is compressed a predetermined amount between the pin nose 46 and boreback shoulder 47 and may be installed in the field during the makeup of each connection. Suitable elastomers are known in the art and are commonly used for submerged acoustic transducers. By locating an ATS 20 at each threaded joint 4,5, signals communicated along the drill string 3 need only have sufficient strength to travel between each ATS 20, or between antennas connected to each ATS as described later. The attenuation and interference associated with transmitting signals across multiple connections is no longer a limiting factor. Therefore, low power transmissions are suitable for communicating signals containing substantially increased data rates over the length of the drill string 3. ATS 20 operates on power levels on the order of tens of milliwatts to a few watts as contrasted to conventional downhole telemetry systems that operate on tens to hundreds of watts. As shown in FIG. 2, an acoustic signal 26 travels through a section of drill string 1a toward connection 4. The signal is transmitted from the section of drill string 1a to the receiver 25 in ATS 20. ATS 20 processes the signal and retransmits the signal using transmitter 23 into the next section of drill string 1b. The process is repeated at each connection in drill string 3 and is detected by a surface located transceiver 30 attached to surface controller 15, see FIG. 1. Similarly, signals may be transmitted from the surface system to a downhole ATS 20 and/or to MWD system 7 in FIG. 1, and/or between multiple ATS devices. The receiver 25 and the transmitter 23 may be piezoelectric devices that are well known in the art. Such devices may be adapted to act interchangeably as receiver or transmitter to enable bi-directional communication. In one preferred embodiment, as a major point of novelty, the power source for each ATS 20 scavenges, or harvests, electrical power from sources of potential energy at the location of each ATS 20. For example, mechanical vibration from the tubular elements of the drill string and/or inefficient fluid motion (such as parasitic velocity head loss) related energy may be extracted from the drill string and the fluids moving inside the drill string. Similar sources of energy are present, for example, in production strings and pipelines and are intended to be covered by the invention disclosed herein. The scavenged power may come from naturally occurring “lost” energy, such as existing tubular vibration energy or existing fluid differential pressures (caused by existing geometry). Alternatively, devices or geometries near each ATS may be adapted so as to cause a vibration for mechanical energy or a fluid derived energy (turbulence or differential pressure) for scavenging by the ATS. In addition to harvesting existing wasted energy from the existing process, additional devices, may be inserted in the flow stream or in the drill string, remote from the ATS, that induce additional energy within the tubular system and/or flow stream for scavenging by the ATS. It is well known in the art that the drill string 3 vibrates, both axially, rotationally, and laterally, during the drilling process. In addition, the drilling fluid 11 is typically in turbulent flow inside the drill string at normal operating flow rates. Both the vibrational energy of the drill string 3 and the turbulent flow energy of the drilling fluid 11 provide sources of potential energy that may be converted, by suitable techniques, to provide sufficient power for ATS 20. In one embodiment, piezoelectric materials are used to harvest electrical power from at least one of these potential energy sources. As is well known, when a force is applied to a piezoelectric material, positive and negative charges are induced on opposite crystal surfaces. Such materials as quartz and barium titanate are examples of piezoelectric materials. Various mechanical mounting arrangements expose the piezoelectric materials to the vibrational motion of the drill string for generating power. For example, piezoelectric materials may be mounted in ATS 20 of FIG. 2, such that they react to the general vibration motion of the drill string 3. The materials may be mounted as discrete crystals. For example, referring to FIGS. 11A,B, one embodiment of an ATS 20 is shown with an integral power source 100. ATS 20 has a controller 24 and power source 100 in a housing 110 with receiver 25 and transmitter 23 captured between pin nose 46 and boreback shoulder 47. Controller 24 has suitable circuitry for converting the power signals from power source 100 to suitable voltages for the various devices, as required. Power source 100 comprises an annular ring mass 101 attached to multiple piezoelectric bars oriented around the donut shaped annular configuration of ATS 20. As the drill string moves according to the arrows 111, the inertial mass of ring 101 causes the piezoelectric bars 102 to flex creating bending loads and generating electrical power. The components are contained in housing 110 that is filled with a dielectric fluid 103. Dielectric fluid 103 is separated from drilling fluid 11 by flexible diaphragm 104. Drilling fluid is vented through compensation hole 105 such that the downhole pressure and temperature are equalized inside the housing 110. Alternatively, each piezoelectric bar 102 may have a mass consisting of a segment of a ring (not shown) such that the bar/mass system is free to respond to both lateral and whirling motion of the drill string. Alternatively, the piezoelectric materials may be formed as any number of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) type devices. For example, piezoelectric MEMS accelerometers are commercially available that generate electrical signals in response to vibrational energy. Such devices may be configured to generate electrical power. FIG. 3 shows an exemplary circuit for converting the output of a piezoelectric device 35. The output from piezoelectric device 35 is rectified by diode bridge 36 to charge a power storage device 37 that supplies power to the load 38 that may be any combination of electrically powered devices in ATS 20. Multiple voltages from multiple such piezoelectric devices may be rectified across a common diode bridge. The power storage device is preferably a capacitor but may alternatively be a rechargeable battery. Multiple capacitors and/or batteries may be used. In another preferred embodiment, see FIG. 4, ATS 20 has an extension tube 41 attached thereto. Extension tube 41 extends a predetermined distance into the bore 42 of the box connection 22. Extension 41 may extend (i) downstream from ATS 20; (ii) upstream from ATS 20 into the pin connection 21, see FIG. 5; or (iii) in both upstream and downstream directions (not shown). Extension 41 may have piezoelectric devices embedded therein, such that such devices react to pressure variations in the fluid flow 11. Such pressure variations may be due to turbulent fluctuations in the fluid and/or due to pressure fluctuations caused by the positive displacement pump 16 that pumps the drilling fluid 11 through the drill string 3. The extension 41 may have a piezo-polymer material, such as polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) attached to the inner surface such that the PVDF film (not shown) is exposed to the flow energy to generate electrical power. The extension tube 41 length may be chosen such that sufficient area is exposed to the flow to generate sufficient power, including extending the tube substantially the length of a section 1 of drill string 3. The power harvested from such systems in the fluid flow may be used to power ATS 20. In another embodiment, turbulence inducing protuberances (not shown) may be positioned on the ATS and/or along an extensions sleeve and extended into the flow stream to induce turbulent eddies in the flow stream that contain sufficient energy. Such protuberances can be used with any of the piezoelectric fluid scavenging techniques. Such protuberances include, but are not limited to button shape or ring shape. Alternatively, dimples may be spaced around the donut shaped ATS and/or along an extension sleeve to induce turbulence. In one embodiment, see FIG. 24, ATS 260 is made of a suitable elastomeric material and is captured between sections 265 and 266 at connection 264. ATS 260 has a sleeve 263 attached thereto having piezoelectric materials (not shown) incorporated, as previously described therein. ATS 260 is sized such that a predetermined protuberance 261 is generated when the connection is made up. Protuberance 261 causes turbulent eddies (not shown) to be created that impact sleeve 263 causing voltages to be generated from the incorporated piezoelectric materials. The voltages are rectified by circuits in ATS 260. In another preferred embodiment, extension 41 is made of an electrically insulating material and has a sacrificial anode sleeve 43 is attached to an inner diameter thereof. A galvanic current is established between the sacrificial anode and the steel drill string 3 in the presence of a conductive drilling fluid 11. Using techniques known in the art based on the materials used and the conductivity of the drilling fluid 11, a predetermined amount of power may be generated for use in powering ATS 20. Alternatively, extension 41 may contain a suitable number of batteries suitable for downhole use. The batteries may be expendable and replaceable or rechargeable. Any suitable form configuration of battery may be used consistent with the space constraints known in the art. Redundant batteries may be provided. Other techniques may be used, alone or in combination with any other of the techniques previously described to provide sufficient power to ATS 20. These techniques include, but are not limited to, (i) thermoelectric generators based on temperature differentials between the inside and outside of the drill string 3; (ii) micro fuel cell devices; (iii) photon absorption from natural gamma emission of the surrounding formation; (iv) photon absorption from natural gamma emission from a source carried downhole; (v) long piezoelectric film streamers, or socks, adapted to flutter in the flowing drilling fluid thereby amplifying the motion experienced and power generated; (vi) magneto-hydrodynamic generators; and (vii) eccentric mass generators. Such a micro fuel cell device may contained in ATS 20 and be self contained with sufficient fuel and oxidizer for operating for a predetermined period. In one preferred embodiment, see FIG. 13, permanent magnets 130, are arranged in ATS 135 such that they induce a magnetic field across fluid flow area 133. As is known in the art, when a conductive fluid 11 flows through the magnetic field, either into or out of the plane as indicated in FIG. 13, voltages are induced at electrodes 131 in a plane orthogonal to both the plane of the magnetic field and the direction of the flow. Such voltages may be used to generate power stored in source 132. In yet another embodiment, an annular coil (not shown, is disposed in an ATS 20 such that drilling fluid 11 passes through the center of the coil. The drilling fluid has ferromagnetic particles, such as hematite, dispersed therein. The flow of magnetic particles through the coil induces electric currents in the coil that may be stored in a power source for use in the ATS. In another preferred embodiment, see FIG. 14, an eccentric mass 141 pivots about a shaft 142 in proximity to coils 143 mounted in an ATS in a drill string. Permanent magnet 140 is disposed in the mass 141 near an outer end. As the mass 141 is exposed to lateral vibration and torsional whirl of the drill string, the mass will be induced to rotate magnet 140 past coils 143 and inducing a current to flow in the coils that may be stored in power source 145. Many such eccentric masses may be bridged and rectified together, such as in a MEMS device, to generate power from the motion of the drill string. In another preferred embodiment, see FIG. 15, a plurality of balls 150 are constrained to roll between coil assemblies 152 in response to lateral vibration and whirl of the drill string. Each ball has a permanent magnet 151 such that as the ball with the magnet rolls, it passes the magnetic flux lines through the coils 154 in coil assemblies 152. The induced currents and related voltages are rectified by bridge 155 and stored in power source 156. As an alternative, or used in combination with the above discussed compliant donut ring, the complete power, sensor and communication elements may be packaged in a sleeve that protrudes into the tubular above or below the tool joint of interest. In one preferred embodiment, the sleeve, see FIG. 6, is rigid thin wall tube 61 that is be dropped or pushed into a connection joint. Bonded to tube 61, or encapsulated therein, is an ATS 60 having a receiver, a controller, a transmitter and other elements including sensors and any power device, as previously described, and/or electrical or optical conductors (not shown) required to enable alternative communication methods described later. For example, antenna wires (not shown) may be attached to, or alternatively, embedded in the sleeve along the length of the sleeve for enabling RF and EM communication, as described later, and the sleeve may extend the length of the section of drill string 1. The tube may be substantially pressure neutral (immersed) into the drilling fluid 11 within the drill string 1 and all components are electrically and mechanically insulated and isolated from the section of drill string 1 and drilling fluid 11. The rigid sleeve 61 may be constructed of any number of materials, including, but not limited to plastics, fiber reinforced composites, and metal. The materials may be deigned to be expandable. The material selection is dependent on the function of the sleeve 61 as related to power generation and/or radio wave transmission, and may be selected by one skilled in the art without undue experimentation. In another preferred embodiment, see FIG. 7, sleeve 71 is a plastically deformable sleeve that is smaller in diameter than the ID of the section 1 of drill string 3 to which it is to be inserted. The OD of the inserted sleeve 71 may be coated with a material 75, such as an elastomer or a plastic material, that has electrical and/or optical conductors and other required components pre-placed within the material 75. The under size sleeve 71 is inserted and then expanded by a mandrel 73 pulled with rod 74 so that the expanded sleeve 72 is plastically deformed and placed in compression against the inside surface of drill string section 1 and anchors the expanded sleeve 72 within drill string section 1. One technique to remove expanded sleeve 72 is an internal spiral cutter (not shown), known in the art, that allows the cut sleeve to be pulled out in an elongated ribbon. In another preferred embodiment, see FIGS. 8A,B, an elastic sleeve 81, for example of a rubber material suitable for downhole use, has ATS 80 and antenna 82 encapsulated therein. Sleeve 81 has a relaxed diameter 81′ greater than the internal diameter of drill string section 1. By stretching sleeve 81′ in a lengthwise direction using techniques known in the art, the OD of the sleeve 81′ is reduced to that of 81″. If stretched the correct amount, then sleeve 81″ may be placed within section 1 without interference. Once in place, the elongating force is released and the tube elastically expands into contact with the inner diameter of section 1, providing a locating and restraining force between the OD of sleeve 81 and the ID of section 1. Additional anchoring may be provided by an external bonding agent (not shown). An upper end restraint or anchor 83 may be used to add sealing and prevent flowing fluids from stripping the sleeve 81 from section 1. Anchor 83 may be swaged or expanded during the final installation process. Removal of the inserted sleeve 81 may be by a re-stretching and removal technique or alternatively by a spiral cut technique, as discussed above. The previously described communication system discloses a signal acoustically transmitted through the material of each section 1,6 of the drill string 3. Other localized communication techniques include, but are not limited to, (i) radio frequency transmissions, (ii) low frequency electromagnetic transmission, (iii) optical transmission, and (iv) back reflectance techniques. As used herein, radio frequency (RF) transmission refers to transmissions in the range of approximately 10 kHz to 10 GHz, whereas low frequency electromagnetic (EM) transmission refers to transmissions in the range of approximately 20 Hz to 10 kHz. The previously described acoustic system essentially uses the ATS to transmit a signal across the connection joint and uses the drill string section as a relatively low loss waveguide between connections. RF and EM signal transmission media are the surrounding earth formation and the fluids in the wellbore and formation. It is known in the art that the attenuation in such media is highly dependent on the localized properties including, but not limited to, formation, fluid resistivity, and signal frequency. In some situations, attenuation may be unacceptable for low power transmissions over the distance between connections, typically on the order of 30 feet. However, using the extended sleeve configurations and techniques described previously, the effective transmission distance may be substantially reduced, thereby allowing low power communication between connections, see FIG. 6. For example, miniaturized low power RF transceiver are commercially available and have been described for downhole use wherein an interrogation transceiver is passed in close proximity to an RF identification device for locating specific connections in a wellbore, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,333,699 and 6,333,700. Using the sleeve 61, as described in FIG. 6, antenna wires may be run the length of the sleeve 61, providing a transmission length on the order of tenths of a inch to several inches, as required. Similarly, the other sleeve configurations described, can be run the entire length of a drill string section for greatly reducing the transmission lengths, and enabling low power RF and/or EM communication across connections. Alternatively, the sleeve may be of such a length to coaxially overlap the ATS of the adjacent connection for establishing communication. In another preferred embodiment, see FIGS. 12A-D, a waveguide 115 is inserted the length of drill string sections 1b. Waveguide 115 has an external, wave-transmitting section 111 and a reflective inner shield 112 that together channel signal energy from ATS 110c to ATS 110b between the inner diameter of drill string section 1b and reflective shield 112. The transmission medium may be a solid, liquid or gas material depending on the type of energy transmitted and the power available. FIG. 12c shows one example of waveguide 115 with energy reflective inner shield 112 separated by axial ribs, or standoffs, 120 arranged around the periphery of shield 112. For an acoustic system transmission, wave-transmitting section 111 comprises multiple liquid filled channels 122 that are sealed by seal 125 creating a liquid filled waveguide that transmits the acoustic energy from ATS 110c to ATS 110b. Reflective shield 112 may be a composite material having microbeads (not shown) embedded inside. The microbeads have entrapped air and serve to provide an acoustic impedance interface that internally reflects the acoustic signal transmitted to keep the signal within the waveguide channel. By effectively capturing all the transmitted acoustic energy within the channel, the signal is not subject to substantial attenuation that would be present if the wave were transmitted as a normal spherical wave from source to receiver. Such normal transmissions are subject to exponential signal power drop with distance from the source location. Alternatively, the channels 122 may be filled with a gas, for example air, and the signal transmitted is an RF signal. The reflective shield 112 may be a metallic shield for reflecting the RF energy back into the waveguide channels 122. The gas filled channels will provide greatly reduced attenuation as contrasted with RF signals transmitted through the surrounding formation. In an alternative waveguide embodiment, see FIG. 12D, wave transmitting section 120 is sandwiched between reflective shield 121 and drill string section 1b. For an acoustic transmission, transmitting section 120 may be an elastomer material such as rubber. It is known in the art that the acoustic impedance of rubber is on the same order of magnitude as that of water and oil. Therefore, if an acoustic transmitter in ATS 110c, referring to FIG. 12A, transmits into drilling fluid 11 surrounding the transmitter, the signal will readily enter a rubber transmitting section 120 and propagate along the waveguide, provided the reflective shield 121 has an acoustic impedance such that the acoustic energy is trapped in the transmitting section 120. As described previously, the inclusion of gas-filled microbeads in the reflective shield 121 provide an acoustic impedance mismatch such as to reflect the acoustic signals back into the transmitting section. In another example, RF energy may be channeled through a solid insulator layer 120, see FIG. 12D, wherein a suitable reflective shield prevents the RF signal from escaping the waveguide 115. As one skilled in the art will appreciate, there is attenuation associated with the transmission through the insulating material, however, the signal energy is concentrated in the waveguide 115 and does not experience the geometric dispersion associated with free transmission through the surrounding media. In another preferred embodiment, optical fibers may be run in a sleeve and brought in close proximity to light emitting devices in the ATS of the adjoining connection. Because the transmission distance is short, even a low power optical source may provide sufficient received light energy to be received across the fluid media interface. The fluid interface may contain drilling fluid. Alternatively, the gap may be a controlled environment containing a fluid with suitable optical properties for transmission. In one preferred embodiment, back reflectance techniques may be used to transmit signals across joint connections. In one example, an oscillating circuit signal run through the conductors in an extended sleeve, sleeve 61 of FIG. 6 for example, of a first section of drill string is affected by an inductive load in the ATS of the adjacent connection to a second drill string section. By switching the inductive load in the ATS between two states, a change may be detected in the oscillating circuit signal in the first section and thereby transmit information across the connection. In another preferred embodiment, it is known that changes may be imposed on the polarization characteristics of light traveling in an optical fiber by changes in a magnetic field proximate the optical fiber. An ATS is adapted to modulate a local magnetic field to modulate the light traveling in an optical fiber in a sleeve attached to an adjacent section of drill string. It is an objective of the present invention to provide a fault tolerant, gracefully degrading communication system for use in a borehole drilling and/or completion system. The nature of the particular communication system is dependent, to a large extent, on the transmission characteristics of the surrounding formations and the drilling fluid in the borehole. The concepts disclosed below enable such communications between joints of drill pipe using low energy levels. Depending on the type of communication links used, one of several network structures and operational configurations become viable. The nature of the selected communication devices will determine the practicality of a given network type. In one preferred embodiment, the communication link is a serial system and transmits at least one of, see FIG. 9, (i) a pin to box short hop across one joint 4a (on the order of ⅛ to 4 inches) 86; (ii) from joint 4a to joint 4b (on the order of 30 to 45 feet) 87; and (iii) across more one than one joint, for example from 4a to 4c (on the order of 60 to 90 feet) 89. Software instructions stored in the downhole controller of each ATS, controls the communications from each ATS to the next and allow only those joints required to become active, to enable apparently continuous communication along the wellbore or tubular string. For example, each ATS may have a unique address for communication and the order of installation may be controlled such that each ATS in the system knows the addresses of the adjacent ATS. The system will attempt to transmit over the longest distance allowing acceptable transmission integrity. Initially, the system may go through an initial adaptive learning mode of transmitting known predetermined signals sequentially from each ATS to the next in order. By determining, for example, that ATS 20c is receiving the same signal from ATS 20a and ATS 20b, ATS may instruct ATS 20b to enter a quiescent mode and transmit only when ATS 20b has new data, such as local sensor data, to transmit. Should the signal integrity between ATS 20a and 20c degrade below an acceptable, predetermined level, ATS 20c may instruct ATS 20b to begin transmitting information from ATS 20a. In addition, in the event no communication is established, an ATS may alter, according to programmed instructions, its transmission parameters, such as lowering transmission frequency. The ATS may cycle through multiple frequencies seeking suitable communication. Interruptions in signal transmission may result in data stacking, wherein data or signals to be retransmitted are stored in a buffer memory. Such data may be transmitted at a later date or maintained in buffer memory for retrieval at the surface for both data and diagnostic purposes. Signal integrity may be determined from various transmission parameters including, but not limited to, received signal level and data drop outs. In addition, each ATS may include in its data stream, status signals regarding the relative “health” of the ATS. For example, each ATS may transmit information regarding its power storage status and/or it's power generating status. If ATS 20b, for example, is in a quiescent mode and receives status information indicating that ATS 20a is at low power, ATS 20b may, according to programmed instructions in it's controller, begin transmitting signals received from ATS 20a, including the low power status of ATS 20a to alert the rest of the network, including the surface system, to the status of ATS 20a. The surface system alerts the operator who may want to take corrective action, such as replacing ATS 20, the next time the drill string is removed from the borehole. The previously described system provides a substantially serial communication network. In order to enhance the fault tolerance and graceful degradation characteristics, in another preferred embodiment, multiple parallel communication paths are included along each of the sections of the serial pathway. As shown by way of example in FIGS. 10A,B, an ATS 95 has multiple telemetry modules 90a-h encapsulated in ring 91 suitable for insertion in a threaded connection as described previously. Each module 90a-h has a receiver, a transmitter, and a controller with a processor and memory. Each module 90a-h may also contain, or be connected to, one or more sensors for detecting a parameter of interest. The modules 90a-h may be attached to a power source as described previously. Each module 90a-h may be connected to a separate power source, or, alternatively, they may be connected to a central power source. Any of the power sources previously described may be used. Each of the modules acts to establish a separate communication link with like modules at each connection joint. Examples of such modules are described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/421,475, filed on Apr. 23, 2003, assigned to the assignee of this application, and incorporated herein by reference. The multiple telemetry modules 90a-h may be configured to carry at least one of (i) independent data streams, (ii) redundant data streams, and (iii) multiple paths for a single data stream, thereby providing higher bandwidth for the data stream. The multiple telemetry modules may be directed, under local program control, to allow graceful degradation of bandwidth during periods of high demand, power limitations, and partial system failure. For example, a hierarchy protocol may be established directing a particular telemetry module to be a master module that directs the transmissions of the slave modules at each ATS location. The protocol provides a predetermined order of succession for data transmission should the master module or any other of the slave modules fail. The protocol also provides a hierarchical list of data streams such that as bandwidth capacity is reduced, by failure of a module for example. An exemplary data stream may contain measurements related downhole pressure, temperature, and vibration. It is known that, in most circumstances, the vibration data is significantly more variable over time than is temperature. Therefore, if the transmission bandwidth is reduced, the predetermined protocol may, for example, reduce the transmission of temperature data in order to maintain suitable transmission of vibration data. Note that any number of telemetry modules that can be suitably packaged in the available space may be used with the present system. Any of the previously discussed transmission techniques may be used with the parallel transmission techniques. For example, multiple transmission frequencies may be used with acoustic, RF, and EM transmissions, and wavelength division multiplexing is common for sending multiple signals over optical systems. The serial ability to hop across one or more sections, as described above, coupled with the parallel communications techniques, adds substantial reliability to the communication of information along the jointed tubular string. Any of the previously described autonomous telemetry stations may contain one or more sensors for detecting parameters of interest related to the ATS or the local environment. Such measurements may be added to signals passing through the ATS or, alternatively, be transmitted by the ATS by themselves. Such sensors include, but are not limited to (i) pressure sensors for measuring pressure of the drilling fluid inside and/or outside the drill string; (ii) temperature sensors for measuring drill string and/or drilling fluid temperatures; (iii) vibration sensors for measuring local drill string vibration; (iv) sensors for measuring parameters related to the proper operation of the ATS such as power voltage and/or current levels. In addition, digital diagnostic status of the processor may be transmitted. In another preferred embodiment, an ATS may communicate with permanently installed devices, for example in a productions string. Such devices may be passive devices that take their power from the signal transmitted by the ATS, or the devices may have batteries or power scavenging devices as described herein. In another preferred embodiment, an independent sensor module having multiple sensors may be installed in the drill string 3, such as a formation evaluation device (not shown) and/or a device for measuring strain of the drill string section at a predetermined location. Examples of such devices are described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/421,475, filed on Apr. 23, 2003, assigned to the assignee of this application, and previously incorporated herein by reference. Such devices may be adapted to communicate with and/or through the ATS network as previously described. Alternatively, such a system may have its own primary telemetry capability, such as a mud pulse system, and use the described ATS system as a fall back system when such primary system fails. The previous descriptions are described in reference to a drilling system. However, it is intended that the techniques and systems described may be applied to substantially any tubular system, including, but not limited to, (i) production systems, including multi-lateral systems, and including offshore and subsea systems; (ii) water wells; and (iii) pipelines including surface, subsurface, and subsea. All of the previously described systems are intended to enable bi-directional communication between at least (i) multiple ATS devices, (ii) a surface controller and ATS devices, and (iii) ATS devices and externally located downhole devices. Such surface generated signals may be used to download instructions, including commands, to any and/or all ATS devices. Such transmissions include but are not limited to instructions that may (i) cause changes in operation format of an ATS, (ii) cause an ATS to issue a command to an externally located device, for example a downhole valve in a production string, and (iii) cause the system to reestablish the preferred communication path. In addition, an externally located device, such as a downhole controller in a production string, may direct a signal to another externally located device, such as a valve, through the network of ATS devices. In another preferred embodiment, see FIGS. 16A,B, tubular member 161 has a cross-sectional area substantially less than the internal diameter of drill pipe section 160 and is placed within each section of drill pipe 160. The length of tube 161 is of a predetermined length such that it extends substantially the length of section 160 but does not interfere when connecting drill pipe sections. When the sections of drill pipe are joined the tubes 161 form a waveguide for bi-directional surface-to-subsurface communication via electromagnetic, optic and/or acoustic energy. Tube 161 provides and/or contains all or part of the transmission medium for communication along the length of section 160. For example, tube 161 may contain one or more electrical conductors 162 and/or optical fibers 165. In one embodiment, at least one optical fiber 165 is firmly attached inside tube 161 which is firmly attached to section 160. Optical fiber 165 is used to determine the strain of the optical fiber 165 caused by the axial loading on section 160. The optical fiber strain may be then related to the loading on section 160 by analytical and/or experimental methods known in the art. Such optical strain measurements may be made by techniques known in the art. For example, at least one fiber Bragg grating may be disposed in optical fiber 165. The Bragg grating reflects a predetermined wavelength of light, related to the Bragg grating spacing. As the load on section 160 changes, the spacing of the Bragg grating changes resulting in changes in the wavelength of light reflected therefrom, which are related to the load on section 160. The optical components for such a measurement may be located in electronics 164 in each tube 161 and the results telemetered along the communication system. Any other optical strain technique is suitable for the purposes of this invention. Alternatively, tube 161 may provide a waveguide path for acoustic and/or RF transmission. Such a waveguide, when firmly attached to section 160 may be used to provide a strain indication of section 160. For example, an acoustic or RF pulse may be transmitted along the wave guide from one end and reflected back from the other end. Changes in the time of flight of the signal may be related to changes in the length of section 160 using analytical and/or experimental methods known in the art. Electronics 164 and transceiver 163 are located at each end of each tube 161 for communicating to and receiving signals from ATS 162. For example, in one preferred embodiment, ATS 162 receives a signal from transceiver 163c, adds data to the signal as required, and retransmits the signal to transceiver 163b for transmission along tube 161a using any of the previously mentioned transmission media. To power electronics 164 and transceiver 163, associated with such communications, the system also provides devices, as previously described, for scavenging energy from available energy sources as described previously. The power source may be integral to the tubes employed for communication or provided by other tubes or systems proximate the communication tube being powered. One example, would employ a piezoelectric material along the length of tube 161 to produce a voltage from the dynamic pressure variations and/or turbulent eddies that occur in the drilling fluid flow as a result of the surface pump pulsations and/or flow perturbations in the drilling fluid flow stream. Tube 161 may be positioned substantially against the perimeter of the internal diameter of the drill pipe 160. The force to hold the tube in position may be provided by mechanical devices, such as by bow springs known in the art, or by a magnetic force provided by magnets distributed along the length of the tube, or by other means such as adhesives, etc. Tube 161 may also be placed substantially centralized in the drill-pipe using bow-spring centralizers (not shown), or other devices known in the art. The tube can be made of a metallic or from a plastic or composite material, such as polyetherether ketone, for example. Communication between tubes may be achieved through electromagnetic, acoustic, optical, and/or other techniques described previously, and relayed through ATS 162. Alternatively, the signals may be transmitted from one transceiver 163 directly to another transceiver in an adjacent tube 163. In one preferred embodiment, see FIGS. 17A-B, a micro turbine-generator (MTG) is integrated into ATS 172 for supplying power to ATS 172. The MTG comprises a substantially cylindrically shaped rotor 179 having a number of turbine blades 175 formed on an inner diameter of rotor 179. Turbine blades 175 intercept a portion of the flow of drilling fluid 177 and cause the rotor to rotate as indicated by arrow 176 about the center of the drill string section. Rotor 179 is supported by bearings 174 and has a number of permanent magnets 178 arranged around the periphery of the rotor 179. The magnets are preferably polarized as shown in FIG. 17B and have magnetic field flux lines 169 extending out from each face. The magnets 178 may be any suitable shape, including, but not limited to, bar magnets and disk, also called button, magnets. The magnets are arranged around the periphery of rotor 179 such that alternating positive and negative faces and their magnetic fields pass by at least one stationary electrically conductive coil 173 in ATS 172 and generate alternating voltages therein. More than one coil may be located in ATS 172. Suitable circuitry, known in the art, is located in ATS 172 to convert the alternating voltages to usable power for the sensors and transceivers located in ATS 172 and described previously. The amount of power generated by such an MTG is determinable from techniques known in the art without undue experimentation. The rotor 179 may be made of at least one of ceramic, metallic, and elastomeric materials. The bearings 174 may be made of at least one of ceramic materials, including diamond coated, and elastomeric materials. Such bearings are known in the art and will not be described in further detail. In a system using multiple parallel transceivers at each ATS, such as that described in FIGS. 10A, 10B, for example, each individual telemetry module may have its own coil for generating power from the rotating magnets. Alternatively, in another preferred embodiment, see FIG. 18, MTG 184 provides power to multiple telemetry stations, for example, ATS 181, 182, 183. The MTG as previously described, generates an alternating current (AC) voltage that may be inductively coupled to conductors (not shown) in sleeves 186a-d. As is known in the art, AC current flowing through a coil will produce a related time-varying magnetic field. Conversely, a time-varying magnetic field acting on a coil of wire will produce a time varying current in the coil. Two such coils may be positioned in appropriate proximity to transfer power from one coil to the other. The power transfer can be affected by various factors, including, but not limited to, the gap size, dielectric properties of intervening materials, coil turns, and coil diameter. The magnetic field may be shaped and/or enhanced through the use of various magnetic core materials such as ferrite. Such techniques are known in the art and are not discussed here in detail. Each sleeve 186a-d has an inductive coupler at each end 185a,b and transmits energy to and/or through each ATS 181-183. Each ATS may tap the AC voltage for internal conversion and use it to power each ATS and the sensors, as previously described, attached to each ATS. The raw voltage, as generated, may be inductively coupled along the conductors in sleeves 186a-d. Sleeves 186a-d may be any of the sleeves previously described, for example, in FIGS. 6-8B and 16A,B, or any other suitable sleeve and conductor combination. Alternatively, the voltage may be conditioned by circuitry (not shown, in ATS 181 to alter the voltage and/or frequency to enhance the inductive coupling efficiency. The actual spacing between adjacent MTG 184 units is application specific and depends on factors, including but not limited to, the types and power requirements of the sensors, the efficiency of the inductive coupling, and the losses in the conductors. In one preferred embodiment, another power source, see FIG. 19, comprises a sleeve 191 that extends substantially the length of a section of drill string 190. Sleeve 191 is a sacrificial anode separated from section 190 by a suitable electrolytic material 192, thereby establishing a galvanic cell running the length of sleeve 191. Such a cell may be designed to provide predetermined amounts of power using techniques known in the art. The voltage generated depends on the sleeve and drill pipe section materials, and the total current capacity is related to the conductivities of the sleeve 191 and gel 192 and the area of contact between the sleeve and the gel, which is related to the length of the sleeve. The sleeve may be installed using any of the techniques described previously, for example expanding such a sleeve 191 into contact with the section 190 while capturing the gel 192 in between. Suitable circuitry (not shown) may be embedded into the ends of such a sleeve 191 to convert the generated voltage to any suitable voltage required. In addition, such circuitry can be used to converted DC power to AC power for use in inductively coupling such power to adjacent sections of drill string. In one preferred embodiment, see FIG. 20, insulating sleeve 204 is inserted between drill section 200 and cathode 203. Electrolytic gel 202 is sandwiched between cathode 203 and anode 201 setting up a galvanic cell. The use of a separate cathode 203 insulated from the drill section 200 provides for more freedom in selecting the cell materials and cell voltage. The electrolytic gel of FIGS. 19 and 20 may be embedded or captured in a suitable open-cell mesh and/or honeycomb material (not shown) to prevent the gel from being extruded out from between the anode and cathode materials during installation and operation. Any of the battery configurations described previously may be configured, using techniques known in the art, to be rechargeable using appropriate materials. Any of the energy scavenging devices or the MTG may be used to recharge such a battery system. Such a battery would be able to at least provide power during non-drilling and/or non-flowing periods and be recharged once such activity resumed. In one preferred embodiment, see FIG. 21, an instrumented sub 210, or pup joint, is installed in the drill string between sections 215 and 216. Sub 210 has, for example, sensors 212 and 217 mounted on an outer and inner diameter, respectively. Although shown in FIG. 21 as single sensors 213 and 217, multiple sensors may be mounted on the inside and/or outside diameters of sub 210. These sensors include, but are not limited to, (i) pressure sensors, (ii) temperature sensors, (iii) strain sensors, (iv) chemical species sensors, (v) fluid resistivity sensors, and (vi) fluid flow sensors. Sensors 212 and 217 may be powered by ATS 211 and interfaced through electronics module 213 attached to sub 210. Electronics module 213 may communicate to adjacent ATS 211, in either direction, using any of the previously discussed communication techniques. Multiple subs 210 may be inserted in the drill string at predetermined locations. The locations are application specific and may depend on factors such as the desired measurement and spatial resolution along the length of the drill string. In addition, sub 210 may have a transceiver (not shown) located on an outer diameter for communicating with and/or interrogating sensors or other devices mounted on production tubulars, and or production hardware. In addition, such an external transceiver may be used to communicate with and/or interrogate devices in lateral branches of multilateral wells in both the drilling and production environments. In one example, see FIG. 23, sub 253 is disposed in a drill string (not shown) in a substantially horizontal wellbore 250 and has multiple sensors 254 attached to an outer diameter of the sub 253. Drilling fluid 251 and influx fluid 252 are flowing past sub 253 forming a combined multi-phase fluid, where multi-phase refers to at least one of (i) an oil-drilling fluid mixture, (ii) a drilling fluid-gas mixture, and (iii) a drilling fluid-oil-gas mixture. The effects of gravity tend to cause the separation of the fluids into fluids 251 and 252. Fluid 252 may be a gas, water, oil, or some combination of these. Sensors 254, for example, may measure the resistivity of the fluid passing in close proximity to each sensor 254, thereby providing a cross-sectional profile related to the fluid makeup near each sensor. These measurements are communicated to the surface using the techniques of the present invention. Changes in the profile may be used to detect changes in the amount and composition of the fluid influx passing a measurement station along the wellbore. Such measurements may be used, for example, to monitor the placement of specialty drilling fluids and/or chemicals, commonly called pills, at a desired location in the wellbore. In addition, multiple cross sectional profiles may be measured and compared to determine the changes in the profiles along the wellbore. As described previously, optical fibers may be incorporated in the sleeves described in FIGS. 6-8 and the tubes described in 16A,B for communicating between automated telemetry stations. The use of optical fibers can provide high bandwidth at relatively low signal loss along the fiber. Major impediments to the use of optical fibers in such an application include making optical connections at each ATS and the losses associated with optical connectors. As one skilled in the art will appreciate, it is not operationally feasible to ensure alignment of the fibers when the separate tubular members are threaded together as indicated in FIG. 22C. Shown in FIGS. 22A and B is one preferred embodiment of a system to provide optical coupling to optical fibers that are not aligned and/or not in close enough proximity to allow direct coupling. Tubular sections 225a-b are joined at threaded connection 224. Optical fibers 223 and 222 are attached to an inside diameter of sections 225a and 225b, respectively, and form part of an optical communication channel. An ATS 220 is placed in the boreback area 230. ATS 220 contains sensors as previously described and an optical transceiver 233 for boosting the optical signal transmitted along the optical communication channel. The optical transceiver 233 comprises an optical coupler 231 for transferring the received optical signal to a optical receiver 226. The received optical signal is processed using circuitry 230 and a processor (not shown). Additional locally generated signals may be added to the received signal and the combined signal is retransmitted by optical transmitter 228 through transmitted optical coupler 232. The optical signal 234 is transmitted from the end of optical fiber 222 to optical coupler 231 through an optical coupling material (OCM) 221. OCM 221 may be an optically translucent material such that it transmits sufficient energy to be detected and at the same time diffuses the energy such that the optical fiber 222 and the optical coupler 231 may be rotationally misaligned similar to that shown for optical fibers in FIG. 22C. OCM 221 may be made translucent by doping the material with reflective materials. In one embodiment, OCM 221 is a translucent potting material having sufficient natural diffusion characteristics to provide acceptable light reception at optical receiver 226. For example, clear to translucent silicone potting materials are commercially available and are commonly used in potting electronic devices. ATS 220 may be encapsulated in the potting material in a shape approximating the boreback cavity 230 but slightly oversized such that when captured in connection 224 the optical fibers 222 and 223 are brought in intimate contact with OCM 221 providing optical coupling between optical fibers 222 and 223 and optical transceiver 233. Alternatively, any suitably transparent and/or translucent material may be used as OCM 221. In one embodiment, OCM 221 may be doped with a phosphorescent material such that signal light injected into OCM 221 causes the phosphorescent material to emit light within OCM 221 that may be detected by the optical receiver in transceiver 233. OCM 221 may be a viscous gel-like material that is swabbed into the box section of the connection 224 and has ATS 220 placed therein and captured by the makeup of the pin section of connection 224. Transceiver 233 may be powered by its own power source 229. Alternatively, transceiver 233 may be powered by any of the power systems previously described. In order to provide optical communications should transceiver 233 fail, optical fiber 236 provides a relatively low-loss redundant optical path for optical signal 234 to pass from optical fiber 222 to optical fiber 223. The attenuation in OCM 221 is typically substantially greater than through an optical fiber, such as fiber 236, and may not allow such a transmission through OCM 221 alone. The combined path has lower attenuation and provides at least some optical signal to reach fiber 223. While only a single optical transceiver is described here, multiple optical transceivers may be annularly positioned in ATS 220, similar to the multiple acoustic transceivers described in FIGS. 10A,B. In one embodiment, each transceiver is adapted to receive and transmit the same frequency light signal. Again, a hierarchy may be established among such transceivers. Dispersion of the incoming signal in OCM 221 allows transceivers adjacent to a primary transceiver to detect the incoming signal and determine if the primary transceiver has transmitted the signal onward. Should the primary transceiver fail to transmit the signal, for example within in predetermined time period, one of the adjacent transceivers, according to the programmed hierarchy assumes the task and transmits the signal. Alternatively, each of the multiple optical transceivers may receive and transmit a different light frequency. Such a system may provide for multiple redundant channels transmitting the same signal. Alternatively, each of multiple channels may communicate a different signal, at a different light wavelength, with selected channels having redundant transceivers. The description of FIGS. 22A, B refers to a unidirectional signal. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art, that bi-directional signals may be transmitted along the optical communication path by incorporating optical transceivers for transmitting in both directions. Such a system may include multiple optical fibers extending along each section with signals traveling in only a single direction in any one fiber. Alternatively, bi-directional signals may be transmitted over a single fiber using a number of techniques, including but not limited to, time division multiplexing and wave division multiplexing. It is intended that, for the purposes of this invention, any suitable multiplexing scheme known in the art may be used for bi-directional transmissions. More than one physical transmission technique may be used to communicate information along the communication network as described herein. For example, an optical system may be used to transmit signals in an optical fiber disposed along a section of drill string. The signal at each end of the drill string section is transmitted to the next section using, for example, an RF transmission technique, as previously described. Any combination of techniques described may be used. Alternatively, multiple non-interfering physical transmission techniques may be used. For example, acoustic and RF, or RF and optical techniques may be both used to transmit information across a connection joint. The use of such multiple techniques will increase the probability of transmission across the connection joint. Any number of such non-interfering techniques may be used. Such combinations can be adapted to the particular field requirements by one skilled in the art without undue experimentation. The distributed measurement and communication network, as disclosed herein, provides the ability to determine changing conditions along the length of the well in both the drilling and production operations. Several exemplary applications are described below. In a common drilling operation, sensor information may be available at the surface and near the bit, for example from Measurement While Drilling devices. Little, if any, information is available along the length of the drill string. In a drilling operation, while tripping into and/or out of the hole, the drag on the drill string is typically measured only at the surface. In deviated wells, and especially horizontal wells, indications of distributed and/or localized drag on the drill string may be used to improve the tripping process and to identify locations of high drag that may require remedial action, such as reaming. In addition, the use of such real-time measurement data allows the tripping process to be substantially automated to ensure that the pull on any joint in the string does not exceed the maximum allowable load. In addition, distributed measurements of pressure along the string may be used to maintain the surge and swab pressures within acceptable limits. In addition, profiles of parameters such as, for example, strain, drag, and torque may be compared at different time intervals to detect time-dependent changes in drilling conditions along the wellbore. In extended reach rotary drilling operations, variations in rotational friction along the length of the drill string may restrict the torque available at the bit. However, it is difficult to rectify such a problem without knowing where the increased drag exists. The distributed sensor system provides profiles of localized torque and vibration measurements (both axial and whirl) along the drill string enabling the operator to identify the problem locations and to take corrective action, such as installing a roller assembly in the drill string at a point of high drag. Such profiles may be compared at different time intervals to detect time-dependent changes, such as for example, build up of drill cuttings and other operating parameters. In rotary drilling applications, the drill string has been shown to exhibit axial, lateral, and whirl dynamic instabilities that may damage the drill string and or downhole equipment and/or reduce the rate of penetration. The various vibrational modes along the drill string are complex and are not easily discernible from only end point (surface and bottomhole) measurements. Distributed vibrational and whirl measurements from the present invention are telemetered to the surface and processed by the surface controller to provide an enhanced picture of the dynamic movement of the drill string. The operator may then be directed, by suitable drilling dynamic software in the surface controller to modify drilling parameters to control the drill string vibration and whirl. In another application, the drill string may become stuck in the wellbore during normal drilling operations, the strain and/or load measurements along the drill string allow the determination of the location where the drill string is stuck and allows the operator to take corrective actions known in the art. In another embodiment, pressure and/or temperature measurements are made at the sensors distributed along the length of the drill string. Profiles of such measurements along the well length may be monitored and used to detect and control well influxes, also called kicks. As one skilled in the art will appreciate, as a gas influx rises in the wellbore, it expands as the local pressure is reduced to the normal pressure gradient of the drilling fluid in the annulus of the wellbore. If the surface well control valves are closed, a closed volume system is created. As the bubble rises, it expands and the pressure at the bottom of the wellbore increases causing a possible undesired fracturing along the open hole of the wellbore. By detecting the pressure in the annulus using the distributed sensors, the location of the bubble and the associated pressures along the wellbore can be determined allowing the operator to vent the surface pressure so as to prevent the bottomhole pressure from fracturing the formation. As is known in the art, a wellbore may traverse multiple producing formations. The pressure and temperature profiles of the distributed measurements of the present invention may be used to control the equivalent circulating density (ECD) along the wellbore and prevent damage due to over pressure in the annulus near each of the formations. In addition, changes in the pressure and temperature profiles may be used to detect fluid inflows and outflows at the multiple formations along the wellbore. In another example, such distributed pressure and temperature measurements may be used to control an artificial lift pump placed downhole to maintain predetermined ECD at multiple formations. An example of such a pumping system is disclosed in published application U.S. Pat. No. 2,003,0098181 A1, published May 29, 2003, and incorporated herein by reference. In one embodiment, sensors such as those described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/421,475, filed on Apr. 23, 2003, assigned to the assignee of this application, and previously incorporated herein by reference, are attached to the outside of casing as it is run in the wellbore to monitor parameters related to the cementing of the casing in the wellbore. Such sensors may be self-contained with limited battery life for the typical duration of such an operation, on the order of 100 hours. The sensors may be adapted to acoustically transmit through the casing to autonomous telemetry stations mounted on a tubular string internal to the casing. Pressure and temperature sensors so distributed provide information related to the placement and curing of the cement in the annulus between the casing and the borehole. It is intended that the techniques described herein, including the profile mapping, may be applied to any flowing system, including production wells, pipelines, injection wells and monitoring wells. The foregoing description is directed to particular embodiments of the present invention for the purpose of illustration and explanation. It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art that many modifications and changes to the embodiment set forth above are possible. It is intended that the following claims be interpreted to embrace all such modifications and changes. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to transmission of information along a tubular string, and more particularly to a system of autonomous telemetry stations positioned along the tubular string for low-power, adaptive communication and measurement. 2. Description of the Related Art The oilfield industry currently uses two extremes of communication within wellbores. The classification of these two extremes relate to the timing of the wellbore construction, typically during the wellbore construction and after construction during the operation of the wellbore for production of hydrocarbons. During the drilling and completion phases, communication is accomplished using a form of mud pulse telemetry commonly utilized within measurement while drilling (MWD) systems. Alternative methods of telemetry, such as low frequency electromagnetic and acoustics, have been investigated and found to be of limited or specialized use. In general MWD telemetry is bound by the speed of sound and the viscous properties in the drilling fluid, thus data rates for mud pulse telemetry seldom exceed 10 bits per second. An increase in the number and complexity of downhole sensors in MWD systems has increased the need for higher data rates for the telemetry link. Also, introduction of rotary closed loop steering systems has increased the need for bi-directional telemetry from the top to the bottom of the well. Industry efforts to develop high data rate telemetry have included methods to incorporate fiber optic or wire technology into the drillstring, transmitting acoustic signals through the drill string, and transmitting electromagnetic signals through the earth surrounding the drill string. U.S. Pat. No. 4,095,865 to Denison, et al, describes sections of drill pipe, pre-wired with an electrical conductor, however each section of pipe is specially fabricated and difficult and expensive to maintain. Acoustic systems suffer from attenuation and filtering effects caused by reflections at each drill joint connection. Attempts have been made to predict the filtering effects, for example see U.S. Pat. No. 5,477,505 to Drumheller. In most such techniques, signal boosters or repeaters are required on the order of every 1000 feet. To date, the only practical and commercial method of MWD telemetry is modulation of mud flow and pressure with it's relatively slow data rate. Once a well is drilled and completed, special sensors and control devices are commonly installed to assist in operation of the well. These devices historically have been individually controlled or monitored by dedicated lines. These controls were initially hydraulically operated valves (e.g. subsurface safety valves) or were sliding sleeves operated by shifting tools physically run in on a special wireline to shift the sleeve, as needed. The next evolution in downhole sensing and control was moving from hydraulic to electric cabling permanently mounted in the wellbore and communicating back to surface control and reporting units. Initially, these control lines provided both power and data/command between downhole and the surface. With advances in sensor technology, the ability to multiplex along wires now allows multiple sensors to be used along a single wire path. The industry has begun to use fiber optic transmission lines in place of traditional electric wire for data communication. A common element of these well operation sensors and devices is the sending of power and information along the installed telemetry path. The telemetry path is typically installed in long lengths across multiple sections of jointed tubular. Thus, the installation of the telemetry path is required after major tubulars are installed in the well. The devices along the telemetry path must comply with a common interface and power specification. Any malfunction in the line puts the power transmission and communication in jeopardy. Thus, there is a demonstrated need for higher data rate telemetry systems with bi-directional transmission capability that are less susceptible to communication and power interruptions for use with jointed tubulars. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect of the present invention, a measurement and communication system for use with a tubular string, comprises a plurality of spaced apart, autonomous telemetry stations disposed at predetermined locations along the tubular string. Power is extracted from potential energy sources proximate each autonomous telemetry station. Each of the plurality of autonomous telemetry stations is adapted to receive at least one first signal and transmit at least one second signal related to the at least one first signal. In another aspect, a method of communicating information along a tubular string comprises disposing a plurality of spaced apart, autonomous telemetry stations at predetermined locations along the tubular string. A preferred transmission path is autonomously determined at each of the autonomous telemetry stations. Information is transmitted along the tubular string according to the autonomously determined preferred path. | 20040614 | 20121009 | 20050203 | 89435.0 | 0 | WONG, ALBERT KANG | APPARATUS AND METHODS FOR SELF-POWERED COMMUNICATION AND SENSOR NETWORK | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,867,412 | ACCEPTED | Surgical clip | A surgical clip has a base portion and two generally parallel, spaced arms extending from the base portion and defining an opening therebetween. The arms terminate distally in fingers which are of reduced width and thickness relative to the arms and which are adapted to be bent towards and past each other. A transition section from each arm to the finger provides curved structures which extending away from each other and providing a wider mouth for the opening between the arms. The arms also have a proximal section with an undercut which helps in flexure of the arms. The base is an extended structure having a rounded proximal end with outwardly extending shoulders which are arranged to be engaged by the curved structures of the mouth of another clip. | 1. A surgical clip, comprising: a) a base having spaced engagement shoulders; b) two spaced arms extending distally from said base and defining an opening therebetween, said spaced arms having a first width at midportions of said arms; and c) two fingers extending respectively from said spaced arms, said fingers being of reduced width relative to said first width, and said fingers being offset from each other relative to a longitudinal axis which extends through said base and between said arms, wherein each said spaced arm includes a transition section adjacent a said respective finger, said transition sections of said spaced arms having surfaces spaced from and facing each other, said surfaces of said transitions sections and said engagement shoulders being sized and shaped to engage each other. 2. A surgical clip according to claim 1, wherein: said arms have a first height at midportions of said arms, and said fingers are of reduced height relative to said first height. 3. A surgical clip according to claim 2, wherein: said reduced height is less than one-half said first height. 4. A surgical clip according to claim 1, wherein: said surgical clip is symmetrical about said longitudinal axis. 5. A surgical clip according to claim 1, wherein: said base has a first length, and said fingers have second lengths similar to said first length. 6. A surgical clip according to claim 5, wherein: said fingers are spaced sufficiently apart from each other such that, were said surfaces of said transitions sections to engage said engagement shoulders, said fingers would not engage said base. 7. A surgical clip according to claim 1, wherein: said arms have a first height at midportions of said arms, and each said arm include an undercut portion proximal said midportion, said undercut portion having a reduced height relative to said first height. 8. A surgical clip according to claim 1, wherein: said base includes a bridge portion, said spaced engagement shoulders being proximal said bridge portion, and said arms each include a proximal portion adjacent said bridge, each said proximal portion including a rearwardly extending fin spaced from said base. 9. A surgical clip according to claim 1, wherein: said fingers taper down in width as they extend away from said arms. 10. A surgical clip according to claim 9, wherein: a sum of a width of a said finger at a distal tip of said finger plus a width of said finger adjacent said transition section substantially equals said first width. 11. A surgical clip according to claim 1, wherein: said fingers are arced. 12. A surgical clip according to claim 1, wherein: each said transition section includes a section of increased height relative to an adjacent portion of the arm of said transition section. 13. A surgical clip according to claim 1, wherein: said surfaces of said transition sections diverge from each other and define a mouth which is wider than said opening. 14. A surgical clip according to claim 1, wherein: said base defines a hole. 15. A surgical clip according to claim 14, wherein: said hole is a through-hole. 16. A surgical clip according to claim 14, further comprising: a marker located in said hole. 17. A surgical clip according to claim 16, wherein: said marker is one of a radiographic and MRI-visible marker. 18. A surgical clip according to claim 15, further comprising: suture material extending through said hole. 19. A surgical clip according to claim 1, wherein: said arms each include a proximal portion forward said base and a rearwardly extending fin portion spaced radially from a forward end of said proximal portion. 20. A surgical clip train, comprising: at least two surgical clips in longitudinal engagement with each other, each clip of identical structure and each clip having a base, two spaced arms, and two fingers, each base having spaced engagement shoulders, said two spaced arms extending distally from said bridge portion of said base and defining an opening therebetween, said spaced arms having a first width at midportions of said arms, and said two fingers extending respectively from said spaced arms, said fingers being of reduced width relative to said first width, wherein each said spaced arm includes a transition section adjacent a said respective finger, said transition sections of said spaced arms having surfaces spaced from and facing each other, said surfaces of said transition sections and said engagement shoulders of each of said at least two clips being sized and shaped such that said surfaces of said transition sections of a first of said two clips will engage said engagement shoulders of a second of said two clips. 21. A surgical clip train according to claim 20, wherein: said arms of each clip have a first height at midportions of said arms, and said fingers of each clip are of reduced height relative to said first height. 22. A surgical clip train according to claim 21, wherein: said reduced height is less than one-half said first height. 23. A surgical clip train according to claim 20, wherein: each said surgical clip is symmetrical about a longitudinal axis extending through said base and between said arms. 24. A surgical clip train according to claim 20, wherein: said base has a first length, and said fingers have second lengths similar to said first length. 25. A surgical clip train according to claim 24, wherein: said fingers are spaced sufficiently apart from each other such that, with said surfaces of said transitions sections of said first clip engaging said engagement shoulders of said second clip, said fingers of said first clip are spaced from said base of said second clip. 26. A surgical clip train according to claim 20, wherein: said arms have a first height at midportions of said arms, and each said arm include an undercut portion proximal said midportion, said undercut portion having a reduced height relative to said first height. 27. A surgical clip train according to claim 20, wherein: said arms each include a proximal portion adjacent said bridge, each said proximal portion including a rearwardly extending fin spaced from said base. 28. A surgical clip train according to claim 27, wherein: said fingers are spaced sufficiently apart from each other such that, with said surfaces of said transitions sections of said first clip engaging said engagement shoulders of said second clip, said fingers of said first clip are spaced from said base of said second clip with said rearwardly extending fins of said second clip protecting tips of said fingers of said first clip. 29. A surgical clip train according to claim 20, wherein: said fingers of each clip taper down in width as they extend away from said arms. 30. A surgical clip train according to claim 28, wherein: for each clip, a sum of a width of a said finger at a distal tip of said finger plus a width of said finger adjacent said transition section substantially equals said first width. 31. A surgical clip train according to claim 20, wherein: each said transition section includes a section of increased height relative to an adjacent portion of the arm of said transition section. 32. A surgical clip train according to claim 20, wherein: said surfaces of said transition sections diverge from each other and define a mouth which is wider than said opening. 33. A surgical clip train according to claim 20, wherein: said base defines a hole. 34. A surgical clip train according to claim 33, wherein: said hole is a through-hole. 35. A surgical clip train according to claim 33, further comprising: a marker located in said hole. 36. A surgical clip train according to claim 35, wherein: said marker is one of a radiographic and MRI-visible marker. 37. A surgical clip train according to claim 34, further comprising: suture material extending through said hole. 38. A surgical clip train according to claim 20, wherein: a first of said at least two surgical clips has a first color, and a second of said at least two surgical clips has a second color. 39. A surgical clip train according to claim 38, wherein: said clip train includes at least five surgical clips, and each of said at least five surgical clips has a different color from the others. 40. A surgical clip train according to claim 38, wherein: said clip train includes at least five surgical clips with a proximal-most clip and a penultimate clip adjacent said proximal-most clip, and all said surgical clips are of a same color except one of said proximal-most clip and said penultimate clip which has a different color. 41. A surgical clip, comprising: a) a bridge; b) two spaced arms extending distally from said bridge and defining an opening therebetween, said spaced arms having a first width at midportions of said arms, and said arms having a characteristic height; and c) two fingers extending respectively from said spaced arms and terminating in tips, said tips having a width at most one-half said first width, and said fingers having a height which is at most one-half said characteristic height. 42. A surgical clip according to claim 41, wherein: said fingers decrease in width as they extend from said arms to said tips. 43. A surgical clip according to claim 42, wherein: said fingers are arced. 44. A surgical clip according to claim 42, wherein: a sum of a width of a said finger at a distal tip of said finger plus a width of said finger adjacent said arm substantially equals said first width. 45. A surgical clip according to claim 41, wherein: said height is approximately {fraction (1/3)} said characteristic height. 46. A surgical clip according to claim 41, wherein: said surgical clip is symmetrical about a longitudinal axis extending through said bridge and between said arms. 47. A surgical clip, comprising: a) a bridge; b) two spaced arms extending distally from said bridge and defining an opening therebetween, said spaced arms having a first width at midportions of said arms, and said arms having a characteristic height at said midportions; and c) two fingers extending respectively from said spaced arms and terminating in tips, said tips having a width at most one-half said first width, and said fingers having a height which is less than said characteristic height, wherein said surgical clip is symmetrical about a longitudinal axis extending through said bridge and between said arms. 48. A method comprising: a) obtaining a plurality of clips, each clip having (i) base with spaced engagement shoulders, (ii) two spaced arms extending distally from said base and defining an opening therebetween, said spaced arms having a first width at midportions of said arms, (iii) two fingers extending respectively from said spaced arms, said fingers being of reduced width relative to said first width, and said fingers being offset from each other relative to a longitudinal axis which extends through said base and between said arms, wherein each said spaced arm includes a transition section adjacent a said respective finger, said transition sections of said spaced arms having surfaces spaced from and facing each other, said surfaces of said transition sections and said engagement shoulders being sized and shaped to engage each other; and b) stacking said plurality of clips in a train with said surface of said transition sections of a first of said plurality of clips engaging said engagement shoulders of a second of said plurality of clips. 49. A method according to claim 48, further comprising: advancing said train of clips such that said fingers of a distal-most clip of said train are bent so that at least a portion of a first of said fingers of a distal-most clip is adjacent a second of said fingers of said distal-most clip. 50. A method, comprising the steps of: a) utilizing a clip applier having a plurality of clips contained therein to dispense at least some of said plurality of clips at a surgical site, said plurality of clips including a first clip having a first color and a second clip having a second color; b) viewing a clip of said plurality of clips as or after it is dispensed in order to determine the color of that clip; and c) making a determination whether to remove the clip applier from the surgical site or to locate the clip applier at another location at said surgical site based on the color of the clip viewed at step b). | This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 10/730,236, hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, which is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 09/891,775, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,716,226. This application is also related to U.S. Serial No. (Docket ISD-082A) entitled “Endoscopic Surgical Instrument Having a Force Limiting Actuator” and filed on even date herewith, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates broadly to surgical devices. More particularly, this invention relates to a surgical clip for clamping and/or suturing ducts, vessels, and other tissues, or for anchoring a tissue, or for attaching a foreign body to a tissue. 2. State of the Art Surgical clips are generally used to apply clamping force to ducts, vessels, and other tissues. In addition, surgical clips are particularly useful in controlling bleeding of a tissue in lieu of suturing or stapling where suturing or stapling is difficult. However, in certain circumstances, the bleeding tissue is lubricous, and applied clips often slip from the tissue and are dislodged, removing the necessary clamping force thereabout. This is particularly a problem when a clip is provided about tissue which is not a conduit of a size which can be completely surrounded by the clip. For example, it is very difficult to secure a clip about a small peripheral portion of ulcerated stomach tissue and therefore it is difficult to effect hemostasis of such bleeding tissue with a clip. Moreover, the problem is amplified when the clip used is very small. In order to prevent dislodgement, a combination of a clip and a staple has been described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,522,823 to Kuntz et al. In the Kuntz clip, one end portion of the clip is pierced through the tissue and captured in an eye of another end portion of the clip to secure the clip on the tissue. With the clip piercing the tissue, the likelihood that the clip will become inadvertently dislodged is greatly reduced. While the Kuntz et al. clip represents a step forward, the disclosed clip is not particularly useful in endoscopic procedures. In particular, both the nature of the clip and the manner in which it is applied are complex. For example, in order to facilitate the bending of the clip through various configurations required of its applier, the clip has portions provided with at least four different widths as well as an eye opening. This complex clip structure is not practical for a clip which is to be used in a flexible endoscopy procedure in which the tools used are of very small diameter, e.g., 2-6 mm (0.08-0.24 inch). In addition, for endoscopic procedures it is highly desirable that multiple clips be able to be applied without removing the clip applier from its general location. The Kuntz et al. clip and applier, however, are not particularly adapted for applying multiple clips, as the Kuntz et al. clip does not stack, and the applier with which it is used holds a single clip at a time. The problems of the Kuntz et al. clip were overcome with the clip described in the parent application hereto. That surgical clip was provided with a generally U-shaped configuration with first and second arms, and a bridge portion therebetween. The first arm was provided with a tip preferably having one or more catches, and the second arm extended into a deformable retainer preferably having a tissue-piercing end and preferably also a hook. During application, the clip was forced over compressed tissue. As the clip was forced over the tissue, the retainer of the second arm was bent and could pierce through the tissue. The retainer was sized to be bent sufficiently toward and around the tip of the first arm so that the hook could engage in one of the catches to secure the clip to the tissue and prevent the clip and tissue from separating. The clip was provided with structure that facilitated the stacking (or chaining) of a plurality of clips in a clip chamber of an applier. The structure included: a notch at a junction of the first arm and the bridge portion adapted to receive the tip of the first arm of another clip; an elongate recess along the exterior of the second arm adapted to receive the retainer of the second arm of another clip; and an interior configuration at the ends of the first and second arms corresponding to an exterior portion of the bridge portion of another clip. While the clip of the parent application overcame the problems of the prior art, it was found that in certain circumstances, the tip of one arm of the clip did not engage the catch on the other arm. In addition, it was found that to effectively dispense the clip, it was preferable that the clip applier include a mechanism which pulled the penultimate (next) clip proximally after the ultimate clip was dispensed in order to ready the clip applier for use again in firing the next clip. Therefore, it was determined that further improvements to the clip could be made. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore an object of the invention to provide a surgical clip which remains secured to the tissue to which it is applied. It is another object of the invention to provide a surgical clip which pierces tissue in order to maintain a secure hold on the tissue to which it is applied. It is a further object of the invention to provide a surgical clip which is adapted for use in minimally invasive surgery. It is an additional object of the invention to provide a surgical clip which can be applied in a flexible endoscopy setting. It is also an object of the invention to provide a surgical clip which can be used with rigid instruments operated through a port in the human body. An additional object of the invention is to provide a surgical clip which is relatively easy to manufacture. A further object of the invention is to provide a surgical clip which is particularly adapted for use in an applier which holds a plurality of clips. Another object of the invention is to provide a surgical clip which can stack in an axial manner, but which does not require proximal movement of a penultimate clip after firing of the ultimate clip. In accord with these objects, which will be discussed in detail below, a surgical clip is provided having a base portion and two generally parallel, spaced arms extending from the base portion and defining an opening therebetween. The arms terminate distally in fingers which are of reduced width and thickness relative to the arms and which are adapted to be bent towards and past each other. A transition section from each arm to the finger provides curved structures, with the curved structures extending away from each other and providing a wider mouth for the opening between the arms. The arms also have a proximal section with an undercut (reduced height section) which help in flexure of the arms. According to a preferred aspect of the invention, the base is an extended structure having a rounded proximal end with outwardly extending shoulders which are arranged to be engaged by the curved structures of the mouth of another clip. From the shoulders, the base narrows as it extends toward a bridge portion which bridges the arms. At the bridge, the arms are of full thickness and each includes a rearwardly extending fin which overlies the base. The area between the fin and the base provides a protective undercut in which the tips of the fingers of another clip may be protected. It will be appreciated that when a plurality of clips of the invention are stacked axially (linearly), the stack may be advanced by pushing a proximal clip, as the mouth of each clip will push on the shoulders of the base of a forwardly-adjacent clip. As the stack is advanced, the fingers of a rearwardly-adjacent clip are not endangered as the fingers do not engage the base and do not do the pushing. It will also be appreciated that as the stack of clips is advanced, the distal-most (ultimate) clip will be moved into the jaws of the clip applier and over the tissue to be clipped. Full movement of the clip will result in the arms of the clip being formed against an anvil of the clip applier such that the arms are bent preferably through at least ninety degrees, and up to one hundred eighty-degrees; i.e., preferably at least to each other and typically past each other. Additional objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon reference to the detailed description taken in conjunction with the provided figures. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the clip of the invention; FIG. 2 is a side view of the clip of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a top view of the clip of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a train of clips of the invention; FIG. 5 is perspective view of a clip of the invention after forming; FIG. 6 is a side view of a second embodiment of the clip of the invention having a modified base; FIG. 7 is a top view of a third embodiment of the clip of the invention having modified fingers; and FIG. 8 is a side view of a fourth embodiment of the clip invention with a bridge section having shoulders. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Turning now to FIGS. 1-3, a first embodiment of a surgical clip 10 according to the invention is seen. The surgical clip 10 is shown having an extended base portion 12 and two generally parallel, spaced arms 14, 16 extending from the base portion 12 and defining an opening 17 therebetween. The arms 14, 16 terminate distally in fingers or tines 20, 22. As seen best in FIG. 1, the arms 14, 16 have a generally uniform width w, and also have a generally uniform height h along a main portion 14a, 16a, of the arm, although the arms do taper down in height slightly as they extend distally. Between a very proximal portion of the arms 14b, 16b, and the main portions 14a, 16a, an undercut (reduced height) section 14c, 16c is provided which helps in permitting the arms to flex as will be discussed hereinafter. The proximal portions 14b, 16b of the arms include a rearwardly extending fin 14d, 16d which overlie the base 12. The area between the fin and the base provides a protective undercut in which the tips of the fingers of another clip may be protected (as seen in FIG. 4). The distal portions of the arms provide a transition section 14e, 16e from each arm to its associated finger. The transition section is somewhat oval in shape. In particular, the arms at the transition sections 14e, 16e, first increase in height with bumps 14f, 16f on the surfaces 14g, 16g of the arms which face away from each other (for purposes of alignment with a clevis of the clip applier—not shown), and then decrease in height at pushing portions 14h, 16h as they transition toward the fingers 20, 22. At should be appreciated that at the transition sections 14e, 16e, the surfaces 141, 16i of the arms which face each other diverge from each other. This divergence provides a wider mouth area 19 which leads into the opening 17. The fingers 20, 22 of the clip are seen to be of substantially reduced width and thickness relative to the arms. In the embodiment of FIGS. 1-3, the fingers 20, 22 are approximately {fraction (1/3)} the thickness (height) of the arms and terminate in rounded tips 20a, 22a, although if desired, the tips could be sharp. The fingers also taper in width (i.e., they are angle cut) as they extend distally toward their free ends, and are designed such that the sum of the width at their tips plus the width at their bases (where they are attached to the transition sections 14h, 16h of the arms) are preferably slightly less than, but at most, equals the width of the arms. With this arrangement, and as seen best in FIG. 3, the width of the fingers at the mid-section of the fingers is approximately {fraction (1/2)} the width of the arms; and with this arrangement, it is possible for each of the fingers to be bent by 180 degrees past the other finger. If desired, the fingers can be slightly arced (as shown in FIGS. 1, 2, and 4), or they can be flat. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that by providing an arc, the amount of force required to form (buckle) the clip is lowered, and the direction of buckling and the final shape of the clip are dictated. According to a preferred aspect of the invention, and as seen best in FIG. 2, the base 12 is an extended structure having a rounded crown-shaped proximal end 12a with outwardly extending shoulders 12b, 12c. From shoulders 12b, 12c, the base tapers down in height slightly as it extends toward a bridge portion 12d of the base which bridges the arms 14, 16. The length of the base 12 is preferably similar to the length of the fingers 20, 22. As mentioned previously, the areas between the bridge 12d of the base 12 and the fins 14d, 16d of the arms provide protective undercuts in which the tips of the fingers of another clip may be protected (as seen in FIG. 4). Turning now to FIG. 4, it will be appreciated that when a plurality of clips (e.g., 10-1, 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, and 10-5) of the invention are stacked axially (linearly), the stack may be advanced by pushing a proximal clip, as the shoulders 12b, 12c of each forwardly-adjacent clip will be received in the mouth 19 of each rearwardly-adjacent clip (i.e., pushed by the inner surfaces 141, 16i of the pushing sections 14h, 16h) (FIG. 2). As the stack is advanced, the fingers 20, 22 of a rearwardly-adjacent clip are not endangered as the fingers do not engage the base 12 and do not do the pushing. It will also be appreciated that as the stack of clips is advanced, the distal-most (ultimate) clip will be moved into the jaws of the clip applier (not shown) and over the tissue to be clipped (not shown). Because the mouth 19 defined by the transition sections 14e, 16e is wider than the opening 17, the clip can readily extend over tissue, even if the tissue is slightly thicker than the opening 17. In such cases, as the clip is moved over the tissue, the arms 14, 16 can flex outwardly and provide compression to the tissue, with the undercuts 14c, 16c providing additional flexibility to the arms. As discussed in the co-filed previously incorporated U.S. Ser. No. ______ (Docket #IDS-082), the clip 10 is designed such that as the clip is moved over the tissue, the fingers 20, 22 are formed against an anvil of the substantially closed jaws of a clip applier (not shown). As the fingers hit the anvil, the arms are bent preferably through at least ninety degrees, and up to one hundred eighty-degrees; i.e., preferably at least to each other and typically past each other. The fingers are formed such that they will typically contact each other as they extend to and past each other. A clip formed in this manner is seen in FIG. 5. Thus, according to a method of the invention, the clip of the invention is applied over tissue and forced forward such that the fingers of the clip are bent through at least ninety degrees and up to one hundred eighty-degrees around or through tissue. According to the presently preferred embodiment of the invention, the clip 10 of FIGS. 1-4 is made out of titanium. The size of the clip will depend upon its application. By way of example only, for upper gastrointestinal hemostasis applications, the length of the clip is preferably between 5 mm and 9 mm, the width of the clip is preferably between 0.5 mm and 1.5 mm, and the overall height of the clip is between 1 mm and 2 mm, with each arm having a characteristic height of between 0.3 mm and 0.7 mm. The length of the fingers is preferably between 1 mm and 2 mm, and the length of the base is preferably between 1 mm and 3 mm. Also, according to the presently preferred embodiment of the invention, the clip 10 is symmetrical about a longitudinal axis running through the base and between the arms; i.e., the clip may be rotated one hundred-eighty degrees about the axis and the resulting configuration will be the same. Thus, the clip may be stacked with other clips without concern for its orientation. A second embodiment of the clip of the invention is seen in FIG. 6. The clip 10′ is identical to the clip 10 of FIGS. 1-3, except that a hole is provided in the base 12. The hole 12e can extend partially (i.e., as a “blind hole”) or completely through the base and is adapted to receive a marker 26. The marker 26 can be radiographic, MRI-visible, or otherwise visible as desired. Alternatively, the hole can be used to receive a suture. Where a train of clips 10′ are provided, a single suture can be used to run through the holes of all of the clips in the train such that the clips can be cinched together after they are dispensed. A third embodiment of the clip of the invention is seen in FIG. 7. Clip 10″ is identical to clip 10 of FIGS. 1-3 except that the fingers 20″, 22″ do not taper in width (i.e., they are straight). The width of each finger 20″, 22″ is chosen to be approximately {fraction (1/2)} the width of the arms. A fourth (less preferred) embodiment of a surgical clip 110 is seen in FIG. 8. The surgical clip 110 includes a base or bridge 112 and two generally parallel, spaced arms 114, 116 extending from the bridge 112 and defining an opening 117 therebetween. The arms 114, 116 terminate distally in fingers or tines 120, 122. The arms 114, 116 have a generally uniform width, and also have a generally uniform height h along a main portion 114a, 116a, of the arm, although the arms do taper down in height slightly as they extend distally. The arms also include proximal portions 114b, 116b which are sized to be about the same length as fingers 120, 122. Between the proximal portion of the arms 114b, 116b, and the main portions 114a, 116a, the arms 114, 116 are provided with an undercut (reduced height) section 114c, 116c which helps in permitting the arms to flex, and an optional rearwardly extending fin 114d, 116d which overlies the proximal portion of the arms 114b, 116b. The areas between the fins and the proximal portions of the arms provides protective undercuts in which the tips of the fingers of another clip may be protected. The distal portions of the arms provide a transition section 114e, 116e from each arm to its associated finger. The transition section is somewhat oval in shape. In particular, the arms at the transition sections 114e, 116e, first increase in height with bumps 114f, 116f on the surfaces 114g, 116g of the arms which face away from each other (for purposes of alignment with a clevis of the clip applier—not shown), and then decrease in height at pushing portions 114h, 116h as they transition toward the fingers 120, 122. At should be appreciated that at the transition sections 114e, 116e, the surfaces 1141, 116i of the arms which face each other diverge from each other. This divergence provides a wider mouth area 119 which leads into the opening 117. The fingers 120, 122 of the clip are of substantially reduced width and thickness relative to the arms. In the embodiment of FIG. 8, the fingers 120, 122 are approximately {fraction (1/3)} the thickness (height) of the arms and terminate in rounded tips 120a, 122a, although if desired, the tips could be sharp. The fingers also taper in width (i.e., they are angle cut) as they extend distally toward their free ends, and are designed such that the sum of the width at their tips plus the width at their bases (where they are attached to the transition sections 114h, 116h of the arms) are preferably slightly less than, but at most, equals the width of the arms. In the embodiment of FIG. 8, the bridge 112 is not an extended structure although it has a rounded crown-shape. The bridge is provided with outwardly extending shoulders 112a, 112b which are sized to be engaged by pushing portions 114h, 116h of another clip 110. According to another aspect of the invention, the clips of the invention may be color coded. In one embodiment, the clips are colored based on the procedure with which the clip is to be used; e.g., red for marking; green for attachment of feeding tubes; blue for hemostasis, yellow for tissue approximation, black for the upper gastrointestinal tract, cyan for the lower gastrointestinal tract, etc. According to another embodiment, each clip in a train is provided with a different color, so that the practitioner will know which clip is being dispensed and how many clips are left for dispensing. For example, if seven or fewer clips are used, they may be provided with rainbow colors in the known order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue . . . , so that the practitioner will always know that the red clip was dispensed first, the orange next, etc. (or in the reverse order). According to yet another embodiment, only the last (most proximal) clip or the penultimate clip in the train may be colored with a color different than the other clips. In this manner, the practitioner will know that the last, or next-to-last clip has been dispensed. Thus, with color-coded clips, the method of the invention includes viewing the dispensed clip as it is dispensed or after it is dispensed, determining the color of that clip, and making a determination relative to a clip applier (e.g., whether to remove the clip applier from the surgical site, or to locate the clip applier where a “last” clip is to be applied before removing the clip applier from the surgical site) based on the color of the clip. There have been described and illustrated herein several embodiments of a surgical clip and a method of applying the surgical clips to tissue. While particular embodiments of the invention have been described, it is not intended that the invention be limited thereto, as it is intended that the invention be as broad in scope as the art will allow and that the specification be read likewise. Thus, while particular sizes of clips have been disclosed, it will be appreciated that other sizes could be used as well. In addition, while particular materials have been disclosed, it will be understood that other materials can be used. Further, while the fingers of the clips were described as having a thickness or height approximately one-third the height of the arms, it will be appreciated that fingers of thicknesses of one-half the height of the arms or more could be utilized, or thicknesses less than one-third the height could be utilized. It will therefore be appreciated by those skilled in the art that yet other modifications could be made to the provided invention without deviating from its spirit and scope as claimed. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates broadly to surgical devices. More particularly, this invention relates to a surgical clip for clamping and/or suturing ducts, vessels, and other tissues, or for anchoring a tissue, or for attaching a foreign body to a tissue. 2. State of the Art Surgical clips are generally used to apply clamping force to ducts, vessels, and other tissues. In addition, surgical clips are particularly useful in controlling bleeding of a tissue in lieu of suturing or stapling where suturing or stapling is difficult. However, in certain circumstances, the bleeding tissue is lubricous, and applied clips often slip from the tissue and are dislodged, removing the necessary clamping force thereabout. This is particularly a problem when a clip is provided about tissue which is not a conduit of a size which can be completely surrounded by the clip. For example, it is very difficult to secure a clip about a small peripheral portion of ulcerated stomach tissue and therefore it is difficult to effect hemostasis of such bleeding tissue with a clip. Moreover, the problem is amplified when the clip used is very small. In order to prevent dislodgement, a combination of a clip and a staple has been described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,522,823 to Kuntz et al. In the Kuntz clip, one end portion of the clip is pierced through the tissue and captured in an eye of another end portion of the clip to secure the clip on the tissue. With the clip piercing the tissue, the likelihood that the clip will become inadvertently dislodged is greatly reduced. While the Kuntz et al. clip represents a step forward, the disclosed clip is not particularly useful in endoscopic procedures. In particular, both the nature of the clip and the manner in which it is applied are complex. For example, in order to facilitate the bending of the clip through various configurations required of its applier, the clip has portions provided with at least four different widths as well as an eye opening. This complex clip structure is not practical for a clip which is to be used in a flexible endoscopy procedure in which the tools used are of very small diameter, e.g., 2-6 mm (0.08-0.24 inch). In addition, for endoscopic procedures it is highly desirable that multiple clips be able to be applied without removing the clip applier from its general location. The Kuntz et al. clip and applier, however, are not particularly adapted for applying multiple clips, as the Kuntz et al. clip does not stack, and the applier with which it is used holds a single clip at a time. The problems of the Kuntz et al. clip were overcome with the clip described in the parent application hereto. That surgical clip was provided with a generally U-shaped configuration with first and second arms, and a bridge portion therebetween. The first arm was provided with a tip preferably having one or more catches, and the second arm extended into a deformable retainer preferably having a tissue-piercing end and preferably also a hook. During application, the clip was forced over compressed tissue. As the clip was forced over the tissue, the retainer of the second arm was bent and could pierce through the tissue. The retainer was sized to be bent sufficiently toward and around the tip of the first arm so that the hook could engage in one of the catches to secure the clip to the tissue and prevent the clip and tissue from separating. The clip was provided with structure that facilitated the stacking (or chaining) of a plurality of clips in a clip chamber of an applier. The structure included: a notch at a junction of the first arm and the bridge portion adapted to receive the tip of the first arm of another clip; an elongate recess along the exterior of the second arm adapted to receive the retainer of the second arm of another clip; and an interior configuration at the ends of the first and second arms corresponding to an exterior portion of the bridge portion of another clip. While the clip of the parent application overcame the problems of the prior art, it was found that in certain circumstances, the tip of one arm of the clip did not engage the catch on the other arm. In addition, it was found that to effectively dispense the clip, it was preferable that the clip applier include a mechanism which pulled the penultimate (next) clip proximally after the ultimate clip was dispensed in order to ready the clip applier for use again in firing the next clip. Therefore, it was determined that further improvements to the clip could be made. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is therefore an object of the invention to provide a surgical clip which remains secured to the tissue to which it is applied. It is another object of the invention to provide a surgical clip which pierces tissue in order to maintain a secure hold on the tissue to which it is applied. It is a further object of the invention to provide a surgical clip which is adapted for use in minimally invasive surgery. It is an additional object of the invention to provide a surgical clip which can be applied in a flexible endoscopy setting. It is also an object of the invention to provide a surgical clip which can be used with rigid instruments operated through a port in the human body. An additional object of the invention is to provide a surgical clip which is relatively easy to manufacture. A further object of the invention is to provide a surgical clip which is particularly adapted for use in an applier which holds a plurality of clips. Another object of the invention is to provide a surgical clip which can stack in an axial manner, but which does not require proximal movement of a penultimate clip after firing of the ultimate clip. In accord with these objects, which will be discussed in detail below, a surgical clip is provided having a base portion and two generally parallel, spaced arms extending from the base portion and defining an opening therebetween. The arms terminate distally in fingers which are of reduced width and thickness relative to the arms and which are adapted to be bent towards and past each other. A transition section from each arm to the finger provides curved structures, with the curved structures extending away from each other and providing a wider mouth for the opening between the arms. The arms also have a proximal section with an undercut (reduced height section) which help in flexure of the arms. According to a preferred aspect of the invention, the base is an extended structure having a rounded proximal end with outwardly extending shoulders which are arranged to be engaged by the curved structures of the mouth of another clip. From the shoulders, the base narrows as it extends toward a bridge portion which bridges the arms. At the bridge, the arms are of full thickness and each includes a rearwardly extending fin which overlies the base. The area between the fin and the base provides a protective undercut in which the tips of the fingers of another clip may be protected. It will be appreciated that when a plurality of clips of the invention are stacked axially (linearly), the stack may be advanced by pushing a proximal clip, as the mouth of each clip will push on the shoulders of the base of a forwardly-adjacent clip. As the stack is advanced, the fingers of a rearwardly-adjacent clip are not endangered as the fingers do not engage the base and do not do the pushing. It will also be appreciated that as the stack of clips is advanced, the distal-most (ultimate) clip will be moved into the jaws of the clip applier and over the tissue to be clipped. Full movement of the clip will result in the arms of the clip being formed against an anvil of the clip applier such that the arms are bent preferably through at least ninety degrees, and up to one hundred eighty-degrees; i.e., preferably at least to each other and typically past each other. Additional objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon reference to the detailed description taken in conjunction with the provided figures. | 20040614 | 20100601 | 20050210 | 61840.0 | 0 | BLATT, ERIC D | SURGICAL CLIP | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,867,528 | ACCEPTED | Method and system for producing gas and liquid in a subterranean well | A method for producing a gas and a liquid in a subterranean well includes the step directing a gas flow in a well annulus through one or more baffle plates to separate at least some of the liquid from the gas. The method can also include the steps of directing the separated liquid down the annulus towards a producing formation of the well, dehydrating the gas flow proximate to a surface of the well, and then directing the dehydrated gas flow to the surface. A system for performing the method includes a set of baffle plates located proximate to the producing formation configured to provide a tortuous path for the gas flow through the annulus, and a single baffle plate located proximate to the surface configured to dehydrate the gas flow. In addition to separating the liquid from the gas flow, the set of baffle plates maintains a single phase wet gas above the baffle plates, and a liquid phase below the baffle plates. | 1. A method for producing a gas and a liquid in a well having an annulus comprising: directing the gas through at least one baffle plate in the annulus to separate at least some of the liquid from the gas. 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising directing the liquid separated during the directing step downward through the annulus. 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the well includes a pump for pumping the liquid, and further comprising directing the liquid separated during the directing step downward through the annulus to the pump. 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the well includes a cavity for accumulating the gas and the liquid, and the at least one baffle plate is located proximate to the cavity. 5. The method of claim 1 further comprising placing a second baffle plate proximate to a surface of the well, and directing the gas through the second baffle plate. 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the well includes a tubular configured to produce the gas and the liquid to the surface by formation pressure and the at least one baffle plate is located proximate to an inlet of the tubular. 7. The method of claim 1 wherein the well includes a tubular having a perforated section configured to produce the gas and the liquid to the surface by formation pressure and the at least one baffle plate is located proximate to the perforated section. 8. The method of claim 1 wherein the well includes a casing having a perforated section configured to produce the gas and the liquid to the surface by formation pressure and the at least one baffle plate is located proximate to the perforated section. 9. A method for producing a gas and a liquid in a well having a pump and an annulus comprising: directing the gas through a baffle plate in the annulus located proximate to the pump; removing at least some of the liquid from the gas using the baffle plate; and directing the liquid from the removing step down the annulus to the pump. 10. The method of claim 9 further comprising prior to the directing the gas step placing the baffle plate proximate to the pump. 11. The method of claim 9 wherein the baffle plate comprises a plate having at least one through opening attached to a tubular in the annulus in flow communication with the pump. 12. The method of claim 9 further comprising placing a second baffle plate in the annulus proximate to a surface of the well and directing the gas through the second baffle plate. 13. The method of claim 9 wherein the gas comprises methane and the liquid comprises water. 14. The method of claim 9 wherein the well includes a cavity in a geological formation and the pump is located in the cavity. 15. A method for producing from a well having a cavity, a casing in flow communication with the cavity, a pump in the cavity, a tubular in the casing in flow communication with the pump, and an annulus between the tubular and the casing, the method comprising: directing a gas from the cavity through the annulus and through a baffle plate in the annulus proximate to the pump; and separating a liquid from the gas during the directing step using the baffle plate. 16. The method of claim 15 further comprising providing a second baffle plate in the annulus proximate to a surface of the well, and separating at least some of the liquid from the gas using the second baffle plate. 17. The method of claim 15 further comprising directing a liquid flow from the baffle plate through the annulus to the cavity. 18. The method of claim 15 wherein the baffle plate comprises a circular plate having least one through opening and an outside diameter approximately equal to an inside diameter of the casing. 19. The method of claim 15 wherein the gas comprises methane and the liquid comprises water. 20. In a well having a casing, a tubular in the casing, and an annulus between the tubular and the casing, a method for producing from the well comprising: directing a gas from a producing formation of the well into the annulus, through a first baffle plate in the annulus located proximate to the producing formation, and through a second baffle plate in the annulus located proximate to a surface of the well, the first baffle plate and the second baffle plate each having an outside diameter approximately equal to an inside diameter of the casing and at least one through opening; condensing a liquid in the gas using the first baffle plate; directing the liquid from the condensing step from the first baffle plate through the annulus towards the producing formation; and dehydrating the gas using the second baffle plate. 21. The method of claim 20 further comprising placing the first baffle plate in the annulus proximate to the producing formation and the second baffle plate in the annulus proximate to the surface prior to the directing the gas step. 22. The method of claim 20 wherein the well includes a pump in flow communication with the tubular configured to pump the liquid from the producing formation to the surface. 23. The method of claim 20 wherein the tubular is configured to produce the gas and the liquid to the surface by formation pressure and the first baffle plate is located proximate to an inlet of the tubular. 24. The method of claim 20 wherein the tubular includes a perforated section configured to produce the gas and the liquid to the surface by formation pressure and the baffle plate is located proximate to the perforated section. 25. The method of claim 20 wherein the casing includes a perforated section configured in flow communication with the producing formation by formation pressure and the at least one baffle plate is located proximate to the perforated section. 26. The method of claim 20 wherein the first baffle plate is part of a set of baffle plates. 27. The method of claim 26 wherein the set of baffle plates includes at least one baffle plate having an arcuate slot therein. 28. The method of claim 20 wherein the casing extends from the surface to a cavity in a coal seam. 29. The method of claim 20 wherein the tubular includes a male nipple attached to a female coupling with the first baffle plate therebetween. 30. A method for producing from a well having a producing formation, a casing in flow communication with the producing formation, a tubular in the casing in flow communication with the producing formation, and an annulus between the tubular and the casing, the method comprising: directing a gas from the producing formation through the annulus and through a baffle plate in the annulus proximate; and separating a liquid from the gas during the directing step using the baffle plate. 31. The method of claim 30 wherein the baffle plate is located proximate to the producing formation. 32. The method of claim 30 further comprising providing a second baffle plate in the annulus proximate to a surface of the well, and separating at least some of the liquid from the gas using the second baffle plate. 33. The method of claim 30 wherein the baffle plate comprises a circular plate having least one through opening and an outside diameter approximately equal to an inside diameter of the casing. 34. The method of claim 30 wherein the gas comprises methane and the liquid comprises water. 35. A system for producing a gas and a liquid in a well comprising: at least one baffle plate in the well configured to provide a tortuous path for the gas through the well and to separate at least some of the liquid from the gas. 36. The system of claim 35 wherein the well includes a casing, a tubular in the casing and an annulus between the casing and the tubular and the at least one baffle plate is located in the annulus. 37. The system of claim 35 further comprising a second baffle plate in the annulus proximate to a surface of the well. 38. The system of claim 35 wherein the at least one baffle plate is located proximate to a producing formation of the well. 39. The system of claim 35 wherein the well includes a downhole pump and the at least one baffle plate is located proximate to the pump. 40. The system of claim 35 wherein the well includes a perforating section of casing proximate to a producing formation and the baffle plate is located proximate to the perforating section. 41. The system of claim 35 wherein the well includes a tubular having an inlet in flow communication with a producing formation and the at least one baffle plate is located proximate to the inlet. 42. The system of claim 35 wherein the gas comprises methane and the liquid comprises water. 43. A system for producing a gas and a liquid in a well having a surface, a producing formation and an annulus comprising: a first baffle plate in the annulus proximate to the producing formation configured to separate at least some of the liquid from the gas flowing in the annulus; and a second baffle plate in the annulus proximate to the surface configured to dehydrate the gas flowing in the annulus to the surface. 44. The system of claim 43 further comprising a tubular in flow communication with the producing formation configured to provide a flow conduit for the gas and the liquid to the surface. 45. The system of claim 43 further comprising a pump in flow communication with the producing formation and a tubular in flow communication with the pump configured to provide a flow conduit for the liquid to the surface. 46. The system of claim 43 further comprising a tubular in flow communication with the producing formation and wherein the first baffle plate and the second baffle plate are attached to the tubular. 47. The system of claim 43 wherein the well includes a cavity in a coal seam and a pump located in the cavity. 48. The system of claim 43 wherein the first baffle plate and the second baffle plate each comprise a plurality of circular openings. 49. The system of claim 43 wherein the first baffle plate is part of a set of baffle plates which includes a third baffle plate having a first slot, and a fourth baffle plate having a second slot oriented approximately 180° from the first slot. 50. The system of claim 43 wherein the first baffle plate comprises a polycarbonate. 51. The system of claim 43 wherein the second baffle plate comprises a polycarbonate. 52. A system for producing a gas and a liquid in a well having a surface, a casing, a pump, a tubular in the casing in flow communication with the pump, and an annulus between the tubular and the casing comprising: a plurality of baffle plates attached to the tubular proximate to the pump configured to provide a tortuous path for the gas flowing up the annulus, and to separate at least some of the liquid from the gas; and at least one baffle plate attached to the tubular proximate to the surface configured to dehydrate at least some of the liquid from the gas. 53. The system of claim 52 wherein the plurality of baffle plates and the single baffle plate have an outside diameter approximately equal to an inside diameter of the casing. 54. The system of claim 52 wherein the plurality of baffle plates include a first baffle plate having a plurality of circular openings, a second baffle plate having a first arcuate slot, and a third baffle plate having a second arcuate slot. 55. The system of claim 52 wherein the at least one baffle plate includes a plurality of circular openings in a selected pattern. 56. The system of claim 52 wherein the tubular includes a plurality of male nipples attached to corresponding female couplings with the baffle plates clamped between the nipples and the couplings. 57. The system of claim 52 wherein the plurality of baffle plates is located about one to thirty feet from the pump. 58. The system of claim 52 wherein the single baffle plate is located about thirty to sixty feet from the surface. 59. In a well having a surface, a casing, a producing formation, a tubular in the casing having an inlet in flow communication with the producing formation, and an annulus between the tubular and the casing, a system for producing a gas and a liquid from the well comprising: a set of baffle plates attached to the tubular proximate to the inlet configured to separate and direct at least some liquid from a gas flow in the annulus back down the annulus towards the producing formation; and a single baffle plate attached to the tubular proximate to the surface configured to dehydrate the gas flow in the annulus to the surface. 60. The system of claim 59 wherein the set of baffle plates includes a first baffle plate having a plurality of first circular openings therethrough, a second baffle plate having a first slot therethrough, and a third baffle plate having a second slot therethrough. 61. The system of claim 59 wherein the single baffle plate includes a plurality of second circular openings therethrough. 62. The system of claim 59 wherein each baffle plate of the set of baffle plate comprises a polycarbonate. 63. The system of claim 59 wherein the single baffle plate comprises a polycarbonate. 64. The system of claim 59 wherein the casing includes a perforated section in flow communication with the producing formation. 65. The system of claim 59 wherein the tubular includes a perforated section in flow communication with the producing formation. 66. The system of claim 59 wherein the well includes a pump in flow communication with the producing formation and the tubular. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to subterranean wells, and more particularly to a method and system for producing gas and liquid in a subterranean well. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Subterranean wells are used to produce various gases and liquids. For example, a subterranean well can be used to produce methane gas and liquid water from a coal seam. This type of subterranean well can include a well bore from the surface to the coal seam, a well casing cemented to the well bore, and a metal tubular within the well casing. The well can also include a submerged pump located within an under reamed cavity in the coal seam. During production from the well, water is pumped from the cavity, and through the tubular, to water production equipment at the surface. In addition, gas flows from the coal seam into the cavity, and through the annulus between the tubular and the well casing, to gas production equipment at the surface. The methane gas can cause various problems with the submerged pump during production from the well. For example, the pump can experience vapor lock due to excessive gas flow through the pump. This vapor lock can create inefficient pump operation, and excessive duty time for the pump motor. In addition, motor cycling and gas moving through the pump can cause excessive motor heating, and premature failure of the pump and/or motor. Production of gas through the tubular is also a problem, as this gas is entrained with the water, rather than being produced to the gas production equipment at the surface. One prior art approach to gas flow through the pump is the use of gas shrouds on the pump, which prevent gas from entering the pump inlet. U.S. Pat. No. 6,361,272 B1 to Bassett entitled “Centrifugal Submersible Pump”, discloses a submersible pump having this type of gas shroud. However, gas shrouds are not always effective in coal bed methane wells, or other pumping installations, which require the pump to be landed within the cavity in the coal seam, or above a producing zone of the well. In addition, gas can be driven downward and into the pump in a u-tubing manner, as heads of water fall back down the annulus, after they can no longer be lifted toward the surface by gas flowing up the annulus. The liquid water can also cause various problems during production from the well. For example, water and/or wet gas flowing in the annulus of the well can enter the gas production equipment at the surface. This water can cause excess flowline pressures, lines filling with water, and metering errors in the gas production equipment. Water in the annulus, and water heads moving up and down the annulus, can also create harmful fluid column effects, such as unsteady production of water and/or gas from the well, due to the relative position and amount of fluid movement in the annulus. One prior art approach to water accumulation in the gas production equipment is the use of drips and blowdown lines in low-lying areas of the gas production equipment, such as surface gas lines. These drips must be vented regularly to blow out the accumulated water. Typically, due to the low pressures in coal bed methane gas lines (e.g., less than 20 psig), the blowing of drips is manpower intensive, and inefficient in comparison to lines operating at higher pressures. It would be advantageous to eliminate water entirely from gas production equipment at the surface, and the need to blow drips from this equipment. The present invention is directed to a novel method and system for producing gas and liquid in a subterranean well, in which gas flow through a submersible pump, and liquid flow through a well annulus to the surface, are substantially eliminated. In addition, the method and system can be adapted to different types of wells, including wells that employ formation pressures rather than pumps, to move the gas and the liquid. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the present invention, a method and a system for producing a gas and a liquid in a subterranean well having an annulus are provided. The method, broadly stated, comprises directing the gas and the liquid in the annulus through at least one baffle plate in the annulus to separate at least some of the liquid from the gas. The separated liquid is directed downward towards a producing formation of the well, while the gas continues upward towards a surface of the well. The method can be performed in wells having a downhole pump for producing the liquid to the surface, and in wells that use formation pressures to produce the liquid to the surface. In a first embodiment the system includes a set of baffle plates mounted in the well annulus proximate to a pump of the well, and a single baffle plate mounted in the well annulus proximate to the surface of the well. The set of baffle plates can comprise annular plates threadably attached to a metal tubular of the well, and having one or more through openings in a selected geometry and pattern. The set of baffle plates are configured to create a tortuous flow path through which any gas flow (or liquid flow) moving in either direction in the well annulus must pass. In addition to separating the liquid from the gas, the set of baffle plates maintains a wet gas phase above the set of baffle plates, and a liquid phase below the set of baffle plates. The single baffle plate is configured to further dehydrate the gas flowing to the gas production equipment at the surface. The system prevents vapor lock in the pump, eliminates the need for a gas shroud on the pump, and improves the efficiency of the pump. The system also prevents liquid from surfacing and collecting in liquid production equipment, and reduces overall system back pressures caused by liquid low spots in the liquid production equipment. In addition, the system improves gas flow in the annulus, reduces gas loss through production with the liquid, and reduces effective formation backpressures caused by a higher density fluid in the annulus above the producing formation. A second embodiment system includes a single baffle plate in the well annulus located proximate to the surface of the well. A third embodiment system includes a set of baffle plates in the well annulus located proximate to the pump of the well. A fourth embodiment system includes a set of baffle plates located proximate to an inlet of a tubular configured to produce gas and liquid by formation pressure. A fifth embodiment system includes a set of baffle plates located proximate to a perforated casing and a perforated tubular configured to produce gas and liquid by formation pressure. A sixth embodiment system includes a set of baffle plates located proximate to an inlet of a tubular located above a perforated section of casing configured to produce gas and liquid by formation pressure. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic cross sectional view of a gas well having a system for producing gas and liquid in accordance with the invention; FIG. 1A is a cross sectional view with parts removed taken along section line 1A-1A of FIG. 1 illustrating a first baffle plate of the system; FIG. 1B is a cross sectional view with parts removed taken along section line 1B-1B of FIG. 1 illustrating a second baffle plate of the system; FIG. 1C is a cross sectional view with parts removed taken along section line 1C-1C of FIG. 1 illustrating a third baffle plate of the system; FIG. 1D is a cross sectional view with parts removed taken along section line 1D-1D of FIG. 1 illustrating a fourth baffle plate of the system; FIG. 1E is an enlarged view with parts removed taken along line 1E of FIG. 1 illustrating a set of baffle plates of the system; FIG. 2A is a schematic cross sectional view illustrating the well with the system of FIG. 1; FIG. 2B is a graph illustrating operational parameters of the well with the system of FIG. 1; FIG. 3A is a schematic cross sectional view illustrating a gas well with a second embodiment system having a single baffle plate; FIG. 3B is a graph illustrating operational parameters of the well with the system of FIG. 3A; FIG. 3C is a graph illustrating operational characteristics of the well with the system of FIG. 3A; FIG. 4A is a schematic cross sectional view illustrating a gas well having a third embodiment system with a set of baffle plate; FIG. 4B is a graph illustrating operational parameters of the well with the system of FIG. 4A; FIG. 4C is a graph illustrating operational parameters of the well with the system of FIG. 4A; FIG. 5 is a schematic cross sectional view illustrating a siphon string gas well having a fourth embodiment system; FIG. 6 is a schematic cross sectional view illustrating a dead string gas well having a fifth embodiment system; and FIG. 7 is a schematic cross sectional view illustrating a conventional flowing gas well having a sixth embodiment system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring to FIG. 1, a system 10 (first embodiment) and a well 12 for producing a gas and a liquid in accordance with the invention are illustrated. In the system 10, the well 12 comprises a coal bed methane well, the gas comprises methane, and the liquid comprises water. However, as will be further explained, the system 10 can be adapted to different types of wells and downhole configurations including wells pumped with a surface mounted beam pump jack, sucker rods, and a downhole rod activated pump. The well 12 includes a well bore 16, and a well casing 14 within the well bore 16 surrounded by concrete 18. The well 12 extends from an earthen surface 20 through geological formations within the earth, which are represented as Zones A, B and C, with Zone C comprising a producing formation, such as a coal seam. The well casing 14 can comprise a plurality of cylindrical metal tubulars, such as lengths of metal pipe or tubing, attached to one another by collars (not shown), or weldments (not shown), configured to form a conduit for gas transmission therethrough. The well 12 also includes a tubular 22 within the well casing 14, which can also comprise a plurality of cylindrical metal tubulars configured to form a conduit for liquid transmission through the inside diameter thereof. The tubular 22 has an outside diameter which is less than an inside diameter of the well casing 14, such that an annulus 24 is formed between the tubular 22 and the well casing 14 for the gas transmission. The annulus 24 is in flow communication with gas production equipment 30 at the surface 20. Similarly, the inside diameter of the tubular 22 is in flow communication with liquid production equipment 32 at the surface 20. The well 12 also includes a cavity 34 in the producing formation (Zone C). The cavity 34 can comprise an uncased portion of the well bore 16 or a cased portion having flow openings in the well casing 14. The cavity 34 can also comprise an under reamed cavity having a size larger than the well bore 16 formed using techniques that are known in the art. In the illustrative embodiment, the well casing 14 includes a casing shoe 40 within the cavity 34 configured to direct gas flow from the cavity 34 into the annulus 24. Also in the illustrative embodiment, the gas comprises methane gas, which flows under a natural or externally generated pressure from the producing formation (Zone C) into the cavity 34. The paths of a gas flow 26 in the well 12 will be more fully described as the description proceeds. The well 12 also includes a submersible pump 36 in the cavity 34 powered by an electric motor 38. The inlet of the pump 36 is in flow communication with any standing liquid accumulating within the cavity 34. In the illustrative embodiment, the liquid comprises water, which flows under a natural or externally generated pressure from producing formation (Zone C) into the cavity 34. The outlet of the pump 36 is in flow communication with the inside diameter of the tubular 22, and with the liquid production equipment 32. The pump 36 thus pumps the liquid from the cavity 34 through the inside diameter of the tubular 22 to the liquid production equipment 32. However, some of the liquid also flows into the annulus 24 in both an upward and a downward direction. The paths of a liquid flow 28 in the well 12 will be more fully described as the description proceeds. The system 10 includes a set of baffle plates 42 attached to the tubular 22, and located at a selected depth in the well 12. Preferably the set of baffle plates 42 is located proximate to the producing formation (Zone C), the cavity 34, the pump 36 and the casing shoe 40. The set of baffle plates 42 includes a first baffle plate 46, a second baffle plate 48 and a third baffle plate 50. The baffle plates 46, 48, 50 are arranged in a stacked array with the first baffle plate 46 being furthest from the surface 20, the second baffle plate 48 being between the first baffle plate 46 and the third baffle plate 50, and the third baffle plate 50 being closest to the surface 20. In the illustrative embodiment, the set of baffle plates 42 is located in close proximity to the cavity 34, the casing shoe 40 and the pump 36. By way of example, a distance D1 between the set of baffle plates 42 and the edge of the casing shoe 40 (with the casing shoe 40 and the pump 36 being located in the cavity 34 in close proximity to one another) can be from about one foot to thirty feet. The first baffle plate 46, the second baffle plate 48 and the third baffle plate 50 can also be separated from one another by a selected distance, with from one foot to three feet of separation between adjacent baffle plates 46, 48 or 50 being representative. However, it is to be understood that the number, placement and separation of the baffle plate 46, 48 and 50 are merely exemplary, and other arrangements with a fewer or greater number of baffle plates can be employed. The set of baffle plates 42 is configured to create a tortuous path for the gas flow 26 and the liquid flow 28 moving mainly in an upward direction, but also in a downward direction in the annulus 24. In addition, the set of baffle plates 42 is configured to separate the liquid from the gas, and to maintain a line of separation in the annulus 24, above which a single phase wet gas is present, and below which a head of liquid is present. Further, gas flow into the pump 36 is substantially reduced because the set of baffle plates 42 maintains the head of liquid proximate to the pump 36. Still further, the set of baffle plates 42 prevents liquid columns from developing in the annulus 24 due to liquid entrained in the gas stream rising to a certain depth, and then falling back onto the pump 36 and the cavity 34. This liquid fallback can carry gas into the intake of the pump 36, which is detrimental to the performance of the pump 36. As shown in FIG. 1A, the first baffle plate 46 has a generally circular peripheral configuration, which matches the circular cross sectional shape of the inside diameter of the well casing 14. In addition, the outside diameter of the first baffle plate 46 is only slightly less than the inside diameter of the well casing 14, such that the first baffle plate 46 fits snuggly within the well casing 14. The second baffle plate 48 and the third baffle plate 50 have a same size and outside peripheral shape as the first baffle plate 46. As shown in FIG. 1, the gas flow 26 and the liquid flow 28 in the annulus 24 must thus pass through the set of baffle plates 42, as there is little or no space between the outside diameter of the baffle plates 46, 48, 50 and the inside diameter of the well casing 14. As shown in FIG. 1A, the first baffle plate 46 includes a plurality of through openings 52, which comprise circles with a selected size and in a selected pattern. The first baffle plate 46 provides a solid surface area for collecting and condensing the liquid, while the openings 52 allow the gas flow 26 and the liquid flow 28 through the annulus 24. As shown in FIG. 1 B, the second baffle plate 48 includes a single opening 54, which comprises an arcuate slot having a selected width and arcuate length. As shown in FIG. 1C, the third baffle plate 50 also includes a single opening 56, which comprises an arcuate slot having a selected width and arcuate length. In addition, the second baffle plate 48 and the third baffle plate 50 are oriented in the annulus 24, such that the openings 54, 56 have opposing orientations which are 180° apart. The system 10 also includes a single baffle plate 44 located at a selected depth in the well 12 proximate to the surface 20. The single baffle plate 44 is configured to act as a final dehydration mechanism to remove as much liquid as possible from the gas flow 26 before it enters the gas production equipment 30. As shown in FIG. 1D, the single baffle plate 44 is substantially similar in construction to the first baffle plate 46, and includes a plurality of circular through openings 58 with a selected size and in a selected pattern. The single baffle plate 44 can be located a selected distance D2 from the surface 20 with from thirty to sixty feet being representative. The baffle plates 46, 48, 50 for the set of baffle plates 42, and the single baffle plate 44, can be made of a machineable material able to resist the corrosive gases and fluids encountered in the subterranean well 12. One suitable material comprises a plastic, such as “LEXAN” polycarbonate manufactured by the General Electric Company, Polymer Product Department, Pittsfield, Mass. Other suitable materials include stainless steel, steel and brass. The set of baffle plates 42, and the single baffle plate 44 can be attached to the tubular 22 in any suitable manner. One suitable configuration for the set of baffle plates 42 is illustrated in FIG. 1E. In the illustrative embodiment, threaded male pipe nipples 60 are configured to attach the set of baffle plates 42 to the tubular 22 at each end. Alternately, the set of baffle plates 42 can be attached to the tubular 22 at an upper end, and directly to the outlet of the pump 36 at a lower end. As shown in FIG. 1E, the nipples 60 mate with threaded female pipe couplings 62. In addition, the baffle plates 46, 48, 50 have threaded openings 64 that threadably engage mating outside threads cut in the nipples 60, proximate to shoulder portions thereof. In the illustrative embodiment, the baffle plates 46, 48, 50 have a thickness of about 0.5 inches, and the nipples 60 have an extra thread of about this same thickness. Each baffle plate 46, 48, 50 is threadably attached to a nipple 60, which is then threadably attached to a coupling 62. Each baffle plate 46, 48, 50 is thus sandwiched between a nipple 60 and a coupling 62. In addition, the second baffle plate 48 is separated from the first baffle plate 46, and from the third baffle plate 50, by a nipple 60 and a coupling 62. In the illustrative embodiment, this separation distance is about one foot between adjacent baffle plates 46, 48, 50. The uppermost nipple 60 threadably engages a corresponding coupling or female threads on the tubular 22. Similarly, the lowermost nipple 60 threadably engages a corresponding coupling or female threads on the tubular 22 on the pump 36. The inside diameter of the tubular 22 is thus in flow communication with the inside diameter of the nipples 60 and the couplings 62. However, it is to be understood that this arrangement is merely exemplary and other mechanisms, such as brackets or weldments, can be used to attach the set of baffle plates 42 to the tubular 22. The single baffle plate 44 can be similarly mounted to a nipple 60 and a coupling 62, and attached to the tubular 22. Referring to FIG. 2A, the operation of the well 12 and the system 10 (FIG. 1) are illustrated schematically. As shown in FIG. 2A, the liquid flow 28 initiates in the producing formation (Zone C), such that liquid accumulates in the cavity 34, and flows into the inlet of the pump 36. As indicated by the upward liquid flow 28 through the tubular 22, the pump 36 pumps the liquid through the tubular 22 to the liquid production equipment 32 at the surface 20. The gas flow 26 also initiates in the producing formation (Zone C), such that the gas accumulates in the cavity 34, and is directed through the casing shoe 40 into the annulus 24. The baffle plates 46, 48, 50 create a tortuous path for the gas flow 26, and at least some of the liquid entrained in the gas is condensed, and drops from the baffle plates 46, 48, 50 back into the cavity 34, as indicated by the downward liquid flow 28 from the baffle plates 46, 48, 50. This condensed liquid accumulates in the cavity 34, and is pumped by the pump 36 through the tubular 22 to the liquid production equipment 32 at the surface 20. In addition, the formation of heads of liquid in the annulus 24 is substantially eliminated, such that back pressure on the natural gas pressure in producing formation (Zone C) is reduced. This improves the flow of gas from the producing formation (Zone C) into the annulus 24. As shown in FIG. 2A, the gas flow 26 continues through the annulus 24 to the single baffle plate 44, which acts as a final dehydration mechanism for separating at least some of the liquid entrained in the gas flow 26. As indicated by the upward gas flow 26 from the single baffle plate 44, a single phase gas flows through the annulus 24 to the gas production equipment 30 at the surface 20. As indicated by the downward liquid flow 28 from the single baffle plate 44, the removed liquid flows through the annulus 24 towards the cavity 34. System 10A With Single Baffle Plate 44 Referring to FIG. 3A, the well 12 and a second embodiment system 10A are illustrated schematically. With the system 10A, the single baffle plate 44 is installed approximately thirty to sixty feet from the surface 20 of the well 12. However, the system 10A does not include the set of baffle plates 42 (FIG. 1) proximate to the pump 36. The single baffle plate 44 operates substantially as previously described in the system 10 (FIG. 1). Specifically, gas flow 26 through the annulus 24 passes through the single baffle plate 44 which acts as a dehydration mechanism for removing at least some liquid from the gas. In addition, the single baffle plate 44 directs at least some liquid flow 28 back down the annulus 24 to the cavity 34. System 10B With Set of Baffle Plate 42 Referring to FIG. 4A, the well 12 and a third embodiment system 10B are illustrated schematically. In the system 10B, the set of baffle plates 42 is located approximately one foot to thirty feet above the casing shoe 40, the pump 36 and the cavity 34. However, in the system 10B there is no single baffle plate 44 proximate to the surface 20. The set of baffle plates 42 operates substantially as previously described in the system 10 (FIG. 1). Specifically, the set of baffle plate 42 creates a tortuous path for the gas flow 26 and the liquid flow 28 in the annulus 24, separates at least some of the liquid from the gas, and directs some liquid flow 28 back down the annulus 24 to the cavity 34. System 10C With Siphon String Referring to FIG. 5, a well 12A, and a fourth embodiment system 10C are illustrated schematically. The well 12A is constructed substantially as previously described for the well 12 (FIG. 1). However, the well 12A does not include an artificial lift such as the pump 36 (FIG. 1), but depends on gas and fluid pressures in the producing formation (Zone C) to move the gas and the liquid to the surface 20. As indicated by gas flow 26 upward through the annulus 24, the well 12A produces gas through the annulus 24 to gas production equipment 30 at the surface 20. As indicated by gas and liquid flow 66 upward through the tubular 22, the well 12A produces liquid and gas through the tubular 22 to gas and liquid production equipment 68 at the surface 20. The tubular 22 includes an inlet 78 located within or proximate to the cavity 34 and the producing formation (Zone C), which directs the gas and liquid flow 66 from the cavity 34 upward through the tubular 22 to the gas and liquid production equipment 68. The gas and liquid flow 66 is generated by natural (or artificially generated) pressure in the producing formation (Zone C). This type of well 12A is known in the art as a siphon string well, as the tubular 22 is used to siphon the liquid from the bottom of the well 12A using a portion of the gas flow for lift. In a conventional siphon string well, the momentum of the gas and liquid flow 66 rising vertically from below the tubular inlet 78 can cause a foam or liquid laden gas column to form just above the tubular inlet 78. This higher density column causes additional backpressure on the producing formation (Zone C), reducing the productivity of the well. The higher density column can also cause slugging of the gas and liquid flow 66 entering the tubular inlet 78, as it can no longer be supported by the gas velocity from below. The system 10C includes the set of baffle plates 42 located about ten feet to thirty feet from the casing shoe 40 and the tubular inlet 78 of the well 12A. The set of baffle plates 42 creates a tortuous path for the gas flow 26 upward from the cavity 34 through the annulus 24. As indicated by the downward liquid flow 28 from the set of baffle plates 42, at least some of the liquid is separated from the gas. In addition, the set of baffle plates 42 functions to separate the gas and liquid phase below the tubular inlet 78 from a stable gas phase above the set of baffle plates 42. This substantially eliminates the additional backpressure and slugging described above. System 10D With Dead String and Perforated Tubular Referring to FIG. 6, a well 12B, and a fifth embodiment system 10D are illustrated schematically. As with the well 12A (FIG. 5), there is no artificial lift and the gas and liquid flow 66 is generated by pressure in the producing formation (Zone C). As indicated by the gas and liquid flow 66 upward through the tubular 22, the well 12B produces liquid and gas through the tubular 22 to gas and liquid production equipment 68 at the surface 20. However, there is no gas flow 26 (FIG. 5) through the annulus 24 to the surface 20. This type of well is known in the art as a dead string well. The well 12B also includes a perforated section 70 having a plurality of perforations 72 through the casing 14 and the concrete 18 in flow communication with the producing formation (Zone C). The tubular 22 includes an inlet 78 within or proximate to the perforated section 70 of the casing 14, and a perforated section 74 proximate to the inlet 78 having a plurality of perforations 76 there through. The tubular 22 is thus also in flow communication with the producing formation (Zone C). The system 10D includes the set of baffle plates 42 located about ten feet to thirty feet from the perforated section 70 of the well 12B. As indicated by the downward liquid flow 28, the set of baffle plates 42 prevents the formation of large liquid columns in the annulus 24. As with the system 10C (FIG. 5), this substantially eliminates additional backpressure and slugging of the gas and liquid flow 66 at the perforations 76 and the inlet 78 of the tubular 22. System 10E With Conventional Flow Referring to FIG. 7, a well 12C, and a sixth embodiment system 10E are illustrated schematically. As with the well 12B (FIG. 6), the well 12C produces liquid and gas through the tubular 22 to gas and liquid production equipment 68 at the surface 20. In addition, there is no gas flow 26 (FIG. 5) through the annulus 24 to the surface 20. The well 12C includes a perforated section 70 having a plurality of perforations 72 through the casing 14 and the concrete 18 in flow communication with the producing formation (Zone C). The tubular 22 includes an inlet 78 located above the perforated section 70. The system 10E includes the set of baffle plates 42 located about ten feet to thirty feet from the inlet 78 of the tubular 22. As indicated by the downward liquid flow 28, the set of baffle plates 42 prevents the formation of large liquid columns in the annulus 24. As with the system 10C (FIG. 5), this substantially eliminates additional backpressure and slugging of the gas and liquid flow 66 at the inlet 78 of the tubular 22. EXAMPLE 1 FIG. 2B is a graph illustrating operational parameters of a methane gas well with the system 10 (FIG. 2A) located in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming. In the system 10 (FIG. 2A), the set of baffle plates 42 was installed approximately fifteen feet above the casing shoe 40, the pump 36 and the cavity 34. The single baffle plate 44 was installed approximately thirty to sixty feet from the surface 20. In FIG. 2B “Daily Gas MCFPD” is represented by the line with diamond points, “Daily Water BWPD” is represented by the line with square points, and “Average Fluid Over Pump” is represented by the line with triangular points. Also in FIG. 2B, the horizontal axis quantifies time in one month increments, and the vertical axis quantifies the parameter. As indicated by FIG. 2B, system 10 with the set of baffle plates 42 and the single baffle plate 44 was installed between “Month 12” and “Month 13”. Following installation of the system 10, “Daily Gas MCFPD” increased relative to the preceding five months, the “Average Fluid Over Pump” decreased to zero, and “Daily Water BWPD” remained about the same. EXAMPLE 2 FIG. 3B and FIG. 3C are graphs illustrating operational parameters of a methane gas well with the system 10A (FIG. 3A) located in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming. In the system 10A (FIG. 3A), the single baffle plate 44 was installed approximately sixty feet from the surface 20. In FIG. 3B “Daily Gas MCFPD” is represented by the line with diamond points, “Daily Water BWPD” is represented by the line with square points, and “Average Fluid Over Pump” is represented by the line with triangular points. Also in FIG. 3B, the horizontal axis quantifies the time in one month increments, and the vertical axis quantifies the parameter. As indicated by FIG. 3B, the system 10A (FIG. 3A) with the single baffle plate 44 was installed in the well between “Month 13” and “Month 14”. Following installation of the system 10A (FIG. 3A), “Daily Gas MCFPD” increased relative to the preceding three months, “Average Fluid Over Pump” decreased relative to the preceding eight months, and “Daily Water BWPD” remained about the same. In FIG. 3C, “Daily Gas MCFPD” is represented by the line with the diamond points, “Daily Water BWPD” is represented by the line with the square points, “Pump Efficiency” is represented by the line with the circular points, “Feet Over Pump” is represented by the line with the star points, and “Wellhead Pressure” (PSIG X 10) is represented by the line with no points. Also in FIG. 3C, the horizontal axis quantifies time in one week increments, and the vertical axis quantifies the parameters, except for pump efficiency, which is quantified on the right vertical axis as a percentage. As indicated by FIG. 3C, the system 10A (FIG. 3A) with the single baffle plate 44 was installed in the well just before “Week 4”. Following installation of the system 10A “Daily Gas MCFPD” increased relative to the previous weeks then decreased, “Daily Water BWPD” increased relative to the previous weeks then decreased, “Pump Efficiency” increased relative to the previous weeks then decreased, “Feet Over Pump” decreased to zero then increased, and “Wellhead Pressure” increased relative to the previous weeks then decreased. EXAMPLE 3 FIG. 4B and FIG. 4C are graphs illustrating operational parameters of a methane gas well with the system 10B (FIG. 4A) installed therein located in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming. In this example, the set of baffle plates 42 was installed approximately fifteen feet above the casing shoe 40, the pump 36 and the cavity 34. In FIG. 4B “Daily Gas MCFPD” is represented by the line with diamond points, “Daily Water BWPD” is represented by the line with square points, and “Average Fluid Over Pump” is represented by the line with triangular points. Also in FIG. 4B, the horizontal axis quantifies time in one month increments, and the vertical axis quantifies the parameter. As indicated by FIG. 4B, the system 10B with the set of baffle plates 42 was installed in the well between “Month 12” and “Month 13”. Following installation of the system 10B, “Daily Gas MCFPD” increased relative to the preceding months, “Average Fluid Over Pump” decreased relative to the preceding months, and “Daily Water BWPD” increased relative to the preceding six months. In FIG. 4C “Daily Gas MCFPD” is represented by the line with the diamond points, “Daily Water BWPD” is represented by the line with the square points, “Pump Efficiency” is represented by the line with the circular points, “Feet Over Pump” is represented by the line with the star points, and “Wellhead Pressure” (PSIG X 10) is represented by the line with no points. Also in FIG. 4C, the horizontal axis quantifies the time in one week increments, the vertical axis on the left quantifies the above parameters except for pump efficiency which is listed on the right vertical axis as a percentage. As indicated by FIG. 4C, the set of baffle plates 42 was installed in the well between “Week 4” and “Week 5”. Following installation of the set of baffle plates 42 “Daily Gas MCFPD” increased relative to the previous weeks, “Daily Water BWPD” increased relative to the previous weeks, “Pump Efficiency” increased relative to the previous weeks, “Feet Over Pump” decreased over the previous weeks, and “Wellhead Pressure” decreased then increased relative to the previous weeks except for the spike at about “Week 4”. Thus the invention provides a method and a system for producing a gas and a liquid in a subterranean well. While the invention has been described with reference to certain preferred embodiments, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art, certain changes and modifications can be made without departing from the scope of the invention as defined by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Subterranean wells are used to produce various gases and liquids. For example, a subterranean well can be used to produce methane gas and liquid water from a coal seam. This type of subterranean well can include a well bore from the surface to the coal seam, a well casing cemented to the well bore, and a metal tubular within the well casing. The well can also include a submerged pump located within an under reamed cavity in the coal seam. During production from the well, water is pumped from the cavity, and through the tubular, to water production equipment at the surface. In addition, gas flows from the coal seam into the cavity, and through the annulus between the tubular and the well casing, to gas production equipment at the surface. The methane gas can cause various problems with the submerged pump during production from the well. For example, the pump can experience vapor lock due to excessive gas flow through the pump. This vapor lock can create inefficient pump operation, and excessive duty time for the pump motor. In addition, motor cycling and gas moving through the pump can cause excessive motor heating, and premature failure of the pump and/or motor. Production of gas through the tubular is also a problem, as this gas is entrained with the water, rather than being produced to the gas production equipment at the surface. One prior art approach to gas flow through the pump is the use of gas shrouds on the pump, which prevent gas from entering the pump inlet. U.S. Pat. No. 6,361,272 B1 to Bassett entitled “Centrifugal Submersible Pump”, discloses a submersible pump having this type of gas shroud. However, gas shrouds are not always effective in coal bed methane wells, or other pumping installations, which require the pump to be landed within the cavity in the coal seam, or above a producing zone of the well. In addition, gas can be driven downward and into the pump in a u-tubing manner, as heads of water fall back down the annulus, after they can no longer be lifted toward the surface by gas flowing up the annulus. The liquid water can also cause various problems during production from the well. For example, water and/or wet gas flowing in the annulus of the well can enter the gas production equipment at the surface. This water can cause excess flowline pressures, lines filling with water, and metering errors in the gas production equipment. Water in the annulus, and water heads moving up and down the annulus, can also create harmful fluid column effects, such as unsteady production of water and/or gas from the well, due to the relative position and amount of fluid movement in the annulus. One prior art approach to water accumulation in the gas production equipment is the use of drips and blowdown lines in low-lying areas of the gas production equipment, such as surface gas lines. These drips must be vented regularly to blow out the accumulated water. Typically, due to the low pressures in coal bed methane gas lines (e.g., less than 20 psig), the blowing of drips is manpower intensive, and inefficient in comparison to lines operating at higher pressures. It would be advantageous to eliminate water entirely from gas production equipment at the surface, and the need to blow drips from this equipment. The present invention is directed to a novel method and system for producing gas and liquid in a subterranean well, in which gas flow through a submersible pump, and liquid flow through a well annulus to the surface, are substantially eliminated. In addition, the method and system can be adapted to different types of wells, including wells that employ formation pressures rather than pumps, to move the gas and the liquid. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with the present invention, a method and a system for producing a gas and a liquid in a subterranean well having an annulus are provided. The method, broadly stated, comprises directing the gas and the liquid in the annulus through at least one baffle plate in the annulus to separate at least some of the liquid from the gas. The separated liquid is directed downward towards a producing formation of the well, while the gas continues upward towards a surface of the well. The method can be performed in wells having a downhole pump for producing the liquid to the surface, and in wells that use formation pressures to produce the liquid to the surface. In a first embodiment the system includes a set of baffle plates mounted in the well annulus proximate to a pump of the well, and a single baffle plate mounted in the well annulus proximate to the surface of the well. The set of baffle plates can comprise annular plates threadably attached to a metal tubular of the well, and having one or more through openings in a selected geometry and pattern. The set of baffle plates are configured to create a tortuous flow path through which any gas flow (or liquid flow) moving in either direction in the well annulus must pass. In addition to separating the liquid from the gas, the set of baffle plates maintains a wet gas phase above the set of baffle plates, and a liquid phase below the set of baffle plates. The single baffle plate is configured to further dehydrate the gas flowing to the gas production equipment at the surface. The system prevents vapor lock in the pump, eliminates the need for a gas shroud on the pump, and improves the efficiency of the pump. The system also prevents liquid from surfacing and collecting in liquid production equipment, and reduces overall system back pressures caused by liquid low spots in the liquid production equipment. In addition, the system improves gas flow in the annulus, reduces gas loss through production with the liquid, and reduces effective formation backpressures caused by a higher density fluid in the annulus above the producing formation. A second embodiment system includes a single baffle plate in the well annulus located proximate to the surface of the well. A third embodiment system includes a set of baffle plates in the well annulus located proximate to the pump of the well. A fourth embodiment system includes a set of baffle plates located proximate to an inlet of a tubular configured to produce gas and liquid by formation pressure. A fifth embodiment system includes a set of baffle plates located proximate to a perforated casing and a perforated tubular configured to produce gas and liquid by formation pressure. A sixth embodiment system includes a set of baffle plates located proximate to an inlet of a tubular located above a perforated section of casing configured to produce gas and liquid by formation pressure. | 20040614 | 20070424 | 20051215 | 74561.0 | 1 | TSAY, FRANK | METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR PRODUCING GAS AND LIQUID IN A SUBTERRANEAN WELL | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,867,543 | ACCEPTED | Display rack for levels | A display rack for holding a number of magnetic measuring/gaging devices in a releasable manner is provided. The rack has a rigid, vertically planar, magnetically-attractable holder, a rigid, horizontal tray secured to the lower edge of the holder and configured to engage one of the ends of each device, and an attachment member secured to the rear edge of the holder for mounting the rack to a display structure. Preferably, the measuring/gaging devices are torpedo levels. A label-plate can be attached to the front edge of the holder. The display rack in certain embodiments is capable of attachment to either a cross-bar or a pegboard. In other embodiments, the display rack has two holder-plates and a stand member for engaging a display surface. | 1. A display rack for releasably retaining a plurality of elongate measuring/gaging devices to facilitate displaying the devices from a display structure, each device having opposite ends, two lateral-edges disposed between the ends, and a magnetic element at one lateral-edge, the rack comprising: a rigid, magnetically-attractable holder having a lower edge, a rear edge, and two opposing, substantially vertical holder-surfaces, each surface being configured to magnetically engage the lateral-edge of the device; a rigid, substantially horizontal tray secured with respect to the lower edge of the holder and configured to engage and support one end of the device; and an attachment member secured with respect to the rear edge of the holder, whereby the display rack can be mounted with respect to the display structure. 2. The display rack of claim 1 wherein the holder has an upper-edge and the holder is contiguous between the upper edge and lower edge. 3. The display rack of claim 1 wherein the holder has a front edge and further comprising a label-plate secured with respect to the front edge. 4. The display rack of claim 1 wherein the measuring/gaging device is a frame-type level. 5. The display rack of claim 4 wherein the frame-type level is a torpedo level. 6. The display rack of claim 5 wherein the level has a magnetic element at both lateral-edges. 7. The display rack of claim 1 wherein the attachment member is a bracket assembly and the display structure is a cross-bar. 8. The display rack of claim 7 wherein the bracket assembly includes a top-bracket and an adjustable bottom-bracket, the top-bracket being in spaced-apart relation to the bottom-bracket. 9. The display rack of claim 1 wherein the attachment member is a hook assembly and the display structure is a pegboard structure. 10. The display rack of claim 9 wherein the hook assembly includes a hook-portion and a stabilizer-portion, the hook-portion being in spaced-apart relation to the stabilizer-portion. 11. The display rack of claim 10 wherein: the holder includes a support-panel adjacent to the rear edge and substantially orthogonal to the holder-surfaces, the support-panel having a top-end and a bottom-end; the hook-portion is secured with respect to the support-panel and adjacent to the top-end; and the stabilizer-portion is secured with respect to the support-panel and adjacent to the bottom-end. 12. The display rack of claim 1 wherein the tray extends substantially orthogonally outward with respect to both holder-surfaces. 13. The display rack of claim 1 wherein the holder is formed of ferrous metal. 14. A display rack for releasably retaining a plurality of magnetic levels to facilitate displaying the levels from a display structure, each level having two lateral-edges and a magnetic element mounted with respect to at least one lateral-edge, the rack comprising: a rigid holder formed from an integral sheet of ferrous material, the holder having a lower edge, two opposing, substantially vertical and planar holder-surfaces, each surface being configured to magnetically engage the magnetic element of the level, and a substantially vertical support-panel substantially orthogonal to the holder-surfaces; a rigid, substantially horizontal tray secured with respect to the lower edge of the holder, the tray extending outward substantially orthogonal with respect to both holder-surfaces and being configured to engage and support an end of the level; and an attachment member secured with respect to the support-panel, whereby the display rack can be mounted with respect to the display structure. 15. The display rack of claim 14 wherein the attachment member is a bracket assembly, the bracket assembly having a top-bracket and a bottom-bracket, and the display structure is a cross-bar. 16. The display rack of claim 15 wherein the support-panel has an adjustment-slot, the adjustment-slot having a substantially vertical length, and the bottom-bracket is secured to the support-panel by a fastener inserted through the adjustment-slot, whereby the bottom-bracket can be raised or lowered between limits established by the length of the adjustment-slot. 17. The display rack of claim 14 wherein: the support-panel has a top-end and a bottom-end; the attachment member is a hook assembly, the hook assembly having a hook-portion and a stabilizer-portion, the hook-portion being secured adjacent to the top-end and the stabilizer-portion being secured adjacent to the bottom-end; and the display structure is a pegboard structure. 18. The display rack of claim 14 wherein the level is a torpedo level. 19. The display rack of claim 14 wherein the ferrous material is sheet steel. 20. A display rack for releasably retaining a plurality of magnetic levels to facilitate displaying the levels, the levels each having at least one lateral-edge with a magnetic element disposed therein, the rack comprising: a rigid, magnetically-attractable holder having two substantially vertical holder-surfaces, each surface being configured to magnetically engage the lateral-edge of the level; and a stand member secured with respect to the holder, whereby the display rack can be mounted upon a display surface. 21. The display rack of claim 20 wherein the holder includes first and second holder-plates, each holder-plate having one holder-surface and a front edge, and a front-panel secured with respect to the front edge of each holder-plate. 22. The display rack of claim 21 wherein the holder-plates each have an upper edge and a lower edge and each is contiguous between the upper edge and lower edge. 23. The display rack of claim 21 wherein the holder-plates are orthogonal to the display surface. 24. The display rack of claim 23 wherein the display surface is substantially horizontal. 25. The display rack of claim 21 wherein the stand member is a front-support mounted with respect to the front-panel. 26. The display rack of claim 25 wherein the front-support includes a substantially horizontal support-flange engaging the display surface. 27. The display rack of claim 26 wherein the front-panel has a width and the support-flange has a length, the length of the support-flange being greater than the width of the front-panel. 28. The display rack of claim 21 wherein: the levels each have opposite ends; the holder-plates each have a lower edge; and the stand member is a rigid, substantially horizontal tray extending outward from the lower edge of each holder-plate and engaging the display surface, the tray being configured to engage and support one end of the level. 29. The display rack of claim 28 wherein the stand member further includes a front-support mounted with respect to the front-panel, the front-support having a substantially horizontal support-flange engaging the display surface. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention is related generally to apparatus for displaying retail goods and, more particularly, to an apparatus for displaying magnetic measuring/gaging devices. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Hardware stores and home-centers constitute a growing segment of the retail market. More homeowners are deciding to tackle a wide variety of home improvement and repair projects themselves so that they save money and add value to their homes. Competition between these retailers has increased in recent years with the customers usually patronizing the store that they find makes it easiest for them to obtain the materials needed to complete their work. One of the reasons that a homeowner commonly travels to a hardware store is the need to purchase a certain tool or other item. Searching for this particular product at such outlets can, however, be often difficult and frustrating. The number of sales personnel available to provide help is always limited and the customer can easily become disoriented in the huge expanse of the modern home-center with its aisle after aisle of tools and building materials. Most customers have little interest or time, however, to scour a store in order to find the various items on their list. Oftentimes, the search can even become an exercise in futility since the tool sought may be difficult to identify from the multitude of other hardware displayed on the shelves or in the bins. A way of catching the eye of the customer to spare him or her from the needless waste of time spent hunting down the desired tool is therefore an aim of nearly all retailers. Any apparatus that prominently and openly displays a specific product has particular value in this regard. These displays not only facilitate the ability of the customer to locate these products within the store but often promote impulsive purchases of such items by other customers as well. Many displays of this nature are designed to be mounted to only one specific type of support surface. Most also include a means of holding or securing the various items being displayed that is built into the apparatus. Certain tools are capable, however, of securing themselves to a display without the need of any assistance of this type. Moreover, the retailer may be losing an excellent opportunity for highlighting a feature of such products that would otherwise be missed by the customer. In particular, suspending magnetic levels from hooks or similar devices in the same manner as non-magnetic ones does little to call to the customer's attention the usefulness of the magnetic devices and how they are distinctive from other levels. A display rack therefore that overcomes these disadvantages and that uses an inherent property of the tools being displayed to firmly engage them to a simple and inexpensive apparatus would be highly desirable. OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION It is a primary object of this invention to provide a display rack that overcomes some of the problems and shortcomings of the prior art. Another object of this invention is to provide a novel display rack that is capable of holding magnetic levels in a visible and easily accessible upright position. Another object of this invention is to provide an exceptional apparatus that displays magnetic levels in a manner that facilitates selection and promotes sales. Yet another object of this invention is to provide an excellent display rack for presenting certain magnetic tools in a fashion that catches the eye of the customer without interfering with the overall appearance of the retail establishment. Still another object of this invention is to provide a desirable display rack that can be mounted to a pegboard or other conventional wall surface structures and extend outward to make access to the tools displayed easier and more convenient to the customer. Another object of the invention is to provide an exceptional apparatus that can be simple and inexpensive to construct, easy to maintain, and highly reliable to use. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention is for a display rack that can be used to display a number of magnetic measuring/gaging devices from a display structure by removably securing them to the rack. The display rack in one aspect of the present invention has a rigid holder made from a material that is magnetically-attractable, i.e. attracted to a magnet but not necessarily exhibiting any of the properties of a magnet itself. Highly preferred is a material that has none of the properties of a magnet. One such preferred material is ferrous metal. The holder has two vertical surfaces that are each configured to allow the magnetic element in a lateral-edge of each device displayed to magnetically engage the rack. The rack further includes a rigid horizontal tray attached to the bottom of the holder and an attachment member on the rear of the holder that mounts the rack to the associated display structure. The rack's tray is sized to engage and support one end of each measuring/gaging device being displayed and preferably the tray extends orthogonally outward from both sides of the holder. In some desired embodiments, the holder is contiguous from its upper edge to its lower edge, having no breaks in the rack's magnetically-attractable vertical surfaces. In other preferred embodiments, the rack includes a label-plate that can be used to set out indicia directed to the devices being displayed. Certain desired cases find the measuring/gaging device to be an elongate frame-type level. These levels have a generally rectangular body with squared-off ends that secures one or more bubble vials used to evaluate the proper orientation of a surface to true horizontal or vertical. More preferred is where the levels are torpedo levels. Torpedo levels typically have tapered ends and a working length that is less than that of most frame levels. In a highly preferred embodiment, the torpedo levels being displayed have magnetic elements in each lateral-edge of the level. In another desired embodiment, the attachment member on the display rack is preferably a bracket assembly for securing the rack to a cross-bar. Most preferred is where the bracket assembly includes a top-bracket and an adjustable bottom-bracket that are spaced apart from one another. Certain other cases find a hook assembly as the attachment member for mounting the display rack to a pegboard. In these cases, it is more preferred that the hook assembly have a hook-portion and a stabilizer-portion that are spaced-apart from one another. A most highly preferred embodiment is where the holder has a support-panel disposed adjacent to its rear edge and orthogonal to its surfaces. In this embodiment, the hook-portion of the hook assembly is attached at the top of the support-panel and the stabilizer-portion is mounted at the support-panel's bottom. In another aspect of this invention, a display rack is provided that releasably retains several magnetic levels, preferably torpedo levels, for displaying the levels from a display structure. The rack has a rigid holder formed from an integral sheet of ferrous material, preferably sheet steel. The holder includes two vertical and planar holder-surfaces, each surface being configured to be magnetically engaged by a magnetic element in the lateral edge of each level, and a vertical support-panel at a right angle to the holder-surfaces. The rack further includes a rigid horizontal tray secured to the lower edge of the holder where the tray extends outward orthogonally from both holder-surfaces and is configured to engage and support one end of each level. The rack also has an attachment member that is attached to the support-panel for mounting the display rack to the associated display structure. In one highly preferred embodiment of this aspect of the invention, the attachment member is a bracket assembly having a top-bracket and a bottom-bracket for attaching the display rack to a cross-bar. More preferred is where the support-panel has an adjustment-slot and the bottom-bracket is secured to the support-panel by a fastener inserted through the adjustment-slot so that the bottom-bracket can be raised or lowered up to the length of the adjustment-slot. In another desired embodiment, the attachment member is a hook assembly having a hook-portion and a stabilizer-portion for mounting the display rack to a pegboard. In this embodiment, the hook-portion is secured adjacent to the top-end of the support-panel and the stabilizer-portion is secured adjacent to the support-panel's bottom-end. In a highly desired aspect of this invention, a display rack for multiple magnetic levels includes a rigid, magnetically-attractable holder and an attached stand member. The holder is provided with two substantially vertical holder-surfaces. Each holder-surface is configured to be magnetically engaged by the magnetic element mounted within each level. The stand member allows the rack to be mounted on a display surface. A most preferred embodiment of this aspect of the invention, the holder has two holder-plates and a front-panel joined to the two at their front edges. More preferred is where each holder-plate is contiguous between its upper edge and lower edge. A highly desired embodiment finds the display rack having each holder-plate perpendicular to the display surface, preferably a horizontal display surface. Certain preferred cases find the stand member to be a front-support that is secured to the front-panel. Most desired is where the front-support has a horizontal support-flange for engaging the display surface. It is highly preferred that the front-panel have a width less than the length of the support-flange. Another desired embodiment finds the display rack having a rigid, horizontal tray as the stand member. The tray extends outward from the lower edge of each holder-plate with its upper surface configured to engage and support one end of each level and its lower surface engaging the display surface. Highly preferred is where the stand member further includes a front-support with a horizontal support-flange mounted to the front-panel. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a front perspective view of a preferred embodiment of a display rack for levels in accordance with this invention. FIG. 2 is a front view of the rack of FIG. 1 having the label-plate removed. FIG. 3 is a side view of a second preferred embodiment of a display rack for levels in accordance with this invention having the rack mounted to a cross-bar. FIG. 4 is a rear perspective view of the rack of FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is a front perspective view of a third preferred embodiment of a display rack for levels in accordance with this invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The drawings illustrate preferred embodiments of a display rack 10 in accordance with this invention. Display rack 10 has a holder 12, a tray 14, and an attachment member 16. Attachment member 16 is provided to mount display rack 10 to a display structure. In the preferred embodiment shown in FIG. 1, attachment member 16 is a hook assembly having hook member 18 and stabilizer member 20. As shown, members 18, 20 enable display rack 10 to be mounted where the display structure is a pegboard 21. As further illustrated in FIG. 1, holder 12 includes a substantially vertical holder-plate 22 having a lower edge 24, a rear edge 26, and two opposing vertical holder-surfaces 28. Holder 12 is made from a material that has an attraction to magnetized elements but is not itself a magnet. Such material is preferably a ferrous metal such as sheet steel. Bottom flange 30 is seen in FIG. 2 to extend at a right angle from holder-plate 22 at lower edge 24. Holder-plate 22 and bottom flange 30 are preferably formed from a single piece of sheet metal by making a 90° bend in the piece along a line defining lower edge 24. The upper surface of tray 14 is rigidly joined to the bottom surface of bottom flange 30, preferably by welding, to secure tray 14 to holder 12. FIGS. 1-2 illustrate that tray 14 extends orthogonally, i.e. at substantially a 90° angle, outward from both sides of holder-plate 22. One can readily see that in other embodiments in accordance with this invention, tray 14 can be fastened to bottom flange 30 in a manner where tray 14 extends outward from lower edge 24 on only one side of holder-plate 22. Holder 12 and tray 14 are sized to define space on both sides of holder-plate 22 for displaying multiple magnetic levels 32, preferably torpedo levels as shown in FIG. 1. Each magnetic level 32 includes a magnetic element in the form of a magnetic strip 34. Magnetic strip 34 need only be mounted to one lateral-edge 36 of level 32 but is most commonly found on both lateral-edges 36. Levels 32 are held in position upon display rack 10 through the magnetic attraction of the magnetic strip 34 to either holder-surface 28. As can further be seen in FIG. 1, tray 14 engages and supports one of the ends 38 on each level 32. This manner of attachment permits levels 32 to be arranged upright in a compact formation for visually presenting an optimal number of individual levels. It will be appreciated that each level can be easily removed by exerting a lateral force away from holder-surface 28 or by sliding the level upward and across upper edge 39 of holder-plate 22. Holder-plate 22, as shown in FIGS. 1-4, has a contiguous surface from upper edge 39 to lower edge 24. It can be readily appreciated, however, that in other embodiments in accordance with this invention, holder-plate 22 may have one or more apertures such that two or more spaced-apart surface areas are provided. In these embodiments, levels 32 remain in place on display rack 10 by magnetically gripping the areas of holder-surface 28 that abut the lateral-edge 36 contacting the rack. As seen in FIG. 1, a label-plate 40 is firmly secured to front edge 42 of holder-plate 22. FIG. 2 illustrates that tray 14 includes label-flange 44. Label-flange 44 is adjacent to front edge 42 and orthogonal to the remaining portion of tray 14. Since label-flange 44 extends downward from and is co-planar with front edge 42, label-flange 44 provides additional surface upon which label-plate 40 is mounted. Label-plate 40 is preferably spot welded to label-flange 44 and front edge 42 for strongly joining these structures together. A user of display rack 10 can place upon label-plate 40 an adhesive label printed or written with indicia that include such information as the make and model of the level displayed, its stock number, and its price. When there is a need for a change in this product information, the label may be peeled off and replaced with another. It will be readily understood that a card holder having a frame designed to receive a card printed with this same information could be used in place of label-plate 40 in other embodiments of this invention. FIGS. 1 and 4 show support-panel 46 extending outward from rear edge 26. Support-panel 46 is substantially vertical and at substantially right angles to holder-plate 22. Support-panel 46 is preferably formed from the same piece of sheet metal as holder-plate 22 by making a 90° bend in the piece along a line defining rear edge 26. Hook member 18 and stabilizer member 20 are mounted on support-panel 46. A top-bracket 48 is rigidly fastened, preferably spot welded, to the upper end 50 of support-panel 46. Hook member 18 is firmly attached to the upper surface of the middle portion 52 of top-bracket 48. Stabilizer member 20 is secured to support-panel 46 at a position adjacent to the lower end 54 of support-panel 46. Members 18, 20 are preferably fastened to support-panel 46 by means of welding or a similarly suitable method. Both members 18, 20 are rigid, integral structures preferably formed from stainless steel wire. As illustrated in FIG. 4, hook member 18 includes two peg-hook portions 56 that extend outward from support-panel 46 towards the rear of display rack 10. Each peg-hook portion 56 has an upwardly directed distal end 58. Peg-hook portions 56 are sized and spaced-apart to fit two corresponding apertures 60 on pegboard 21. Stabilizer member 20 has two stabilizer-support portions 62 extending rearward from support-panel 46. Each stabilizer-support portion 62 has a distal, substantially horizontal projection 64. Stabilizer-support portions 62 are also sized and spaced apart to be received by two corresponding apertures 60 on pegboard 21. In mounting display rack 10 onto a wall provided with pegboard 21, as illustrated in FIG. 1, distal ends 58 of hook member 18 are first inserted into two apertures 60 by the user holding display rack 10 at an upward angle with respect to pegboard 21. Upon lowering display rack 10, each distal end 58 is catchably received by its corresponding aperture 60 such that each hook member 18 becomes securely engaged to pegboard 21. Upon lowering display rack 10, projections 64 of stabilizer member 20 are received by two apertures 60 to which projections 64 are in alignment. Each projection 64 frictionally engages the inner surface of the receiving aperture 60 to assist in positively holding display rack 10 in position upon pegboard 21. As shown in FIG. 3, another embodiment in accordance with the present invention finds the attachment member to be a bracket assembly 68 where the display structure is a cross-bar 70. Cross-bar 70 is a substantially horizontal structure having an upper ledge 72 and a lower ledge 74. Cross-bar 70 may be found fastened directly to a wall or mounted by being snapped onto fixed vertical wall members that allows cross-bar 70 to be easily raised or lowered. Bracket assembly 68 includes top-bracket 48 and bottom-bracket 76. Top-bracket 48 is C-shaped having a middle portion 52, a proximal portion 78 and a distal portion 80. Proximal portion 78 is rigidly fastened to upper end 50 of support-panel 46. Bottom-bracket 76 has an upwardly extending distal lip 82 and a downwardly extending proximal mount 84. Proximal mount 84 is provided with a bolt aperture (not shown) and weld-nut 86. Weld-nut 86 is coaxial with the bolt aperture and positioned on the surface of proximal mount 84 that faces distal lip 82. As illustrated in FIG. 3, display rack 10 is mounted onto cross-bar 70 by first positioning distal portion 80 of top-bracket 48 to the rear of upper ledge 72 such that top-bracket 48 catchably engages cross-bar 70. Bottom-bracket 76 is then brought into position by the user between support-panel 46 and cross-bar 70. Distal lip 82 is inserted behind lower ledge 74 and proximal mount 78 is positioned such that weld-nut 86 is in alignment with adjustment-slot 88 of support-panel 46. A fastener, shown in FIG. 3 as bolt 90, is then inserted through adjustment-slot 88 and screwed into weld-nut 86 to firmly secure bottom-bracket 76 in said position where it is catchably engaging lower ledge 74. Upon unscrewing bolt 90, it can be seen that the position of bottom-bracket 76 with respect to support-panel 46 can be raised or lowered along the length of adjustment-slot 88. Both top-bracket 48 and bottom-bracket 76 are sized to receive upper ledge 72 and lower ledge 74 respectively. It can be readily appreciated that the location of adjustment-slot 88 on support-panel 46 and the vertical length of adjustment-slot 88 will determine the range in the vertical height of cross-bar 70 on which display rack 10 can be mounted. FIG. 5 illustrates another preferred embodiment of a display rack 10 in accordance with this invention. Holder 12 of display rack 10 has two substantially vertical holder-plates 22. A front-panel 92 connects each of the holder-plates 22 to the other. Front-panel 92 is a C-shaped channel having panel-flanges 94, preferably formed from a single piece of sheet metal. The outer surface of each panel-flange 94 is rigidly joined to the corresponding holder-plate 22, preferably by spot welding, adjacent to the front edge 42 of each holder-plate 22. Display rack 10 includes stand member 96. Stand member 96 is provided to mount display rack 10 to display surface 98. As shown in FIG. 5, stand member 96 includes tray 14. Tray 14 consists of tray-portions 100. Each tray-portion 100 extends outward from the lower edge 24 on the corresponding holder-plate 22. Each tray-portion 100 is substantially horizontal and is preferably formed along with the corresponding holder-plate 22 from a single piece of sheet metal by bending the piece 90° along a line defining lower edge 24. The bottom surface of tray 14 abuts display surface 98. As seen in FIG. 5, stand member 96 also includes front-support 102. Front-support 102 is firmly secured to front-panel 92, preferably by spot welding a portion of the back surface of front-support 102 to the lower end of front-panel 92. Support-flange 104 extends outward orthogonally from front-support 102 along support-edge 106. Support-flange 104 is coplanar with tray-portions 100 and together with tray 14 provides support for display rack 10 to stabilize display rack 10 and to maintain holder-plates 22 in an upright configuration whenever display rack 10 is placed upon a horizontal display surface 98 as, for instance, a display counter or on display shelving. Front-support 102 extends laterally from front-panel 92 on both sides of holder 12 such that support-flange 104 has a length greater than the width of front-panel 92. One can readily appreciate that this configuration of front-support 102 provides display rack 10 with a wider base at one end of holder 12 to assist display rack 10 in staying erect. As with the other preferred embodiments of this invention, FIG. 5 illustrates that holder-plates 22 are contiguous from upper edge 39 to lower edge 24. Each holder-plate is provided with a holder-surface 28 facing outward from holder 12. Each holder-surface 28 and the corresponding tray-portion 100 are dimensioned to receive an upright formation of magnetic levels. The magnetic strip along a lateral edge on each level allows the levels to magnetically engage either of the two holder-surfaces 28. Each level is further supported by the particular tray-portion 100 abutting one of the ends on the level. Although the invention has been described in conjunction with specific embodiments thereof, it is evident that many alternatives, modifications and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, it is intended to embrace all such alternatives, modifications and variations that fall within the spirit and broad scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Hardware stores and home-centers constitute a growing segment of the retail market. More homeowners are deciding to tackle a wide variety of home improvement and repair projects themselves so that they save money and add value to their homes. Competition between these retailers has increased in recent years with the customers usually patronizing the store that they find makes it easiest for them to obtain the materials needed to complete their work. One of the reasons that a homeowner commonly travels to a hardware store is the need to purchase a certain tool or other item. Searching for this particular product at such outlets can, however, be often difficult and frustrating. The number of sales personnel available to provide help is always limited and the customer can easily become disoriented in the huge expanse of the modern home-center with its aisle after aisle of tools and building materials. Most customers have little interest or time, however, to scour a store in order to find the various items on their list. Oftentimes, the search can even become an exercise in futility since the tool sought may be difficult to identify from the multitude of other hardware displayed on the shelves or in the bins. A way of catching the eye of the customer to spare him or her from the needless waste of time spent hunting down the desired tool is therefore an aim of nearly all retailers. Any apparatus that prominently and openly displays a specific product has particular value in this regard. These displays not only facilitate the ability of the customer to locate these products within the store but often promote impulsive purchases of such items by other customers as well. Many displays of this nature are designed to be mounted to only one specific type of support surface. Most also include a means of holding or securing the various items being displayed that is built into the apparatus. Certain tools are capable, however, of securing themselves to a display without the need of any assistance of this type. Moreover, the retailer may be losing an excellent opportunity for highlighting a feature of such products that would otherwise be missed by the customer. In particular, suspending magnetic levels from hooks or similar devices in the same manner as non-magnetic ones does little to call to the customer's attention the usefulness of the magnetic devices and how they are distinctive from other levels. A display rack therefore that overcomes these disadvantages and that uses an inherent property of the tools being displayed to firmly engage them to a simple and inexpensive apparatus would be highly desirable. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention is for a display rack that can be used to display a number of magnetic measuring/gaging devices from a display structure by removably securing them to the rack. The display rack in one aspect of the present invention has a rigid holder made from a material that is magnetically-attractable, i.e. attracted to a magnet but not necessarily exhibiting any of the properties of a magnet itself. Highly preferred is a material that has none of the properties of a magnet. One such preferred material is ferrous metal. The holder has two vertical surfaces that are each configured to allow the magnetic element in a lateral-edge of each device displayed to magnetically engage the rack. The rack further includes a rigid horizontal tray attached to the bottom of the holder and an attachment member on the rear of the holder that mounts the rack to the associated display structure. The rack's tray is sized to engage and support one end of each measuring/gaging device being displayed and preferably the tray extends orthogonally outward from both sides of the holder. In some desired embodiments, the holder is contiguous from its upper edge to its lower edge, having no breaks in the rack's magnetically-attractable vertical surfaces. In other preferred embodiments, the rack includes a label-plate that can be used to set out indicia directed to the devices being displayed. Certain desired cases find the measuring/gaging device to be an elongate frame-type level. These levels have a generally rectangular body with squared-off ends that secures one or more bubble vials used to evaluate the proper orientation of a surface to true horizontal or vertical. More preferred is where the levels are torpedo levels. Torpedo levels typically have tapered ends and a working length that is less than that of most frame levels. In a highly preferred embodiment, the torpedo levels being displayed have magnetic elements in each lateral-edge of the level. In another desired embodiment, the attachment member on the display rack is preferably a bracket assembly for securing the rack to a cross-bar. Most preferred is where the bracket assembly includes a top-bracket and an adjustable bottom-bracket that are spaced apart from one another. Certain other cases find a hook assembly as the attachment member for mounting the display rack to a pegboard. In these cases, it is more preferred that the hook assembly have a hook-portion and a stabilizer-portion that are spaced-apart from one another. A most highly preferred embodiment is where the holder has a support-panel disposed adjacent to its rear edge and orthogonal to its surfaces. In this embodiment, the hook-portion of the hook assembly is attached at the top of the support-panel and the stabilizer-portion is mounted at the support-panel's bottom. In another aspect of this invention, a display rack is provided that releasably retains several magnetic levels, preferably torpedo levels, for displaying the levels from a display structure. The rack has a rigid holder formed from an integral sheet of ferrous material, preferably sheet steel. The holder includes two vertical and planar holder-surfaces, each surface being configured to be magnetically engaged by a magnetic element in the lateral edge of each level, and a vertical support-panel at a right angle to the holder-surfaces. The rack further includes a rigid horizontal tray secured to the lower edge of the holder where the tray extends outward orthogonally from both holder-surfaces and is configured to engage and support one end of each level. The rack also has an attachment member that is attached to the support-panel for mounting the display rack to the associated display structure. In one highly preferred embodiment of this aspect of the invention, the attachment member is a bracket assembly having a top-bracket and a bottom-bracket for attaching the display rack to a cross-bar. More preferred is where the support-panel has an adjustment-slot and the bottom-bracket is secured to the support-panel by a fastener inserted through the adjustment-slot so that the bottom-bracket can be raised or lowered up to the length of the adjustment-slot. In another desired embodiment, the attachment member is a hook assembly having a hook-portion and a stabilizer-portion for mounting the display rack to a pegboard. In this embodiment, the hook-portion is secured adjacent to the top-end of the support-panel and the stabilizer-portion is secured adjacent to the support-panel's bottom-end. In a highly desired aspect of this invention, a display rack for multiple magnetic levels includes a rigid, magnetically-attractable holder and an attached stand member. The holder is provided with two substantially vertical holder-surfaces. Each holder-surface is configured to be magnetically engaged by the magnetic element mounted within each level. The stand member allows the rack to be mounted on a display surface. A most preferred embodiment of this aspect of the invention, the holder has two holder-plates and a front-panel joined to the two at their front edges. More preferred is where each holder-plate is contiguous between its upper edge and lower edge. A highly desired embodiment finds the display rack having each holder-plate perpendicular to the display surface, preferably a horizontal display surface. Certain preferred cases find the stand member to be a front-support that is secured to the front-panel. Most desired is where the front-support has a horizontal support-flange for engaging the display surface. It is highly preferred that the front-panel have a width less than the length of the support-flange. Another desired embodiment finds the display rack having a rigid, horizontal tray as the stand member. The tray extends outward from the lower edge of each holder-plate with its upper surface configured to engage and support one end of each level and its lower surface engaging the display surface. Highly preferred is where the stand member further includes a front-support with a horizontal support-flange mounted to the front-panel. | 20040614 | 20070522 | 20051215 | 73203.0 | 0 | NOVOSAD, JENNIFER ELEANORE | DISPLAY RACK FOR LEVELS | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,867,758 | ACCEPTED | Power semiconductor device package | A power semiconductor device package according to one aspect of the present invention comprises: a plurality of power semiconductor chips which are arranged in a laminated structure so that the plurality of power semiconductor chips are opposing to each other at the surfaces with the same electrical structures, and which are connected in parallel to one another, and are sealed in a sealing resin as one body. | 1. A power semiconductor device package comprising: a plurality of power semiconductor chips which are arranged in a laminated structure so that said plurality of power semiconductor chips are opposing to each other at the surfaces with the same electrical structures, and which are connected in parallel to one another and are sealed in a sealing resin as one body. 2. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 1, wherein said plurality of power semiconductor chips are connected in parallel to one another by connecting electrode wirings, which are formed on the surfaces opposing to each other, to one another in a direct manner with a thermoplastic conductive member. 3. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 2, wherein the electrode wirings formed on the surfaces, which are opposing to each other, of said plurality of power semiconductor chips are connected to external terminals with wire straps or bonding wires. 4. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 2, wherein an electrode wiring formed on the bottom surface of a power semiconductor chip as the bottom layer among said plurality of power semiconductor chips arranged in said laminated structure is connected to a lead frame, and an electrode wiring formed on the upper surface of a power semiconductor chip as the top layer among said plurality of power semiconductor chips is connected to a metallic frame, a wire strap, or a bonding wire, which are connected to the lead frame. 5. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 2, wherein an electrode wiring formed on the bottom surface of a power semiconductor chip as the bottom layer among said plurality of power semiconductor chips arranged in said laminated structure is connected to a lead frame, and an electrode wiring formed on the upper surface of a power semiconductor chip as the top layer among said plurality of power semiconductor chips is connected to an external terminal to which an electrode wiring other than the electrode wiring formed on the bottom surface of the power semiconductor chip as the bottom layer is connected. 6. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 1, wherein said plurality of power semiconductor chips are connected in parallel to one another by connecting electrode wirings formed on surfaces opposing to each other to electrode wiring metallic plates, which are sandwiched between the electrode wirings, with a thermoplastic conductive member. 7. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 6, wherein external terminals are extended from the electrode wiring metallic plates, which are sandwiched between the electrode wirings formed on the surfaces, which are opposing to each other, of said plurality of power semiconductor chips. 8. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 6, wherein an electrode wiring formed on the bottom surface of a power semiconductor chip as the bottom layer among said plurality of power semiconductor chips arranged in said laminated structure is connected to a lead frame, and an electrode wiring formed on the upper surface of a power semiconductor chip as the top layer among said plurality of power semiconductor chips is connected to a metallic frame, a wire strap, or a bonding wire, which are connected to the lead frame. 9. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 6, wherein an electrode wiring formed on the bottom surface of a power semiconductor chip as the bottom layer among said plurality of power semiconductor chips arranged in said laminated structure is connected to a lead frame, and an electrode wiring formed on the upper surface of a power semiconductor chip as the top layer among said plurality of power semiconductor chips is connected to an external terminal to which an electrode wiring other than the electrode wiring formed on the bottom surface of the power semiconductor chip as the bottom layer is connected. 10. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 1, wherein said plurality of power semiconductor chips are MOSFETs with the same electrical structures. 11. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 10, wherein said plurality of power semiconductor chips are vertical MOSFETs. 12. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 10, wherein said plurality of power semiconductor chips are lateral MOSFETs. 13. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 1, wherein the sizes of said plurality of power semiconductor chips are different from each other. 14. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 1, further comprising heat sinks which are installed in a direct or indirect manner on the upper surface of a power semiconductor chip as the top layer of said laminated structure and on the bottom surface of a power semiconductor chip as the bottom layer of said laminated structure, which are exposed from said sealing resin. 15. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 1, wherein said plurality of power semiconductor chips arranged in said laminated structure are two power semiconductor chips. 16. The power semiconductor device package according to claim 1, wherein said plurality of power semiconductor chips arranged in said laminated structure are three power semiconductor chips. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION The subject application is related to subject matter disclosed in Japanese Patent Application No. 2004-115728 filed on Apr. 9, 2004 in Japan to which the subject application claims priority under Paris Convention and which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a power semiconductor device package. 2. Related Background Art The size and the power loss of a power supply circuit have been reduced along with the development and improvement of the power semiconductor device. The conduction loss of, especially, an AC adapter and the like has been decreased by reducing the on-resistance of a power metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (power MOSFET) which is a switching element mainly used as one of components, and reduction in the power loss of the adapter and the like has been realized. Since the on-resistance of the power MOSFET is inversely proportional to the area of a chip, use of a power MOSFET chip with a large chip area is required in a power supply circuit with a large rated current. Moreover, the size of a chip which a package can accommodate depends on the size of the package. Accordingly, the size of a package which accommodates chips of MOSFETs with a large rated current and a low on-resistance is forced to be large. Here, in a conventional technology, a semiconductor device in which a plurality of semiconductor chips which have different functions from one another are packaged as a laminated structure in order to control increase in the size of the package, to simplify the manufacturing processes, and the like has been proposed, and has become publicly known. In this connection, reference will be made to, for example, Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication NO. 2002-208673, Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication NO. 2003-197859, and Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication NO. 2002-217416. However, one package accommodates only one semiconductor chip in a conventional semiconductor device package, except a semiconductor device in which a plurality of semiconductor chips with different functions from one another are packaged as a laminated structure. Since the size of a chip which a package can accommodate depends on the size of the package as described above, the package size, that is, the size of a lead frame is decided, and, then, a maximum chip area which the package can accommodate is decided according to the decision. Moreover, since the on-resistance of a power MOSFET is inversely proportional to the chip area, a minimum on-resistance is decided by the maximum chip area which the package can accommodate. On the other hand, the capacity of a power supply circuit has been increased in addition to the reduction of the size and the power loss of a power supply circuit so that the power supply circuit with a large output capacity and a high rated current has been used. The conduction loss generally becomes large along with the increase in the output capacity and the rated current of the power supply circuit. Accordingly, a power MOSFET chip with small on-resistance, that is, a power MOSFET chip with a large area is required to be used in order to prevent or control the increase in such a conduction loss. Therefore, a power MOSFET with a large package size has been forced to be used in order to prevent or control the increase in the conduction loss caused by the increase in the output capacity and the rated current of the power supply circuit in a conventional technology. As a result, it has been difficult to reduce the size of a power supply circuit because the package size of a power MOSFET is increased as the capacity of the power supply circuit becomes large. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a power semiconductor device package which comprises: a plurality of power semiconductor chips which are arranged in a laminated structure so that the plurality of power semiconductor chips are opposing to each other at the surfaces with the same electrical structures, and which are connected in parallel to one another and are sealed in a sealing resin as one body. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a partial cutaway perspective view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of the power semiconductor device package according to the first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a partial sectional view showing one example of the structure of the power semiconductor device package according to the first embodiment of the present invention in more detail; FIG. 4 is a partial cutaway perspective view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of the power semiconductor device package according to the second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of a modification of the power semiconductor device package according to the second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a partial cutaway perspective view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a partial sectional view showing one example of the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a sixth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a partial cutaway perspective view showing the structure of the power semiconductor device package according to the sixth embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 12 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a seventh embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS Embodiments of a power semiconductor device package according to the present invention will be hereinafter explained, referring to drawings. Here, components same or similar to one another are denoted by the same reference numbers. FIG. 1 is a partial cutaway perspective view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a first embodiment of the present invention, and FIG. 2 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of the power semiconductor device package according to the first embodiment of the present invention. The power semiconductor device package according to the first embodiment of the present invention comprises: a lead frame 3; a first power MOSFET chip 1 which is mounted on the lead frame 3 with solder 8 as a thermoplastic conductive member; a drain terminal 5 which is extended from the lead frame 3, and connected to a drain electrode on the back of the first power MOSFET chip 1; a source pad 11a and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the first power MOSFET chip 1; a source terminal 4 and a gate terminal 6 in which one side are connected to the source pad 11a and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1 with solder bumps 9 as a thermoplastic conductive member, respectively; a second power MOSFET chip 2 which is connected to the first power MOSFET chip 1 in parallel by connecting a source pad 11b and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the surface to the other side of the source terminal 4 and the gate terminal 6 with solder bumps 9, respectively, and a drain electrode on the back to the lead frame 3 with a metallic frame 10 and the solder 8, and is arranged opposing to the first power MOSFET chip 1; and a sealing resin 7 in which components are sealed in a state that the tips of the source terminal 4, gate terminal 6, and drain terminal 5 are exposed. In other words, the power semiconductor device package according to the first embodiment of the present invention comprises two power MOSFET chips, that is, the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 which are connected in parallel with each other by common connection of electrode wirings to the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6, while the power MOSFET chips are arranged as a laminated structure, sandwiching the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6 between the MOSFET chips, and opposing to each other, and are sealed in the sealing resin 7 as one body. The first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 have similar functions to each other, are operated in synchronization with each other, and are connected to each other in parallel. Accordingly, the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 are connected to all of the source terminal 4, gate terminal 6, and drain terminal 5 as external electrode terminals, respectively. The first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 are mounted on the lead frame 3, while they are arranged in the laminated structure as described above, and are sealed in the sealing resin 7 as one body. Moreover, when the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 are a vertical MOSFET, the source pad and the gate pad are formed on the side of the chip surface, and the drain electrode are formed on the back of the chip. A source electrode wiring and a gate electrode wiring are extended by connecting the source pads 11a, and 11b, and the gate pads to the source terminal 4 and the gate terminal 6, respectively through the solder bumps 9 formed on the source pads 11a, and 11b, and the gate pads on the surfaces of the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2, respectively. Moreover, the drain electrode on the back of the first power MOSFET chip 1 is extended to the lead frame 3 by mounting the first power MOSFET chip 1 on the lead frame 3 with the solder 8, and the drain electrode on the back of the second power MOSFET chip 2 is extended to the lead frame 3 by connecting the back of the second power MOSFET chip 2 to the lead frames 3 through the metallic frames 10 and the solder 8. As described, the temperature environment for both chips becomes similar by putting the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 in close vicinity for sealing them in the sealing resin 7 as one body, and the thermal resistance of the first power MOSFET chip 1 can have the similar one to that of the second power MOSFET chip 2. Accordingly, parallel operations of the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 can be ideally realized. FIG. 3 is a partial sectional view showing one example of the structure of the power semiconductor device package according to the first embodiment of the present invention in more detail. Here, FIG. 3 shows a sectional view of the structure for a part including two power MOSFET chips, which are sealed in the sealing resin, in the power semiconductor device package according to the first embodiment of the present invention. The sectional view in FIG. 3 shows details of the cross sectional structure for the part including two power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 when the power MOSFETs formed on the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 are of a vertical MOSFET. The first power MOSFET chip 1 comprises an n+ type substrate 15; an n− type drift layer 16 formed on the n+ type substrate 15; p type base layers 17 formed in the surface portion of the n− type drift layer 16; n+ type source layers 18 formed in the surface portion of the p type base layer 17; gate electrodes 19 which are formed via insulating films from regions on n+ type source layers 18 formed in the surface portion of one p type base layer 17 to a region on another n+ type source layer 18 formed on the surface portion of another p type base layer 17 adjacent to the above p type base layer 17 via the n− type drift layer 16; a source pad 11a formed so that the pad 11a is connected to the n+ type source layers 18; solder bumps 9 formed on the source pad 11a; a drain electrode 14 which is formed on the back of the n+ type substrate 15 and is connected to the lead frame 3 with a solder 8; and guard rings 20 formed in the surface portion of the n− type drift layer 16 surrounding the element regions. The second power MOSFET chip 2 also has a similar structure to that of the first power MOSFET chip 1, and a drain electrode 14b of the second power MOSFET chip 2 is connected to the lead frame 3 through the metallic frame 10 and the solder 8. The surface sides of the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 are arranged so that they are opposing to each other, and sandwiching the source terminal 4 and the gate terminal 6 (refer to FIG. 1) between the both chips, and the source pads 11a and 11b, and the gate pads are connected to the source terminal 4 and the gate terminal 6 with the solder bumps 9. Thereby, the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 are connected in parallel to each other, and the source electrode wiring and the gate electrode wiring are extended to external terminals. Moreover, the drain terminal 5 (refer to FIG. 1) is connected to the lead frame 3, and, thereby, the drain electrode wiring is extended to an external terminal. Here, the power MOSFETs on each power MOSFET chip can be of the vertical MOSFET shown in FIG. 3, even in power semiconductor device package according to other embodiments of the present invention which will be described later, in addition to the power semiconductor device package according to the first embodiment of the present invention. Though the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6 are configured to be sandwiched between the two power MOSFET chips in FIG. 3, each power MOSFET can be similarly of a vertical MOSFET even when the electrode wirings are directly connected by solder bumps and the like without sandwiching the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6 between them. Moreover, though only the cross sectional structure for the part including two power MOSFET chips is shown in FIG. 3, each power MOSFET can be similarly of a vertical MOSFET even when three power MOSFET chips are arranged in a laminated structure and are sealed in a sealing resin as one body as described later. As described above, since there is adopted the structure comprising the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 which are connected in parallel with each other by common connection to the above electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6, while the power MOSFET chips are arranged as a laminated structure, sandwiching electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6 between the MOSFET chips, and the two chips are sealed in the sealing resin 7 as one body, the on-resistance for the whole power semiconductor device as a single package can be reduced by half, assuming that the size of the package is hardly increased and the chip areas of the power MOSFET chips are approximately doubled, according to the power semiconductor device package of the first embodiment of the present invention. Therefore, a power semiconductor device package which accommodates power MOSFETs with a low on-resistance and a large rated current while preventing the increase in the size of the package can be provided. Here, since the thickness of the power semiconductor device package is usually from about 2 mm through about 3 mm, and the thickness of one piece of a power MOSFET chip is about 150 μm through 200 μm, it can be said that the thickness of the power semiconductor device package remains substantially unchanged, even if the number of the MOSFET chips sealed in the package is increased by one, or, as described later, by two. FIG. 4 is a partial cutaway perspective view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to the second embodiment of the present invention, and FIG. 5 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of the power semiconductor device package according to the second embodiment of the present invention. The power semiconductor device package according to the second embodiment of the present invention comprises: a lead frame 3; a first power MOSFET chip 1 which is mounted on the lead frame 3 with solder 8; a drain terminal 5 which is extended from the lead frame 3, and connected to a drain electrode on the back of the first power MOSFET chip 1; a source pad 11a and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the first power MOSFET chip 1; a second power MOSFET chip 2 which is connected to the first power MOSFET chip 1 in parallel by connecting a source pad 11b and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the surface to the source pad 11a and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1 with solder bumps 9, respectively, and a drain electrode on the back to the lead frame 3 with a metallic frame 10 and the solder 8, and is arranged opposing to the first power MOSFET chip 1; wire straps 13 which connect the source pad 11a on the first power MOSFET chip 1 and a source terminal 4 as an external terminal, and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1 and a gate terminal 6 as an external terminal; and a sealing resin 7 in which components are sealed in a state that the tips of the source terminal 4, gate terminal 6, and drain terminal 5 are exposed. In other words, the power semiconductor device package according to the second embodiment of the present invention comprises two power MOSFET chips, that is, a first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2, which are connected in parallel to each other by common connection of the electrode wirings with the solder bumps 9, while the power MOSFET chips are arranged as a laminated structure, opposing to each other, and the two chips are sealed in the sealing resin 7 as one body. Though the configuration of the power semiconductor device package according to the second embodiment of the present invention has many points in common with that of the power semiconductor device package according to the first embodiment of the invention, a different point is that electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6 are not sandwiched between the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2, and the source pad 11a and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1 are directly connected to the source pad 11b and the gate pad on the second power MOSFET chip 2 with solder bumps 9. Therefore, the source pad 11a and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1 are connected to the source terminal 4 and the gate terminal 6 with the wire straps 13, respectively, in order to extend a source electrode wiring and a gate electrode wiring on the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 to the outside. Since the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6 are not sandwiched between the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2, the manufacturing process technically becomes easy, and is simplified. In order to secure a contact region in which the wire straps 13 are connected to the source pad 11a and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1, the chip area of the second power MOSFET chip 2 is slightly smaller than that of the first power MOSFET chip 1 in the power semiconductor device package according to the second embodiment of the invention. Here, aluminum, copper, and the like can be used as a material for the wire strap 13. As described above, since there is adopted the structure comprising the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2, which are connected in parallel to each other by common connection of electrode wirings with the solder bumps 9, while the power MOSFET chips are arranged as a laminated structure, opposing to each other, and the two chips are sealed in the sealing resin 7 as one body, the on-resistance for the whole power semiconductor device as a single package can be reduced almost by half, assuming that the size of the package is hardly increased and the chip areas of the power MOSFET chips are approximately doubled, according to the power semiconductor device package of the second embodiment of the present invention. Therefore, a power semiconductor device package which accommodates power MOSFETs with a low on-resistance and a large rated current while preventing the increase in the size of the package can be provided. FIG. 6 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of a modification of the power semiconductor device package according to the second embodiment of the present invention. While the drain electrode on the back of the second power MOSFET chip 2 and the lead frame 3 are connected to each other with the metallic frame 10 and the solder 8 in the power semiconductor device package of the second embodiment of the present invention shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, the modification shown in FIG. 6 is different from the second embodiment in that the drain electrode and the lead frame 3 on the back of the second power MOSFET chip 2 are connected with the wire strap 13b. With regard to other parts, the configurations of the both embodiments are similar. The manufacturing process can be further simplified by using the wire strap for connection between the drain electrode on the back of the second power MOSFET chip 2 and the lead frame 3 in a similar manner to connections by which the source pad 11a and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1 are connected to the source terminal 4 and the gate terminal 6, respectively. FIG. 7 is a partial cutaway perspective view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a third embodiment of the present invention. While the wire straps 13 are used for connection between the source pad 11a (refer to FIG. 5) on the first power MOSFET chip 1 and the source terminal 4, and connection between the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1 and the gate terminal 4 in the power semiconductor device package of the second embodiment of the present invention shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, bonding wires 21 are used for the connection in the power semiconductor device package according to the third embodiment of the present invention shown in FIG. 7. Since the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6 are not sandwiched between the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2, the manufacturing process technically becomes easy, and is simplified even in the power semiconductor device package according to the third embodiment of the invention. Here, in order to secure a contact region in which the bonding wires 21 are connected to the source pad 11a and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1, the chip area of the second power MOSFET chip 2 is slightly smaller than that of the first power MOSFET chip 1 even in the power semiconductor device package according to the third embodiment of the invention. Therefore, almost similar effects to those by the power semiconductor device package according to the second embodiment of the present invention can be obtained by the power semiconductor device package according to the third embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention. The power semiconductor device package according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention comprises: a lead frame 3; a first power MOSFET chip 1 which is mounted on the lead frame 3 with solder 8; a drain terminal (not shown) which is extended from the lead frame 3, and connected to a drain electrode on the back of the first power MOSFET chip 1; a source pad 11a and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the first power MOSFET chip 1; a second power MOSFET chip 2 which is connected to the first power MOSFET chip 1 in parallel by connecting a source pad 11b and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the surface to the source pad 11a and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1 with solder bumps 9, respectively, and a drain electrode on the back to the lead frame 3 with a metallic frame 10 and the solder 8, and is arranged opposing to the first power MOSFET chip 1; wire straps 13 which connect the source pad 11a on the first power MOSFET chip 1 and a source terminal 4 as an external terminal, and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1 and the gate terminal (not shown) as an external terminal; a third power MOSFET chip 22 which is connected to the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 in parallel by connecting a source pad 11c and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the surface to the source terminal 4 and the gate terminal with another wire straps 13, respectively, and by mounting a drain electrode on the back, which is connected, with solder 8, to a surface opposing to a surface of the metallic frame 10 to which the drain electrode on the back of the second power MOSFET chip 2 is connected with solder 8; and a sealing resin 7 in which components are sealed in a state that the tips of the source terminal 4, gate terminal 6, and drain terminal 5 are exposed. In other words, the power semiconductor device package according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention comprises three power MOSFET chips, that is, the first, second, and third power MOSFET chips 1, 2, and 22 in which the three chips are successively arranged as a laminated structure, while the front side and the front side, and the back side and the back side are opposing to each other, respectively, and the three chips are connected in parallel to each other by common connection of the electrode wirings on the surface sides with solder bumps 9, and by common connection of the electrode wirings on the back sides with the metallic frame 10 and solders 8. Moreover, the three chips are sealed in the sealing resin 7 as one body. Though the power semiconductor device packages according to the previous embodiments of the present invention have the configuration in which two power MOSFET chips are arranged as a laminated structure, while the front sides are opposing to each other, and the two chips are connected in parallel to each other and are sealed in the sealing resin 7 as one body, the power semiconductor device package according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention has the configuration in which three power MOSFET chips are successively arranged as a laminated structure, while the front side and the front side, and the back side and the back side are opposing to each other, respectively, and three chips are connected in parallel to each other and are sealed in the sealing resin 7 as one body. In order to secure a contact region in which the wire straps 13 are connected to the source pad 11a and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1, the chip areas of the second and third power MOSFET chips 2 and 22 are slightly smaller than that of the first power MOSFET chip 1 in the power semiconductor device package according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention. As described above, there is adopted the structure comprising the first, second and third power MOSFET chips 1, 2, and 22, which are successively arranged as a laminated structure, while the front side and the front side, and the back side and the back side are opposing to each other, respectively, and are connected in parallel to each other by common connection of the electrode wirings on the surface sides with solder bumps 9, and by common connection of the electrode wirings on the back sides with the metallic frame 10 and solders 8. Moreover, the three chips are sealed in the sealing resin 7 as one body. Accordingly, the on-resistance for the whole power semiconductor device as a single package can be remarkably reduced to almost one third, assuming that the size of the package is hardly increased and the chip areas of the power MOSFET chips are approximately tripled. Therefore, a power semiconductor device package which accommodates power MOSFETs with a lower on-resistance, a large output capacity, and a high rated current while preventing the increase in the size of the package can be provided. Here, bonding wires can be used instead of the wire straps 13 in the power semiconductor package according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention. The power semiconductor device package according to the fifth embodiment of the present invention comprises: a lead frame 3; a first power MOSFET chip 1 which is mounted on the lead frame 3 with solder 8; a drain terminal (not shown) which is extended from the lead frame 3, and connected to a drain electrode on the back of the first power MOSFET chip 1; a source pad 11a and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the first power MOSFET chip 1; a source terminal 4 and a gate terminal (not shown) to which the source pad 11a and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1 are connected with solder bumps 9 at the one sides, respectively; a second power MOSFET chip 2 which is connected to the first power MOSFET chip 1 in parallel by connecting a source pad 11b and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the surface to the other sides of the source terminal 4 and the gate terminal with solder bumps 9, respectively, and a drain electrode on the back to the lead frame 3 with a metallic frame 10 and solder 8, and is arranged opposing to the first power MOSFET chip 1; a third power MOSFET chip 22 which is connected to the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 in parallel by connecting a source pad 11c and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the surface to the source terminal 4 and the gate terminal with another metallic frame 10b, and solder 8, respectively, and by mounting a drain electrode on the back, which is connected, with solder 8, to a surface opposing to a surface of the metallic frame 10 to which the drain electrode on the back of the second power MOSFET chip 2 is connected with solder 8; and a sealing resin 7 in which components are sealed in a state that the tips of the source terminal 4, gate terminal 6, and drain terminal 5 are exposed. In other words, the power semiconductor device package according to the fifth embodiment of the present invention comprises three power MOSFET chips, that is, the first, second, and third power MOSFET chips 1, 2, and 22, wherein the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 are connected in parallel to each other by common connection of the electrode wirings on the surface sides to the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6, and are arranged as a laminated structure, while the front sides between which the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6 are sandwiched are opposing to each other, and the third power MOSFET chip 22 is connected in parallel to the second power MOSFET chip 2 by common connection of the electrode wirings on the back sides with the metallic frame 10 and the solder 8, while the third and second power MOSFET chips 22 and 2 are arranged as a laminated structure, and the back sides of the third and second power MOSFET chips 22 and 2 are opposing to each other. Moreover, the three chips are sealed in the sealing resin 7 as one body. A common point between the power semiconductor device package according to the fifth embodiment of the present invention and that in the fourth embodiment of the present invention shown in FIG. 8 is that the three power MOSFET chips are successively arranged as a laminated structure, while the front side and the front side, and the back side and the back side are opposing to each other, respectively. The difference is in that the electrode wirings on the surface of the first power MOSFET chip 1 and those on the surface of the second power MOSFET chip 2 are directly connected, with solder bumps 9, in the power semiconductor device package according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention, while the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6 are sandwiched between the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2, and the electrode wirings on the surface of the first power MOSFET chip 1 and those on the surface of the second power MOSFET chip 2 are connected to the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6, respectively, in the power semiconductor device package according to the fifth embodiment of the present invention. Furthermore, not the wire strap, but the metallic frame 10b is used for connection between the source pad 11c and the gate pad on the surface of the third power MOSFET chip 22 as the top layer chip and the source terminal 4 and the gate terminal, respectively, in the power semiconductor device package according to the fifth embodiment of the present invention. Similar effects to those by the power semiconductor device package according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention can be obtained even by the power semiconductor device package according to the fifth embodiment of the invention. Moreover, since the same metallic plates are used for all the connecting members for respective sections, the manufacturing process can be simplified. FIG. 10 is a partial sectional view showing one example of the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to the sixth embodiment of the present invention, and FIG. 11 is a partial cutaway perspective view showing the structure of the power semiconductor device package according to the sixth embodiment of the present invention. Though the power MOSFETs formed on the power MOSFET chips are assumed in the power semiconductor device packages according to the above-described embodiments of the present invention to be a vertical MOSFET shown in FIG. 3, the power MOSFETs formed on the power MOSFET chips can be configured to be a lateral MOSFET FIG. 10 shows a cross sectional structure for the part including two power MOSFET chips, among power semiconductor device packages according to the embodiments of the present invention when the lateral MOSFET is used, which are sealed in the sealing resin. Though FIG. 10 shows a structure in which the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6 are sandwiched between two power MOSFET chips, the power MOSFETs can be similarly configured to be a lateral MOSFET even when the electrode wirings are directly connected with solder bumps and the like without sandwiching the electrode wiring metallic plates 4 and 6 between the two chips. Moreover, though FIG. 10 shows only a cross sectional structure for the part including two power MOSFET chips, the power MOSFETs can be similarly configured to be a lateral MOSFET even when three power MOSFET chips are arranged as a laminated structure and sealed in a sealing resin as one body. The first power MOSFET chip 1b comprises: a p+ type substrate 24; a p− type layer 30 formed on the p+ type substrate 24; an n− type drift layer 16 formed on the p− type layer 30; p type base layers 17 formed in the surface portion of the n− type drift layer 16; p+ type layers 25 formed in the p type base layers 17 and the p− type layer 30; n+ type source layers 18 formed in the surface portion including the boundaries between the p type base layers 17 and the layers 18; n+ type drain layers 26 formed in the surface portion of the n− type drift layer 16 between one p type base layer 17 and another p type base layer 17; a source electrode 23 which is formed on the back of the p+ type substrate 24 and is connected to the lead frame 3 with solder 8; second source electrodes 31 formed on the n+ type source layers 18 and the p+ type layers 25; gate electrodes 19 formed on the p type base layers 17 via insulating films; drain pads 27 formed so that the pads 27 are connected to the n+ type drain layers 26; and solder bumps 9 formed on the drain pads 27. Though the second power MOSFET chip 2b has also a similar structure to that of the first power MOSFET chip 1b, the source electrode 23 of the second power MOSFET chip 2b is connected to the lead frame 3 with the metallic frame 10c and the solder 8. Moreover, the first and second power MOSFET chips 1b and 2b are arranged so that the front sides are opposing to each other, and the drain terminal 5b and the gate terminal 6b are sandwiched between the two chips. The drain pads 27 and the gate pads of the first and second power MOSFET chips 1b and 2b are connected to the drain terminal 5b and the gate terminal 6b, respectively, with solder bump 9. Thereby, the first and second power MOSFET chips 1b and 2b are connected to each other in parallel, and the drain electrode wiring and the gate electrode wiring are extended to external terminals. Moreover, the source terminal 4b is connected to the lead frame 3, thereby, the source electrode wiring is extended to an external terminal. In the lateral MOSFET, the source electrode and the drain electrode usually change positions in order to connect the substrate and the source electrode, different from the case of the vertical MOSFET. That is, since the source electrode wiring and the gate electrode wiring are formed on the front side of the substrate as shown in FIG. 3, and the drain electrode wiring is formed on the back side of the substrate when the power MOSFET is a vertical MOSFET, the source terminal and the gate terminal are sandwiched between the two power MOSFET chips in which the surface sides are opposing to each other. On the other hand, since the drain electrode wiring and the gate electrode wiring are formed on the front side of the substrate as shown in FIG. 10, and the source electrode wiring is formed on the back side of the substrate when the power MOSFET is a lateral MOSFET, the drain terminal and the gate terminal are sandwiched between the two power MOSFET chips in which the surface sides are opposing to each other. Though there are the above-described differences, similar effects to those of the power semiconductor device packages according to the above-described embodiments of the present invention can be obtained even in the power semiconductor device package according to the sixth embodiment of the present invention, that is, even in a case in which the power MOSFETs formed on the power MOSFET chips which are sealed in the package are a lateral MOSFET. FIG. 12 is a cross sectional view showing the structure of a power semiconductor device package according to a seventh embodiment of the present invention. The power semiconductor device package according to the seventh embodiment of the present invention comprises: a lead frame 3; a first power MOSFET chip 1 which is mounted on the lead frame 3 with solder 8; a drain terminal 5 (refer to FIG. 1) which is extended from the lead frame 3, and connected to a drain electrode on the back of the first power MOSFET chip 1; a source pad 11a and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the first power MOSFET chip 1; a source terminal 4 and a gate terminal 6 (refer to FIG. 1) to which the source pad 11a and the gate pad on the first power MOSFET chip 1 are connected with solder bumps 9 at the one sides, respectively; a second power MOSFET chip 2 which is connected to the first power MOSFET chip 1 in parallel by connecting a source pad 11b and a gate pad (not shown) formed on the surface to the other sides of the source terminal 4 and the gate terminal 6 with solder bumps 9, respectively, and a drain electrode on the back to the lead frame 3 with a metallic frame 10 and solder 8, and is arranged opposing to the first power MOSFET chip 1; a sealing resin 7 in which components are sealed in a state that the tips of the source terminal 4, gate terminal 6, and drain terminal 5, the upper surface of the metallic frame 10, and the bottom of the lead frame 3 are exposed; first heat sinks 28 installed on the upper surface of the metallic frame 10; and second heat sinks 29 installed under the bottom surface of the lead frame 3. The internal configuration of the power semiconductor device package according to the seventh embodiment of the present invention is quite similar to that of the power semiconductor device package according to the first embodiment of the present invention. However, there is a difference between the power semiconductor device package according to the seventh embodiment and that according to the first embodiment of the present invention in that components are sealed in the sealing resin 7 in a state that the upper surface of the electrode wiring metallic plate as the top layer and the bottom of the electrode wiring metallic plate as the bottom layer, while the both metallic plates are connected to the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2, respectively, that is, the upper surface of the metallic frame 10, and the bottom of the lead frame 3 are exposed, and the first and second heat sinks 28 and 29 are installed on the upper surface of the metallic frame 10, and under the bottom surface of the lead frame 3, respectively. Accordingly, the power semiconductor device package according to the seventh embodiment of the present invention has similar effects to those of the power semiconductor device package according to the first embodiment of the present invention, and, furthermore, the first and second power MOSFET chips 1 and 2 in which heat is generated under operation can be effectively cooled by the first and second heat sinks 28 and 29. Here, the first and second heat sinks 28 and 29 are not required to be installed in a direct manner on the upper surface of the electrode wiring metallic plate as the top layer and on the bottom of the electrode wiring metallic plate as the bottom layer, respectively, that is, on the upper surface of the metallic frame 10 and on the bottom of the lead frame 3, and an insulating member such as an insulating sheet may be inserted between the heat sinks and the electrode wiring metallic plates. As described above, since the power semiconductor device packages according to the embodiments of the present invention are configured to comprise a plurality of power semiconductor chips which are arranged in a laminated structure so that the above-described plurality of power semiconductor chips are opposing to each other at the surfaces with the same electrical characteristics, and which are connected in parallel to one another and are sealed in a sealing resin as one body, a power semiconductor device package accommodating power MOSFETs with a small on-resistance, a large output capacity and a high rated current can be provided while preventing the increase in the size of the package. Though the first to seventh embodiments according to the present invention have been explained as described above, the present invention is not limited to the above-described first to seventh embodiments. Though a planar gate MOSFET has been used for the above-described explanation in the above-described first to seventh embodiments, a trench gate MOSFET can be used therefor. Moreover, the present invention can be realized, using a MOSFET with a super junction structure for the drift layer. Furthermore, the present invention can be executed, using a package such as a TO-220 package, which has been used in the above-described first to seventh embodiments, or even a surface mounting package such as an SOP-8 package, and the invention is not limited by the size of a package, or the pattern of a lead frame. Additionally, there may be applied a form in which two power MOSFET chips are arranged in a laminated structure so that the two chips are opposing to each other via the lead frame 3, that is, in a state that the lead frame 3 is sandwiched between the two chips, though the above-described first to seventh embodiments have illustrated a form in which two power MOSFET chips are arranged in a laminated structure so that the two chips are opposing to each other on the lead frame 3. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a power semiconductor device package. 2. Related Background Art The size and the power loss of a power supply circuit have been reduced along with the development and improvement of the power semiconductor device. The conduction loss of, especially, an AC adapter and the like has been decreased by reducing the on-resistance of a power metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (power MOSFET) which is a switching element mainly used as one of components, and reduction in the power loss of the adapter and the like has been realized. Since the on-resistance of the power MOSFET is inversely proportional to the area of a chip, use of a power MOSFET chip with a large chip area is required in a power supply circuit with a large rated current. Moreover, the size of a chip which a package can accommodate depends on the size of the package. Accordingly, the size of a package which accommodates chips of MOSFETs with a large rated current and a low on-resistance is forced to be large. Here, in a conventional technology, a semiconductor device in which a plurality of semiconductor chips which have different functions from one another are packaged as a laminated structure in order to control increase in the size of the package, to simplify the manufacturing processes, and the like has been proposed, and has become publicly known. In this connection, reference will be made to, for example, Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication NO. 2002-208673, Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication NO. 2003-197859, and Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication NO. 2002-217416. However, one package accommodates only one semiconductor chip in a conventional semiconductor device package, except a semiconductor device in which a plurality of semiconductor chips with different functions from one another are packaged as a laminated structure. Since the size of a chip which a package can accommodate depends on the size of the package as described above, the package size, that is, the size of a lead frame is decided, and, then, a maximum chip area which the package can accommodate is decided according to the decision. Moreover, since the on-resistance of a power MOSFET is inversely proportional to the chip area, a minimum on-resistance is decided by the maximum chip area which the package can accommodate. On the other hand, the capacity of a power supply circuit has been increased in addition to the reduction of the size and the power loss of a power supply circuit so that the power supply circuit with a large output capacity and a high rated current has been used. The conduction loss generally becomes large along with the increase in the output capacity and the rated current of the power supply circuit. Accordingly, a power MOSFET chip with small on-resistance, that is, a power MOSFET chip with a large area is required to be used in order to prevent or control the increase in such a conduction loss. Therefore, a power MOSFET with a large package size has been forced to be used in order to prevent or control the increase in the conduction loss caused by the increase in the output capacity and the rated current of the power supply circuit in a conventional technology. As a result, it has been difficult to reduce the size of a power supply circuit because the package size of a power MOSFET is increased as the capacity of the power supply circuit becomes large. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a power semiconductor device package which comprises: a plurality of power semiconductor chips which are arranged in a laminated structure so that the plurality of power semiconductor chips are opposing to each other at the surfaces with the same electrical structures, and which are connected in parallel to one another and are sealed in a sealing resin as one body. | 20040616 | 20070918 | 20051013 | 72292.0 | 0 | HA, NATHAN W | POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE PACKAGE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,868,038 | ACCEPTED | Suspension device | A device for detachable suspension of baskets (7), shelves (8), paper roll holders (9) etc. from a door or the like (2), comprising a carrier element (3) with through slots or holes (6, 6A, 6B) for holding the baskets, shelves etc., a first fastener (4) and a second fastener (5), which fasteners (4, 5) carry the carrier element (3) and are adapted to be fixed to the door or the like (2). Each of the first (4) and second (5) fasteners comprises an L-shaped element (11, 31) with a first leg (12, 32), which is adapted to be engaged with one edge side (13) of the door and its opposite edge side (33), respectively, and a second leg (14, 34), to which the carrier element is fixed in suspension. A first hook portion (35) is movably attached to the second leg (34) of the first fastener (4), and a second hook portion (16) is immovably attached to the second leg (14) of the second fastener (5). By moving the first hook portion (35) away from the second hook portion (16), the carrier element (3) is clamped to the door (2). | 1. A device for detachable suspension of baskets (7), shelves (8), paper roll holders (9) etc. from a door or the like (2), comprising a carrier element (3) with through slots or holes (6, 6A, 6B) for holding the baskets, shelves etc., a first fastener (4) and a second fastener (5), which fasteners (4, 5) carry the carrier element (3) and are adapted to be fixed to the door or the like (2), wherein each of the first (4) and second (5) fasteners comprises an L-shaped element (11, 31) with a first leg (12, 32) which is adapted to be engaged with one edge side (13) of the door and the opposite edge side (33), respectively, and a second leg (14, 34) to which the carrier element (3) is fixed in suspension, that a first hook portion (35) is movably attached to the second leg (34) of the first fastener (4), that the movable first hook portion (35) is screwably engaged with a bolt (34), which is rotatably supported in a through hole (38) in a supporting element (39) fixedly attached to the second leg (34) of the first fastener (4), essentially perpendicular to said second leg, and that the first hook portion (35) is arranged to be inserted into the associated slot or hole (36) in the carrier element (3), whereby, after positioning the fasteners (4, 5) and tightening the bolt (37), the carrier element (3) will be suspended from the door (2). 2. A device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the first hook portion (35) is a substantially U-shaped element (44) which is fixedly attached to a nut (45) screwably engaged with said bolt (37), that the U-shaped element (34) at its free ends (41) has projections (36) directed towards the supporting element (39), and that the head (42) of the bolt (37) rests on a supporting element surface (46) which is positioned opposite to said nut (45). 3. A device as claimed in claim 1, wherein a second hook portion (16) is immovably attached to the second leg (14) of the second fastener (5) and is arranged to be inserted into the associated slot or hole (6B) in the carrier element (3). 4. A device as claimed in claim 3, wherein the second hook portion (16) is fixedly attached to the second leg (14) of the second fastener (5). 5. A device as claimed in claim 1, wherein each fastener (4, 5) is made of a metal sheet essentially bent in L shape. 6. A device as claimed in claim 5, wherein the supporting element (39) of the first fastener (4) is a block which is fixedly attached perpendicularly to the second leg (34) of the first fastener (4) and whose through hole (38) is directed towards the second fastener (5) when the carrier element (3) is mounted. 7. A device as claimed in claim 5, wherein the hook portion (16) of the second fastener (5) is integrally formed with the second leg (14) of the second fastener (5) and comprises projections (23) which are arranged essentially at right angles to said second leg (14) and which are directed essentially towards the first leg (12) of the second fastener (5). 8. A device as claimed in claim 7, wherein the hook portion (16) of the second fastener (5) also comprises a T-shaped portion (18), which is arranged at a distance from said hook portion (16) which essentially corresponds to the distance between two slots or holes (6A, 6B) in the longitudinal direction of the carrier element (3) and which has its greatest length in the longitudinal direction of the hook portion (16) which is greater than the length of the slots or holes (6B) in the longitudinal direction of the carrier element (3). 9. A device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the first leg (12, 32) of at least one fastener (4, 5) extends over the edge side (13, 33) of the door (2) and is terminated with a third leg (25, 25A, 25′, 25A′) which is essentially parallel to the second leg (14, 34) of the fastener (4, 5) and which in mounting is arranged at the side (26) of the door (2) opposite to the side (15) of the door at which the second leg (14, 34) is positioned. 10. A device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the first leg (12, 32) of at least one fastener (4, 5) extends wholly or partly over the edge side (13, 33) of the door and has at least one through hole (27) for screwing the fastener (4, 5) to the edge side (13, 33) of the door. 11. A device as claimed in claim 1, wherein the first leg (12, 32) of at least one fastener (4, 5) has a point formation (28) adapted to be pressed into the edge side (13, 33) of the door for fixing the fastener (4, 5) to the door (2). 12. A device as claimed in claim 2, wherein a second hook portion (16) is immovably attached to the second leg (14) of the second fastener (5) and is arranged to be inserted into the associated slot or hole (6B) in the carrier element (3). 13. A device as claimed in claim 2, wherein each fastener (4, 5) is made of a metal sheet essentially bent in L shape. 14. A device as claimed in claim 3, wherein each fastener (4, 5) is made of a metal sheet essentially bent in L shape. 15. A device as claimed in claim 6, wherein the hook portion (16) of the second fastener (5) is integrally formed with the second leg (14) of the second fastener (5) and comprises projections (23) which are arranged essentially at right angles to said second leg (14) and which are directed essentially towards the first leg (12) of the second fastener (5). 16. A device as claimed in claim 2, wherein the first leg (12, 32) of at least one fastener (4, 5) extends over the edge side (13, 33) of the door (2) and is terminated with a third leg (25, 25A, 25′, 25A′) which is essentially parallel to the second leg (14, 34) of the fastener (4, 5) and which in mounting is arranged at the side (26) of the door (2) opposite to the side (15) of the door at which the second leg (14, 34) is positioned. 17. A device as claimed in claim 3, wherein the first leg (12, 32) of at least one fastener (4, 5) extends over the edge side (13, 33) of the door (2) and is terminated with a third leg (25, 25A, 25′, 25A′) which is essentially parallel to the second leg (14, 34) of the fastener (4, 5) and which in mounting is arranged at the side (26) of the door (2) opposite to the side (15) of the door at which the second leg (14, 34) is positioned. 18. A device as claimed in claim 2, wherein the first leg (12, 32) of at least one fastener (4, 5) extends wholly or partly over the edge side (13, 33) of the door and has at least one through hole (27) for screwing the fastener (4, 5) to the edge side (13, 33) of the door. 19. A device as claimed in claim 3, wherein the first leg (12, 32) of at least one fastener (4, 5) extends wholly or partly over the edge side (13, 33) of the door and has at least one through hole (27) for screwing the fastener (4, 5) to the edge side (13, 33) of the door. 20. A device as claimed in claim 2, wherein the first leg (12, 32) of at least one fastener (4, 5) has a point formation (28) adapted to be pressed into the edge side (13, 33) of the door for fixing the fastener (4, 5) to the door (2). | The present invention relates to a device for detachable suspension of baskets, shelves, paper roll holders etc. from a door or the like, comprising a carrier element with through slots or holes for holding the baskets, shelves etc., a first fastener and a second fastener, which fasteners carry the carrier element and are adapted to be fixed to the door or the like. More specifically, the invention relates to part of a system for storing various objects suspended from a door, a separate screen wall, a display screen and the like. In cramped quarters and with restricted storage spaces, such as in cupboards, it is important to be able to provide extra storage spaces that do not interfere with the floor surface or available shelf surfaces. One way of achieving this is to mount wire baskets, shelves, suspension hooks, paper roll holders, shoe racks and the like on inner doors or the inside of cupboard doors. It is then advantageous if the baskets, shelves etc. can easily be attached to the door in an optional position or easily be replaced by another unit. Moreover it is of vital importance that the storage system can easily be mounted on and dismounted from the door, when required. It is also important for the mounting of the system not to leave any marks after being dismounted, i.e. for the appearance of the door not to be affected by the system as such. A system for storing various objects suspended from a door is known from U.S. Design Ser. No. 464,558. The system comprises a support rail in the form of a backbone which is intended to be screwed to a door or wall. A number of pairs of tongues project laterally from the rail, to which tongues baskets, racks, shelves etc. can be attached. The baskets etc. have a strong suspension plate which is provided with grooves and recesses and which is adapted to be pushed over the respective pairs of tongues to allow a basket to be suspended from the rail. When mounting the rail, a number of holes must be drilled in the door and screws be fastened in the door, thus leaving ugly holes in the door when the system is dismounted. Furthermore the rail is specially designed for precisely this purpose. An object of the invention is to provide a device for detachable suspension of baskets etc., which is easy to mount on and dismount from e.g. a door. A further object is to provide a suspension device for baskets etc. on a door or the like, which in mounting and dismounting does not damage the appearance of the door. Yet another object of the invention is to provide a suspension device to be mounted on a door, a screen wall or the like, which is comparatively inexpensive to manufacture. According to the invention, these objects are achieved by a suspension device as described by way of introduction, which is characterised in that each of the first and second fasteners comprises an L-shaped element with a first leg which is adapted to be engaged with one edge side of the door and the opposite edge side, respectively, and a second leg to which the carrier element is fixed in suspension, that a first hook portion is movably attached to the second leg of the one fastener, that the movable first hook portion is screwably engaged with a bolt, which is rotatably supported in a through hole in a supporting element fixedly attached to the second leg of the first fastener, essentially perpendicular to said second leg, and that the first hook portion is arranged to be inserted into the associated slot or hole in the carrier element, whereby, after positioning the fasteners and tightening the bolt, the carrier element will be suspended from the door. Further developments of the invention are defined by the features stated in the subclaims. Preferred embodiments of the invention will be described below by way of example and with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a system for storing various objects suspended from a door, in which system a preferred embodiment of the inventive suspension device is included; FIG. 2 is an enlarged schematic view of the lower fastener of the suspension device in FIG. 1, the portions of the fastener that are concealed by the rail being indicated by dotted lines; FIG. 3 is a side view of the lower fastener as illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2; FIG. 4 is a view similar to FIG. 3, showing an alternative design of the lower fastener; FIG. 5 is a top plan view of the lower fastener according to FIGS. 3 and 4 in alternative embodiments; FIG. 6 is an enlarged schematic view of the upper fastener of the suspension device in FIG. 1, the portions of the fastener that are concealed by the rail being indicated by dotted lines; FIG. 7 is a perspective view of the upper fastener as illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 6, removed from the door and the rail; FIG. 8 is a side view of the upper fastener according to FIG. 7; FIG. 9 is a bottom view of the upper fastener according to FIG. 8 in alternative embodiments; and FIG. 10 is a top plan view of the hook portion of the upper fastener, removed from the L-shaped element and the bolt of the fastener. Reference is first made to FIG. 1, which is a perspective view of a storage system in which an embodiment of the suspension device 1 according to the invention is included. The suspension device 1 is adapted to be detachably mounted on a door, a separate screen wall or the like and is shown in FIG. 1 to be mounted on a door 2. In FIG. 1, the suspension device 1 is shown vertically oriented but may, of course, be oriented horizontally when required, for instance when the storage system is to be mounted on a wide door of small height. When the storage system is to be arranged on a separate screen wall, two or more suspension devices can be used, which may then also act as hang standards as illustrated in the Elfa leaflet “Planerings—och produktguide”, i.e. for instance as fasteners for shelf brackets. The suspension device 1 according to the invention comprises a carrier element or rail 3 and two fasteners, a first fastener 4 which, when mounting the suspension device 1 on a door 2 or the like, is arranged at one end of the carrier element 3, and a second fastener 5 which in said mounting is arranged at the opposite end of the carrier element 3. FIG. 1 shows the first fastener 4 as the upper fastener and, consequently, the second fastener 5 is called the lower fastener. As will be evident from the following description, it is convenient, when mounting the suspension device 1 on a door 2, screen wall or the like, to use the first fastener 4 as the upper fastener, while, when mounting the suspension device on a door located high up, the first fastener should be the lower mounting since the fasteners 4, 5 are of different design. The carrier element 3 can be mounted on and dismounted from the door 2 by means of the fasteners 4, 5. The carrier element 3 is a long and narrow section with a plurality of through slots or holes 6 for detachable hooking-on of wire baskets 7, shelves, paper roll holders etc. on the carrier element. Preferably the above Elfa hang standard or wall rail is used as carrier element 3; cf. U.S. Pat. No. 5,110,080. With reference to FIGS. 2-5, the second fastener 5 (in FIG. 1 the lower fastener) comprises a substantially L-shaped element 11 with a first leg 12 which, when mounting the suspension device 1, is engaged with the lower edge side 13 of the door 2, and a second leg 14, which in mounting is adapted to abut against the rear side 15 of the door and which has a hook portion 16. Before mounting the suspension device 1 on the door, the hook portion 16 is inserted into the associated slot/slots or hole/holes 6B in the carrier element 3, whereby the fastener 5 remains suspended from the carrier element and can be placed under the lower edge side 13 of the door by means of the carrier element. The hook portion 16 can be pivotally attached to the second leg 14, but is preferably fixedly attached to or integrally formed with the second leg 14 of the fastener 5. Moreover the fastener can be made of a bent rod which is round, rectangular or oval in cross-section, but when using the invention on doors, the fastener is preferably made of a metal sheet bent to L shape. Alternatively, the fasteners can be made of a material other than metal, such as reinforced plastic. The hook portion 16 is then suitably made of portions of flanges 17 of the second leg which are bent at right angles to this leg, see in particular FIGS. 2 and 3. In the design of the lower fastener 4 as shown in FIG. 4, the fastener will swing in the carrier element 3 when this is moved towards the door 2 prior to mounting. In order to counteract this and keep the fastener 5 fixed to the carrier element, a T-shaped portion 18 is formed in the flange/flanges 17 of the second leg 14, see FIG. 3. The distance between the hook portion 16 and the T-shaped portion 18 corresponds to the pitch of the slots 6. The T-shaped portion has a “web” portion 19 and a “flange” portion 21. The “flange” portion 21 has a length which is greater than the length of the slots (holes) 6 and comprises a first projection 22 which, like the projection 23 of the hook portion 16, is directed essentially towards the first leg 12 of the mounting. Further the “flange” portion 21 comprises a second projection 24 which is directed opposite to its first projection 22, and all said projections 22, 23, 24 are aligned with each other. When arranging the lower fastener 5 on the rail 3, the fastener 5 is moved at an acute angle from inside into the U-shaped rail so that the projection 24 is inserted into the associated slot 6A, and then the fastener is pressed upwards so that the web portion 20 abuts against the upper edge of the slot 6A. In this position, the fastener is pivoted towards the rail, the projection 23 being also inserted into said slot 6A and the hook portion 16 being inserted into the subjacent slot 6B. Once the fastener is released, it slides slightly downwards and is kept fixed to the rail by the projections 24, 23. If desirable, the projection 22 can be eliminated. With reference to FIGS. 3-5, the first leg 12 of the fastener 5 extends completely over the lower edge side 13 of the door 2. The first leg can be terminated with a third leg 25 which is parallel to the second leg 14 of the fastener and which, when mounting the suspension device 1, abuts against the front side 26 of the door, i.e. the lower fastener 5 encompasses (and hooks around) the lower portion of the door. The lower fastener can be provided for doors of different thicknesses, which is indicated with the third leg 25A displaced in relation to the third leg 25. To make the lower fastener independent of the thickness of the door 2, the third leg 25, 25A is eliminated, the first leg 12 of the fastener being arranged to extend wholly or partly over the edge side 13 of the door. Then the first leg 12 preferably has one or more through holes 27 so that the fastener can be screwed to the edge side 13. The screw hole in the edge side will certainly be uncovered when the suspension device 1 is removed, but the screw hole hardly affects the appearance of the door 2 since the front and rear sides 26, 15 of the door are intact. As an alternative to the above discussed fastening of the lower fastener by screwing, a friction-increasing coating can be applied to the side of the first leg 12 which, when mounting the suspension device 1 on the door, will abut against the lower edge side 13. Instead of said coating, point formations 28, i.e. small conical or pyramidal projections, can be formed in the surface of the first leg 12, directed towards the lower edge side 13. The second or lower fastener 5 has been presented above as a separate unit which is hooked into the carrier element or rail 3. Of course, it is possible to permanently fasten the fastener 5 to the carrier element, for instance by welding or soldering. The fastener can also be made as an integral part of the carrier element, especially if the carrier element is substantially two-dimensional. The first or upper fastener 4 in FIG. 1 comprises, like the lower fastener, a substantially L-shaped element 31 with a first leg 32 which, when mounting the suspension device 1, is engaged with the upper edge side 33 of the door 2, and a second leg 34, which in mounting is adapted to abut against the rear side 15 of the door. The second leg 34 may exhibit the different embodiments as presented for the first leg 12 of the lower fastener 5, and the portions or components that are common to the various embodiments have been given the same reference numerals, but with the addition in the embodiments according to FIGS. 6-9. Moreover the upper fastener 4 comprises a hook portion 35 which is movably attached to the second leg 34 of the upper fastener 4 (in contrast to the lower fastener in which the hook portion 16 is immovably attached to its second leg 14). When mounting the suspension device 1, the projection/projections 36 of the hook portion 35 is/are oriented in the opposite direction relative to the projection/projections 23 of the hook portion 16 of the lower fastener 5. The hook portion 35 of the upper fastener 4 is movable in the longitudinal direction of the second leg 34, i.e. when mounting the suspension device 1, it is moved away from the lower fastener 5 (and in dismounting, the hook portion is moved towards the lower fastener). In the illustrated embodiment of the fastener 4, the hook portion 35 is screwably engaged with a bolt 37. The bolt 37 is rotatably supported in a through hole 38 in a supporting element 39 which is fixedly attached to the second leg 34 of the upper fastener, essentially perpendicular thereto. The supporting element 39 can be formed integrally with the fastener that has been bent at (right) angles to the leg 34, especially if the fastener is made of a bent rod which is rectangular or oval in cross-section. When the fastener is made of a metal sheet bent to L shape, the supporting element 39 is preferably a block or the like of metal which is fixedly attached to the second leg 34 of the fastener, for instance by welding or soldering. As is evident from FIG. 7, the head 42 of the bolt 37 rests against the upper side or upper face 46 of the supporting element 39, and the threaded shaft 43 of the bolt is screwably engaged with the hook portion 35 on the opposite side of the supporting element. As indicated above, the hook portion comprises a means, which is provided with internal threads and which is fixedly attached to the hook-shaped portion 35 or formed integrally therewith. FIG. 10 shows a currently preferred embodiment of the hook portion 35. In this embodiment, the hook portion comprises a substantially U-shaped element 44, for instance a bent sheet metal component which is enclosingly fixedly attached to a nut 44 by welding, soldering or gluing. The projections 36 are arranged at the free ends 41 of the U-shaped element 44. To move the hook portion 35 towards or away from the supporting element 39 when mounting the suspension device 1 on and dismounting the same from the door 2, the bolt 37 is rotated by a screw tool being inserted from above into the carrier element 3 to engage with the head 42 of the bolt, after which the bolt is rotated in the intended direction of rotation, cf. FIG. 1. It goes without saying that it is also possible to give access to the bolt through an opening in the carrier element or through an open space between the carrier element and the door (not shown). In this case, a torque transferring device is required between the head 42 and the opening, such as a bent helical spring (not shown), whose one end is fixedly attached to the head 42 and whose other end has a fixedly attached head which can be rotated by a tool so as to rotate the bolt 37. How the suspension device 1 according to the invention is to be mounted on or dismounted from the door 2 should be obvious from the above, but will now be described in brief. With reference to FIGS. 1 and 6, the upper fastener 4 is hooked onto the upper edge side 33 of the door or is fastened thereto in the manner described above. Subsequently, the lower fastener 5 is arranged on one end of the carrier element 3, see FIGS. 1 and 2, after which the fastener 5 is hooked onto the lower edge side 13 of the door by means of the carrier element, and the opposite end of the carrier element is moved towards the upper fastener 4. The upper end of the carrier element is pressed against the upper fastener and the upper hook portion 35 is inserted into the associated slots 6 in the carrier element. Finally, the bolt 37 is tightened, thereby moving the hook portion 35 upwards and hooking into the carrier element with its projection 36. In further tightening of the bolt 37, the fasteners 4, 5 are pressed-against the upper and lower edge side 33, 13 of the door, and a locking tensile stress is applied to the carrier element. Thus, the suspension device according to the invention is safely and firmly secured to the door. When dismounting the suspension device, one proceeds in the opposite way, and the appearance of the door has not been affected by the suspension device being used, i.e. the door looks the same after removal of the suspension device according to the invention as before this was mounted on the door. The invention is not limited to that described above or shown in the drawings, and can be modified within the scope of the appended claims. | 20040616 | 20070220 | 20050113 | 87065.0 | 1 | DUCKWORTH, BRADLEY | SUSPENSION DEVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||||
10,868,088 | ACCEPTED | Color image formation apparatus | In an image formation apparatus having a photoconductor unit including a photoconductor and a developing unit for storing toner supplied to the photoconductor, the developing unit is displaceably placed in an apparatus main unit, and then, the photoconductor unit is detachably placed in the apparatus main unit and is positioned at a predetermined position, thereby the displaceable developing unit previously placed is positioned relative to the photoconductor unit. | 1. A color image formation apparatus comprising: a single optical unit having: an incidence optical member for giving a different angle to each of a plurality of laser beams to form a color image and making the laser beam incident on a single polygon mirror rotation body; a single image-forming lens having Fθ characteristic through which the laser beam for each color reflected on the polygon mirror rotation body passes through; a first reflecting mirror for reflecting the laser beam for each color after passing through the image-forming lens in the opposite direction to the incidence direction; and a plurality of second reflecting mirrors for forming an image of each reflected laser beam reflected on the first reflecting mirror on an image formation position for each color; and a plurality of image formation units being disposed along a transfer material transport passage placed in a roughly vertical direction, each being disposed at the image formation position for each color where an image is formed by said optical unit. 2. A color image formation apparatus comprising: a single optical unit having: an incidence optical member for giving a different angle to each of a plurality of laser beams to form a color image and making the laser beam incident on a single polygon mirror rotation body; a single first reflecting mirror for reflecting the laser beam for each color reflected on the polygon mirror rotation body in the opposite direction to the incidence direction; and a single or a plurality of second reflecting mirrors having reflection and Fθ characteristics for forming an image of each reflected laser beam reflected on the first reflecting mirror on an image formation position for each color; and a plurality of image formation units being disposed along a transfer material transport passage placed in a roughly vertical direction, each being disposed at the image formation position for each color where an image is formed by said optical unit. 3. The color image formation apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the reflection direction angle difference between the reflected laser beams each for each color reflected on the second reflecting mirror of said optical unit is set within 10 degrees. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to improvement in an image formation apparatus, such as an electrophotographic printer or copier, particularly including a plurality of image formation units disposed along a transfer material transport passage for successively transferring toner images to a transfer material moving on the transfer material transport passage. Known as a conventional image formation apparatus is an apparatus called tandem type including a plurality of image formation units disposed on a transfer material transport passage extending in a horizontal direction, for example, for successively transferring toner images from the image formation units to a transfer material moving along the transfer material transport passage and forming a color image on the transfer material. The image formation unit refers to a pair of a photoconductor unit having a photoconductor on which an electrostatic latent image is formed and a developing unit for storing toner supplied to the photoconductor. Already proposed as the transport technique is a transfer roll transport technique wherein each image formation unit is provided with a transfer roll for abutting the photoconductor and paper as a transfer material is transported by the photoconductor and the transfer roll, or a belt transport technique wherein paper is, for example, electrostatically attracted and held on a circulating transport belt. As for the arrangement structure of the image formation units, already proposed are a landscape orientation type wherein a plurality of image formation units are placed transversely side by side relative to a transfer material transport passage extending in the horizontal direction and a portrait orientation type wherein a plurality of image formation units are placed longitudinally relative to a transfer material transport passage extending in a vertical direction. However, in this kind of the conventional landscape orientation type, often the image formation units are attached and detached from the direction parallel with the transport face of the transfer material transport member and vertical to the transport direction. In this case, the image formation units are positioned in the apparatus main unit by an image formation unit drive member attached to one side of the apparatus main unit and a positioning member formed on an opposite side of the apparatus main unit with the transport member between. The image formation unit itself is positioned by a positioning section formed in a support member for supporting the photoconductor without directly positioning the photoconductor as the positioning reference on the configuration. Thus, it is difficult to ensure the positioning accuracy of each image formation unit in the apparatus main unit. As for the conventional image formation apparatus of the portrait orientation type, each image formation unit can be attached and detached from the direction orthogonal to the transfer material transport passage of roughly vertical portion, so that each image formation unit can be positioned in the apparatus main unit by a unit positioning section formed on both sides of a cabinet and it becomes easy to ensure the positioning accuracy; in contrast, however, a disadvantage occurs in the transfer material transportability. In the transfer roll transport technique, if the image formation unit spacing is wide to some extent, paper passes through the transfer part of one image formation unit, the pass-through paper portion becomes long, the tip state of the paper becomes easily unstable in such a manner that the tip of the paper curls or remains straight, and the tip position of the paper arriving at the transfer part of the next image formation unit easily varies. Thus, the write start position of each color component toner image relative to the paper at the transfer part of each image formation unit shifts, causing a color shift or color unevenness phenomenon of a color image. In the belt transport technique, paper is transported on the paper transport belt and thus the tip entry position of paper in the transfer part of each image formation unit is stable and the color unevenness of a color image relative to the paper transport direction can be suppressed as compared with the transfer roll transport technique. However, as the image formation unit spacing is wider, a walk phenomenon in which when the paper transport belt moves, it meanders in the width direction increases, and color shift or color unevenness of color image worsens in the orthogonal direction (width direction) to the paper transport direction. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore a first object of the invention to provide an image formation apparatus for enabling components to be well positioned in an apparatus main unit. It is a second object of the invention to provide an image formation apparatus for making it possible to suppress a color shift and color unevenness of a color image accompanying transport unevenness of a transfer material and miniaturize the apparatus itself. Although the solution means of the invention will be described to the specific contents to understand the invention, it is to be understood that the claims are not substantially reduced. To accomplish the first object, the image formation apparatus of the invention includes the developing unit placed in the apparatus main unit displaceably or in a pressed state, the photoconductor unit placed in the apparatus main unit and is positioned, and the developing unit positioned relative to the positioned photoconductor unit. To accomplish the second object, the image formation apparatus of the invention includes at least a part of the second photoconductor unit involving the second color positioned so as to overlap the first developing unit involving the first color, placed in the apparatus main unit in the move direction at the placing time. A supplementary description to the invention to accomplish the second object is given below: The inventor found out that it is important to miniaturize the apparatus to suppress a color shift and color unevenness of a color image accompanying transport unevenness of a transfer material and obtained the invention. The process to obtain the invention will be discussed specifically. Generally, as the color shift, color unevenness amount of color image not perceived as a problem by the user of an image formation apparatus, it is said that the maximum shift amount is 150 μm in the paper transport direction and is 100 μm in the orthogonal direction (width direction) to the paper transport direction. By experiment concerning this point, we found out that the transfer part spacing of each image formation unit needs to be set to 30 mm or less to place within the above-mentioned shift amount. By the way, in the conventional portrait orientation type, generally the limit of the spacing is 45 mm. FIG. 15 is a schematic drawing of a conventional color image formation apparatus of the portrait orientation type. It is seen that the occupation space and attachment/detachment space of each image formation unit (205a to 205d) govern the image formation unit (205a to 205d) spacing. As the configuration of the image formation unit (205a to 205d), the color image formation apparatus is placed in the normal orientation from the viewpoint of ensuring the space of a paper transport passage in the vertical direction and when FIG. 15 is viewed from the front of the plane of the Figure to the depth, a cleaning member 273a, a charging member 236a, and light exposure means 253a as image formation means are placed in the first quadrant with respect to a photoconductor 234a, a developing member is placed in the fourth quadrant, and space of the second and third quadrants is provided as much as possible. Assuming that the diameter of the photoconductor 234a is a, that the height of a developing unit is b, and that the occupation height of the cleaning, charging member is c, the height of the image formation unit becomes about a+(b/2)+c. If a=16 mm, b=20 mm, and c=10 mm as the minimum possible values of a, b, and c at present, the height of the image formation unit 205a becomes 36 mm. Allowing for a gap of 2 mm as an attachment/detachment margin of the adjacent image formation unit, it is considered that the limit of the transfer part spacing of each image formation unit (205a to 205d) is 38 mm. That is, we found out that so long as the configuration of a simple extension of related arts continues to be adopted as mentioned above, if the components are miniaturized as much as possible, shortening the transfer part spacing involves a limit and the limit does not reach the level allowed by the user. Thus, the inventor recognized the necessity for conceiving an epoch-making configuration and thought of the invention. This means that we set the specific numeric target of 30 mm and examined the invention to shorten the image formation unit spacing from the viewpoints of miniaturization of the whole apparatus or ensuring the run stability of a transfer material transported in the vertical direction and the run stability of a transfer material transport belt. That is, in a first aspect of the invention, as shown in FIG. 1, an image formation apparatus includes a photoconductor unit 8 (8a to 8d) having a photoconductor 34 on which an electrostatic latent image is formed and a developing unit 6 for storing toner supplied to the photoconductor, wherein the developing unit 6 is displaceably placed in an apparatus main unit and then the photoconductor unit 8 is detachably placed in the apparatus main unit and is positioned at a predetermined position, whereby the displaceable developing unit 6 previously placed is positioned relative to the photoconductor unit 8. Such technical means is effective not only for a tandem image formation apparatus for forming a color image, but also for a single-color image formation apparatus on the configuration, of course. Unit guide and positioning member and the unit shape may be selected appropriately and at least a photoconductor and a charging member may be built in the photoconductor unit and any other process means, such as a cleaning member or an electricity removal member, may be included as required, of course. As for the developing method, an image support and various functional parts required for developing may be built in appropriately and various developing techniques may be adopted regardless of the developer type, contact developing or non-contact developing. Developing unit guide part may be selected appropriately corresponding to the structure of the developing unit if the developing unit can be displaceably positioned in the same attitude for the corresponding guide part. For example, if the developing unit guide part is provided with one displacement concave part, the developing unit may be provided with a positioning convex part fitted in a positioning-possible manner corresponding to the displacement concave part. The unit positioning member of the photoconductor unit may be selected appropriately corresponding to the structure of the unit positioning member if it positions the photoconductor unit relative to the corresponding unit positioning part. For example, if the unit positioning member is provided with a positioning concave part or a positioning pin, the photoconductor unit may be provided with a positioning convex part or a positioning groove fitted in a positioning-possible manner corresponding to the positioning concave part or the positioning pin. To maintain good quality of an image developed on the photoconductor, the developing unit may be urged to the photoconductor unit side by a press member of a spring, etc., disposed in the apparatus main unit and a part of the developing unit may be abutted against the photoconductor of the photoconductor unit, whereby the developing unit may be positioned relative to the photoconductor unit. Further, the guide and positioning member of the photoconductor unit and the developing unit is configured integrally, it is advantageous from the viewpoint of ensuring the attachment accuracy of the photoconductor and the developing roll. Particularly, preferably such a positioning structure minimizing an eccentric error of the photoconductor is adopted from the viewpoint of holding color registration good. It is desirable that the guide and positioning member of each unit should be attached to the apparatus main unit as an integrally configured member so that the pitch between the image transfer positions of each photoconductor unit becomes equal with high accuracy. Further, the developing unit is displaceably placed at a predetermined position through a placement opening of the apparatus main unit and then the photoconductor unit is detachably placed in the apparatus main unit through the placement opening and at least a part of the photoconductor unit is positioned at a position overlapping the developing unit on the side near to the placement opening from the predetermined position and in the move direction to the placement opening, so that the height direction dimension of the image formation unit may be shortened as much as possible. Further, another adjacent photoconductor unit is detachably placed in the apparatus main unit through the placement opening and at least a part of the photoconductor unit is positioned at a position overlapping the first developing unit on the side near to the placement opening from the predetermined position and in the move direction to the placement opening, whereby the image formation unit spacing can be more shortened. When the image formation units are placed longitudinally, to take out the photoconductor unit and the developing unit of the same color, the adjacent photoconductor unit for a different color must first be taken out because of the positional relationship between the developing unit and the adjacent photoconductor unit for the different color overlapping each other. However, in the recent tandem color image formation apparatus, as the developing technique of a developing unit, a dual-component developing technique is mainstream and it is expected that the developing unit itself will have a prolonged life. In this case, as the developing unit, importance is attached to the purpose of avoiding the risk of dropping the developing unit, mixing a foreign substance in the developing unit, etc., as the user removes the developing unit willfully. Therefore, in such a form, a fixing member may be disposed so that the developing unit cannot easily attached to or detached from the apparatus main unit, and only the photoconductor unit may be able to be attached to and detached from the apparatus main unit. Further, the transport and transfer member may be of any type if it transfers a toner image to a transfer material while giving a transport force to the transfer material; preferably a transfer roll a transfer roll to which a transfer electric field is applied is used from the viewpoint of a simple and small-sized device. Further, if a transfer material is transported by the transport and transfer member, nothing may be provided before each image formation unit. However, preferably a transfer material guide for guiding a transfer material into the nip part between the photoconductor and the transport and transfer member is provided before each photoconductor unit from the viewpoint of more stably transporting the transfer material. However, the transfer material transport member and the transfer material guide need to become similar positional relationship to the corresponding photoconductor. In such an aspect, the roughly vertical direction portion of a transfer material transport passage may have a plurality of transfer members and transfer material guides having the transfer material transport capability at the positions corresponding to the photoconductors of the photoconductor units, the plurality of transfer members may be positioned relative to the corresponding photoconductors through transfer member reception parts formed on both sides of the apparatus main unit, and the roughly vertical direction portion of the transfer material transport passage having the transfer member may be supported so that it can be opened and closed relative to the apparatus main unit. In a second aspect of the invention, as shown in FIG. 9, if narrow pitch longitudinal placement of a plurality of image formation units is made possible, the maintenance space of each photoconductor unit becomes narrow and replacement becomes hard to perform. In this case, an image formation apparatus comprises a plurality of developing units for storing different color toners to form a color image and a photoconductor unit group 50 for supporting on a single cabinet a plurality of photoconductors on which electrostatic latent images are formed, the electrostatic latent images being developed by the developing units, characterized in that the developing units are displaceably placed in an apparatus main unit and then the photoconductor unit group is detachably placed in the apparatus main unit and is positioned at a predetermined position, whereby the displaceable developing units previously placed are positioned relative to the photoconductors of the photoconductor unit group. In such technical means, the unit guide and positioning member and the unit shape may be selected appropriately and at least as many photoconductors and a charging member as capable of forming a color image may be built in the photoconductor unit group and any other process means, such as a cleaning member or an electricity removal member, maybe contained as required, of course. As for the developing method, various developing techniques may be adopted as described in the first aspect of the invention. Further, the unit shape, the shape of the unit guide and positioning member, the developing unit positioning method relative to the photoconductors of the photoconductor unit group, and the like are similar to those previously described in the first aspect of the invention. Next, the function and effect of the technical means as described above will be discussed. To begin with, in the configuration shown in FIG. 1, the integral-type image formation unit in the related art is divided into the photoconductor unit and the developing unit, so that the layout of the units is made flexible and it is made possible to place the image formation units with narrow pitches as compared with the integral-type image formation unit. Further, the assembling accuracy of the photoconductor unit and the developing unit, which becomes disadvantageous as the integral-type image formation unit is divided, can be ensured by a single member of a pair of unit guide and positioning members of integral type attached to both sides of the apparatus main unit. Further, the image formation apparatus has the advantage that the rotation center shaft of the photoconductor of the photoconductor unit can be directly positioned and supported. It is also made possible to position the developing unit relative to the photoconductor. Further, in the configuration shown in FIG. 9, a plurality of photoconductor units are put into one piece, whereby the positioning parts in the apparatus main unit can be reduced to a single part, so that parts management of the apparatus main unit is facilitated and it is made possible to improve the accuracy and simplify the apparatus configuration. In a third aspect of the invention, as shown in FIG. 10, an optical unit includes an incidence optical member forgiving a different angle to each of a plurality of laser beams to form a color image and making the laser beam incident on a single polygon mirror rotation body (which will be hereinafter referred to as polygon mirror) rotating at high speed, a single image-forming lens having Fθ characteristic through which the laser beam for each color reflected on the polygon mirror passes through, a first reflecting mirror for reflecting the laser beam for each color after passing through the image-forming lens in the opposite direction to the incidence direction, and a plurality of second reflecting mirrors for forming an image of each reflected laser beam reflected on the first reflecting mirror on an image formation position for each color, so that the color laser beam spacing can be adjusted as desired in the optical unit (for example, by changing the installation angle of the second reflecting mirror or the like) and thus the image formation unit spacing can be shortened independently of placement of the optical unit. In such technical means, as the image formation unit, preferably the peripheral parts of an image support are put into a cartridge as much as possible considering the mount workability, etc., and use of a drum-like photoconductor as the image support is suited for short spacing. Further, a transport and transfer member is any if it transfers a toner image to a transfer material while giving a transport force to the transfer material. Preferably, a transfer roll to which a transfer electric field is applied is used from the viewpoint of a simple and small-sized device. Further, if a transfer material is transported by the transport and transfer member, nothing may be provided before each image formation unit. However, preferably a transfer material guide for guiding a transfer material into the nip part between the image support of each image formation unit and the transport and transfer member is provided before each image formation unit from the viewpoint of more stably transporting the transfer material. Ball bearings or plain bearings of resin material resistant to temperature change and abrasion support the outer peripheral surface of the image support for rotation, thereby suppressing run-out of each image support and a single endless belt is pressed against the outer peripheral surface of each image support and is frictionally driven, thereby setting the image supports to the same peripheral speed. Assuming that the transport speed of nip transport member of a pair of a registration roll and a pinch roll on the entrance side of the upstream image formation unit is V1, that the transport speed of fuser nip transport member on the exit side of the downstream image formation unit is V3, and that the peripheral speed of each image support is V2, the relation V1≧V2≧V3 is provided, whereby slack in a transfer material is produced on the nip upstream side of the upstream image support and transfer roll and on the fuser nip transport upstream side on the exit side of the downstream image support and transfer roll, and the effect of transport speed unevenness caused by nip transport on the entrance side and the exit side to the transfer material in the transfer part of the transfer roll and the image support can be ignored; it can be expected that a color shift and color unevenness of a color image accompanying transport unevenness of the transfer material can be suppressed. The arrangement order of the image formation units may be set appropriately. Preferably, the downstream image formation unit forms a black toner image from the viewpoint of maintaining good image quality in a single-color black mode frequently used. The configuration in FIG. 13 is almost similar to that of the color image formation apparatus of the third aspect and therefore will not be discussed again. A transfer belt is selected as transfer material hold transport member. In the form, the apparatus itself is also upsized, the number of parts is also increased, and the cost is also increased as compared with the transfer roll transport member described above. However, as the transfer member, it is not indispensable to particularly give a transport force to a transfer material and thus the transfer member is not limited to transport and transfer member such as the transfer roll and may be a part such as a metal transfer roll of stainless steel, etc. Since it is not necessary to forcibly set the image supports to the same peripheral speed and the image formation unit spacing can shortened, it is made possible to reduce the peripheral length of the transport belt to a half or less as compared with that in the related art, a walk phenomenon in which when the paper transport belt moves, it meanders in the width direction can be suppressed, and color shift and color unevenness of the color image is improved in the orthogonal direction (width direction) to the paper transport direction. In a fourth aspect of the invention, as shown in FIG. 14, an optical unit includes an incidence optical member for giving a different angle to each of a plurality of laser beams to form a color image and making the laser beam incident on a single polygon mirror, a single first reflecting mirror for reflecting the laser beam for each color reflected on the polygon mirror in the opposite direction to the incidence direction, and a single or a plurality of second reflecting mirrors having reflection and Fθ characteristics for forming an image of each reflected laser beam reflected on the first reflecting mirror on an image formation position for each color. Thus, similar advantages to those in the third aspect can be provided. In a fifth aspect of the invention, as shown in FIGS. 10, 13, and 14, the reflection direction angle difference between the reflected laser beams each for each color reflected on the second reflecting mirror of the optical unit is set within 10 degrees, whereby the developing device configurations of the image formation units are made the same, it becomes easy to combine the developing characteristics of the image formation units, and there liability of the image quality is also enhanced. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic representation to show an outline of an image formation apparatus according to a first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a schematic representation to show an outline of unit positioning used in the first embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 3A and 3B are schematic representations to show details of image formation unit positioning used in the first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 4 is a schematic representation to show the configuration of an image formation unit used in the first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 5 is a perspective detailed view of image formation unit positioning used in the first embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 6A and 6B are schematic representations to show details of a paper transport system in the first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 7 is a schematic representation to show a different form of the image formation apparatus according to the first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 8 is a schematic representation to show a photoconductor unit group used in a second embodiment of the invention; FIG. 9 is a schematic representation to show details of image formation unit positioning used in the second embodiment of the invention; FIG. 10 is a schematic representation to show an outline of an image formation apparatus according to a third embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 11A and 11B are schematic representations to show details of a paper transport system used in the first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 12 is a schematic representation to show details of an image formation unit used in the first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 13 is a schematic representation to show a different configuration of the image formation apparatus according to the first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 14 is a schematic representation to show an outline of an image formation apparatus according to a second embodiment of the invention; and FIG. 15 is a schematic representation to show an outline of a conventional image formation apparatus. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Embodiment 1 Referring now to the accompanying drawings, a first embodiment of the invention will be discussed. FIG. 1 shows an embodiment of a color image formation apparatus incorporating the invention. In the Figure, the color image formation apparatus includes image formation units (5a to 5d) of four colors (in the embodiment, yellow, magenta, cyan, and black) arranged in a longitudinal direction, a paper feed cassette 9 disposed below the image formation units for storing supplied paper 10, and a paper transport passage as a transport passage of paper 10 from the paper feed cassette 9, placed in a vertical direction at positions corresponding to the image formation units (5a to 5d). In the embodiment, the image formation units (5a to 5d) and reflecting mirrors (4a to 4d) usually form yellow, magenta, cyan, and black toner images in order from the upstream side of the paper transport passage. The image formation apparatus includes the image formation units (5a to 5d) for forming color toner images on photoconductors 34 (see FIG. 4), for example, by electrophotography and transferring the toner images formed on the photoconductors 34 to paper (not shown) and optical units (1a to 1d) for applying laser beam to the photoconductors 34 for writing electrostatic latent images on to the photoconductors 34. In the embodiment, the optical unit (1a to 1d) includes a semiconductor laser (not shown), a polygon mirror (2a to 2d), an image-forming lens (3a to 3d), and a reflecting mirror (4a to 4d) for deflecting and scanning light from the semiconductor laser (not shown) and introducing a light image (53a to 53d) through the image-forming lens (3a to 3d) and the reflecting mirror (4a to 4d) in to a light exposure point on the photoconductor 34. Next, the image formation unit (5a to 5d) used in the embodiment will be discussed with FIG. 4. The image formation unit (5a to 5d) refers to a pair of a split photoconductor unit 8 (8a to 8d) and a developing unit 6 (6a to 6d). The photoconductor unit 8 is a cartridge of a drum-like photoconductor 34, a charging roll 36 (36a to 36b) for previously charging the photoconductor 34, and a roller cleaner 37 made of an elastic substance sponge roll for removing the remaining toner on the photoconductor 34 in one piece as shown in FIG. 4. It is considered that the appropriate diameter of the photoconductor 34 is 30 mm to 16 mm from the viewpoints of shortening the image formation unit spacing, the paper transportability, and the transferability. Further, in the paper transportability, it is understood that as the drum diameter is smaller, the pitch between the image formation units becomes narrower and transfer material separation in curvature separation from the photoconductor after transfer becomes stabler; this time, 16 mm is adopted as the diameter of the photoconductor 34. On the other hand, the roller cleaner 37 is disposed above the photoconductor 34 and is shaped like a roller of conductive urethane foam. While the roller cleaner 37 is given a voltage of the opposite polarity to that of toner and has a peripheral speed difference from the photoconductor 34, the roller cleaner 37 rotates in contact with the photoconductor 34 in the same rotation direction as the photoconductor 34 for scraping the remaining toner off the photoconductor 34. As shown in FIGS. 6A and 6B, to set the photoconductors 34 of the photoconductor units 8 (8a to 8d) to the same peripheral speed, ball bearings each with the outer periphery fixed and the inner periphery sliding or plain bearings (43a to 43d) made of resin material of PPS, etc., resistant to temperature change and abrasion support the outer peripheral surface of the photoconductor 34 for rotation, thereby suppressing run-out of each photoconductor 34 (34a to 34d) and the same face of a single endless belt 45 is pressed against the outer peripheral surface of a non-print area of each photoconductor 34 (34a to 34d) and the outer periphery of the photoconductor 34 is frictionally driven by a drive member 44 and drive transmission is performed by geared flanges (not shown) each attached to the end part of each photoconductor 34 (34a to 34d) and idle gears (46a to 46c), thereby setting the photoconductors 34a to 34d to the same peripheral speed. The developing unit 6 (6a to 6d) in FIG. 4 has a developing case 30 for storing a developer containing predetermined color toner (not shown). Agitators 31 as a pair of developer agitating members are disposed in the developing case 30 and a developing roll 33 is disposed in an opening part of the developing case 30 opposed to the photoconductor 34 and a developer layer thickness regulating blade 32 for regulating the layer thickness of the developer on the developing roll 33 is provided. A developing bias (not shown) is applied to the developing roll 33 and the developer (toner) on the developing roll 33 is jetted to the photoconductor 34. Since a dual-component developing technique for making it possible to prolong the life of the developing unit 6 is adopted, a developer having toner and carrier is stored; on the configuration, a developing unit 6 of a mono component developing technique may be adopted for storing a mono component developer of a non-magnetic developer of a magnetic developer. The gap between the photoconductor 34 and the developing roll 33 is adjusted by cap rollers 27 (FIG. 5) coaxially with both end parts of the developing roll 33 and moreover rotatable as spacing setting members. Particularly, in the embodiment, the developing case 30 for storing a developer is extended in the depth direction in FIG. 4, whereby the developer storage space is provided, so that the up and down direction dimension of each image formation unit is set short. In the embodiment, as shown in FIG. 2, a main unit housing has a door 17 on the left of the Figure (apparatus front or apparatus operation side), and each image formation unit 5 (5a to 5d) having the photoconductor unit 8 (8a to 8d) and the developing unit 6 (6a to 6d) can be taken in and out through a placement opening formed when the door 17 is opened. Transfer members 18 (18a to 18d) for transferring toner images on the photoconductors (34a to 34d) to paper are attached to the door 17 and are pressed into contact with the photoconductors (34a to 34d) with the door 17 closed. In the embodiment, the transfer member 18 shown in FIG. 3B adopts a rotatable transfer roll 39 coated with a foam conductive member. To attach the transfer roll 39, a transfer press spring 40 is provided so that both end parts of the transfer roll 39 are fitted into guide groove 41 formed in both sides of the door 17 and the transfer roll 39 is brought into contact with the photoconductor 34 by a predetermined press force from the rear, and the transfer roll 39 is abutted against the photoconductor (34a to 34d) by a transfer positioning member 25 formed in the main unit housing and is rotated in synchronization with the photoconductor (34a to 34d) through a drive transmission system (not shown). A predetermined transfer electric field is applied to the transfer roll 39 forgiving a transfer force to the transfer roll side to the toner image on the photoconductor. Paper guides 42 for regulating the move path of paper are disposed before the photoconductors (34a to 34d). The paper guides (42a to 42d) are supported integrally on the transfer rolls (39a to 39d), are placed so that the paper entry angles and positions in the photoconductors (34a to 34d) conforming to transfer roll (39a to 39d) positioning become the same, and are adjusted so that they extend toward the direction in which the back of paper containing the tip of the paper transferred and transported always comes in contact with the faces of the paper guides (42a to 42d), that the paper moves toward the nip area between the photoconductor 34 and the transfer roll 39 while coming in contact with, and that the paper tip collides with the photoconductor 34 before the nip area. In the embodiment, the main unit housing includes unit guide and positioning members 19 as guide and positioning members each having a plurality of common-shaped guide parts 20 (20a to 20d) for positioning the image formation units 5 (5a to 5b) and the transfer member 18 (18a to 18d). The unit guide and positioning members 19 are disposed in a pair on the inner faces of the front and rear plates of the main unit housing. The unit guide and positioning members 19 will be discussed with reference to FIGS. 3A and 3B. Numeral 21 denotes a developing unit positioning guide part as a guide part. It has a guide groove in a roughly horizontal direction and is shaped like the groove width on the door side widened one step. Developing unit press spring member 22 (press member) is attached to the narrow depth part of the guide part on the opposite side to the door. Numeral 23 denotes a photoconductor center bearing part (positioning part) for positioning the photoconductor unit. It is adjacent to the developing unit positioning guide part 21 at a roughly opposed position (describe later in detail), forms roughly the U-shape for supporting a rotation center shaft 28 of the photoconductor 34 at a predetermined position, and has an inclination angle of about 30 to 45 degrees in the direction of the door 17. A photoconductor unit whirl stop part 24 having an elastic hook part roughly horseshoe-shaped is formed roughly above the photoconductor center bearing part 23. A transfer roll positioning guide 25 (transfer member positioning part) roughly U-shaped is formed on the door side integrally with the photoconductor unit positioning part 23. In the embodiment, to place the developing unit 6 in the unit guide and positioning members 19, as shown in FIG. 5, guide protrusion strips 26 formed on both ends of the developing unit 6 are inserted into large-diameter grooves of the developing unit positioning guide parts 21 and from this state, the developing unit 6 is pushed into small-diameter groove depth sides, and the tips of the cap rollers 27 coaxially with both end parts of the developing roll 33 of the developing unit 6 and moreover rotatable are fitted into the large-diameter groove positions of the developing unit positioning guide parts 21. This process is performed for all developing units. To narrow the spacing between the image formation units 5 (5a to 5d) as much as possible, each photoconductor unit 8 (8a to 8d) is placed detachably in the apparatus main unit through the placement opening and at least a part of the photoconductor unit 8 is positioned at a position overlapping the developing unit 6 on the side near to the placement opening from the predetermined position and in the move direction to the placement opening. That is, the unit guide and positioning members 19 have the guide parts so that each developing unit 6 (6a to 6d) is positioned at a position overlapping at least either of the adjacent photoconductor units 8 relative to the displacement direction of the developing unit 6. Further, as shown in FIG. 3B, a developing unit fixing member 38 shaped roughly like the letter L is fixed to the developing unit positioning guide part 21 with a screw, etc., from below, whereby it can also be made hard to remove the developing unit 6 (6a to 6d). Next, in order to place each photoconductor unit 8 (8a to 8d), as shown in FIG. 3A, the photoconductor unit 8 is moved in the arrow X direction with the photoconductor unit 8 tilt and is attached to the photoconductor unit positioning part 23. At this time, both end parts of the photoconductor rotation center shaft 28 (28a to 28d) projected from both end parts of the photoconductor unit 8 in the axial direction thereof are put on a door side inclination part of the photoconductor unit positioning part 23 and are pushed into the end and the photoconductor unit 8 is rotated in the arrow Y direction, whereby a whirl stop pin 29 formed on a side of a photoconductor unit case 35 is fitted into the photoconductor unit whirl stop part 24 and the photoconductor unit 8 is positioned, as shown in FIG. 3B. At this time, the already positioned developing unit 6 stops in a free state in which it does not receive the press force of the developing unit press spring member 22. However, as shown in FIG. 3A, if the photoconductor unit 8 is moved in the arrow X direction with the photoconductor unit 8 tilt, the cap rollers 27 (FIG. 5) at both ends of the developing unit 6 abut both end parts of the photoconductor 34 of the photoconductor unit 8 (parts not contributing to image formation) Further, as the photoconductor unit 8 is inserted into the photoconductor unit positioning part 23, the cap rollers 27 of the developing unit 6 are pushed by the photoconductor unit 8 and the developing unit 6 is also moved in a direction urging the developing unit press spring member 22. When the photoconductor unit 8 is attached to the photoconductor unit positioning part 23, the developing unit 6 receives press forces from both of the photoconductor unit 8 and the developing unit press spring member 22 and stops and is positioned. In FIG. 5, the cap rollers 27 are placed coaxially with both ends of the developing roll 33 and the radius of the cap roller can also be designed a little larger than the radius of the developing roll 33. In this case, the cap rollers 27 abut the photoconductor 34 in the above-described positioning state and thus the developing roll 33 and the photoconductor 34 are positioned with a slight gap maintained. It is desirable that the urging force of the developing unit press spring member 22 should be twice or more the reaction force produced by driving the developing roll. Likewise, the transfer member is also positioned at the transfer roll positioning guide 25 roughly U-shaped as the door is closed. In the embodiment, as shown in FIG. 1, the paper feed cassette 9 is provided with a feed roll 11 for sending paper 10 at a predetermined timing and a pair 12 of a registration roll and a pinch roll as a nip transport member on the entrance side is placed on the paper transport passage positioned between the feed roll 11 and the transfer part of the upstream image formation unit 5a and an optical paper passage sensor (not shown) is disposed downstream of the paper transport passage 34. In the embodiment, the paper passage sensor (not shown) detects the tip of paper and, for example, the electrostatic latent image write timing in the optical unit 1 (1a to 1d) of each image formation unit 5 (5a to 5d) is controlled based on the detection timing of the paper tip. A fuser 13 as a nip transport member on the exit side is placed on the paper transport passage positioned downstream from the downstream image formation unit 5d. The fuser 13 having a heating roll 15 and a pressurizing roll 16. An ejection roll 14 for ejecting paper is placed downstream from the fuser 13 and ejected paper is stored in a storage tray formed on the top of housing. Assuming that the transport speed of the registration roll and pinch roll pair 12 forming the nip transport member on the entrance side is V1, that the transport speed of the paper ejection roll 14 and the heating roll 15 of the fuser 13 forming the nip transport member on the exit side is V3, and that the peripheral speed of each photoconductor (34a to 34d) is V2, the relation V1≧V2≧V3 is provided, whereby slack in paper is produced on the nip upstream side of each photoconductor (34a to 34d) and each transfer roll (39a to 39d) and on the fuser nip transport upstream side on the exit side, and the effect of transport unevenness caused by nip transport on the entrance side and the exit side to paper in the transfer part of the transfer roll 39 and the photoconductor 34 can be ignored. Next, the operation of the color image formation apparatus according to the embodiment will be discussed with FIG. 1. Paper 10 in the paper feed cassette 9 is delivered by the feed roll 11 in response to an output signal from a personal computer, etc., (not shown) and then the tip of the paper arrives at the nip part of the registration roll and pinch roll pair 12 on the entrance side. Then, the paper 10 is nipped and transported in the registration roll and pinch roll pair 12 on the entrance side and enters the transfer parts of the image formation units (5a to 5d) on the paper transport passage in order. At this time, as for the paper transport speed, the nip transport speed V1 of the registration roll and pinch roll pair 12 on the entrance side and the photoconductor (34a to 34d) speed V2 involve the relation V1≧V2 and thus slack in the paper is produced between the upstream image formation unit 5a and the registration roll and pinch roll pair 12 on the entrance side. Thus, the effect of the transport force of the nip transport part of the registration roll and pinch roll pair 12 on the entrance side can be ignored on the paper entering the transfer part of the upstream image formation unit 5a and the transfer roll 39a. Further, the passage speed of the paper in the transfer part of each image formation unit (5a to 5d) is held constant according to the configuration described above. Moreover, the transfer part spacing of each image formation unit (5a to 5d) is set sufficiently short relative to the paper length (about 30 mm) and thus the tip proximity of the paper entering the transfer part of each image formation unit (5a to 5d) is held in the registration roll and pinch roll pair 12 on the entrance side or the transfer nip part (nip part between the photoconductor and the transfer roll) of the image formation units (5a to 5d) on the front side. Because of the free end length for allowing sufficient firmness of even thin paper to be expected, the tip position of the paper entering the transfer part of each image formation unit (5a to 5d) becomes stable. Thus, the paper entry timing in the transfer part of each image formation unit (5a to 5d) is held constant, so that the transfer position shift of each color toner image is eliminated and color shift and color unevenness of the color image are eliminated. Because of the relation V2≧V3 where V3 is the transport speed when the tip of the paper arrives at the fuser 13 and is nipped between the paper ejection roll 14 and the heating roll 15 as fuser nip transport and V2 is the peripheral speed of each photoconductor (34a to 34d), slack is produced in the paper between the fuser 13 and the last image formation unit 5d, and the paper transport force of the fuser nip transport member has no effect on the paper in the transfer nip part of each image formation unit (5a to 5d). Thus, the passage speed of the paper in the transfer part of each image formation unit (5a to 5d) is always held constant. After this, when the paper has passed through the fuser 13, the paper on which a toner image is fixed is ejected through the paper ejection roll 14 to the storage tray. In such an operation process, it was recognized that a color image with no color shift, no color unevenness is provided. Particularly, in the embodiment, the paper transport passage is placed vertically and the image formation units (5a to 5d) are arranged longitudinally, so that the up and down direction dimension of the housing is set short and moreover the paper feed cassette 9 is disposed below the image formation units (5a to 5d) and thus the need for providing the installation space as the paper feed cassette 9 protrudes to the outside is eliminated, so that the apparatus can be easily compacted. It is made possible to position each image formation unit (5a to 5d) by a single member of a pair of unit positioning members 19 attached to both sides of the apparatus main unit, so that it becomes easy to ensure the accuracy. Further, the image formation apparatus has the advantage that the rotation center shaft 28 of the photoconductor of the photoconductor unit 6 can be directly positioned and supported. Since the image formation unit spacing can be shortened to 25 mm, the paper transport stability can be provided without using an expensive member such as a paper transport belt member, and it is made possible to provide a color image with no color shift and no color unevenness. As shown in FIG. 7, the transfer material hold transport member is not limited to the transfer roll and may be a transport belt 47. In this case, as the transfer member, it is not indispensable to particularly give a transport force to a transfer material and thus the transfer member is not limited to transport transfer member such as the transfer roll and may be a part such as a metal transfer roll of stainless steel, etc. Since it is not necessary to forcibly set the photoconductors (34 a to 34d) to the same speed, it is not necessary either to perform frictional drive with a bearing and an endless belt for supporting the outer periphery of the photoconductor, but the parts placement space of the transfer parts and the tension roller space of the transport belt become necessary and the up and down dimension of the apparatus becomes large as compared with the transfer roll transport technique. However, the image formation unit (5a to 5d) spacing can be shortened, so that it is made possible to reduce the peripheral length of the transport belt to a half or less as compared with that in the related art, a walk phenomenon in which when the paper transport belt moves, it meanders in the width direction can be suppressed, and color shift and color unevenness of the color image can be improved in the orthogonal direction (width direction) to the paper transport direction. Embodiment 2 A second embodiment of an image formation apparatus incorporating the invention will be discussed with reference to FIGS. 8 and 9. Components in the second embodiment similar to those in the first embodiment will not be discussed again in detail. In FIG. 8, a plurality of photoconductor units 8 (8a to 8d) are fixed to and supported on a cabinet 48 using metal sheets each shaped roughly like angular U in combination with screws, etc. A center shaft 28a of a photoconductor 34a positioned upstream in the paper transport direction is used as the positioning reference of an integral photoconductor unit group 50 and a center shaft 28d of a photoconductor 34d positioned downstream is fitted into an abutment part 54 (described later), whereby it is made to function as a whirl stop pin (shaft). The shapes of a unit guide and positioning member, a developing unit, and a transfer member in a main unit housing are similar to those of the first embodiment except for the portion of the integral photoconductor unit group 50 and therefore only the positioning portion of the integral photoconductor unit group 50 will be discussed. As shown in FIG. 9, in the apparatus, a guide part 49 shaped roughly like the letter U is formed at a predetermined position corresponding to the center shaft 28a of the photoconductor 34a positioned upstream in the paper transport direction, and the whirl stop abutment part 54 shaped roughly like the letter L is formed at a predetermined position corresponding to the center shaft 28d of the photoconductor 34d positioned downstream. The integral photoconductor unit group 50 is a little tilt to the side of a door, the upstream photoconductor center shaft 28a is pushed into the guide part 49 shaped roughly like the letter U and is rotated in the arrow Z direction, and the center shaft 28d of the photoconductor 34d is fitted into the abutment part 54, whereby the integral photoconductor unit group 50 is positioned in the apparatus. The operation is similar to that described above and therefore will not be discussed again. Embodiment 3 FIG. 10 shows a third embodiment of a color image formation apparatus incorporating the invention. In the Figure, the color image formation apparatus includes image formation units (102a to 102d) of four colors (in the embodiment, yellow, magenta, cyan, and black) arranged in a longitudinal direction, a paper feed cassette 127 disposed below the image formation units for storing supplied paper 103, and a paper transport passage 134 as a transport passage of paper from the paper feed cassette 127, placed in a vertical direction at positions corresponding to the image formation units (102a to 102d). In the embodiment, an optical unit 140 includes an incidence optical unit (not shown) having a cabinet for holding color semiconductor lasers integrally and optical elements forgiving a different angle to each color laser beam and making the color laser beam incident on a single polygon mirror surface rotating at high speed, a single image-forming lens 112 having Fθ characteristic through which each color laser beam reflected on a polygon mirror 111 passes through, a first reflecting mirror 113 for reflecting the laser beam after passing through the image-forming lens 112 in the opposite direction to the incidence direction, and a plurality of second reflecting mirrors (114a to 114d) for forming an image of each laser beam reflected on the first reflecting mirror 113 on the image formation position for each color. According to the configuration, the image formation position spacing for each color can be adjusted as desired by changing the installation angles of the image-forming lens 112 and the reflecting mirrors (113, 114a to 114d). It is understood from optical design that the appropriate image formation position spacing for each color is 25 mm to 35 mm from the viewpoints of ensuring accuracy on working on the image-forming lens 112 and the reflecting mirrors (113, 114a to 114d) and ensuring the reliability of the characteristics. In the embodiment, the image formation units (102a to 102d) form yellow, magenta, cyan, and black toner images in the order from the upstream side of the paper transport passage 134 and each image formation unit is an assembly of a photoconductor cartridge, a developing device, and a transfer roll. The photoconductor cartridge is a cartridge of a drum-like photoconductor 104, a charging roll 120 for previously charging the photoconductor 104, and a roller cleaner 119 made of an elastic substance sponge roll for removing the remaining toner on the photoconductor 104 in one piece particularly as shown in FIG. 12. It is considered that the appropriate diameter of the photoconductor 104 is 30 mm to 16 mm from the viewpoints of shortening the image formation unit spacing, the paper transportability, and the transferability. Each developing device (142a to 142d) for developing an electrostatic latent image exposed to light and formed in the optical unit 140 on the charged photoconductor 104 in the corresponding color toner is attached to the apparatus side. In the embodiment, the developing device 142 is disposed below the photoconductor 104 and has a developing housing 143 extending in a lateral direction for storing a developer (mono component developer or dual-component developer) containing predetermined color toner. A pair of developer agitating members 117 is disposed in the developing housing 143 and a developing roll 116 is disposed in an opening part of the developing housing 143 opposed to the photoconductor 104 and a developer layer thickness regulating member 118 for regulating the layer thickness of the developer on the developing roll 116 is provided. On the other hand, the cleaner is disposed above the photoconductor 104 and is shaped like a roller of conductive urethane foam. While the cleaner is given a voltage of the opposite polarity to that of toner and has a peripheral speed difference from the photoconductor 104, the cleaner rotates in contact with the photoconductor 104 in the same rotation direction as the photoconductor 104 for scraping the remaining toner off the photoconductor 104. Particularly, in the embodiment, the developing housing 143 for storing a developer is extended in the lateral direction, whereby the developer storage space is provided, so that the up and down direction dimension of each image formation unit 102 is set short. As shown in FIGS. 11A and 11B, to set the photoconductors 104 of the image formation units 102 to the same peripheral speed, ball bearings each with the outer periphery fixed and the inner periphery sliding or plain bearings (121a to 121d) made of resin material of PPS, etc., resistant to temperature change and abrasion support the outer peripheral surface of the photoconductor 104 for rotation, thereby suppressing run-out of each photoconductor 104 and the same face of a single endless belt 124 is pressed against the outer peripheral surface of a non-print area of each photoconductor 104 and the outer periphery of the photoconductor 104 is frictionally driven by a drive member 125 and drive transmission is performed by geared flanges (not shown) each attached to the end part of each photoconductor 104 and idle gears (126a to 126c), thereby setting the photoconductors 104 to the same peripheral speed. Further, in the embodiment, as shown in FIGS. 11A and 11B, a transfer roll 105 is provided separately from the photoconductor cartridge 141 and to place the photoconductors (104a to 104d) in the same abutment state, the transfer roll 105 is supported for rotation by transfer positioning members. (123a to 123b) with the rotation center of the corresponding photoconductor 104 as the positioning reference, abuts the photoconductor 104 of the photoconductor cartridge 141, and is rotated in synchronization with the photoconductor 104 through a drive transmission system (not shown). A predetermined transfer electric field is applied to the transfer roll 105 for giving a transfer force to the transfer roll 105 side to the toner image on the photoconductor 104. In the embodiment, as shown in FIG. 10, the paper feed cassette 127 is provided with a feed roll 115 for sending paper 103 at a predetermined timing and a pair of a registration roll 106 and a pinch roll 107 as a nip transport member on the entrance side is placed on the paper transport passage 134 positioned between the feed roll 115 and the transfer part of the upstream image formation unit 102a and an optical paper passage sensor (not shown) is disposed downstream of the paper transport passage 134. In the embodiment, the paper passage sensor (not shown) detects the tip of paper and, for example, the electrostatic latent image write timing in the optical unit 140 of each image formation unit (102a to 102d) is controlled based on the detection timing of the paper tip. Further, a fuser 108 as a nip transport member on the exit side is placed on the transfer material transport passage 101 positioned downstream from the downstream image formation unit 102d. The fuser 108 has a heating roll 110 and a pressurizing roll 109. Further, an ejection roll 130 for ejecting paper is placed downstream from the fuser 108 and ejected paper is stored in a storage tray 139 formed on the top of housing. Assuming that the transport speed of the nip transport member of the registration roll 106 and the pinch roll 107 on the entrance side is V1, that the transport speed of the fuser nip transport member on the exit side is V3, and that the peripheral speed of each photoconductor (104a to 104d) is V2, the relation V1≧V2≧V3 is provided, whereby slack in paper is produced on the nip upstream side of each photoconductor (104a to 104d) and each transfer roll (105a to 105d) and on the fuser nip transport upstream side on the exit side, and the effect of transport unevenness caused by nip transport on the entrance side and the exit side to paper in the transfer part of the transfer roll 105 and the photoconductor 104 can be ignored. Further, in the embodiment, as shown in FIGS. 11A and 11B, paper guides (122a to 122d) for regulating the move path of paper are disposed before the image formation units (102a to 102d). The paper guides (122a to 122d) disposed before the image formation units (102a to 102d) are supported integrally on the transfer rolls (105a to 105d), are placed so that the paper entry angles and positions on the photoconductors (104a to 104d) conforming to transfer roll (105a to 105d) positioning become the same, and are adjusted so that they extend toward the direction in which the back of paper containing the tip of the paper transferred and transported always comes in contact with the faces of the paper guides (122a to 122d), that the paper moves toward the nip area between the photoconductor (104a to 104d) and the transfer roll (105a to 105d) while coming in contact with, and that the paper tip collides with the photoconductor (104a to 104d) before the nip area. Next, the operation of the color image formation apparatus according to the embodiment will be discussed. Paper 103 in the paper feed cassette 127 is delivered by the feed roll 115 in response to an output signal from a personal computer, etc., (not shown) and then the tip of the paper 103 arrives at the nip part of the registration roll 106 and the pinch roll 107 on the entrance side. Then, the paper is nipped and transported in the pair of the registration roll 106 and the pinch roll 107 on the entrance side and enters the transfer parts of the image formation units (102a to 102d) on the paper transport passage in order. At this time, as for the paper transport speed, the nip transport speed V1 of the pair of the registration roll 106 and the pinch roll 107 on the entrance side and the photoconductor (104a to 104d) speed V2 involve the relation V1≧V2 and thus slack in the paper is produced between the upstream image formation unit 102a and the pair of the registration roll 106 and the pinch roll 107 on the entrance side. Thus, the effect of the transport force of the nip transport part of the pair of the registration roll 106 and the pinch roll 107 on the entrance side can be ignored on the paper entering the transfer part of the upstream image formation unit 102a and the transfer roll 105a. Further, the passage speed of the paper in the transfer part of each image formation unit (102a to 102d) is held constant according to the configuration described above. Moreover, the transfer part spacing of each image formation unit (102a to 102d) is set sufficiently short (about 30 mm) relative to the paper and thus the tip proximity of the paper entering the transfer part of each image formation unit (102a to 102d) is held in the pair of the registration roll 106 and the pinch roll 107 on the entrance side or the transfer nip part (nip part between the photoconductor 104 and the transfer roll 105) of the image formation units (102a to 102c) on the front side. Because of the free end length for allowing sufficient firmness of even thin paper to be expected, the tip position of the paper entering the transfer part of each image formation unit (102a to 102d) becomes stable. Thus, the paper entry timing in the transfer part of each image formation unit (102a to 102d) is held constant, so that the transfer position shift of each color toner image is eliminated and color shift and color unevenness of the color image are eliminated. When the tip of the paper arrives at the fuser 108 and is nipped, because of the relation V2≧V3 where V3 is the transport speed of the fuser nip transport member and V2 is the peripheral speed of each photoconductor (104a to 104d), slack is produced in the paper between the fuser 108 and the last image formation unit 102d, and the paper transport force of the fuser nip transport member has no effect on the paper in the transfer nip part of each image formation unit (102a to 102d). Thus, the passage speed of the paper in the transfer part of each image formation unit (102a to 102d) is always held constant. After this, when the paper has passed through the fuser 108, the paper on which an unfixed toner image is fixed is ejected through the paper ejection roll 130 to the storage tray 139. In such an operation process, it has been recognized that a color image with no color shift, no color unevenness is provided. Particularly, in the embodiment, the paper transport passage is placed vertically and the image formation units (102a to 102d) are arranged longitudinally, so that the up and down direction dimension of the housing is set short and moreover the paper feed cassette 127 is disposed below the image formation units (102a to 102d) and thus the need for providing the installation space as the paper feed cassette 127 protrudes to the outside is eliminated, so that the apparatus can be easily compacted. That is, it is made possible to adjust the image formation position of each color laser beam as desired with a single optical unit from the configuration wherein four single-color optical units are placed in portrait orientation. Thus, if the image formation units (102a to 102d) are arranged longitudinally at four stages, the up and down direction dimension is not voluminous unnecessarily. As shown in FIG. 13, the transfer material hold transport member is not limited to the transfer roll 105 and may be a transport belt 128. In this case, as the transfer member, it is not indispensable to particularly give a transport force to a transfer material and thus the transfer member is not limited to transport and transfer member such as the transfer roll 105 and may be a part such as a metal transfer roll 131 of stainless steel, etc. Since it is not necessary to forcibly set the photoconductors (104a to 104d) to the same speed, it is not necessary to perform frictional drive with photoconductor outer periphery support bearing or endless belt, but the parts placement space of the transfer parts and the tension roller space (129a to 129b) of the transport belt become necessary and the up and down dimension of the apparatus becomes a little large as compared with the transfer roll transport technique. However, the image formation unit (102a to 102d) spacing can be shortened, so that it is made possible to reduce the peripheral length of the transport belt 128 to a half or less as compared with that in the related art, a walk phenomenon in which when the paper transport belt 128 moves, it meanders in the width direction can be suppressed, and color shift and color unevenness of the color image can be improved in the orthogonal direction (width direction) to the paper transport direction. Embodiment 4 FIG. 14 shows a fourth embodiment of a color image formation apparatus of the invention. In the embodiment, the color image formation apparatus has image formation units of four colors roughly like that of the third embodiment (components similar to those of the third embodiment previously described with reference to FIGS. 10 to 13 are denoted by the same reference numerals in FIG. 14 and will not be discussed again in detail) and differs from that of the third embodiment only in optical unit as follows: An optical unit 140 includes an incidence optical member (not shown) having a cabinet for holding color semiconductor lasers integrally and optical elements for giving a different angle to each color laser beam and making the color laser beam incident on a single polygon mirror 111 surface rotating at high speed, a single first reflecting mirror 132 for reflecting the laser beam for each color reflected on the polygon mirror 111 in the opposite direction to the incidence direction, and a plurality of second reflecting mirrors (133a and 133d) having Fθ and reflection characteristics for forming an image of the laser beam for each color reflected on the first reflecting mirror 132 on the image formation position for each color. According to the configuration, the image formation position spacing for each color can be adjusted as desired by changing the characteristics and the installation angles of the first reflecting mirror 132 and the second reflecting mirrors (133a and 133d). It is understood from optical design that the appropriate image formation position spacing for each color is 25 mm to 35 mm from the viewpoints of ensuring accuracy on working on the reflecting mirrors and ensuring the reliability of the characteristics roughly as in the third embodiment. The second reflecting mirrors (133a and 133d) may be formed in one piece. Next, the operation of the color image formation apparatus according to the fourth embodiment is similar to that according to the third embodiment and therefore will not be discussed again. Preferably, in the third and fourth embodiments, as shown in FIGS. 10 and 14, the reflection direction angle difference between the reflected laser beams each for each color reflected on the second reflecting mirror of the optical unit 140 is set within 10 degrees. According to this configuration, the developing device configurations of the image formation units are made the same, so that it becomes easy to combine the developing characteristics of the image formation units, and there liability of the image quality is also enhanced. The optical unit of the third embodiment and fourth embodiment of the invention may be applied to the first or second embodiment. According to the invention, the position accuracy of the photoconductor unit and the developing unit is maintained and consequently, good image formation is made possible. According to the invention, it is made possible to miniaturize the apparatus itself and consequently, the transfer part spacing can be shortened, so that color shift and color unevenness of a color image accompanying transport unevenness of the transfer material can be suppressed. Further, according to the first embodiment of the invention, the following advantages can be provided: Although the photoconductor unit and the developing unit are separated, it is made possible to position each unit by a single member of a pair of unit guide and positioning members attached to both sides of the apparatus main unit, so that it becomes easy to ensure the accuracy. Further, the image formation apparatus has the advantage that the rotation center shaft of the photoconductor of the photoconductor unit can be directly positioned and supported. Particularly, in the layout of a plurality of photoconductor units and a plurality of developing units, each developing unit is placed at a position overlapping the adjacent photoconductor unit in the displacement direction of the developing unit, so that it is made possible to shorten the image formation unit spacing (to 25 mm), the paper transport stability can be provided, and it is made possible to provide a color image with no color shift and no color unevenness. Further, a removal prevention member is disposed so that the developing unit cannot easily attached to or detached from the apparatus main unit, and only the photoconductor unit can be attached to and detached from the apparatus main unit, so that degradation of the reliability such as mixing a foreign substance in the developing unit or dropping the developing unit can be prevented. Further, the transfer member is positioned relative to the corresponding photoconductor through transfer member reception part formed in the same member as the image formation unit position member on both sides of the apparatus main unit, so that the state of transfer part entry and detachment of paper can be made uniform and thus it is made possible to provide a color image with no color shift and no color unevenness. Further, according to the fourth embodiment of the invention, a plurality of photoconductor units are positioned in the apparatus main unit as an integral-type photoconductor unit group supported on a single cabinet, whereby the positioning parts in the apparatus main unit can be reduced to a single part, so that parts management of the apparatus main unit is facilitated and it is made possible to improve the accuracy and simplify the apparatus configuration. Further, according to another aspect of the invention, the optical unit includes an incidence optical member having a cabinet for holding color semiconductor lasers integrally and optical elements for giving a different angle to each color laser beam and making the color laser beam incident on a single polygon mirror surface, a single image-forming lens having Fθ characteristic through which each color laser beam reflected on a polygon mirror passes through, a first reflecting mirror for reflecting the laser beam after passing through the image-forming lens in the opposite direction to the incidence direction, and a plurality of second reflecting mirrors for forming an image of each laser beam reflected on the first reflecting mirror on the image formation position for each color. According to the configuration, the image formation position spacing for each color can be adjusted as desired by changing the installation angles of the image-forming lens and the reflecting mirrors. Thus, the transfer part spacing of each image formation unit can be shortened, so that the transport speed and entry position of the transfer material can be stabilized. Thus, color shift and color unevenness of a color image accompanying transport unevenness of the transfer material can be suppressed and the apparatus itself can be easily miniaturized without using a transfer material hold transport member such as a transfer material transport belt. Particularly, in the invention, if the transfer material transport passage is placed roughly vertically and the image formation units are arranged longitudinally, the up and down direction dimension of each image formation unit can be set short and moreover it is made possible to use the lower space of the image formation unit to dispose transfer material supply member, so that the apparatus can be compacted easily. According to another aspect of the invention, the image formation apparatus differs from that of the third embodiment only in optical unit as follows: The optical unit includes an incidence optical member having a cabinet for holding color semiconductor lasers integrally and optical elements for giving a different angle to each color laser beam and making the color laser beam incident on a single polygon mirror surface, a single first reflecting mirror for reflecting the laser beam for each color reflected on the polygon mirror in the opposite direction to the incidence direction, and a plurality of second reflecting mirrors having Fθ and reflection characteristics for forming an image of the laser beam for each color reflected on the first reflecting mirror on the image formation position for each color. According to the configuration, the image formation position spacing for each color can be adjusted as desired by changing the characteristics and the installation angles of the first reflecting mirror and the second reflecting mirrors, and similar advantages to those in the third embodiment can be provided. Further, according to another aspect of the invention, the reflection direction angle difference between the reflected laser beams each for each color reflected on the second reflecting mirror of the optical unit is set within 10 degrees, whereby the developing device configurations of the image formation units are made the same, so that it becomes easy to combine the developing characteristics of the image formation units, and the reliability of the image quality is also enhanced. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates to improvement in an image formation apparatus, such as an electrophotographic printer or copier, particularly including a plurality of image formation units disposed along a transfer material transport passage for successively transferring toner images to a transfer material moving on the transfer material transport passage. Known as a conventional image formation apparatus is an apparatus called tandem type including a plurality of image formation units disposed on a transfer material transport passage extending in a horizontal direction, for example, for successively transferring toner images from the image formation units to a transfer material moving along the transfer material transport passage and forming a color image on the transfer material. The image formation unit refers to a pair of a photoconductor unit having a photoconductor on which an electrostatic latent image is formed and a developing unit for storing toner supplied to the photoconductor. Already proposed as the transport technique is a transfer roll transport technique wherein each image formation unit is provided with a transfer roll for abutting the photoconductor and paper as a transfer material is transported by the photoconductor and the transfer roll, or a belt transport technique wherein paper is, for example, electrostatically attracted and held on a circulating transport belt. As for the arrangement structure of the image formation units, already proposed are a landscape orientation type wherein a plurality of image formation units are placed transversely side by side relative to a transfer material transport passage extending in the horizontal direction and a portrait orientation type wherein a plurality of image formation units are placed longitudinally relative to a transfer material transport passage extending in a vertical direction. However, in this kind of the conventional landscape orientation type, often the image formation units are attached and detached from the direction parallel with the transport face of the transfer material transport member and vertical to the transport direction. In this case, the image formation units are positioned in the apparatus main unit by an image formation unit drive member attached to one side of the apparatus main unit and a positioning member formed on an opposite side of the apparatus main unit with the transport member between. The image formation unit itself is positioned by a positioning section formed in a support member for supporting the photoconductor without directly positioning the photoconductor as the positioning reference on the configuration. Thus, it is difficult to ensure the positioning accuracy of each image formation unit in the apparatus main unit. As for the conventional image formation apparatus of the portrait orientation type, each image formation unit can be attached and detached from the direction orthogonal to the transfer material transport passage of roughly vertical portion, so that each image formation unit can be positioned in the apparatus main unit by a unit positioning section formed on both sides of a cabinet and it becomes easy to ensure the positioning accuracy; in contrast, however, a disadvantage occurs in the transfer material transportability. In the transfer roll transport technique, if the image formation unit spacing is wide to some extent, paper passes through the transfer part of one image formation unit, the pass-through paper portion becomes long, the tip state of the paper becomes easily unstable in such a manner that the tip of the paper curls or remains straight, and the tip position of the paper arriving at the transfer part of the next image formation unit easily varies. Thus, the write start position of each color component toner image relative to the paper at the transfer part of each image formation unit shifts, causing a color shift or color unevenness phenomenon of a color image. In the belt transport technique, paper is transported on the paper transport belt and thus the tip entry position of paper in the transfer part of each image formation unit is stable and the color unevenness of a color image relative to the paper transport direction can be suppressed as compared with the transfer roll transport technique. However, as the image formation unit spacing is wider, a walk phenomenon in which when the paper transport belt moves, it meanders in the width direction increases, and color shift or color unevenness of color image worsens in the orthogonal direction (width direction) to the paper transport direction. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is therefore a first object of the invention to provide an image formation apparatus for enabling components to be well positioned in an apparatus main unit. It is a second object of the invention to provide an image formation apparatus for making it possible to suppress a color shift and color unevenness of a color image accompanying transport unevenness of a transfer material and miniaturize the apparatus itself. Although the solution means of the invention will be described to the specific contents to understand the invention, it is to be understood that the claims are not substantially reduced. To accomplish the first object, the image formation apparatus of the invention includes the developing unit placed in the apparatus main unit displaceably or in a pressed state, the photoconductor unit placed in the apparatus main unit and is positioned, and the developing unit positioned relative to the positioned photoconductor unit. To accomplish the second object, the image formation apparatus of the invention includes at least a part of the second photoconductor unit involving the second color positioned so as to overlap the first developing unit involving the first color, placed in the apparatus main unit in the move direction at the placing time. A supplementary description to the invention to accomplish the second object is given below: The inventor found out that it is important to miniaturize the apparatus to suppress a color shift and color unevenness of a color image accompanying transport unevenness of a transfer material and obtained the invention. The process to obtain the invention will be discussed specifically. Generally, as the color shift, color unevenness amount of color image not perceived as a problem by the user of an image formation apparatus, it is said that the maximum shift amount is 150 μm in the paper transport direction and is 100 μm in the orthogonal direction (width direction) to the paper transport direction. By experiment concerning this point, we found out that the transfer part spacing of each image formation unit needs to be set to 30 mm or less to place within the above-mentioned shift amount. By the way, in the conventional portrait orientation type, generally the limit of the spacing is 45 mm. FIG. 15 is a schematic drawing of a conventional color image formation apparatus of the portrait orientation type. It is seen that the occupation space and attachment/detachment space of each image formation unit ( 205 a to 205 d ) govern the image formation unit ( 205 a to 205 d ) spacing. As the configuration of the image formation unit ( 205 a to 205 d ), the color image formation apparatus is placed in the normal orientation from the viewpoint of ensuring the space of a paper transport passage in the vertical direction and when FIG. 15 is viewed from the front of the plane of the Figure to the depth, a cleaning member 273 a, a charging member 236 a, and light exposure means 253 a as image formation means are placed in the first quadrant with respect to a photoconductor 234 a, a developing member is placed in the fourth quadrant, and space of the second and third quadrants is provided as much as possible. Assuming that the diameter of the photoconductor 234 a is a, that the height of a developing unit is b, and that the occupation height of the cleaning, charging member is c, the height of the image formation unit becomes about a+(b/2)+c. If a=16 mm, b=20 mm, and c=10 mm as the minimum possible values of a, b, and c at present, the height of the image formation unit 205 a becomes 36 mm. Allowing for a gap of 2 mm as an attachment/detachment margin of the adjacent image formation unit, it is considered that the limit of the transfer part spacing of each image formation unit ( 205 a to 205 d ) is 38 mm. That is, we found out that so long as the configuration of a simple extension of related arts continues to be adopted as mentioned above, if the components are miniaturized as much as possible, shortening the transfer part spacing involves a limit and the limit does not reach the level allowed by the user. Thus, the inventor recognized the necessity for conceiving an epoch-making configuration and thought of the invention. This means that we set the specific numeric target of 30 mm and examined the invention to shorten the image formation unit spacing from the viewpoints of miniaturization of the whole apparatus or ensuring the run stability of a transfer material transported in the vertical direction and the run stability of a transfer material transport belt. That is, in a first aspect of the invention, as shown in FIG. 1 , an image formation apparatus includes a photoconductor unit 8 ( 8 a to 8 d ) having a photoconductor 34 on which an electrostatic latent image is formed and a developing unit 6 for storing toner supplied to the photoconductor, wherein the developing unit 6 is displaceably placed in an apparatus main unit and then the photoconductor unit 8 is detachably placed in the apparatus main unit and is positioned at a predetermined position, whereby the displaceable developing unit 6 previously placed is positioned relative to the photoconductor unit 8 . Such technical means is effective not only for a tandem image formation apparatus for forming a color image, but also for a single-color image formation apparatus on the configuration, of course. Unit guide and positioning member and the unit shape may be selected appropriately and at least a photoconductor and a charging member may be built in the photoconductor unit and any other process means, such as a cleaning member or an electricity removal member, may be included as required, of course. As for the developing method, an image support and various functional parts required for developing may be built in appropriately and various developing techniques may be adopted regardless of the developer type, contact developing or non-contact developing. Developing unit guide part may be selected appropriately corresponding to the structure of the developing unit if the developing unit can be displaceably positioned in the same attitude for the corresponding guide part. For example, if the developing unit guide part is provided with one displacement concave part, the developing unit may be provided with a positioning convex part fitted in a positioning-possible manner corresponding to the displacement concave part. The unit positioning member of the photoconductor unit may be selected appropriately corresponding to the structure of the unit positioning member if it positions the photoconductor unit relative to the corresponding unit positioning part. For example, if the unit positioning member is provided with a positioning concave part or a positioning pin, the photoconductor unit may be provided with a positioning convex part or a positioning groove fitted in a positioning-possible manner corresponding to the positioning concave part or the positioning pin. To maintain good quality of an image developed on the photoconductor, the developing unit may be urged to the photoconductor unit side by a press member of a spring, etc., disposed in the apparatus main unit and a part of the developing unit may be abutted against the photoconductor of the photoconductor unit, whereby the developing unit may be positioned relative to the photoconductor unit. Further, the guide and positioning member of the photoconductor unit and the developing unit is configured integrally, it is advantageous from the viewpoint of ensuring the attachment accuracy of the photoconductor and the developing roll. Particularly, preferably such a positioning structure minimizing an eccentric error of the photoconductor is adopted from the viewpoint of holding color registration good. It is desirable that the guide and positioning member of each unit should be attached to the apparatus main unit as an integrally configured member so that the pitch between the image transfer positions of each photoconductor unit becomes equal with high accuracy. Further, the developing unit is displaceably placed at a predetermined position through a placement opening of the apparatus main unit and then the photoconductor unit is detachably placed in the apparatus main unit through the placement opening and at least a part of the photoconductor unit is positioned at a position overlapping the developing unit on the side near to the placement opening from the predetermined position and in the move direction to the placement opening, so that the height direction dimension of the image formation unit may be shortened as much as possible. Further, another adjacent photoconductor unit is detachably placed in the apparatus main unit through the placement opening and at least a part of the photoconductor unit is positioned at a position overlapping the first developing unit on the side near to the placement opening from the predetermined position and in the move direction to the placement opening, whereby the image formation unit spacing can be more shortened. When the image formation units are placed longitudinally, to take out the photoconductor unit and the developing unit of the same color, the adjacent photoconductor unit for a different color must first be taken out because of the positional relationship between the developing unit and the adjacent photoconductor unit for the different color overlapping each other. However, in the recent tandem color image formation apparatus, as the developing technique of a developing unit, a dual-component developing technique is mainstream and it is expected that the developing unit itself will have a prolonged life. In this case, as the developing unit, importance is attached to the purpose of avoiding the risk of dropping the developing unit, mixing a foreign substance in the developing unit, etc., as the user removes the developing unit willfully. Therefore, in such a form, a fixing member may be disposed so that the developing unit cannot easily attached to or detached from the apparatus main unit, and only the photoconductor unit may be able to be attached to and detached from the apparatus main unit. Further, the transport and transfer member may be of any type if it transfers a toner image to a transfer material while giving a transport force to the transfer material; preferably a transfer roll a transfer roll to which a transfer electric field is applied is used from the viewpoint of a simple and small-sized device. Further, if a transfer material is transported by the transport and transfer member, nothing may be provided before each image formation unit. However, preferably a transfer material guide for guiding a transfer material into the nip part between the photoconductor and the transport and transfer member is provided before each photoconductor unit from the viewpoint of more stably transporting the transfer material. However, the transfer material transport member and the transfer material guide need to become similar positional relationship to the corresponding photoconductor. In such an aspect, the roughly vertical direction portion of a transfer material transport passage may have a plurality of transfer members and transfer material guides having the transfer material transport capability at the positions corresponding to the photoconductors of the photoconductor units, the plurality of transfer members may be positioned relative to the corresponding photoconductors through transfer member reception parts formed on both sides of the apparatus main unit, and the roughly vertical direction portion of the transfer material transport passage having the transfer member may be supported so that it can be opened and closed relative to the apparatus main unit. In a second aspect of the invention, as shown in FIG. 9 , if narrow pitch longitudinal placement of a plurality of image formation units is made possible, the maintenance space of each photoconductor unit becomes narrow and replacement becomes hard to perform. In this case, an image formation apparatus comprises a plurality of developing units for storing different color toners to form a color image and a photoconductor unit group 50 for supporting on a single cabinet a plurality of photoconductors on which electrostatic latent images are formed, the electrostatic latent images being developed by the developing units, characterized in that the developing units are displaceably placed in an apparatus main unit and then the photoconductor unit group is detachably placed in the apparatus main unit and is positioned at a predetermined position, whereby the displaceable developing units previously placed are positioned relative to the photoconductors of the photoconductor unit group. In such technical means, the unit guide and positioning member and the unit shape may be selected appropriately and at least as many photoconductors and a charging member as capable of forming a color image may be built in the photoconductor unit group and any other process means, such as a cleaning member or an electricity removal member, maybe contained as required, of course. As for the developing method, various developing techniques may be adopted as described in the first aspect of the invention. Further, the unit shape, the shape of the unit guide and positioning member, the developing unit positioning method relative to the photoconductors of the photoconductor unit group, and the like are similar to those previously described in the first aspect of the invention. Next, the function and effect of the technical means as described above will be discussed. To begin with, in the configuration shown in FIG. 1 , the integral-type image formation unit in the related art is divided into the photoconductor unit and the developing unit, so that the layout of the units is made flexible and it is made possible to place the image formation units with narrow pitches as compared with the integral-type image formation unit. Further, the assembling accuracy of the photoconductor unit and the developing unit, which becomes disadvantageous as the integral-type image formation unit is divided, can be ensured by a single member of a pair of unit guide and positioning members of integral type attached to both sides of the apparatus main unit. Further, the image formation apparatus has the advantage that the rotation center shaft of the photoconductor of the photoconductor unit can be directly positioned and supported. It is also made possible to position the developing unit relative to the photoconductor. Further, in the configuration shown in FIG. 9 , a plurality of photoconductor units are put into one piece, whereby the positioning parts in the apparatus main unit can be reduced to a single part, so that parts management of the apparatus main unit is facilitated and it is made possible to improve the accuracy and simplify the apparatus configuration. In a third aspect of the invention, as shown in FIG. 10 , an optical unit includes an incidence optical member forgiving a different angle to each of a plurality of laser beams to form a color image and making the laser beam incident on a single polygon mirror rotation body (which will be hereinafter referred to as polygon mirror) rotating at high speed, a single image-forming lens having Fθ characteristic through which the laser beam for each color reflected on the polygon mirror passes through, a first reflecting mirror for reflecting the laser beam for each color after passing through the image-forming lens in the opposite direction to the incidence direction, and a plurality of second reflecting mirrors for forming an image of each reflected laser beam reflected on the first reflecting mirror on an image formation position for each color, so that the color laser beam spacing can be adjusted as desired in the optical unit (for example, by changing the installation angle of the second reflecting mirror or the like) and thus the image formation unit spacing can be shortened independently of placement of the optical unit. In such technical means, as the image formation unit, preferably the peripheral parts of an image support are put into a cartridge as much as possible considering the mount workability, etc., and use of a drum-like photoconductor as the image support is suited for short spacing. Further, a transport and transfer member is any if it transfers a toner image to a transfer material while giving a transport force to the transfer material. Preferably, a transfer roll to which a transfer electric field is applied is used from the viewpoint of a simple and small-sized device. Further, if a transfer material is transported by the transport and transfer member, nothing may be provided before each image formation unit. However, preferably a transfer material guide for guiding a transfer material into the nip part between the image support of each image formation unit and the transport and transfer member is provided before each image formation unit from the viewpoint of more stably transporting the transfer material. Ball bearings or plain bearings of resin material resistant to temperature change and abrasion support the outer peripheral surface of the image support for rotation, thereby suppressing run-out of each image support and a single endless belt is pressed against the outer peripheral surface of each image support and is frictionally driven, thereby setting the image supports to the same peripheral speed. Assuming that the transport speed of nip transport member of a pair of a registration roll and a pinch roll on the entrance side of the upstream image formation unit is V 1 , that the transport speed of fuser nip transport member on the exit side of the downstream image formation unit is V 3 , and that the peripheral speed of each image support is V 2 , the relation V 1 ≧V 2 ≧V 3 is provided, whereby slack in a transfer material is produced on the nip upstream side of the upstream image support and transfer roll and on the fuser nip transport upstream side on the exit side of the downstream image support and transfer roll, and the effect of transport speed unevenness caused by nip transport on the entrance side and the exit side to the transfer material in the transfer part of the transfer roll and the image support can be ignored; it can be expected that a color shift and color unevenness of a color image accompanying transport unevenness of the transfer material can be suppressed. The arrangement order of the image formation units may be set appropriately. Preferably, the downstream image formation unit forms a black toner image from the viewpoint of maintaining good image quality in a single-color black mode frequently used. The configuration in FIG. 13 is almost similar to that of the color image formation apparatus of the third aspect and therefore will not be discussed again. A transfer belt is selected as transfer material hold transport member. In the form, the apparatus itself is also upsized, the number of parts is also increased, and the cost is also increased as compared with the transfer roll transport member described above. However, as the transfer member, it is not indispensable to particularly give a transport force to a transfer material and thus the transfer member is not limited to transport and transfer member such as the transfer roll and may be a part such as a metal transfer roll of stainless steel, etc. Since it is not necessary to forcibly set the image supports to the same peripheral speed and the image formation unit spacing can shortened, it is made possible to reduce the peripheral length of the transport belt to a half or less as compared with that in the related art, a walk phenomenon in which when the paper transport belt moves, it meanders in the width direction can be suppressed, and color shift and color unevenness of the color image is improved in the orthogonal direction (width direction) to the paper transport direction. In a fourth aspect of the invention, as shown in FIG. 14 , an optical unit includes an incidence optical member for giving a different angle to each of a plurality of laser beams to form a color image and making the laser beam incident on a single polygon mirror, a single first reflecting mirror for reflecting the laser beam for each color reflected on the polygon mirror in the opposite direction to the incidence direction, and a single or a plurality of second reflecting mirrors having reflection and Fθ characteristics for forming an image of each reflected laser beam reflected on the first reflecting mirror on an image formation position for each color. Thus, similar advantages to those in the third aspect can be provided. In a fifth aspect of the invention, as shown in FIGS. 10, 13 , and 14 , the reflection direction angle difference between the reflected laser beams each for each color reflected on the second reflecting mirror of the optical unit is set within 10 degrees, whereby the developing device configurations of the image formation units are made the same, it becomes easy to combine the developing characteristics of the image formation units, and there liability of the image quality is also enhanced. | 20040615 | 20050913 | 20050106 | 67625.0 | 0 | PHAM, HAI CHI | COLOR IMAGE FORMATION APPARATUS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,868,142 | ACCEPTED | Shutting down a plurality of software components in an ordered sequence | An apparatus in one example comprises a manager component in communication with a distributed software application. The distributed software application comprises a plurality of software components that run within one or more executables. The manager component shuts down the plurality of software components in an ordered sequence based on one or more dependency relationships among the plurality of software components. | 1. An apparatus, comprising: a manager component in communication with a distributed software application; wherein the distributed software application comprises a plurality of software components that run within one or more executables; wherein the manager component shuts down the plurality of software components in an ordered sequence based on one or more dependency relationships among the plurality of software components. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the manager component comprises a high availability manager component operating in a high availability infrastructure, wherein the high availability manager component shuts down the plurality of software components and the one or more executables in the ordered sequence. 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the one or more executables comprise an executable, wherein the plurality of software components comprises a first software component and a second software component; wherein the first and second software components run within the executable; wherein the one or more dependency relationships comprise a dependency relationship of the first software component on the second software component; wherein based on the dependency relationship on the second software component, the manager component shuts down the first software component before shutting down the second software component as part of the ordered sequence. 4. The apparatus of claim 3, wherein the plurality of software components comprises a third software component and a fourth software component; wherein the third and fourth software components run within the executable; wherein the third and fourth software components are free from the one or more dependency relationships; wherein the manager component shuts down the third and fourth software components in parallel as part of the ordered sequence. 5. The apparatus of claim 3, wherein based on the dependency relationship on the second software component, the manager component sends a first message to the first software component to instruct the first software component to deactivate before sending a second message to the second software component to instruct the second software component to deactivate; wherein after deactivation of the first and second software components, the manager component sends a termination message to each of the first and second software components to terminate the first and second software components. 6. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein the first and second software components each comprise application software, management support software, and an application programming interface between the application software and the management support software; wherein the manager component sends the first message to the management support software of the first software component, wherein the management support software of the first software component instructs the application software of the first software component to deactivate; wherein the manager component sends the second message to the management support software of the second software component, wherein the management support software of the second software component instructs the application software of the second software component to deactivate. 7. The apparatus of claim 3, wherein the executable runs on a processor, wherein the processor comprises an executable manager that controls the executable; wherein the manager component instructs the executable manager to stop monitoring the executable; wherein after shutdown of the first and second software components within the executable, the manager component instructs the executable manager to terminate the executable. 8. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the one or more executables comprise a first executable and a second executable, wherein the plurality of software components comprises a first software component and a second software component; wherein the first software component runs within the first executable, wherein the second software component runs within the second executable; wherein the one or more dependency relationships comprise a dependency relationship of the first software component on the second software component; wherein based on the dependency relationship on the second software component, the manager component deactivates the first software component within the first executable before deactivating the second software component within the second executable. 9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the manager component deactivates the plurality of software components in the ordered sequence across a plurality of processors; wherein the first executable runs on a first processor of the plurality of processors, wherein the second executable runs on a second processor of the plurality of processors; wherein based on the dependency relationship on the second software component, the manager component deactivates the first software component on the first processor before deactivating the second software component on the second processor. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the plurality of software components comprises a first software component and a second software component within the one or more executables; wherein the one or more dependency relationships comprise a dependency relationship of the first software component on the second software component; wherein upon startup of the distributed software application, the manager component starts up the second software component before starting up the first software component; wherein upon shutdown of the distributed software application, the manager component deactivates the first software component before deactivating the second software component. 11. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the manager component obtains the one or more dependency relationships from a configuration file; wherein the manager component imports the configuration file to determine which one or more software components of the plurality of software components are effected by the one or more dependency relationships. 12. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the manager component employs the one or more dependency relationships to establish the ordered sequence for the plurality of software components; wherein upon shutdown of the distributed software application, the manager component shuts down the plurality of software components according to the ordered sequence to save state information, release system resources, and/or leave the system resources in a consistent state. 13. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the one or more executables comprise a first executable and a second executable; wherein the plurality of software components run within the first and second executables, wherein the manager component runs within a third executable; wherein based on one or more characteristics of the first and second executables, the manager component shuts down the first executable before shutting down the second executable. 14. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the distributed software application comprises a call processing software application; wherein the manager component oversees shutdown of the plurality of software components for the call processing software application. 15. An apparatus, comprising: a manager component that shuts down a first software component, of a distributed software application, that runs on a first processor and a second software component, of the distributed software application, that runs on a second processor in an ordered sequence based on one or more dependency relationships between the first and second software components. 16. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the manager component comprises a high availability manager component operating in a high availability infrastructure, wherein the high availability manager component shuts down the first and second software components in the ordered sequence. 17. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the first and second software components each comprise application software, management support software, and an application programming interface between the application software and the management support software; wherein the manager component sends a first deactivation message to the management support software of the first software component to instruct the application software of the first software component to deactivate; wherein after deactivation of the first software component on the first processor, the manager component sends a second deactivation message to the management support software of the second software component on the second processor to instruct the application software of the second software component to deactivate; wherein after deactivation of the first and second software components, the manager component sends a termination message to the management support software of each of the first and second software components to terminate the first and second software components. 18. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the manager component obtains the one or more dependency relationships from a configuration file; wherein the manager component employs the one or more dependency relationships to establish the ordered sequence for the first and second software components; wherein during shutdown of the distributed software application, the manager component shuts down the first and second software components in the ordered sequence. 19. A method, comprising the steps of: obtaining one or more dependency relationships among a plurality of software components that run within one or more executables of a distributed software application; establishing an ordered sequence for shutdown of the plurality of software components based on one or more of the one or more dependency relationships; and shutting down the plurality of software components according to the ordered sequence. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the plurality of software components comprise a first software component and a second software component; wherein the step of obtaining the one or more dependency relationships among the plurality of software components that run within the one or more executables of the distributed software application comprises the step of: importing a configuration file that indicates a dependency relationship, of the one or more dependency relationships, of the first software component on the second software component; wherein the step of establishing the ordered sequence for shutdown of the plurality of software components based on the one or more of the one or more dependency relationships comprises the step of: determining to shut down the first software component before the second software component based on the dependency relationship of the first software component on the second software component; wherein the step of shutting down the plurality of software components according to the ordered sequence comprises the steps of: sending a first deactivation message to the first software component to instruct the first software component to deactivate; sending, after deactivation of the first software component, a second deactivation message to the second software component to instruct the second software component to deactivate; and sending, after deactivation of the first and second software components, a termination message to the management support software of each of the first and second software components to terminate the first and second software components. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application contains subject matter that is related to the subject matter of the following applications, which are assigned to the same assignee as this application. The below-listed applications are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. “INSTRUCTING MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SOFTWARE OF A FIRST SOFTWARE COMPONENT TO SET UP A COMMUNICATION CHANNEL BETWEEN THE FIRST SOFTWARE COMPONENT AND A SECOND SOFTWARE COMPONENT,” by Buskens, et al., co-filed herewith; “SELECTING A PROCESSOR TO RUN AN EXECUTABLE OF A DISTRIBUTED SOFTWARE APPLICATION UPON STARTUP OF THE DISTRIBUTED SOFTWARE APPLICATION,” by Buskens, et al., co-filed herewith; “SOFTWARE COMPONENT INITIALIZATION IN AN ORDERED SEQUENCE,” by Buskens, et al., co-filed herewith; “DISTRIBUTED SOFTWARE APPLICATION SOFTWARE COMPONENT RECOVERY IN AN ORDERED SEQUENCE,” by Buskens, et al., co-filed herewith; “MANAGER COMPONENT FOR CHECKPOINT PROCEDURES,” by Buskens, et al., co-filed herewith; “MANAGER COMPONENT THAT CAUSES FIRST SOFTWARE COMPONENT TO OBTAIN INFORMATION FROM SECOND SOFTWARE COMPONENT,” by Buskens, et al., co-filed herewith; “FIRST AND SECOND MANAGER COMPONENTS THAT COMMUNICATE TO INITIALIZE AND/OR SHUT DOWN SOFTWARE COMPONENTS IN AN ORDERED SEQUENCE,” by Buskens, et al., co-filed herewith; “MANAGER COMPONENT RESOURCE ADDITION AND/OR RESOURCE REMOVAL ON BEHALF OF DISTRIBUTED SOFTWARE APPLICATION,” by Gong, et al., co-filed herewith; “SUBSTITUTE MANAGER COMPONENT THAT OBTAINS STATE INFORMATION OF ONE OR MORE SOFTWARE COMPONENTS UPON FAILURE OF A FIRST MANAGER COMPONENT,” by Buskens, et al., co-filed herewith. TECHNICAL FIELD The invention relates generally to distributed software applications and more particularly to management of distributed software applications. BACKGROUND In known distributed software applications, software components are distributed among a plurality of executables (i.e., software capsules or software entities). Each of the executables contains one or more software components that perform some portion of the functionality of the distributed software application. The executables of the distributed software application may all run on a single processor or may be divided up and run across a plurality of processors. During operation of the distributed software application, state information is created, system resources are allocated, and/or databases are updated. If the software components of a distributed software application shut down without a preplanned shutdown sequence, then the distributed software application may leave system resources in an inconsistent state. As one shortcoming, without a proper shutdown sequence, the distributed software application may not properly store the state information, release the allocated system resources, and/or update the databases. During shutdown of a distributed software application divided into a plurality of executables running on a single processor, the distributed software application may shut down the executables by following a preplanned shutdown sequence for the executables. As one shortcoming, executing the shutdown sequence at the executable level may not serve to fully leave the system resources in a consistent state. The distributed software application may run on a single processor or the executables of the distributed software application may be divided across a plurality of processors. As another shortcoming, the shutdown sequence is unable to fully coordinate a shutdown of the executables and software components of the distributed software application divided across a plurality of processors. Thus, a need exists to shut down a distributed software application in a manner that stores state information, releases system resources, and/or leaves the system resources in a consistent state. SUMMARY A manager component for a distributed software application employs dependency relationships between software components of the distributed software application during shutdown of the distributed software application. The manager component shuts down the software components in an ordered sequence based on the dependency relationships among the software components. When software components have dependencies on other software components, the manager component shuts down the software components in a proper sequence to store state information, release system resources, and/or leave one or more database of the distributed software application in a consistent state. In one embodiment, there is provided an apparatus comprising a manager component in communication with a distributed software application. The distributed software application comprises a plurality of software components that run within one or more executables. The manager component shuts down the plurality of software components in an ordered sequence based on one or more dependency relationships among the plurality of software components. In another embodiment, there is provided an apparatus comprising a manager component that shuts down a first software component, of a distributed software application, that runs on a first processor and a second software component, of the distributed software application, that runs on a second processor in an ordered sequence based on one or more dependency relationships between the first and second software components. In yet another embodiment, there is provided a method for: obtaining one or more dependency relationships among a plurality of software components that run within one or more executables of a distributed software application; establishing an ordered sequence for shutdown of the plurality of software components based on one or more of the one or more dependency relationships; and shutting down the plurality of software components in the ordered sequence. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Features of exemplary implementations of the invention will become apparent from the description, the claims, and the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a representation of an exemplary implementation of an apparatus that comprises a distributed software application and a management infrastructure. FIG. 2 is a representation of exemplary logic that serves to allow a manager component of the management infrastructure to employ an ordered sequence to shut down the distributed software application of the apparatus of FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Turning to FIG. 1, an apparatus 100 in one example comprises a distributed software application 102 and a management infrastructure 103. The management infrastructure 103 performs one or more management operations on the distributed software application 102. The management infrastructure 103 comprises a manager component 104. For example, the manager component 104 may coordinate one or more of starting, stopping, initializing, shutting down, and monitoring the distributed software application 102, detecting failures of the distributed software application 102, recovering the distributed software application 102, propagating state changes about distributed software application 102, and the like. The distributed software application 102 represents a software application divided among a plurality of executables (i.e., software capsules or software entities). For example, the distributed software application 102 comprises a plurality of executables 106, 107 and 108. The distributed software application 102 may run on a single central processing unit (“CPU”) or may be divided between multiple CPUs. For example, the executables 106 and 107 may run on processor 110 and the executable 108 may run on processor 112. The processor 110 comprises an executable manager 114 and the processor 112 comprises an executable manager 116. The executable managers 114 and 116 in one example are part of the management infrastructure 103. The executable managers 114 and 116 start, stop and monitor executables of the distributed software application 102 that run on the processors 110 and 112, such as the executables 106, 107 and 108. To start or stop the executable 106, the executable manager 114 invokes operating system commands to start or stop the executable 106. The executable managers 114 and 116 monitor communication channels and/or diagnostics on behalf of the executables 106, 107 and 108. Should one or more of the executables 106, 107 and 108 fail, the respective one of the executable managers 114 and 116 informs the manager component 104. To detect failures of the executables 106, 107 and 108 the executable managers 114 and 116 register with an operating system to receive notifications when the executables 106, 107 and 108 terminate either abnormally or as a result of explicit commands sent to the executables 106, 107 and 108. To detect failures of software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 within the executables 106, 107 and 108, the executable managers 114 and 116 send status queries to the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 and expect to receive status responses from the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. Each of the executable managers 114 and 116 comprise a communication interface 118 for communication with the manager component 104. The executable managers 114 and 116 receive instruction from the manager component 104. For example, the executable managers 114 and 116 may receive instructions at the communication interface 118 from the manager component 104. The executable manager 114 is encapsulated in an executable 120 running on the processor 110 and the executable manager 116 is encapsulated in an executable 122 running on the processor 112. The executables 106, 107 and 108 comprise one or more software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. For example, the executable 106 encapsulates the software components 124 and 126, the executable 107 encapsulates the software component 127, and the executable 108 encapsulates the software component 128. Within each of the executables 106, 107 and 108 may be tens, hundreds, or even thousands of other software components (e.g., analogous to the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128). The software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 represent software sub-entities of the executables 106, 107 and 108. For example, the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 represent logical blocks of software of the executables 106, 107 and 108. The software components 124 and 126 in one example are developed independently and then put together within the executable 106. The software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 each perform some portion of the overall functionality of the distributed software application 102. The software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 work together to make the distributed software application 102 achieve the desired operation. The distributed software application 102 may provide any functionality for a computer system. The distributed software application 102 in one example comprises a call processing software application. For example, the distributed software application 102 sets up and/or tears down telecommunication sessions in a telecommunication network. In one embodiment, each of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 comprise application software 130, management support software 132, a management support software communication interface 134, and one or more application software communication interfaces 135. The software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 employ the management support software communication interfaces 134 to receive communications from the manager component 104. The software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 employ the application software communication interfaces 135 to receive communications from other software components of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. An application programming interface (“API”) 136 communicatively couples the application software 130 with the management support software 132 in each of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. The application software 130 and the management support software 132 can exchange information through the application programming interface 136. The application software 130 is the portion of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 that performs some portion of the overall functionality of the distributed software application 102. The management support software 132 is the portion of the software components 124, 126 and 128 that cooperates with the manager component 104 to perform management operations on the software components 124, 126 and 128. The application software 130 is part of the distributed software application 102 and the management support software 132 is part of the management infrastructure 103. An application developer creates the application software 130 of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 to achieve the designated functionality of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. For example, the application developer creates the application software 130 of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 to achieve the overall functionality of the distributed software application 102. To alleviate the application developers from being required to write software into each of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 to interface with the manager component 104, a code generator in one example automatically generates the management support software 132. To create the management support software 132, a configuration file 150 in one example is input into the code generator. The configuration file 150 comprises connection information and/or architecture information of the distributed software application 102. The code generator creates code for the management support software 132. The code for the management support software 132 is compiled and linked with the application software 130 in the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. The management support software 132 may be different for each of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art. The manager component 104 comprises a communication interface 138 for receiving incoming communications. The communication interface 138 is employable for receiving the configuration file 150. The manager component 104 may employ other means to receive the configuration file 150, such as reading the configuration file 150 directly from a disk or file system. The communication interface 138 may also receive communications from the executable managers 114 and 116, as well as communications from the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. The manager component 104 may also use the communication interface 138 for receipt of external system information from an external environment 151. In one example, the external environment 151 represents other components of the system that are in communication with the manager component 104. In another example, the external environment 151 represents another management infrastructure in communication with the management infrastructure 103. The manager component 104 is encapsulated with zero or more other software components in an executable 140. The executable 140 that contains the manager component 104 may be run on either of the processors 110 and 112. The manager component 104 in one example is active and the apparatus 100 may have one or more standby manager components (e.g., analogous to the manager component 104). If the manager component 104 fails, then one of the standby manager components becomes active and gains managerial control of the distributed software application 102. One advantage to the manager component 104 controlling shutdown of the distributed software application 102 is that the manager component 104 alleviates application developers from being required to write software into each of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 to coordinate shutdown. The manager component 104 controls shutdown of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 on behalf of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. For example, the manager component 104 interfaces with the management support software 132 coupled with the application software 130 in the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 to sequence shutdown of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. Therefore, the manager component 104 saves the application developers effort of creating software to sequence shutdown. The management infrastructure 103 provides shutdown management functionality as a reusable asset for distributed software applications. The management infrastructure 103 in one example comprises a portion of a high availability (“HA”) infrastructure. The manager component 104 in one example comprises a high availability manager component operating in a high availability infrastructure. The high availability infrastructure controls management operations on the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 for the distributed software application 102. For example, the high availability infrastructure controls shutdown of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 in the ordered sequence for the distributed software application 102, along with terminating the executables that encapsulate the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. The high availability infrastructure is usable to control management operations for the distributed software application 102 or another distributed software application. The high availability infrastructure is able to continue processing while switching between active and standby components in the high availability infrastructure. To startup of the distributed software application 102, the manager component 104 initializes each of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 and each of the executables 106, 107 and 108. The manager component 104 in one example imports the configuration file 150 to obtain connection information of the distributed software application 102. The configuration file 150 provides information to the manager component 104 to allow the manager component 104 to control the distributed software application 102. The configuration file 150 is created to store connection information and/or architecture information of the distributed software application 102. The configuration file 150 in one example provides the manager component 104 with information about the set of executables 106, 107 and 108, the number of each type of the executables 106, 107 and 108, the mapping of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 to the executables 106, 107 and 108, the types of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128, and the number of each type of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 in each of the executables 106, 107 and 108. The configuration file 150 in one example indicates one or more dependency relationships among the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. The manager component 104 employs a list of the dependency relationships to establish an ordered sequence for startup. The manager component 104 initializes the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 in the ordered sequence for startup based on the dependency relationships among the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. For example, if the software component 124 is dependent on the software component 126, then the manager component 104 initializes the software component 126 before initializing the software component 124 as part of the ordered sequence. If the software components 124 and 126 are free from any dependency relationships, then the manager component 104 may initialize the software components 124 and 126 in parallel as part of the ordered sequence. Once all of the executables 106, 107 and 108 and the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 are initialized during startup, the distributed software application 102 may run and perform an intended function. During operation of the distributed software application 102, state information is created, resources are allocated, and/or databases are updated. At shutdown of the distributed software application 102, it is desirable to save the state information, release the allocated resources, and confirm that the databases are in a consistent state. To transition the distributed software application 102 from active operation to a non-operational state, the manager component 104 shuts down the distributed software application 102 in an ordered sequence based on the dependency relationships among the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. The manager component 104 may shut down the distributed software application 102 in the ordered sequence at the level of the software components 124, 126, 127, and 128, then may shutdown the executables 106, 107 and 108. The manager component 104 may coordinate the shutdown of the executables 106, 107 and 108 and/or the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 running on a single processor or divided among a plurality of processors, such as the processors 110 and 112. Turning to FIGS. 1-2, an illustrative description of one exemplary operation of the apparatus 100 is now presented, for explanatory purposes. The manager component 104 comprises a high availability manager component operating in a high availability infrastructure. To begin operation of the apparatus 100, the distributed software application 102 is configured for control by the manager component 104, and the manager component 104 coordinates the initialization of the distributed software application 102. Exemplary logic 202 serves to allow the manager component 104 to employ an ordered sequence to shut down the distributed software application 102. The logic 202 employs one or more steps, for example, STEPS 204, 206, 208, 210, 212, 214, and 216. An application developer, a system architect, or any other developer performs the STEP 204 of FIG. 2 and the manager component 104 performs the STEPS 206, 208, 210, 212, 214 and 216 of FIG. 2. To shut down the distributed software application 102, the manager component 104 shuts down the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 in an ordered sequence based on the dependency relationships among the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 and/or among the executables 106, 107 and 108. Shutting down the distributed software application 102 in the ordered sequence serves to save a record of state information, release allocated system resources, and properly update databases. The manger component 104 serves to shut down the executables 106, 107 and 108 according to the ordered sequence. The manager component 104 also serves to shut down the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 running within the executables 106, 107 and 108 according to the ordered sequence. At STEP 204, the application developer or other developer creates the configuration file 150 to comprise connection information, architecture information, and dependency relationships of the distributed software application 102. At STEP 206, the manager component 104 imports the configuration file 150 to obtain the list of the dependency relationships between the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. At STEP 208, the manager component 104 employs the list of dependency relationships to establish an ordered sequence for shutdown of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 and the executables 106, 107 and 108. At STEP 210, the manager component 104 deactivates the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 according to the ordered sequence. For example, the manager component 104 sends deactivation messages to the management support software communication interfaces 134 of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 in the ordered sequence. The deactivation messages indicate to the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 to wrap up any current tasks and to not take on any new tasks. The manager component 104 may also instruct the active software components of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 to not send new tasks to the deactivated software components of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. In one exemplary implementation of the distributed software application 102, the software component 124 has a dependency on the software component 126, and the software component 126 (running on the processor 110) has a dependency on the software component 128 (running on the processor 112). The software component 127 in one example is free from dependency relationships. Therefore, the manager component 104 may shut down the software component 127 independently from the other software components 124, 126, and 128. To shutdown of the distributed software application 102 according to the ordered sequence, the manager component 104 determines to shut down the software component 124 before the software component 126, and to shut down the software component 126 before the software component 128. To begin shutdown of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128, the manager component 104 in one example sends a first deactivation message to the software component 124 and a second deactivation message to the software component 127. Upon deactivation of the software components 124 and 127, each the software components 124 and 127 send a confirmation message to the manager component 104. Before proceeding, the manager component 104 waits for the confirmation message from the software component 124 to confirm deactivation of the software component 124. Upon receipt of the confirmation message from the software component 124, the manager component 104 may send a third deactivation message to the software component 126. Before proceeding, the manager component 104 waits for a confirmation message from the software component 126 to confirm deactivation of the software component 126. Upon receipt of the confirmation message from the software component 126, the manager component 104 may send a fourth deactivation message to the software component 128. Upon deactivation of the software component 128, the software component 128 sends a confirmation message to the manager component 104. The manager component 104 sends the deactivation messages to the management support software 132 of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. The management support software 132 relays the instruction to deactivate through the application programming interface 136 to the application software 130. After deactivation the application software 130 sends the confirmation messages to the management support software 132. The management support software 132 relays the confirmation messages to the manager component 104. Communication between the manager component 104 and the management support software 132 of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 is resilient to failure. For example, the messages may employ timeouts to handle dropped or delayed messages or confirmation notifications. Upon failure of a deactivation message, the manager component 104 in one example employs a configurable number of retries for the deactivation message. Once the manager component 104 has deactivated each of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 according to the ordered sequence, the manager component 104 may tear down any communication channels between the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. The manager component 104 then may terminate each of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. At STEP 212, before terminating the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128, the manager component 104 instructs the executable managers 114 and 116 to stop monitoring the executables 106, 107 and 108. For example, the manager component 104 sends a message to the communication interface 118 of the executable manager 114 to instruct the executable manager 114 to stop monitoring the executables 106 and 107. The manager component 104 also sends a message to the communication interface 118 of the executable manager 116 to instruct the executable manager 116 to stop monitoring the executable 108. At STEP 214, the manager component 104 sends termination messages to the management support software communication interfaces 134 of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128. The termination messages instruct the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 to stop running. The manager component 104 in one example sends the termination messages in the ordered sequence based on the dependency relationships of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128, analogously to the deactivation messages, as described herein. At STEP 216, the manager component 104 instructs the executable managers 114 and 116 to terminate the executables 106, 107 and 108. For example, the manager component 104 sends a message to the communication interface 118 of the executable manager 114 to instruct the executable manager 114 to terminate the executables 106 and 107. The manager component 104 also sends a message to the communication interface 118 of the executable manager 116 to instruct the executable manager 116 to terminate the executable 108. Upon shutdown of the executables 106, 107, and 108, the executable managers 114 and 116 each send a confirmation message to the manager component 104 to indicate a successful shutdown of the executables 106, 107 and 108. Receipt of the confirmation messages from each of the executable managers 114 and 116 indicates to the manager component 104 that the distributed software application 102 is fully shutdown. The executable shutdown messages to the executable managers 114 and 116 and the confirmation messages are resilient to failure, analogously to the deactivation messages and deactivation confirmation messages, as described herein. In one embodiment, the manager component 104 may determine to not follow the ordered sequence to shut down the distributed software application 102. If a large number of the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 don't have state information that needs to be preserved and don't need to complete any operations that are in progress, then the manager component 104 may just terminate the software components 124, 126, 127 and 128 in a more efficient manner, such as in parallel. The apparatus 100 in one example comprises a plurality of components such as one or more of electronic components, hardware components, and/or computer software components. A number of such components can be combined or divided in the apparatus 100. An exemplary component of the apparatus 100 employs and/or comprises a set and/or series of computer instructions written in or implemented with any of a number of programming languages, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art. The apparatus 100 in one example comprises any (e.g., horizontal, oblique, or vertical) orientation, with the description and figures herein illustrating one exemplary orientation of the apparatus 100, for explanatory purposes. The apparatus 100 in one example employs one or more computer-readable signal-bearing media. The computer-readable signal-bearing media store software, firmware and/or assembly language for performing one or more portions of one or more embodiments of the invention. Examples of a computer-readable signal-bearing medium for the apparatus 100 comprise the recordable data storage medium of the manager component 104. The computer-readable signal-bearing medium for the apparatus 100 in one example comprise one or more of a magnetic, electrical, optical, biological, and atomic data storage medium. For example, the computer-readable signal-bearing medium comprises floppy disks, magnetic tapes, CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs, hard disk drives, and electronic memory. In another example, the computer-readable signal-bearing medium comprises a modulated carrier signal transmitted over a network comprising or coupled with the apparatus 100, for instance, one or more of a telephone network, a local area network (“LAN”), a wide area network (“WAN”), the Internet, and a wireless network. The steps or operations described herein are just exemplary. There may be many variations to these steps or operations without departing from the spirit of the invention. For instance, the steps may be performed in a differing order, or steps may be added, deleted, or modified. Although exemplary implementations of the invention have been depicted and described in detail herein, it will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art that various modifications, additions, substitutions, and the like can be made without departing from the considered to be within the scope of the | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In known distributed software applications, software components are distributed among a plurality of executables (i.e., software capsules or software entities). Each of the executables contains one or more software components that perform some portion of the functionality of the distributed software application. The executables of the distributed software application may all run on a single processor or may be divided up and run across a plurality of processors. During operation of the distributed software application, state information is created, system resources are allocated, and/or databases are updated. If the software components of a distributed software application shut down without a preplanned shutdown sequence, then the distributed software application may leave system resources in an inconsistent state. As one shortcoming, without a proper shutdown sequence, the distributed software application may not properly store the state information, release the allocated system resources, and/or update the databases. During shutdown of a distributed software application divided into a plurality of executables running on a single processor, the distributed software application may shut down the executables by following a preplanned shutdown sequence for the executables. As one shortcoming, executing the shutdown sequence at the executable level may not serve to fully leave the system resources in a consistent state. The distributed software application may run on a single processor or the executables of the distributed software application may be divided across a plurality of processors. As another shortcoming, the shutdown sequence is unable to fully coordinate a shutdown of the executables and software components of the distributed software application divided across a plurality of processors. Thus, a need exists to shut down a distributed software application in a manner that stores state information, releases system resources, and/or leaves the system resources in a consistent state. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>A manager component for a distributed software application employs dependency relationships between software components of the distributed software application during shutdown of the distributed software application. The manager component shuts down the software components in an ordered sequence based on the dependency relationships among the software components. When software components have dependencies on other software components, the manager component shuts down the software components in a proper sequence to store state information, release system resources, and/or leave one or more database of the distributed software application in a consistent state. In one embodiment, there is provided an apparatus comprising a manager component in communication with a distributed software application. The distributed software application comprises a plurality of software components that run within one or more executables. The manager component shuts down the plurality of software components in an ordered sequence based on one or more dependency relationships among the plurality of software components. In another embodiment, there is provided an apparatus comprising a manager component that shuts down a first software component, of a distributed software application, that runs on a first processor and a second software component, of the distributed software application, that runs on a second processor in an ordered sequence based on one or more dependency relationships between the first and second software components. In yet another embodiment, there is provided a method for: obtaining one or more dependency relationships among a plurality of software components that run within one or more executables of a distributed software application; establishing an ordered sequence for shutdown of the plurality of software components based on one or more of the one or more dependency relationships; and shutting down the plurality of software components in the ordered sequence. | 20040614 | 20080916 | 20051215 | 97103.0 | 3 | KENDALL, CHUCK O | SHUTTING DOWN A PLURALITY OF SOFTWARE COMPONENTS IN AN ORDERED SEQUENCE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,868,421 | ACCEPTED | Nanowire array and nanowire solar cells and methods for forming the same | Homogeneous and dense arrays of nanowires are described. The nanowires can be formed in solution and can have average diameters of 40-300 nm and lengths of 1-3 μm. They can be formed on any suitable substrate. Photovoltaic devices are also described. | 1. A method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing ZnO nanocrystals on the substrate using a dip coating process; and contacting the substrate with a solution formed from (Zn(NO3)26H2O) and methenamine (C6H12N4). 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the substrate comprises either Si, sapphire, plastic, ITO, or F:SnO2. 3. The method of claim 1 further comprising: forming an array of nanowires on the substrate while the solution is at a temperature less than about 90° C. and at atmospheric pressure. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the ZnO nanocrystals are about 5 to about 10 nanometers in diameter. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the deposited ZnO nanocrystals and the substrate are annealed prior to contacting the substrate with the solution. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the ZnO nanocrystals are annealed at a temperature of between about 50° C. and about 300° C. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the ZnO nanocrystals are annealed at about 150° C. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the ZnO nanocrystals are deposited on the substrate in a layer about 50 to about 200 nanometers thick. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the solution is an aqueous solution formed from 0.025 M zinc nitrate hydrate and 0.025 M methenamine. 10. An array of ZnO nanowires on a substrate made by the process of claim 1. 11. An array of nanowires comprising: ZnO nanowires in a density of greater than about 109 wires/cm2. 12. An array of nanowires comprising: ZnO nanowires in a density of greater than about 1010 wires/cm2 wherein each nanowire has an aspect ratio of greater than about 20 and a length greater than about 20 microns. 13. A photovoltaic device incorporating the nanocrystal array of claim 11. 14. A photovoltaic device incorporating the nanocrystal array of claim 12. 15. A method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing semiconductor nanocrystals on the substrate using a dip coating process; contacting the substrate with a solution comprising a semiconductor precursor; and forming an array of nanowires, wherein the nanowires comprise a semiconductor. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the substrate comprises a transparent material. 17. The method of claim 15, wherein contacting the substrate with the solution occurs while the solution is at ambient pressure and while the solution is at a temperature of about 90° C. or less. 18. The method of claim 15, wherein the semiconductor nanocrystals are ZnO nanocrystals that are about 5 to about 10 nanometers in diameter. 19. The method of claim 15, wherein the semiconductor nanocrystals are annealed at about 150° C. 20. The method of claim 1, wherein the semiconductor nanocrystals are deposited on the substrate in a layer about 10 to about 15 nanometers thick. 21. A composite made by the process of claim 20. 22. A composite made by the process of claim 15. 23. A composite made by the process of claim 16. 24. A photovoltaic device incorporating the composite of claim 23. 25. A method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing nanocrystals on the substrate; contacting the substrate with a solution formed using a semiconductor precursor and a polyamine; and forming an array of nanowires, wherein the nanowires comprise a semiconductor. 26. The method of claim 25 wherein the semiconductor precursor comprises a zinc salt. 27. The method of claim 25 wherein the substrate comprises a semiconductor substrate. 28. The method of claim 25 wherein the semiconductor nanocrystals comprise ZnO. 29. The method of claim 25 wherein the polyamine comprises polyethylenimine. 30. The method of claim 25 wherein depositing comprises using a dip coating process. 31. The method of claim 25 wherein the semiconductor precursor comprises zinc nitrate, the polyamine comprises polyethylenimine, and the semiconductor nanocrystals comprise zinc oxide. 32. The method of claim 25 wherein the solution further comprises hexamethylenetetramine. 33. The method of claim 25 further comprising etching the substrate with an acid prior to depositing. 34. The method of claim 25, wherein each nanowire in the array has an aspect ratio greater than about 10. 35. The method of claim 25, wherein each nanowire in the array has an aspect ratio greater than about 100. 36. The method of claim 25, further comprising heating the solution for more than about two hours when forming the array of nanowires. 37. The method of claim 25, further comprising depositing a semiconducting polymer on the array of nanowires. 38. A photovoltaic device made using the process according to claim 37. 39. A product made by the process of claim 25. 40. A device comprising: a substrate; and an array of nanowires on the substrate, wherein each nanowire includes an aspect ratio greater than about 20, and a length greater than about 20 microns. 41. The device of claim 40 wherein the substrate comprises a semiconductor substrate. 42. The device of claim 40 wherein each nanowire comprises zinc oxide, tin dioxide, or titanium dioxide. 43. The device of claim 40 wherein the nanowires have a density of greater than about 109 wires/cm2 on the substrate. 44. The device of claim 40 wherein each nanowire includes an aspect ratio greater than about 150. 45. The device of claim 40 further comprising additional nanowires in the array of nanowires that have aspect ratios less than about 20. 46. The device of claim 40 further comprising a semiconducting polymer on the array of nanowires. 47. The device of claim 40, wherein the device is a photovoltaic device. 48. The device of claim 40, wherein the device is a dye sensitized cell. 49. The device of claim 40, wherein at least some of the nanowires in the array include widths less than about 1 micron. 50. A method for forming a branched network of metal oxide semiconductor wire structures, the method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing a first plurality of nanocrystals on the substrate; contacting the substrate with a solution formed using a semiconductor precursor; forming an array of nanowires on the substrate; depositing a second plurality of nanocrystals on the array of nanowires; and forming branches on the array of nanowires using the deposited second plurality of nanocrystals. 51. The method of claim 50 wherein the substrate comprises a semiconductor substrate. 52. The method of claim 50 wherein the solution further comprises polyethylenimine. 53. The method of claim 50 wherein the first and second pluralities of nanocrystals comprise zinc oxide, tin oxide, or titanium oxide. 54. The method of claim 50 further comprising contacting the second plurality of nanocrystals with the solution after depositing the second plurality of nanocrystals on the array wherein the array of nanowires comprises nanowires having aspect ratios greater than about 20. 55. The method of claim 50 wherein the array of nanocrystals comprises nanowires having lengths greater than about 20 microns. 56. A product formed by the method of claim 50. 57. A photovoltaic device formed by the process of claim 50. 58. A dye sensitized cell formed by the process of claim 50. 59. A device comprising: a substrate; and a branched network on the substrate, wherein the branched network comprises an array of nanowires and branches on the nanowires in the array of nanowires, wherein the branched network comprises a metal oxide semiconductor. 60. The device of claim 60, wherein the nanowires in the array of nanowires have aspect ratios greater than 20. 61. The device of claim 60, wherein the nanowires in the array of nanowires have lengths exceeding 20 microns. 62. The device of claim 60, further comprising a semiconducting polymer on the array. 63. The device of claim 60, wherein the device is a photovoltaic device. 64. The device of claim 60, wherein the device is a dye sensitized cell. 65. The device of claim 60, wherein the device is a solar cell. 66. An optoelectronic device comprising: a first conductive layer; a second conductive layer; an array of semiconductor nanowires between the first and second conductive layers; and a charge transport medium between the first and second conductive layers. 67. The optoelectronic device of claim 65 wherein the charge transport medium comprises an electroyte or a semiconducting material. 68. The optoelectronic device of claim 65 wherein the array of semiconductor nanowires comprises zinc oxide, tin oxide, or titanium oxide. 69. The optoelectronic device of claim 65 wherein the optoelectronic device is an LED. 70. The optoelectronic device of claim 65 wherein the optoelectronic device is a DSC. 71. The optoelectronic device of claim 65 wherein the optoelectronic device is a solid state sensitized cell. 72. The optoelectronic device of claim 65 wherein the optoelectronic device is an organic-inorganic hybrid photovoltaic device. 73. The optoelectronic device of claim 65 wherein at least one of the first and second conductive layers is transparent. 74. The optoelectronic device of claim 65 further comprising a substrate coupled to the first conductive layer. 75. The optoelectronic device of claim 65 further comprising an electron blocking layer coupled to the first conductive layer. 76. The optoelectronic device of claim 65 further comprising a dye on the nanowire array. | CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This patent application is a non-provisional of and claims the benefit of the filing date for U.S. Patent Application No. 60/480,256, filed on Jun. 20, 2003, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT The invention described and claimed herein was made in part utilizing funds supplied by the United States Department of Energy under contract No. DE-AC03-76SF000-98 between the United States Department of Energy and The Regents of the University of California. The government has certain rights to the invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The first solar cells were fabricated in the mid 1950s from crystalline silicon wafers. At that time, the most efficient devices converted 6% of solar power to electricity. Advancements in solar cell technology over the past 50 years have resulted in the most efficient Si cell being at 25% and commercial Si modules being at 10%. Despite these efficiencies, the high cost of manufacturing conventional solar cells limits their widespread use as a source of power generation. The construction of conventional silicon solar cells involves four main processes: the growth of the semiconductor material, separation into wafers, formation of a device and its junctions, and encapsulation. For cell fabrication alone, thirteen steps are required to make the solar cell and of these thirteen steps, five require high temperatures (300° C.-1000° C.), high vacuum or both. In addition, the growth of the semiconductor from a melt is at temperatures above 1400° C. under an inert argon atmosphere. To obtain high efficiency devices (>10%), structures involving concentrator systems to focus sunlight onto the device, multiple semiconductors and quantum wells to absorb more light, or higher performance semiconductors such as GaAs and InP, are needed. These options all result in increased costs. Another problem with conventional solar devices is the high cost of manufacturing materials. The amount of silicon needed for 1 kW of module output power is approximately 20 kg. At $20/kg, the material costs for electronic grade silicon are partially subsidized by the chip manufacturing sector. Other materials such as GaAs, which are synthesized with highly toxic gases, are a factor of 20 higher in cost at $400/kg. Because solar cells are large area devices, such material costs hinder the production of inexpensive cells. As a result, thin film devices, which have active layers several microns thick of amorphous Si, CdTe, and CuInSe2 are being explored. Also, in 1991, O'Regan et al. reported the invention of a novel photochemical solar cell comprised of inexpensive TiO2 nanocrystals and organic dye (O'Regan et al. Nature 353, 737 (1991)). Embodiments of the invention improve upon such conventional devices and address the above problems individually and collectively. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Embodiments of the invention are directed to nanowire arrays, devices that use the nanowire arrays, and methods for making the same. One embodiment of the invention is directed to a method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing ZnO nanocrystals on the substrate using a dip coating process; and contacting the substrate with a solution of zinc nitrate hexahydrate (Zn(NO3)2.6H2O) and methenamine (C6H12N4). Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing semiconductor nanocrystals on the substrate using a dip coating process; contacting the substrate with a solution comprising a semiconductor precursor; and forming an array of nanowires, wherein the nanowires comprise a semiconductor. Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing semiconductor nanocrystals on the substrate; contacting the substrate with a solution comprising a semiconductor precursor and a polyamine; and forming an array of nanowires, wherein the nanowires comprise a semiconductor. Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a device comprising: a substrate; and an array of nanowires on the substrate, wherein each nanowire includes an aspect ratio greater than about 20 or even 120, and a length greater than about 15 or 20 microns. Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a method for forming a branched network of metal oxide semiconductor wire structures, the method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing a first plurality of semiconductor nanocrystals on the substrate; contacting the substrate with a solution comprising a semiconductor precursor; forming an array of nanowires on the substrate; depositing a second plurality of semiconductor nanocrystals on the array of nanowires; and forming branches on the array of nanowires using the deposited second plurality of nanocrystals. Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a device comprising: a substrate; and a branched network on the substrate, wherein the branched network comprises an array of nanowires and branches on the nanowires in the array of nanowires, wherein the branched network comprises a metal oxide semiconductor. Another embodiment of the invention is directed to an optoelectronic device comprising: a first conductive layer; a second conductive layer; an array of semiconductor nanowires between the first and second conductive layers; and a charge transport medium between the first and second conductive layers. These and other embodiments of the invention are described in detail below. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a flowchart illustrating some steps in a method according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 shows images showing how a nanowire array is created. The first photograph shows ZnO quantum dots, while the second photograph shows nanowires grown from the quantum dots. The scale bar equals 1 μm in the bottom photograph. FIG. 3 shows a transmission electron micrograph of a cluster of ZnO nanowires removed from a 1.5-hour array. The scale bar is 100 nm. The inset is the [100] electron diffraction pattern of an isolated, single nanowire from a different region of the sample. The growth axis is along the [001] direction. FIG. 4 shows a graph of ISDv. VG (source drain current vs. gate voltage). FIG. 5 shows images of a 4 inch wafer and nanowires at different scales. From the upper left and moving clockwise, the scale bars are 2 μm, 500 nm, 200 nm, and 1 μm. FIG. 6A shows a ZnO nanowire array on a two inch, flexible PDMS substrate. The photograph shows a flexed array of nanowires on PDMS. FIG. 6B shows an SEM image showing the array morphology on a flexible substrate. The scale bar is 1 μm. FIG. 6C shows a low magnification of an SEM image showing cracks formed in the array after handling. The scale bar is 5 μm. FIG. 7 shows a graph of nanowire diameter vs. length. The effect of using and not using polyethylenimine (PEI) is illustrated. FIG. 8A shows a nanowire array on a substrate for exemplary use in an organic-inorganic hybrid photovoltaic device. The nominal aspect ratio is about ten. The scale bar is 200 nanometers. FIG. 8B shows a nanowire array on a substrate for exemplary use in a DSC or dye sensitized cell. The nominal aspect ratio is greater than about 120. The scale bar is 5 microns. FIG. 9A shows a schematic drawing of a conventional DSC. FIG. 9B shows schematic drawing of a DSC according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 10 shows a graph of current density vs. bias (V). FIG. 11 shows a graph of cell efficiency vs. roughness factor. FIG. 12 shows a schematic top view of nanowires in an array. FIG. 13 shows a schematic cross-sectional view of an organic-inorganic hybrid cell according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 14 shows various views of wire composites according to embodiments of the invention. FIG. 15 is an x-ray diffraction graph. FIG. 16 shows the bias/current relationship in accordance an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 17 shows a schematic cross-sectional view of a solid state sensitized cell with a nanowire array. FIG. 18 shows a cross-sectional view of a light emitting diode with a nanowire array. FIG. 19 shows a flowchart illustrating a method according to another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 20 shows a schematic illustration of a branched network on a substrate. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Embodiments of the invention are directed to nanowire arrays, devices including nanowire arrays, and methods for making the same. In embodiments of the invention, synthetic methods can be used to produce homogeneous and dense arrays of nanowires. The nanowires can be grown on various substrates under mild aqueous conditions. Solution approaches to producing nanowires are appealing, because they can use low temperature processing steps that are suitable for scale-up. In one exemplary embodiment of the invention, homogeneous and dense arrays of ZnO nanowires were synthesized on 4-inch silicon wafers using a mild solution process at 90° C. Uniform ZnO nanocrystals were first deposited on the substrates to act as seeds for subsequent hydrothermal nanowire growth on the substrates. This procedure yielded single crystalline wurtzite ZnO nanowires grown along the [0001] direction. The nanowires were oriented perpendicular to the wafer surface. By controlling the reaction time, average diameters of about 40 to about 300 nanometers and lengths of about 1 to about 3 μm were obtained for the nanowires. Although zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires are described in detail, it is understood that embodiments of the invention are not limited thereto. For example, instead of zinc oxide, other semiconductors such as metal oxide semiconductors (e.g., titanium oxide, zinc oxide, tin oxide, etc.) can be used in the nanowire arrays according to embodiments of the invention. The resulting nanowire arrays according to embodiments of the invention have unexpectedly high surface areas and unexpectedly good electrical properties. The inventive methods of fabricating the nanowire arrays ensure that a majority of the nanowires in the arrays directly contact the substrate and provide continuous pathways for carrier transport. This is a desirable feature for electronic devices based on these materials. Highly efficient carrier transport (e.g., electron transport) through the substrate, to the nanowires, and though the nanowires is desirable, since this results in higher energy conversion efficiencies in devices such as photovoltaic devices. The nanowire arrays according to embodiments of the invention can be used in any suitable device including optoelectronic devices such as photovoltaic devices (which includes solar cells). The term “photovoltaic device” includes those device architectures known in the art. Exemplary photovoltaic devices are described in, for example, Science, Vol. 295, pp. 2425-2427, Mar. 29, 2002, the contents of which are incorporated by reference. Such devices include dye sensitized cells (DSCs) or Gratzel cells, solid state solar cells, and organic-inorganic hybrid photovoltaic cells. In an organic-inorganic hybrid photovoltaic cell, a semiconducting or conducting polymer is used in conjunction with the array of nanowires. These and other types of devices are described in further detail below. Embodiments of the invention can also be used in other devices, including but not limited to, acoustic wave filters, photonic crystals, light emitting diodes, photodetectors, photodiodes, optical modulator waveguides, varistors, and gas sensors. I. General Methods for Forming Nanowire Arrays FIG. 1 shows a flowchart illustrating steps in methods according to embodiments of the invention. First, a substrate is provided (step 400). For example, the substrate may comprise glass with indium tin oxide (ITO) coated on it, or may comprise a fluorine doped tin oxide. Nanocrystals are then deposited on the substrate, preferably through a self-assembly process (step 402). The nanocrystals may comprise the same material that will be present in the nanowires. For example, the nanocrystals may comprise a semiconducting material such as zinc oxide and the resulting nanowires could also be made of zinc oxide. After depositing the nanocrystals on the substrate, a solution then contacts the deposited nanocrystals. The solution may be formed from a semiconductor precursor (e.g., a salt) and a nanowire growth material. For example, the solution may comprise a semiconductor precursor such as zinc nitrate and a nanowire growth material such as an amine. In some embodiments, the amine is methenamine. As will be described in further detail below, one can get better aspect ratios with zinc nitrate, methenamine and PEI. After the solution contacts the deposited nanocrystals, nanowires are formed (step 404). After growing the nanowires, the nanowire array can be removed from the solution, dried, and then further processed. For example, additional layers may be formed on the nanowire array so that an optoelectronic device is formed. Each of these process steps and additional processing steps are described in further detail below. First, a substrate is provided (step 400). The substrate may comprise any suitable material. For example, the material may be organic and/or inorganic in nature, may comprise a conducting or a semiconducting material, and/or may be transparent or semi-transparent or opaque. The material may also be rigid or flexible. Exemplary substrates include semiconductors such as silicon and gallium arsenide, metals such as titanium foil, metal oxides such as titanium oxide, tin oxide, zinc oxide, and indium tin oxide, polymers such as semiconducting polymers, insulating polymers, etc. The substrate may also be a composite material with one or more sublayers. For example, the substrate may comprise a flexible, insulating, polymer base layer which may be coated with a conductive film. Any of these characteristics and/or materials can be in the substrates according to embodiments of the invention. After obtaining the substrate, nanocrystals are deposited on the substrate, preferably by a self-assembly process (step 402). As used herein “depositing” includes forming nanoparticles directly on the substrate. It also includes pre-forming the nanoparticles and then placing them onto the substrate surface through the use of a gaseous or liquid medium. Pacholski (Pacholski et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 41:1188 (2002)) describes how one can make ZnO nanocrystals (the contents of which are incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes). Other suitable deposition processes include spin coating, blade coating, roller coating, spraying, curtain coating, dip coating, inkjet printing and screen printing. In another embodiment, a zinc salt (e.g., zinc acetate) can be added to a substrate and it can be heated to form ZnO on the substrate. More generally, depositing a metal ion onto the surface of a substrate and heating it in the presence of oxygen can form an appropriate oxide. In embodiments of the invention, the deposition process is preferably a dip coating process. Unlike a spin coating process, when seeding a substrate with a nanocrystal material such as ZnO, a very thin layer of nanocrystals can be produced. For example, a very thin layer of ZnO nanoparticles about 10-15 nanometers in thickness (or less) may be formed on the substrate after a dip coating process is performed. In comparison, a spin coating process may leave a 50-200 nanometer film of nanocrystals on a substrate. The use of a dip coating process to deposit nanocrystals on a substrate allows one to grow the array of nanowires very close to the substrate. When the nanowires are formed on the very thin layer of ZnO nanocrystal particles, their ends are in virtually direct contact with the substrate. A large intermediate particle layer is not between the array of nanowires and the substrate. This allows for better electron transport between the substrate and the nanowires. When the nanowires are used in a device such as a photovoltaic device, this will result in improved conversion efficiency. The nanocrystals on the substrate may have any suitable size (however, the final wire diameter and distribution can be dependent on the size of the nanocrystals), and may comprise any suitable material. For example, in some embodiments, the nanocrystals may be about 5 to 10 nanometers in diameter. In other embodiments, the nanocrystals may be smaller or larger than this. They may contain the same materials that are present in the nanowires. In some embodiments, before depositing the nanocrystals on the substrate, the substrate may be briefly etched with an acid to provide the surface of the substrate with a positive charge (e.g., caused by the presence of protons). Suitable acids include HCl, HNO3, and other acids. In other embodiments, an electrical bias could be provided to the substrate surface to charge it. The application of electrical biases to substrates is well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Providing a positive charge to the substrate surface improves the adhesion of the nanocrystals onto the substrate. The nanocrystals may be oppositely charged, and may adhere to the substrate by electrostatic force. To further improve the adhesion of the nanocrystals to the substrate, the substrate may be optionally heated after they are deposited. For example, a substrate and nanocrystals can be annealed at 150° C. or more, for a predetermined period of time, to ensure that the nanocrystal particles adhere to the substrate surface. After depositing nanocrystals on the substrate, a solution contacts the nanocrystals (step 404). The solution can be formed from a liquid medium, a semiconductor precursor, and a nanowire growth material. Suitable concentrations of the solution components and mixing procedures can be determined by those of ordinary skill in the art. Exemplary concentrations and mixing procedures are described herein in specific examples. In embodiments of the invention, the semiconductor precursor may comprise a metal salt that can dissociate in solution. The metal of the metal salt may include metals such as Ti, Zn, Sn, etc. Suitable salts for forming zinc oxide nanowires may be zinc nitrate, zinc acetate, and hydrated forms thereof. The nanowire growth material may comprise any suitable material that is adapted to induce the growth of nanowires in solution using the semiconductor precursor. Examples of nanowire growth materials include amines, phosphonic acids, and/or carboxylic acids. In some embodiments, the amine may be methenamine (C6H12N4), which is a highly water soluble, non-ionic tetradentate cyclic tertiary amine. It is also sometimes called hexamethylenetetramine (HMTA). In preferred embodiments, the nanowire growth material may further comprise a polyamine such as a polyethylenimine (PEI). As illustrated in further detail below, surprising and unexpected results are produced when PEI is used. PEI is a cationic polyelectrolyte and is believed to selectively hinder lateral growth of the nanowires in solution. Using PEI in the solution, the aspect ratios of the nanowires increased to above 120, or even 150. This is compared to aspect ratios of 20-25 or less when a polyamine is not used. Further data regarding the unexpected results associated with the use of polyamines are provided below. The liquid medium may be organic and inorganic in nature. As illustrated below, the liquid medium may comprise water. The liquid medium may also comprise or be formed from an alcohol such as ethanol. After the solution is prepared, the solution may contact the substrate and the deposited nanocrystals for an amount of time, and at a temperature and a pressure sufficient to cause the formation of nanowires on the substrate. For example, the substrate and/or the solution may be heated between about 60° C. to about 95° C. for about 0.5 to about 6 hours at ambient pressure to cause the formation of the nanowire array. The solution could also be agitated during the nanowire formation process using a mixer or a stirrer. An array of nanowires is then formed in the solution (step 406). As used herein, a “nanowire array” includes at least some substantially linear nanowires extending substantially perpendicular to the surface of a substrate. Nanobranches may or may not be on the nanowires in the array. Embodiments with nanobranches are described in further detail below. The resulting nanowires may comprise a semiconductor material. Examples of suitable semiconductor materials include zinc oxide (e.g., ZnO), titanium oxide (e.g., TiO2), tin oxide (e.g., SnO), etc. In some embodiments, the nanowires preferably comprise a metal oxide semiconductor. The nanowires may be single crystalline or polycrystalline, and may be doped or undoped. The nanowires in the nanowire array may also have any suitable dimensions. For example, each of the nanowires in an array of nanowires may have a diameter of from about 1 nanometer to about 200 nanometers. They may have lengths from several microns or more (e.g., greater than about 10 or about 20 microns). The nanowires preferably have high aspect ratios. For example, the aspect ratios of the nanowires can be between about 10 to about 500, or more. The widths of the nanowires may be about 100 nanometers or less in some embodiments. For example, each nanowire may have a diameter between about 40 to about 80 nanometers. Some nanowires in the array may not have the above noted dimensions. In one exemplary embodiment of the invention, well-aligned ZnO nanowire arrays were grown. ZnO nanocrystals about 5 to about 10 nanometers in diameter were dip coated several times onto a 4-inch Si (100) wafer to form a <15 nanometer thick film of crystal seeds. The ZnO nanocrystals were prepared according to a modified method of Pacholski (Pacholski et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 41:1188 (2002)), the contents of which are incorporated by reference in its entirety. A 0.03 M NaOH solution in ethanol was added slowly to 0.01 M zinc acetate dehydrate in ethanol at 60° C. and stirred for two hours. The resulting nanoparticles were spherical and stable for at least one week in solution and longer when kept at almost freezing conditions. After uniformly coating the silicon wafer with ZnO nanocrystals, hydrothermal ZnO growth was carried out by suspending the wafer upside-down in an open crystallizing dish filled with an aqueous solution of zinc nitrate hydrate (0.025 M) and methenamine (0.025 M) at 90° C. The reaction time in this example was from about 0.5 to about 6 hours. The wafer was then removed from solution, rinsed with deionized water and dried. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to examine the morphology of the nanowire array across the entire wafer, while single nanowires were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Nanowire crystallinity and growth direction were analyzed by X-ray diffraction and electron diffraction techniques. SEM images taken of several 4-inch samples showed that the entire wafer was coated with a highly uniform and densely packed array of ZnO nanowires. X-ray diffraction data suggest a wurtzite ZnO pattern with an enhanced (002) peak due to the vertical orientation of the nanowires. A typical 1.5-hour synthesis yielded wires with diameters ranging between about 40 to about 80 nm and lengths of about 1.5 to about 2 μm. With a measured number density on the order of about 1010 cm−2, these arrays had a ZnO surface area of, conservatively, at least about 50 cm2 per cm2 of substrate (˜10 m2 g−1). The average size of the nanowires increased with longer reaction time, up to about 200 to about 300 nm wide by about 3 μm long for a 6 hour experiment. High magnification SEM imaging of a 6 hour sample revealed that the surfaces of these solution-grown wires are rough compared to the gas-phase arrays, which might be expected based on the different crystallization environments. Also, a substantial percentage of the nanowires fuse together after longer reaction times. FIG. 2 shows images showing how a nanowire array including long nanowires can be created. The first photograph (created using Atomic Force Microscopy or AFM) shows dip coated ZnO quantum dots or nanocrystals on a substrate. The second photograph shows nanowires grown from the nanocrystals. In the bottom photograph, the scale bar equals 1 μm. The cross-sectional SEM view of the array suggested that the ZnO nanowires grow nearly vertically and penetrated a thin (<15 nm) layer of nanocrystals. As noted above, it is desirable to make the nanoparticle layer as thin and continuous as possible (ideally a few particle diameters or less in thickness) for electronic applications. FIG. 3 shows a TEM characterization of individual nanowires removed from the arrays. It indicates that they are single crystalline and grow in the [0001] direction. The cluster morphology shown in the image is common and suggests that multiple nanowires often grow from a single aggregate of ZnO nanoparticles attached to the substrate. FIG. 4 shows electrical characteristics for a single ZnO nanowire. Specifically, FIG. 4 shows I-V curves at various gate biases for a nanowire with a diameter of 75 nm, showing n-type behaviour and a resistivity of 0.65 Ωcm. The left inset shows the corresponding ISD-VG curve at VSD=100 mV. The ON-OFF ratio is 105 at 50 volts. The right inset shows an SEM image of a ZnO NW-FET. FIG. 5 shows a 4 inch wafer and various SEM images of nanowires. FIGS. 6A-6C show embodiments using flexible substrates. For example, FIG. 6A shows the results of nanowire array growth on a flexible 2-inch polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrate. This array is similar to those grown on silicon, except that a network of microscale cracks form due to the inflexibility of the ZnO nanowire film. See FIGS. 6B and 6C. FIG. 7 shows a graph, which correlates nanowire length and diameter at different growth times with and without PEI addition. The longest arrays presented have nanowires with lengths exceeding ˜20 μm. As shown in FIG. 7, when PEI (or other polyamine) is used, a two, three, or fourfold increase in the lengths of the nanowires can be achieved, as compared to embodiments that do not use PEI. FIG. 8A shows a nanowire array for an organic-inorganic hybrid cell (or device) where the nanowires have aspect ratios of about 10 (formed without a polyamine). The array could also be formed with a polyamine. FIG. 8B shows a nanowire array for a DSC where the nanowires have aspect ratios of about 120 or more (formed with a polyamine). Once a nanowire array has been formed on a substrate, an optoelectronic device such as a photovoltaic device may be formed. Such devices are described in further detail above and below. II. Optoelectronic Devices Including the Nanowire Arrays Other embodiments of the invention are directed to an optoelectronic devices. As used herein, optoelectronic devices include devices that can either produce light or can convert light to electricity. They may include a first conductive layer, a second conductive layer, an array of semiconductor nanowires (with or without nanobranches) between the first and second conductive layers, and a charge transport medium between the first and second conductive layers. Such optoelectronic devices may include DSCs, organic-inorganic hybrid photovoltaic devices, solid-state sensitized solar cells, and light emitting diodes. Details of these and other devices are provided below. The charge transport medium that is used depends on the type of optoelectronic device that is produced. For example, the charge transport medium in a DSC may comprise an electrolyte. By comparison, an electrolyte may not be present in an organic-inorganic hybrid photovoltaic device. In embodiments of the invention, the charge transport medium may fill or impregnate the spaces between the nanowires to form a wire composite. In some embodiments of the invention, the wire composite may include 5-95% by volume of the charge transport medium and/or 9-95% by volume of the nanowires. The nanowire arrays in the optoelectronic devices can be formed using any of the solution processes described above (and below). In other embodiments, the nanowire arrays may be formed using vapor phase processes. Vapor-phase processes are described in Yang et al. and generally require high temperatures. Yang et al., Adv. Func. Mater., 12:323 (2002); Yao et al., Appl. Phys. Lett., 81:757 (2002). Accordingly, the solution based processes described herein are preferred. A. DSCs (Dye Sensitized Cells) The DSC is currently the most efficient and stable excitonic photocell. Central to this device is a thick nanoparticle film that provides a large surface area (roughness factor ˜1000) for light harvesting. However, nanoparticle DSCs rely on trap-limited diffusion for electron transport, a slow mechanism that can limit device efficiency, especially at longer wavelengths. In a conventional DSC, the anodes are typically constructed using thick films (˜10 μm) of TiO2 or, less often, ZnO nanoparticles that are deposited as a paste and sintered to produce electrical continuity. The nanoparticle film provides a large internal surface area for the anchoring of sufficient chromophore (usually a ruthenium-based dye) to yield high light absorption in the 400-800 nanometer region, where much of the solar flux is incident. The chromophore may be in the form of a dye monolayer. In operating cells, photons intercepted by the dye monolayer create excitons that are rapidly split at the nanoparticle surface, with electrons injected into the nanoparticle film and holes exiting the opposite side of the device via redox species (traditionally the I−/I3− couple) in a liquid or solid-state electrolyte. The nature of electron transport in oxide nanoparticle films is now well studied. Time-resolved photocurrent and photovoltage measurements and modeling efforts indicate that electron transport in wet, illuminated nanoparticle networks occurs by a trap-limited diffusion process in which photogenerated electrons are repeatedly captured and expelled by an exponential distribution of traps as they undertake a random walk through the film. Drift transport (which is a mechanism in most photovoltaic cells), is prevented in DSCs by ions in the electrolyte that screen all macroscopic electric fields and couple strongly with the moving electrons, effectively rendering them neutral carriers (i.e., ambipolar diffusion). Under normal solar light levels, an injected electron is thought to experience an average of a million trapping events before either percolating to the collecting electrode or recombining with an oxidizing species (principally I3− in the electrolyte). Transit times for electron escape from the film are as long as a second. Despite the extremely slow nature of such trap-mediated transport (characterized by an electron diffusivity, Dn≦10−4 cm2 s−1, many orders of magnitude smaller than in TiO2 or ZnO single crystals), electron collection remains favored vis-à-vis recombination due to the even slower multi-electron kinetics of I3− reduction on oxide surfaces. Electron diffusion lengths of 10-30 μm have been reported for cells operating at light intensities up to 0.1 Sun. This is strong evidence that electron collection is highly efficient for the 10 μm-thick nanoparticle films normally used in devices. The surprising success of the DSC results from this balance between sluggish transport in the anode and the ultra low recombination rate of electrons with I3−. The slow recombination is itself partly due to the excellent electrostatic screening provided by the liquid electrolyte. One can gain insight into the factors that limit DSC performance by comparing the theoretical cell efficiencies with those of current state-of-the-art cells. The power conversion efficiency of a solar cell is given as η=(FF|Jsc|Voc)/Pin, where FF is the fill factor, Jsc is the current density at short circuit, Voc is the photovoltage at open circuit and Pin is the incident light power density. In principle, the maximum Jsc of a DSC is determined by how well the absorption window of its dye sensitizer overlaps the solar spectrum. Record cells achieve currents (and overall efficiencies) that are between 55-75% of their theoretical maxima at full Sun, depending on the dye used. Much of the shortfall is due to the poor absorption of low energy photons by available dyes. The development of better dyes and light-trapping schemes has received significant attention in this regard, so far with little success. A second method of improving the absorption of red and near-IR light is by thickening the nanoparticle film to increase its optical density. This yields diminishing returns as the film thickness approaches and exceeds the electron diffusion length through the nanoparticle network. One promising solution to the above impasse is to increase the electron diffusion length in the anode by replacing the nanoparticle film with an array of oriented single-crystalline nanowires. Electron transport in crystalline wires is expected to be several orders of magnitude faster than percolation in a random polycrystalline network. By using dense arrays of long, thin nanowires, one should be able to improve the dye loading (and so the absorption of red light) while maintaining the excellent carrier collection characteristics of traditional nanoparticle DSCs. Moreover, the rapid transport provided by a nanowire anode would be particularly favorable for DSC designs that use non-standard electrolytes, such as polymer gels or solid inorganic phases, in which recombination rates are high compared to the liquid electrolyte cell. To act as an efficient DSC photoanode, a nanowire film preferably has a large surface area for dye adsorption, comparable to that of its nanoparticle analogue. In embodiments of the invention, high surface area ZnO nanowire arrays were made in aqueous solution using a seeded growth process that was modified to yield long wires (as described above). Briefly, a thin (<15 nanometer) layer of ZnO quantum dots (nanocrystals) was deposited on a surface by dip coating, and wires were grown from these nuclei via the thermal decomposition of a zinc amino complex (as described above). The overall process is a simple, low temperature and environmentally benign route to forming dense arrays (up to 40 billion wires per cm2) on arbitrary substrates of any size. Past reports of solution-grown ZnO nanowires have been limited to lengths that are too small for use in efficient DSCs. ZnO nanowire films are good electrical conductors perpendicular to the substrate plane (that is, along the wire axes). Two-point electrical measurements of dry arrays on SnO2:F coated glass give linear I-V traces that indicate barrier-free nanowire/substrate contacts. Individual nanowires were extracted from the arrays, fashioned into field-effect transistors (FETs) using standard electron-beam lithography procedures, and analyzed to extract their resistivity, carrier concentration and mobility. Measured resistivity values ranged from 0.3-2.0 Ωcm, falling on the conductive end of the spectrum for nominally undoped ZnO. A moderately high electron concentration of 5×1018 cm−3 and mobility of 1-5 cm2 V−1 s−1 were estimated from transconductance data. Using the Einstein relation, D=kBTμ/e, the present inventors calculated an electron diffusivity Dn=0.05−0.5 cm2s−1 for single dry nanowires. This value is 500 times larger than the best diffusivity for TiO2 or ZnO nanoparticle films in operating cells. Faster diffusion in nanowires is a consequence of their excellent crystallinity and complete lack of grain boundaries, as confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (not shown). A DSC cell according to an embodiment of this invention includes an optimized nanowire array deposited on conductive glass. A monolayer of dye molecules is formed on the nanowire array. For example, a dye may be adsorbed on the nanowire array using a vapor phase or a liquid phase coating process. Suitable dyes include ruthenium based dyes including [(CN)(bpy)2Ru—CN—Ru(dcbpy)2—NCRu(bpy)2], [Ru(4,4-bis(carboxy)-bpy)2(NCS)2] and [Ru(2,2′,2″-(COOH)3-terpy)(NCS)3]. Other commercially available dyes may be used instead. The nanowires may comprise any of the materials or characteristics mentioned above. For example, the nanowires may comprise zinc oxide, titanium oxide, tin oxide, core/shell nanowires (e.g., titanium oxide on zinc oxide), or any other suitable semiconductor material in any suitable configuration. After it is formed, the one half of the cell that includes the nanowires is then sandwiched together with a counter-electrode (e.g., conductive glass coated with thermalized platinum particles) using a hot-melt polymer spacer (or other type of spacer). The interior space is then filled with an electrolyte solution such as an I−/I3− redox couple in a nitrile-based solvent. Other types of electrolyte solutions are known to those of skill in the art and can be used in embodiments of the invention. The electrolyte may alternatively be a polymer gel. In addition, the substrates could alternatively be conductive plastic, instead of coated, conductive glass. FIG. 9A shows a conventional nanoparticle DSC 30. As illustrated, a number of semiconductor particles are present between the two electrodes. FIG. 9B shows a DSC 20 according to an embodiment of the invention. The DSC 20 includes a first conductive substrate 10 including an (fluorine doped F:SnO2) SnO2 electrode, and a second conductive substrate 14 including an (fluorine doped F:SnO2) SnO2 electrode with a Pt mirror. In between the first and second conductive substrates 10, 14, is an array of nanowires 12 with a dye coating. A liquid electrolyte 18 is between the nanowires in the array and is also between the first and second conductive substrates 10, 14. FIG. 10 shows a graph of current density (mA cm−2) vs. bias voltage (V) for a DSC. A roughness factor=200. It shows characteristics of a DSC solar cell showing 1.5% efficiency under 100 mW/cm2 of simulated sunlight. FIG. 11 is a graph of cell efficiency vs. roughness factor. It shows that a larger surface area will improve efficiency. “Roughness factor” is unit-less and is the surface area of a sample per geometric area of the substrate. B. Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Photovoltaic Devices Embodiments of the invention can also include organic-inorganic hybrid cells. Currently, to separate the donor and acceptor materials in such cells (or devices), a spin cast method is used. However, this creates a disordered film morphology, which causes poor transport properties in the cells. The use of nanowires provides an ordered bulk interface with a direct pathway to the electrode, thus reducing poor transport properties and improving the performance of the cell. The organic-inorganic hybrid photovoltaic cells according to embodiments of the invention are particularly promising for efficient excitonic photoconversion. In these devices, an array of thin (about 20-30 nanometers in diameter), short (about 100-300 nanometers tall) nanowires may be intimately wetted with a conducting or semiconducting polymer (e.g., P3HT) that penetrates into the spaces (e.g., 10-50 nanometer spaces) between the wires. The polymer acts as both a light-harvesting and a hole conducting material. Electrons are captured by the ZnO wires and are transported to the anode. The device includes the organic-inorganic composite sandwiched between two electrodes. The dense nanowire arrays according to embodiments of the invention have high surface area and pore spaces large enough to form a high-quality junction with the polymer layer. The nanowires contact the electrode directly and provide an excellent current pathway. FIG. 12 shows a schematic view of an array of nanowires from a top view. 2LD represents the spacing between adjacent nanowires and may be 20 nanometers in some embodiments. LD is the exciton diffusion length. In order for the device to efficiently split the exciton at a polymer-semiconductor interface by not having the electron-hole pair recombine, the spacing between the semiconductor wires should be ideally less than 2LD. FIG. 13 shows a schematic illustration of an organic-inorganic hybrid cell according to an embodiment of the invention. The cell includes a first conductive layer 62, which comprises a transparent or translucent material to allow for the passage of light, and a second conductive layer 64. The second conductive layer 64 may comprises a reflective, conductive material such as gold or silver (or alloys thereof). Alternatively, the second conductive layer 64 may comprise a transparent or translucent material. A reflective film may on the transparent or translucent second conductive layer 64. By providing a second conductive layer 64 that has some reflective characteristics, light that passes through the first conductive layer 62 and a wire composite 66 between the first conductive layer 62 and the second conductive layer 64 is reflected back to the wire composite 66, thereby maximizing the transmission of light to the wire composite 66. Illustratively, the first conductive layer 62 may comprise ITO, while the second conductive layer 64 may comprise gold or silver. A transparent or translucent substrate 68 may support the second conductive layer 64. The substrate 68 may comprise a rigid material such as glass. Electrical connections 70(a), 70(b) may be provided to the first and second conductive layers 62, 64. The wire composite 66 is between the first conductive layer 62 and the second conductive layer 64. The wire composite 66 comprises any of the nanowire arrays described herein in combination with an electrically conductive or semiconducting polymer. The phrase “semiconducting polymer” includes all conjugated polymers having a pi-electron system. Non-limiting examples of semiconducting polymers include trans-polyacetylene, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyaniline, poly (p-phenylene and poly(p-phenylene-vinylene), polyfluorenes, polyaromatic amines, poly(thienylene-vinylene)s and soluble derivatives of the above. An example is (poly(2-methoxy,5-(2′-ethylhexyloxy)p-phenylenevinylene) (MEH-PPV) and poly(3-alkylthiophene) (e.g., poly(3-hexylthiophene) or P3HT). Some embodiments of the invention can also use conjugated polymers that are either solution processable or melt processable, because of bulk pendant groups attached to the main conjugated chain or by its inclusion of the conjugated polymer into a copolymer structure of which one or more components are non-conjugated. Non-limiting examples include poly(4′-diphenylenediphenylvinylene), poly(1,4-phenylene-1-phenylvinylene and poly(1,4-phenylenediphenylvinylene, poly(3-alkylpyrrole) and poly(2,5-dialkoxy-p-phenylenevinylene). It is understood that the term “semiconducting conjugated polymer” could include a mixture or blend of polymers, one of which is to be a semiconducting conjugated polymer. The cell shown in FIG. 13 can be used in any suitable manner. For example, in some embodiments, light passes through the substrate 68 and the second conductive layer 64 and irradiates the wire composite 66 comprising the nanowire array. This, in turn, induces current flow through the electrical connections 70(a), 70(b). The cell shown in FIG. 13 can be made in any suitable manner. For example, in one embodiment, one may coat the substrate 68 with the first conductive layer 62 using a conventional coating process such as vapor deposition, electroplating, electroless plating, etc. After obtaining the coated conductive substrate, an array of nanowires can be grown on the first conductive layer 62 in the manner described herein. Then, a conductive or semiconductive polymer may be deposited on the array of nanowires, and can fill the spaces between the nanowires. The polymer may be deposited on the array of nanowires using any suitable process including roller blade coating, surface initiated polymerization, dip coating, spin coating, vapor deposition, etc. After forming the wire composite 66, the second conductive layer 64 can be formed on the wire composite 66. The second conductive layer 64 can be formed using the same or different process as the first conductive layer 62. Then, the electrical connections 70(a), 70(b) can be attached to the first and second conductive layers 62, 64. The structure shown in FIG. 13 can be produced by other processes. In another example, the wire composite 66 can be formed first, and then the substrate 68 and the first and second conductive layers 62, 64 can be laminated together. Once they are laminated together, the electrical connections can be attached to the first and second conductive layers 62, 64. FIG. 14 shows SEM photographs of actual wire composites including nanowire arrays and a polymeric material. FIG. 15 is an x-ray diffraction plot associated with an organic-inorganic hybrid cell including a wire composite including a zinc oxide nanowire array and P3HT (poly(3-hexylthiophene)), an ITO conductive layer, and glass. As shown in FIG. 15, P3HT retains its crystalline domains, therefore maintaining high mobility. FIG. 16 shows electrical characteristics for a single ZnO nanowire. I-V curves at various gate biases for a nanowire with a diameter of 75 nm, showing n-type behaviour and a resistivity of 0.65 Ωcm. The left inset shows the corresponding ISD-VG curve at VSD=100 mV. The ON-OFF ratio is 105 at 50 volts. The right inset shows an SEM image of the ZnO NW-FET. C. Solid State Sensitized Solar Cells Solid state sensitized solar cells are also referred to as dye-sensitized heterojunctions (DSHs). These have a structure similar to the DSCs described above, but in a DSH, a light absorbing dye is placed at an n-p heterojunction. DSHs without nanowire arrays are described in Regan, et al., “A solid-state dye-sensitized solar cell fabricated with pressure-treated P25-TiO2 and CuSCN: analysis of pore filling and IV characteristics”, Chemistry of Materials 14 (12): 5023-5029 (January 2003), which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIG. 17 shows a solid state sensitized solar cell with a nanowire electrode. It includes a substrate 212 and a first conductive layer 204 on the substrate. A second conductive layer 206 in the form of a metal contact is on a solid-state semiconductor material such as a p-type solid-state semiconductor 202. Any suitable p-type semiconductor may be used. For example, a p-type semiconductor such as CuI or CuSCN may be used. It may alternatively be an amorphous organic hole transmitting material. The solid state semiconductor material 202, an electron blocking layer 208 and a nanowire array 210 are between the first conductive layer 204 and the second conductive layer 206. The nanowire array 210 may comprise ZnO or any of the materials mentioned above, and may be coated with a dye (not shown). An electron blocking material such as AlGaN can be used for the electron blocking layer 208. The electron blocking layer 208 improves the efficiency of the device. The semiconductor material 202 fills the spaces between the nanowires in the nanowire array 210. The solid state sensitized cell shown in FIG. 17 has a construction similar to the previously described cells, except that an electron blocking layer is present. The same processes and materials that are described above with respect to the DSC and the hybrid cell can be used to construct the cell shown in FIG. 17. For example, the semiconductor material 202 may be deposited on the nanowire array 210 using conventional coating processes. The The blocking layer 208, if present, may be formed on the substrate 212 by any suitable known coating process such as a vapor phase coating process (e.g., sputtering and CVD). D. Light Emitting Diodes Embodiments of the invention can also be used to produced LEDs or light emitting diodes. FIG. 18 shows a light emitting diode according to an embodiment of the invention. It includes a substrate 312 and first conductive layer 304 on the substrate. A second conductive layer 306 in the form of a metal contact is on a solid state semiconductor material such as a p-type solid state semiconductor 302. Any suitable p-type semiconductor may be used. For example, a p-type semiconductor such as CuI or CuSCN may be used. The solid state semiconductor material 302, an electron blocking layer 308 and a nanowire array 310 comprising an n-type semiconductor such as ZnO are between the first conductive layer 304 and the second conductive layer 306. An electron blocking material such as AlGaN can be used. The semiconductor material 302 fills the spaces between the nanowires in the nanowire array 310. As is known in the art, when an electrical bias is provided to a p-n junction, the recombination of electron-hole pairs injected into a depletion region causes the emission of electromagnetic radiation. Accordingly, the device shown in FIG. 18 may be coupled to a power source (not shown) to provide the electrical bias to the p-n junction formed at the nanowire 310/semiconductor material 302 interface. The LED has a construction similar to the previously described cells, except that a dye need not be present. The same processes and materials that are described above with respect to the other cells and devices may be used to construct the device shown in FIG. 18. III. Branched Networks Including Nanowires Many of the above-described embodiments include an array of nanowires without branches. Other embodiments of the invention are directed to nanowire arrays including branches. These may be used to form a three-dimensional network on a substrate. FIG. 19 shows an exemplary flowchart illustrating a method according to an embodiment of the invention. As shown there, a substrate is provided (step 400). Nanocrystals are then deposited on the substrate, preferably through a self assembly process (step 402). After depositing the nanocrystals on the substrate, a solution then contacts the deposited nanocrystals. After the solution contacts the deposited nanocrystals, an array of nanowires is formed (step 404). Process steps 400, 402, and 404 and other suitable process steps are already described above. After forming an array of nanowires on a substrate, the array of nanowires and substrate can be removed from the solution and dried. Additional nanocrystals are deposited on the nanowire array (step 406). After depositing the nanocrystals on the nanowire array, they can be contacted with the solution (as previously described) and branches can form from the deposited nanocrystals while in the solution (step 408). The process that is used to form the nanobranches on the nanowires may be the same or different process that is used to form the nanowires themselves. Nanowire formation processes are described in detail above and below, and the details of those process are incorporated in this discussion of forming nanobranches. This nanobranch formation process can be repeated as often as desired to form branches on the previously formed branches to form a three-dimensional network of branched nanowires (step 410). It is understood that any of the process steps described above with respect to the formation of the nanowire arrays can be used to form the nanobranches. FIG. 20 shows a schematic illustration of another three-dimensional network 80 of branched nanowires. First, the nanowires 92 are grown on the illustrated substrate. Then, a first set of nanobranches 94 is formed on the nanowires. Then, a second set of nanobranches 96 can be formed on the first set of nanobranches and/or the nanowires 92. Additional sets of nanobranches can be formed after that. The branched nanowire arrays according to embodiments of the invention have a high surface area. This is particularly desirable. For example, a photovoltaic cell with a nanowire array with a higher surface area generally has a better energy conversion efficiency than a photovoltaic cell with a nanowire array with a lower surface area. Some additional examples are provided below. IV. EXAMPLES A. Nanowire Characterization Nanowire arrays were formed according to the solution based processes mentioned above (without polyethylenimine). U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/480,256, filed on Jun. 20, 2003, which is herein incorporated by reference, provides further details on these and other examples. The ultraviolet and visible photoluminescence (PL) of as-grown nanowire arrays was measured in the temperature range 4.5≦T≦300 K using a low-power, unfocused 325 nm line of a He—Cd laser as the excitation source. Room temperature spectra of as-grown samples showed a weak band edge emission at 378 nm (3.29 eV), due to free exciton annihilation, and a very strong and broad yellow-orange emission that is fit well by two Gaussians, with a major peak centered at 605 nm (2.05 eV) and a shoulder at 730 nm (1.70 eV). The three peaks grow more intense with decreasing temperature as a result of the freeze-out of phonons and quenching of nonradiative recombination processes. A 90 meV blueshift of the band-edge emission over this temperature range was caused by the thermal contraction of the lattice and changing electron-phonon interactions (Zhang et al., J. Lumin., 99:149 (2002)). The temperature dependence of the orange (2.05 eV) photoluminescence intensity can be expressed by a simple thermal activation model of the form (Jiang et al., J. Appl. Phys., 64:1371 (1988)), I=Io/(1+A*exp(−EA/kBT)). (1) By fitting the experimental data, an activation energy EA=71 meV was obtained for the nonradiative mechanisms responsible for quenching the orange luminescence. This value is almost three times greater than the energy reported in a previous study of single crystal and powder samples (Lauer, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 34:249 (1973)). It is known that pure ZnO can show green and/or orange visible luminescence depending on the growth temperature and availability of oxygen during sample preparation (Zelikin et al., Optika i Spektroskopiya, 11:397 (1961); Bhushan et al., Indian J. Pure & Appl. Phys., 19:694 (1981)). The green emission is due to the recombination of electrons with holes trapped in singly-ionized oxygen vacancies (Vo+) and is commonly seen in ZnO materials synthesized under oxygen deficient conditions, including the gas-phase nanowires produced (van Dijken et al., J. Lumin., 90:123 (2000)). Orange photoluminescence has been seen in ZnO grown electrochemically (Zheng et al., Chem. Phys. Lett., 363:123 (2002)), hydrothermally (Sekiguchi et al., J. Crystal Growth, 214/215:72 (2000)), and via pulsed laser deposition (Wu et al., Appl. Phys. Lett., 78:2285 (2001)) and spray pyrolysis (Studenikin et al., J. Appl. Phys., 84:2287 (1998)). The strong orange PL and complete absence of green emission from the aqueous-grown nanowire arrays is consistent with the above assignments. Regardless of the exact origin of the orange emission, the large ratio of orange PL intensity to band-edge PL intensity indicates that the as-grown nanowires are rich in defects, which is typical for crystals grown in solution. Photoluminescence and lasing measurements were combined with a series of annealing treatments in order to investigate the nature of the orange emission. Three samples were cut from both a 1.5-hour nanowire array and a 3-hour nanowire array on silicon. The samples were then annealed in one of three environments, either 400° C. in 10% H2/90% Ar for 15 minutes, 500° C. in 10% H2/90% Ar for 15 minutes, or 800° C. in a 5×10−6 Torr vacuum for 2 hours. One sample from each wafer was left untreated as a control. Post-anneal SEM imaging of each sample confirmed that the nanowires survived the annealing processes and were visibly undamaged, except for a slight surface etching seen in the 500° C. H2 treatments. Room temperature photoluminescence spectra of the 1.5-hour samples showed a progressive quenching of the orange emission with a simultaneous increase of the band-edge PL intensity. The marked weakening of the orange emission after vacuum annealing is consistent with the involvement of oxygen interstitials in the luminescence. The 500° C. H2 treatment caused a nearly complete quenching of the orange PL and resulted in a spectrum dominated by band-edge emission. The green PL feature, which should develop with sufficiently reducing treatments, (Studenikin et al., J. Appl. Phys., 84:2287 (1998)) was not observed even in a sample that was exposed to hydrogen at 600° C. and appeared heavily etched by SEM. The lasing behavior of the eight array samples was investigated by far-field photoluminescence imaging using an experimental setup described previously (Johnson et al., Nature Materials, 1:101 (2002)). Neither of the as-grown samples showed lasing at sub-ablation pumping intensities. Lasing of array nanowires on the annealed 1.5-hour samples was observed in only a small fraction of the wires, likely those at the upper limit of the diameter distribution having a sufficient cavity finesse to support a single lasing mode. The annealed 3-hour samples (average diameter d=125 nm, length 2 μM) showed lasing in roughly ten times the number of wires as the 1.5-hour arrays (average diameter 60 nm, length 1.5 μm), which is reasonable since optical gain in a nanowire scales exponentially with the cavity length and decreases with d<λ, due to diffraction effects. A typical PL spectrum of a 3-hour solution array above threshold showed several relatively sharp lasing peaks superimposed on a broad PL background. However, the percentage of lasing wires in the 3-hour arrays remained very low, probably because their short lengths lead to high gain thresholds. A comparison of the average lasing thresholds for the active wires on the three annealed solution-grown arrays and a gas-phase array showed that the threshold tends to decrease as the ratio of ultraviolet PL to visible PL increases, with the gas-phase array lasing at one-fifth the threshold of the most reduced 3-hour sample. Annealing as-grown arrays in reducing atmospheres quenches the intense orange emission and lowers the lasing threshold of the larger nanowires to values similar to gas-phase samples. B. Nanowires Formed Using Polyethylenimine Synthesis of ZnO Nanowire Photoanodes: ZnO nanowire arrays were synthesized on ITO-coated glass substrates (10 Ω/sq, Thin Film Devices, Inc.) and/or fluorine doped SnO2 (7-8 Ω/sq, Hartford Glass) using a modified version of a published approach. After sonication cleaning in acetone/ethanol and 1.0 M HCl, the substrates were manually dip-coated in a solution of ZnO quantum dots in ethanol, rinsed with ethanol and dried in a stream of gas. This procedure reliably formed a dense layer of nanoparticle seeds on the surface. Nanowire arrays were then grown in aqueous solutions containing 20-60 mM zinc nitrate hexahydrate, 25-50 mM hexamethylenetetramine and 0.5-5 mM polyethylenimine (branched, low molecular weight, Aldrich) at 90-95° C. for 2-5 hours. Since nanowire growth ceased after this period, substrates were repeatedly introduced to fresh solution baths in order to attain long wires and high surface areas (total reaction times of 15-25 hrs). The array electrodes were then rinsed with deionized water and baked in air at 400° C. for 1 hour to remove any residual polymer. Using polyethylenimine (PEI) in the solution, the aspect ratios of the nanowires increased to above 120. The dramatic effect of this molecule in solution can be seen in FIGS. 7, 8A, and 8B. FIG. 7 correlates nanowire length and diameter at different growth times with and without PEI addition. Electrical measurements: For the single wire studies, 8-10 μm long ZnO nanowires were dispersed from solution onto oxidized silicon substrates (300 nm SiOx) and fired in air at 400° C. for 15 minutes. Electron-beam lithography was used to pattern and deposit 100 nm thick Ti contacts from the wires to prefabricated contact pads. Many devices showed ohmic I-V plots without further heat treatment. Measurements were performed with a global back gate using a semiconductor parameter analyser (HP4145B, HP). Samples for array transport studies were made by encapsulating fired arrays (grown on ITO) in a matrix of spin-cast poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), exposing the wire tips by UV development of the top portion of the PMMA film, and then depositing metal contacts by thermal evaporation. The insulating PMMA matrix prevented potential short circuits due to pinholes in the nanowire film and provided mechanical stability for the measurement. Mid-infrared transient absorption measurements: Mid-IR transient absorption measurements were performed with a home-built Ti:sapphire oscillator (30 fs, 88 MHz) and commercial regenerative amplifier (Spectra-Physics, Spitfire) that operates at 810 nm and 1 kHz repetition rate. Approximately 800 μJ of the beam was used to pump an optical parametric amplifier (OPA) (TOPAS, Quantronix), while 80 μJ was retained and frequency-doubled in BBO for use as the 405 nm pump beam. This beam was temporally delayed by a motorized stage and directed to the sample. The signal and idler beams from the OPA were combined in a AgGaS2 crystal to create tunable mid-IR pulses (1000-3500 cm−1). The residual 810 nm beam and the residual signal and idler beams were re-combined in a BBO crystal to create SFG at 510 nm and 575 nm. The 510 nm beam was directed to a separate delay stage and then to the sample. The pump beams were focused to a spot size of approximately 200-300 μm, with typical pump energies of 0.5-2 μJ. The pump beams were mechanically chopped at 500 Hz (synchronous with the laser), and separate boxcar integrators were triggered by the rejected and passed beams, allowing for independent detection channels of probe with pump (“sample”) and without pump (“reference”). The sample signal was subtracted from the reference signal, and the result was divided by the reference to give the differential transmittance, which was converted to effective absorbance. The probe beam, which was typically centered at 2150 cm−1 with a 250 cm−1 bandwidth, was focused with a CaF2 lens to a size of approximately 100-200 μm. The probe beam was collected after transmission through the sample and directed through bandpass filters before being focused onto a single-element MCT detector (IR Associates). An instrument response of 250-300 fs was determined by measuring the sub-50 fs rise of free-electron absorption in a thin Si wafer after blue or green pump. Each transient plot (not shown) was an average of points taken on both forward and reverse scans (checked for reproducibility). Each point consists of approximately 500 averaged laser shots. Samples were translated after each scan in order to minimize probing dye photoproducts. However, samples were not moved during the scan because small inhomogeneities caused changes in the amplitude of the transient signal, obscuring the true kinetics. Fabrication of Solar Cells: As-made nanowire films were first fired at 400° C. in air for 30 minutes to remove surface adsorbates and then dye-coated in a 0.5 mmol l−1 solution of cis-bis(isothiocyanato)bis(2,2′-bipyridyl-4,4′-dicarboxylato)-ruthenium(II) (N3 dye) in dry ethanol for three hours at 25° C. The cells were constructed by sandwiching nanowire anodes together with thermally platinized conducting glass counter electrodes separated by 30-50 μm thick hot-melt spacers (Bynel, Dupont) and sealed by flash heating. The internal space of a cell was filled by injecting a liquid electrolyte (0.5 M LiI, 50 mM I2, 0.5 M 4-tertbutylpyridine in 3-methoxypropionitrile). The terms and expressions which have been employed herein are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention in the use of such terms and expressions of excluding equivalents of the features shown and described, or portions thereof, it being recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention claimed. Moreover, any one or more features of any embodiment of the invention may be combined with any one or more other features of any other embodiment of the invention, without departing from the scope of the invention. For example, any features of any of the nanowire arrays described herein can be combined with any features of any of the optoelectronic devices described herein without departing from the scope of the invention. All patents, patent applications, and publications mentioned above are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. None of the patents, patent applications, and publications mentioned above is admitted to be prior art. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The first solar cells were fabricated in the mid 1950s from crystalline silicon wafers. At that time, the most efficient devices converted 6% of solar power to electricity. Advancements in solar cell technology over the past 50 years have resulted in the most efficient Si cell being at 25% and commercial Si modules being at 10%. Despite these efficiencies, the high cost of manufacturing conventional solar cells limits their widespread use as a source of power generation. The construction of conventional silicon solar cells involves four main processes: the growth of the semiconductor material, separation into wafers, formation of a device and its junctions, and encapsulation. For cell fabrication alone, thirteen steps are required to make the solar cell and of these thirteen steps, five require high temperatures (300° C.-1000° C.), high vacuum or both. In addition, the growth of the semiconductor from a melt is at temperatures above 1400° C. under an inert argon atmosphere. To obtain high efficiency devices (>10%), structures involving concentrator systems to focus sunlight onto the device, multiple semiconductors and quantum wells to absorb more light, or higher performance semiconductors such as GaAs and InP, are needed. These options all result in increased costs. Another problem with conventional solar devices is the high cost of manufacturing materials. The amount of silicon needed for 1 kW of module output power is approximately 20 kg. At $20/kg, the material costs for electronic grade silicon are partially subsidized by the chip manufacturing sector. Other materials such as GaAs, which are synthesized with highly toxic gases, are a factor of 20 higher in cost at $400/kg. Because solar cells are large area devices, such material costs hinder the production of inexpensive cells. As a result, thin film devices, which have active layers several microns thick of amorphous Si, CdTe, and CuInSe 2 are being explored. Also, in 1991, O'Regan et al. reported the invention of a novel photochemical solar cell comprised of inexpensive TiO 2 nanocrystals and organic dye (O'Regan et al. Nature 353, 737 (1991)). Embodiments of the invention improve upon such conventional devices and address the above problems individually and collectively. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Embodiments of the invention are directed to nanowire arrays, devices that use the nanowire arrays, and methods for making the same. One embodiment of the invention is directed to a method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing ZnO nanocrystals on the substrate using a dip coating process; and contacting the substrate with a solution of zinc nitrate hexahydrate (Zn(NO 3 ) 2 .6H 2 O) and methenamine (C 6 H 12 N 4 ). Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing semiconductor nanocrystals on the substrate using a dip coating process; contacting the substrate with a solution comprising a semiconductor precursor; and forming an array of nanowires, wherein the nanowires comprise a semiconductor. Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing semiconductor nanocrystals on the substrate; contacting the substrate with a solution comprising a semiconductor precursor and a polyamine; and forming an array of nanowires, wherein the nanowires comprise a semiconductor. Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a device comprising: a substrate; and an array of nanowires on the substrate, wherein each nanowire includes an aspect ratio greater than about 20 or even 120 , and a length greater than about 15 or 20 microns. Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a method for forming a branched network of metal oxide semiconductor wire structures, the method comprising: providing a substrate; depositing a first plurality of semiconductor nanocrystals on the substrate; contacting the substrate with a solution comprising a semiconductor precursor; forming an array of nanowires on the substrate; depositing a second plurality of semiconductor nanocrystals on the array of nanowires; and forming branches on the array of nanowires using the deposited second plurality of nanocrystals. Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a device comprising: a substrate; and a branched network on the substrate, wherein the branched network comprises an array of nanowires and branches on the nanowires in the array of nanowires, wherein the branched network comprises a metal oxide semiconductor. Another embodiment of the invention is directed to an optoelectronic device comprising: a first conductive layer; a second conductive layer; an array of semiconductor nanowires between the first and second conductive layers; and a charge transport medium between the first and second conductive layers. These and other embodiments of the invention are described in detail below. | 20040614 | 20070904 | 20050113 | 71036.0 | 0 | DANG, TRUNG Q | NANOWIRE ARRAY AND NANOWIRE SOLAR CELLS AND METHODS FOR FORMING THE SAME | MICRO | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,868,521 | ACCEPTED | Dual-source optical wavelength processor | An optical signal manipulation system including: a series of ports for carrying a series of optical signals to be manipulated; a spatial separating means for spatially separating at least a first and a second group of light from the series of optical signals; wavelength dispersion element subsequently spatially separating wavelengths of the first and second series; wavelength processing means for processing separated wavelengths of the first and second series. | 1. An optical signal manipulation system including: a series of ports for carrying a series of optical signals to be manipulated; a spatial separating means for spatially separating at least a first and a second group of light from said series of optical signals; wavelength dispersion element subsequently spatially separating wavelengths of said first and second series; wavelength processing means for separately processing separated wavelengths of said first and second series. 2. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein said spatial separating means includes a polarisation manipulation element separating a first and second series of predetermined polarisations from predetermined ones of said ports and projecting said first series in a first angular direction and the second series in a second angular direction. 3. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein said spatial separating means includes a series of optical power elements offset from said ports separating at least a first and second series of predetermined optical signals from predetermined ones of said ports and projecting said first series in a first angular direction and the second series in a second angular direction. 4. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein signals processed by said wavelength processing means are transmitted back through said wavelength dispersion element, said polarisation manipulation element for output at said optical signal ports. 5. A system as claimed in claim 4 wherein the particular port to which particular wavelengths are output is determined by the processing carried out by said wavelength processing means. 6. A system as claimed in claim 6 wherein said wavelength processing means includes a series of zones and the wavelength processing means separately manipulates the phase front of light striking each of said zones in order to control the output destination of wavelengths striking a particular zone. 7. A system as claimed in claim 6 wherein said wavelength processing means comprises a spatial light modulator having a plurality of independently addressable pixels with said pixels being manipulated in a predetermined manner so as to manipulate the phase front striking a corresponding zone. 8. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the optical signals received by said wavelength processing means are in the form of wavelength separated elongated bands. 9. A system as claimed in claim 8 wherein the wavelength separated elongated bands are substantially collimated along their major axis and substantially focused along their minor axis. 10. A system as claimed in claim 9 wherein the ratio of the width of the major axis to the width of the minor axis of the bands is equal to or greater than 5. 11. A system as claimed in claim 9 wherein the width of the bands major axis is substantially 700 microns and the width of a bands minor axis is substantially 20 microns. 12. A system as claimed in claim 8 wherein said first series forms a first row of wavelength separated elongated bands and said second series forms a second row of wavelength separated elongated bands. 13. A system as claimed in claim 12 wherein said first and second row are substantially parallel. 14. A system as claimed in claim 2 wherein said first series of predetermined polarisations is derived from a first polarisation state of said optical signals and said second series of predetermined polarisations is derived from a second substantially orthogonal polarisation state of said optical signals. 15. A system as claimed in claim 2 wherein said first series of predetermined polarisations is derived from orthogonal polarisations of a first series of optical signals and said second series of predetermined polarisations is derived from orthogonal polarisations of a second series of optical signals. 16. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein said wavelength processing means comprises a liquid crystal display device having a series of light modulating pixels formed thereon. 17. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the optical signals traversing said wavelength dispersion element are substantially polarisation aligned. 18. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the light emitted from said optical signal ports passes through a numerical aperture modifying means before traversing said polarisation manipulation element. 19. A system as claimed in claim 18 wherein the numerical aperture of the light from said optical signal ports is modified by a series of lenses having a pitch substantially in accordance with the pitch of the optical signal ports. 20. A system as claimed in claim 2 wherein said polarisation manipulation element comprises a first polarisation separation element for spatially separating orthogonal polarisations and a second polarisation deflection element for angularly deflecting an optical signal in accordance with the polarisation state of the signal. 21. A system as claimed in claim 2 wherein said polarisation manipulation element comprises, in series, a polarisation separation element for spatially separating orthogonal polarisations, a polarisation alignment element for aligning the separated orthogonal polarisations and a polarisation deflection element for angularly deflecting an optical signal in accordance with the polarisation state of the signal. 22. A system as claimed in claim 1 further including a first optical power element for collimating the light emitted from said polarisation manipulation element onto said wavelength dispersion element. 23. A system as claimed in claim 22 further including a second optical power element for focusing the light emitted from said wavelength dispersion element onto said wavelength processing means. 24. A system as claimed in claim 23 wherein said first and second optical power elements comprise of reflective mirror surfaces. 25. A system as claimed in claim 23 wherein said first and second optical power elements together comprise of a single reflective mirror surface. 26. A system as claimed in claim 22 wherein said first optical power element has optical power in a first optical axis only. 27. A system as claimed in claim 23 wherein said second optical power element has optical power in a first optical axis only. 28. A system as claimed in claim 23 further comprising a third optcal power element for collimating the light emitted from said polarisation manipulation element onto said wavelength processing means. 29. A system as claimed in claim 28 wherein said third optical power element comprises of a lens. 30. A system as claimed in claim 28 wherein said third optical power element has optical power in a second optical axis only. 31. A system as claimed in claim 30 wherein said second optical axis is orthogonal to said first optical axis 32. An optical signal manipulation system including: a series of optical signal ports; numerical aperture modifying means for modifying the numerical aperture of light emitted from the optical signal ports to form modified optical signals; polarisation manipulation means for imparting a different angular projection to substantially orthogonal polarisation states of said modified optical signals; polarisation alignment means for substantially aligning the polarisation state of said substantially orthogonal polarisation states; wavelength dispersion element for angularly dispersing by wavelength said aligned modified optical signals; wavelength control element having a series of elongated control zones for receipt and manipulation of a region of said wavelength dispersed optical signals. 33. An optical manipulation system as claimed in claim 32 wherein different substantially orthogonal polarisation states are manipulated by different elongated control zones. 34. A system as claimed in claim 33 wherein a first polarisation state is manipulated by a first series of substantially adjacent control zones and a second orthogonal polarisation state is manipulated by a second series of substantially adjacent control zones. 35. A system as claimed in claim 34 wherein said first and second series of substantially adjacent control zones are substantially parallel with one another. 36. A system as claimed in claim 32 wherein light from said wavelength control element is projecting through a second wavelength dispersion element so as to combine wavelengths of said first and second series; 37. A system as claimed in claim 36 wherein light from said second wavelength dispersion element is projected through a second polarisation manipulation element for combining said orthogonal polarisations to output at predetermined optical signal ports. 38. A system as claimed in claim 32 wherein light projected from said optical signal ports to said wavelength control element undergoes at least two reflections on reflective optical power surfaces. 39. A system as claimed in claim 32 wherein said wavelength dispersion element includes a diffraction grating mounted on an optical prism. 40. A system as claimed in claim 39 wherein light from said polarisation manipulation means and light from said wavelength control element strike the prism substantially at Brewster's angle. 41. A system as claimed in claim 39 wherein the path lengths of light in the first and second polarisation states is substantially equalised on traversal through the prism. 42. An optical system including: a series of optical signal ports numerical aperture modifying means for modifying the numerical aperture of light emitted from the optical signal ports to form modified optical signals; a polarisation alignment means for substantially aligning the polarisation state of substantially orthogonal polarisation states from said optical signal ports; wavelength dispersion element for angularly dispersing by wavelength said aligned modified optical signals; an optical phase control matrix for receipt and manipulation of a region of said wavelength dispersed optical signals; a series of optical power elements for creating a spatial intensity overlap on said wavelength control element between projections from a first selected optical signal port and a second selected optical signal port. 43. A system as claimed in claim 42 wherein said optical phase control matrix includes a series of elongated control zones. 44. A system as claimed in claim 43 wherein each said control zone of the optical phase control matrix comprises a plurality of individually addressable pixels 45. A system as claimed in claim 44 wherein each said pixel modifies the phase of light passing through it. 46. A system as claimed in claim 42 wherein the projections of optical signals at the optical phase control matrix along a first optical axis are in the image plane of said series of optical power elements. 47. A system as claimed in claim 42 wherein the projections of optical signals at the optical phase control matrix along a second optical axis are substantially in the fourier or telecentric plane of said series of optical power elements. 48. A system as claimed in claim 47 wherein said first optical axis is substantially orthogonal to said second optical axis. 49. A system as claimed in claim 42 wherein signals from said first selected optical signal port received by said optical phase control matrix are manipulated and transmitted back through said wavelength dispersion element for output at said second selected optical signal port. 50. A system as claimed in claim 46 wherein the optical system in said first optical axis is substantially 2n times the focal length of said series of optical power elements in said first optical axis, where n is a positive integer. 51. A system as claimed in claim 47 wherein the optical system in said second optical axis is substantially 2m times the focal length of said series of optical power elements in said second optical axis where m is a positive integer. 52. A system as claimed in claim 51 wherein n is an even integer and m is an odd integer. 53. A system as claimed in claim 49 wherein the optical signals received by said optical phase control matrix are in the form of wavelength separated elongated bands. 54. A system as claimed in claim 53 wherein each wavelength separated elongated band aligns with an independent one of said elongated control zones. 55. A system as claimed in claim 53 wherein the minor axis of said elongated bands lies in said first optical axis and said the major axis of said elongated bands lies in said second optical axis. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to optical switches, and in particular to a reconfigurable fibre optic wavelength switch that can operate independently on individual wavelength channels contained in optical signals originating from either of two input sources. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The recent growth in the demand for broadband services has resulted in a pressing need for increased capacity on existing communication channels. The increased bandwidth of fibre optic communication fibres is still often insufficient to cope with this demand without utilising the ability of these fibres to carry large numbers of individual communication channels each identified by the particular wavelength of the light. This technique is known as dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM). The disadvantage of this technique is that the increasing density of wavelength channels places increasing demand on network functionality for connecting the individual channels to individual destination points on a dynamic basis, and for the ability to add or drop an individual wavelength channel into or out of the optical signal. Currently these functions are primarily performed by electronic techniques but the demand for increased network speed calls for these functions to be performed in the optical domain. The use of wavelength selective switching for applications of optical cross-connects has attracted much interest because of the goal of fully flexible networks, where the paths of each wavelength can be reconfigured to allow for arbitrary connection between nodes with the capacity appropriate for that link at a particular point in time. Although this goal is still valid, it is clear that optical networks will evolve to this level of sophistication in a number of stages. The first stage of the evolution is likely to be that of a reconfigurable add/drop node where a number of channels can be dropped or and added from the main path, whose number and wavelength can be varied over time—either as the network evolves or dynamically as the traffic demands vary. A further functionality demanded by optical communications networks is the ability to route incoming signals from two origins in the same fashion independently of each other in a single device. This immediately halves the device count required at any particular location, without the loss of functionality in the adding and dropping of channels from either source. This present invention is directed to applications such as dual-source reconfigurable optical add/drop multiplexer (ROADM) networks, dual-source wavelength reconfigurable cross-connects referred to generically as Wavelength Selective Switches (WSS), dual-source dynamic channel equalisation (DCE) and for single-source devices for correction of polarisation-dependant loss (PDL) mechanisms. The characteristics of a wavelength selective element which is ideal for the applications of Optical Add/Drop and Wavelength Selective Switching can be summarized follows: i) scalable to multiple fibre ports; ii) one channel per port or multiple channels per port operation; iii) reconfiguration of wavelength selectivity to different grids e.g. 50 GHz or 100 GHz or a combination of both; iv) low optical impairment of the express path; v) low losses on the drop and express paths; vi) ability to add and drop wavelengths simultaneously; vii) ability to be reconfigured between any ports or between any wavelengths without causing transient impairments to the other ports; viii) equalisation of optical power levels on express path (OADM) or all paths (WSS); ix) provision of shared optical power between ports for a given wavelength (broadcast mode); x) flat optical passband to prevent spectral narrowing; xi) power off configurations that leave the express path of an OADM undisturbed; and xii) small power and voltage and size requirements. In reviewing the many technologies that have been applied it is necessary to generalize somewhat, but the following observations can be made. Two basic approaches have been made for the OADM and WSS applications. i) The first has been based on wavelength blocking elements combined with a broadcast and select architecture. This is an optical power intensive architecture, which can provide for channel equalization and reconfiguration of wavelength selectivity, but is not scalable to multiple ports, has very high loss and because of the many auxiliary components such as wavelength tuneable filters has a large power and footprint requirement. ii) Wavelength switches have been proposed for OADMs, but do not naturally provide for channel equalization, the channel by channel switching in general leads to dispersion and loss narrowing of optical channels, and in the case of multiple port switches it is generally not possible to switch between ports without causing impairment (a hit) on intermediate ports. In addition the channel spacing cannot be dynamically reconfigured. Tuneable 3-port filters have also been proposed having a lack of impairment to the express paths but do not scale easily to multiple ports and may suffer from transient wavelength hits during tuning. Tuneable components are usually locked to a particular bandwidth which cannot be varied. In addition poor isolation of tunable 3 ports means they are less applicable to many add/drop applications which demand high through path isolation. One technology that has been applied to optical cross connects has become known as 3-D MEMS utilises small mirror structures which act on a beam of light to direct it from one port to another. Examples of this art are provided in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,960,133 and 6,501,877. The ports are usually arranged in a 2-dimensional matrix and a corresponding element of the 2-dimensional array of mirrors can tilt in two axes to couple between any one of the ports. Usually two arrays of these mirrors are required to couple the light efficiently and because of the high degree of analogue control required structures based on this technology have proved to be extremely difficult to realize in practice and there are few examples of commercially successful offerings. In this type of structure, a separate component is required to separate each wavelength division multiplexed (WDM) input fibre to corresponding single channel/single fibre inputs. One of the most promising platforms for wavelength routing application relies on the principle of dispersing the channels spatially and operating on the different wavelengths, either with a switching element or attenuation element. These technologies are advantageous in that the switching element is integrated with the wavelength dispersive element—greatly simplifying the implementation. The trade-off is that in general the switching is more limited, with most implementations demonstrated to date being limited to small port counts—and the routing between ports is not arbitrary. In general a diffraction grating is used for micro-optic implementations or an array waveguide grating for waveguide applications. Most of the switching applications have been based on MEMS micro mirrors fabricated in silicon and based on a tilt actuation in one dimension. The difficulty with this approach has been that to achieve the wavelength resolution required when the angular dispersion is mapped to a displacement. In such cases, an image of the fibre (with or without magnification) is mapped onto the tilt mirror array. In order to couple the light into a second port, additional optical elements are required that convert the angle into a displacement. Different approaches to this have included retroreflection cubes wedges (U.S. Pat. No. 6,097,519) which provide discrete displacements or Angle to Displacement elements (U.S. Pat. No. 6,560,000) which can provide continuous mapping using optical power provisioned at the Rayleigh length of the image. In all of these cases, in order to switch between ports, the tilt mirror needs to pass through the angles corresponding to intermediate ports. In addition, the number of ports is limited in each of these cases by the numerical aperture of the fibre as each of the different switch positions are discriminated by angles. For a fibre with a numerical aperture of 0.1, a switch which can tilt by +−12 degrees could not distinguish 8 different switch positions. One approach that can be used is to decrease the numerical aperture through the use of thermally expanded cores or micro lenses—but this is done at the expense of wavelength resolution. An alternative has been to use polarization to switch between ports. Obviously this is most appropriate to switching between 2 ports corresponding to the 2 polarisation states. Such a switch is described in Patel (J. S. Patel and Y. Silverberg, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters Vol. 7 No. 5, 1995, pp. 514-516) where an optical dispersion element (in this case a grating) is used to separate an optical signal into spatially separated wavelength channels incident onto a liquid crystal spatial light modulator (LC SLM). The SLM is then configured to rotate the polarisation of the light of a desired wavelength channel by 90° which causes the light to be deflected from the main channel by a birefringent crystal. The wavelengths are then recombined by a second grating element forming two spatially-displaced outputs: one containing the wavelength channels acted on by the LC SLM, and the second output containing the remaining wavelength channels. Since these types of switches are limited to only two polarisation states, they are not readily scalable, though more complicated schemes can be envisaged to allow for switching between multiple ports. With polarization switching, also, dynamic equalization of channels can only be done at the expense of the rejected light being channelled into the second fibre—so it is not applicable to equalization of the express path whilst dropping a number of wavelengths. A better alternative to switch between multiple ports has been the use of optical beam deflectors such as MEMS mirror arrays or LC SLMs. These devices deflect the light through free space, thus allowing multiple signal beams to be simultaneously interconnected without cross-talk between data channels. An example of a MEMS-based device is taught by Waverka (U.S. Pat. No. 6,501,877) which disperses the individual wavelength channels with a diffraction grating. The individual channels are each then focused on to spatially separated elements of the MEMS array which imparts an angular displacement on the beams. A retroreflection device is used to convert the angular displacement to a lateral offset, that when passed back through the optical system translates into a coupling to the desired output port. In this implementation the offset states are quantised and determined by the angles of the retroreflection prism. A similar technique is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 6,707,959 by Ducellier where a particular spatially separated wavelength channel is acted upon by a deflector array implemented either using a MEMS device or a transmissive LC deflector. A schematic block diagram of this device is shown in FIG. 1. Ducellier introduces an improvement over Waverka by having the angle to offset (ATO) element 1 being able to translate continuously for an arbitrary state by placing an angle to offset lens at the Rayleigh point of the optical array 2. The angular array is then transmitted through a standard 4-f lens design (telecentric telescope) using a spherical reflector 3 to the deflection array 4 with preservation of the angular multiplex. The individual wavelength channels in the optical signal are separated by an optical dispersion element 5 at the telecentric point of the optical system. The deflection array 4 can be operated in either reflective or transmissive mode and (similarly to Waverka and Patel) provides a deflection of a desired wavelength channel perpendicularly to the wavelength dispersion direction. The deflection is such that an ATO element at the output array translates the new angular multiplex into an offset corresponding to the desired output port. In this system, the input array, the optical dispersion element, the deflection array, and the output array all lie in the same focal plane due to the spherical symmetry of the optics. The disadvantage of this is that large deflection angles are required to switch between fibre ports and a requirement for large numerical aperture optics. The requirement also of a duplicate optical system in the transmissive deflection array embodiment places severe restrictions on the compactness and cost of the final device. Additionally, none of the devices described above can operate on the light from two input sources or two groupings of light having the same wavelength channels independently. Due to the existence of polarisation dependent loss and polarisation mode dispersion—it is often convenient to consider two orthogonal polarisation states as two separate sources and it could be advantageous to act on these separately. Various techniques have been proposed for the correction of polarisation dependent loss (PDL) in optical communication systems on a wavelength basis such as those discussed by Roberts (US Patent Application Publication 2004/0004755). These techniques however are only applicable to a single optical fibre and operate in transmission mode only. To our knowledge, there have been no techniques have been proposed or demonstrated to provide broadband PDL correction for multiple optical fibre devices or in a switching architecture. It is an object of the present invention to overcome or ameliorate at least some of the disadvantages of the prior art by providing a reconfigurable optical add/drop multiplexer and wavelength selective switch capable of independently operating on arbitrary wavelength channels contained in light from two distinct sources or groups. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided an optical signal manipulation system including: a series of ports for carrying a series of optical signals to be manipulated; a spatial separating means for spatially separating at least a first and a second group of light from the series of optical signals; wavelength dispersion element subsequently spatially separating wavelengths of the first and second series; wavelength processing means for separately processing separated wavelengths of the first and second series. The spatial separating means preferably can include a polarisation manipulation element separating a first and second series of predetermined polarisations from predetermined ones of the ports and projecting the first series in a first angular direction and the second series in a second angular direction. The spatial separating means preferably can also include a series of optical power elements offset from the ports separating at least a first and second series of predetermined optical signals from predetermined ones of the ports and projecting the first series in a first angular direction and the second series in a second angular direction. Signals processed by the wavelength processing means are preferably transmitted back through the wavelength dispersion element, the polarisation manipulation element for output at the optical signal ports. The particular port to which particular wavelengths are preferably output can be determined by the processing carried out by the wavelength processing means. The wavelength processing means preferably can include a series of zones and the wavelength processing means separately manipulates the phase front of light striking each of the zones in order to control the output destination of wavelengths striking a particular zone. The wavelength processing means can comprise a spatial light modulator having a plurality of independently addressable pixels with the pixels being manipulated in a predetermined manner so as to manipulate the phase front striking a corresponding zone. The optical signals received by the wavelength processing means are preferably in the form of wavelength separated elongated bands. The wavelength separated elongated bands are preferably substantially collimated along their major axis and substantially focused along their minor axis. The ratio of the width of the major axis to the width of the minor axis of the bands can be equal to or greater than 5. The width of the bands major axis can be substantially 700 microns and the width of a bands minor axis can be substantially 20 microns. Preferably, the first series forms a first row of wavelength separated elongated bands and the second series forms a second row of wavelength separated elongated bands. The first and second row are preferably substantially parallel. The first series of predetermined polarisations can be derived from a first polarisation state of the optical signals and the second series of predetermined polarisations can be derived from a second substantially orthogonal polarisation state of the optical signals. Alternatively, the first series of predetermined polarisations can be derived from orthogonal polarisations of a first series of optical signals and the second series of predetermined polarisations can be derived from orthogonal polarisations of a second series of optical signals. In one embodiment, the wavelength processing means can comprise a liquid crystal display device having a series of light modulating pixels formed thereon. The optical signals traversing the wavelength dispersion element are preferably substantially polarisation aligned. The light emitted from the optical signal ports passes through a numerical aperture modifying means before traversing the polarisation manipulation element. The numerical aperture of the light from the optical signal ports can be modified by a series of lenses having a pitch substantially in accordance with the pitch of the optical signal ports. The polarisation manipulation element can comprise a first polarisation separation element for spatially separating orthogonal polarisations and a second polarisation deflection element for angularly deflecting an optical signal in accordance with the polarisation state of the signal. The polarisation manipulation element can also include, in series, a polarisation separation element for spatially separating orthogonal polarisations, a polarisation alignment element for aligning the separated orthogonal polarisations and a polarisation deflection element for angularly deflecting an optical signal in accordance with the polarisation state of the signal. The system can also include a first optical power element for collimating the light emitted from the polarisation manipulation element onto the wavelength dispersion element and a second optical power element for focusing the light emitted from the wavelength dispersion element onto the wavelength processing means. The first and second optical power elements can comprise of reflective mirror surfaces with the first optical power element having optical power in a first optical axis only and the second optical power element having optical power in a first optical axis only. The system can also include a third optical power element for collimating the light emitted from the polarisation manipulation element onto the wavelength processing means. The third optical power element can comprise of a lens that has optical power in a second optical axis only. The second optical axis can be orthogonal to the first optical axis. In accordance with a further aspect of the present invention, there is provided an optical signal manipulation system including: a series of optical signal ports; numerical aperture modifying means for modifying the numerical aperture of light emitted from the optical signal ports to form modified optical signals; polarisation manipulation means for imparting a different angular projection to substantially orthogonal polarisation states of the modified optical signals; polarisation alignment means for substantially aligning the polarisation state of the substantially orthogonal polarisation states; wavelength dispersion element for angularly dispersing by wavelength the aligned modified optical signals; a wavelength control element having a series of elongated control zones for receipt and manipulation of a region of the wavelength dispersed optical signals. The different substantially orthogonal polarisation states are preferably manipulated by different elongated control zones. A first polarisation state can be manipulated by a first series of substantially adjacent control zones and a second orthogonal polarisation state can be manipulated by a second series of substantially adjacent control zones. The first and second series of substantially adjacent control zones are preferably substantially parallel with one another. Light from the wavelength control element can be projecting through a second wavelength dispersion element so as to combine wavelengths of the first and second series; Light from the second wavelength dispersion element can be projected through a second polarisation manipulation element for combining the orthogonal polarisations to output at predetermined optical signal ports. Light projected from the optical signal ports to the wavelength control element can undergo at least two reflections on reflective optical power surfaces. The wavelength dispersion element preferably can include a diffraction grating mounted on an optical prism. Light from the polarisation manipulation means and light from the wavelength control element can strike the prism substantially at Brewster's angle. The path lengths of light in the first and second polarisation states can be substantially equalised on traversal through the prism. In accordance with a further aspect of the present invention, there is provided an optical system including: a series of optical signal ports; numerical aperture modifying means for modifying the numerical aperture of light emitted from the optical signal ports to form modified optical signals; a polarisation alignment means for substantially aligning the polarisation state of substantially orthogonal polarisation states from the optical signal ports; wavelength dispersion element for angularly dispersing by wavelength the aligned modified optical signals; an optical phase control matrix for receipt and manipulation of a region of the wavelength dispersed optical signals; a series of optical power elements for creating a spatial intensity overlap on the wavelength control element between projections from a first selected optical signal port and a second selected optical signal port. The optical phase control matrix preferably can include a series of elongated control zones. Each the control zone of the optical phase control matrix can comprise a plurality of individually addressable pixels with each of the pixel modifying the phase of light passing through it. The projections of optical signals at the optical phase control matrix along a first optical axis are preferably in the image plane of the series of optical power elements. The projections of optical signals at the optical phase control matrix along a second optical axis are preferably substantially in the fourier or telecentric plane of the series of optical power elements. The first optical axis can be substantially orthogonal to the second optical axis. Signals from the first selected optical signal port received by the optical phase control matrix are preferably manipulated and transmitted back through the wavelength dispersion element for output at the second selected optical signal port. The optical system in the first optical axis can be substantially 2n times the focal length of the series of optical power elements in the first optical axis, where n can be a positive integer. The optical system in the second optical axis can be substantially 2m times the focal length of the series of optical power elements in the second optical axis where m can be a positive integer. In one embodiment n can be an even integer and m can be an odd integer. The optical signals received by the optical phase control matrix are preferably in the form of wavelength separated elongated bands. Each wavelength separated elongated band aligns with an independent one of the elongated control zones. The minor axis of the elongated bands lies in the first optical axis and the major axis of the elongated bands lies in the second optical axis. The reconfigurable dual-source optical wavelength processor of the present device includes: a series of optical ports for generating and/or receiving an optical beam; an optical phased-matrix coupling (OPMC) device for receiving and reflecting said beams; a series of optical power elements positioned between said ports and said OPMC device to provide a spatial overlap between the said beams from said ports on the phase coupling device; a series of optical path separating elements arrayed in such a way as to create at least two independent groups of light; an optical dispersion element designed to separate at least a first and second wavelengths of light; and wherein said optical phased-matrix device provides for individual control of at least a first and second wavelength's coupling efficiency between an input port and at least one output port. The device in its preferred embodiments can include: a series of optical ports which can include optical fibre arrays; a series of optical ports where the optical fibre arrays are single mode fibres; a series of optical ports where the optical fibre array includes at least a first input port, a first output port, a first add port and a first drop port; a series of optical ports where the optical fibre array includes a plurality of add ports and/or a plurality of drop ports; a series of optical ports where the optical fibre array includes a second input ports, a second output port; a series of optical ports where the optical fibre array includes a plurality of input ports, and a plurality of output port; a series of optical power elements which can include spherical microlens arrays for altering the numerical aperture of each of the optical ports; optical power elements including cylindrical lenses with a first focal length and cylindrical mirrors with a second focal length for projecting light from the ports on the optical phased-array coupling means comprising at least a spatially separated first group of spatially dispersed wavelength channels, each wavelength channel being substantially collimated in one axis and substantially focused in the orthogonal axis; polarisation diversity elements including a birefringent walk-off crystal composite λ/2 waveplates for 1550 nm light, compensating birefringent wedges, and/or Faraday rotators; an optical dispersion element which is a Carpenter's Prism (grism) operating in the reflective mode at near Littrow condition, and a wedge angle substantially at Brewster's angle of the incident light: and an optical phased matrix coupling (OPMC) means providing 2-dimensional optical phase only or phase and optical amplitude such as can be provided by a liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS) spatial light modulator (SLM). Possible practical applications of a dual-source optical switch are: Device 1. A Polarisation Dependent Loss (PDL) correcting Reconfigurable Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer (ROADM) where light from an input optical fibre port is separated into two beams with orthogonal polarisation states, with each beam being dispersed into spatially separated wavelength channels, and the two groups of spatially separated wavelength channels being projected onto spatially separated regions of a liquid crystal spatial light modulator. The orthogonal polarisation states of a particular wavelength channel can then be addressed independently which allows for equalisation of the PDL of the wavelength channel before being directed to a choice of output fibre ports (either an express output port or a drop port). Device 2. A dual-source ROADM consisting of two independent groups of fibre ports, with each group as a minimum containing an input port and an express output port, and optionally a drop port. (In practise each of the independent ROADMs can include a plurality of add and drop ports.) The light corresponding to the paths into and out of the ports corresponding to either group can be tagged, for example by assigning each independent device to an orthogonal polarisation state, spatially separating the light from the two polarisations and imaging the light from each polarisation onto a spatially separated region of the OPMC to act on the channels from each device independently; BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a prior art optical add/drop multiplexer. FIG. 2 is a block schematic of a dual-source optical wavelength processor in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 3 is a schematic view of a first embodiment of a dual-source optical wavelength processor in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 4 is a detail schematic view of the front end polarisation tagging mechanism of the first embodiment. FIG. 5 is a close-up view of an OPMC device with a folding prism to allow for simplified mounting of the device. FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a second embodiment of a dual-source optical wavelength processor in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 7 is a detail schematic view of a first embodiment the front end polarisation tagging mechanism of the second embodiment. FIG. 8 shows a cutaway stack of alternating glass and quartz plates for constructing the first embodiment of a polarisation equalisation element for polarisation tagging. FIG. 9 is a cutaway of the first polarisation equalisation element mounted to a substrate for polishing to the required thickness. FIG. 10 is cutaway detail schematic view of a second embodiment the front end polarisation tagging mechanism of the second embodiment. FIG. 11 is a first embodiment of a non-reciprocal polarisation equalisation element. FIG. 12 is a second embodiment of a non-reciprocal polarisation equalisation element. FIG. 13 is a schematic view of a forward propagating beam in the switching plane of an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 14 is a schematic view of a backward propagating beam of an embodiment of the present invention showing the operation of the OPMC to impart a phase slope onto an incoming beam resulting in a displacement in the switching plane. FIG. 15 is a graph showing the phase slope written on to the pixels of the OPMC to switch an incoming beam to a first output port. FIG. 16 is a graph showing the phase slope written on to the pixels of the OPMC to switch an incoming beam to a second output port. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The preferred embodiment provides an optical switching device that can operate on individual spatially dispersed wavelength channels contained in an optical signal that originate from either of two input sources. The input sources can be: a) two unrelated sources possibly delivered to the switch via optical fibre; b) two orthogonally polarised beams originating from a single source, possibly delivered to the switch via optical fibre; c) a plurality of input sources, possibly delivered to the switch via optical fibre, separated into orthogonal polarisation states such that the polarisation states of a particular wavelength channel can be acted upon independently; d) a plurality of input sources, possibly delivered to the switch via optical fibre, optically tagged in a fashion that defines two distinct groups, for example by assigning each of the input sources one of two orthogonal polarisation states. FIG. 2 shows a schematic block diagram of a dual-source optical wavelength processor constructed in accordance with the preferred embodiment. The wavelength processor device 10 is virtually divided into two distinct devices 20 and 30 where the operation of one is entirely independent of the other. Each of the virtual devices 20 and 30 acts in the preferred embodiment can act as an independent reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer (OADM). That is, each of the virtual devices 20 and 30 includes an input ports 21 and 31 respectively, each input port delivering an optical signal to the device, where each signal contains a plurality of channels λ1, λ2, . . . , λn distinguished by the centre wavelength of the channel. Each of the virtual devices also includes an output port 22 and 32 respectively. Virtual device 20 includes a plurality of drop ports 23, 24 and 25, and a plurality of add ports 26, 27 and 28. Virtual device 30 includes a plurality of drop ports 33, 34 and 35, and a plurality of add ports 36, 37 and 38. Three drop and three add ports are shown in the Figure for each of the virtual devices 20 and 30, however, more or less can be implemented in other embodiments as required. For a signal arriving at input port 21, virtual device 20 can be configured to drop an arbitrary selection of the wavelength channels contained therein onto drop ports 23-25, for example λ1, λ2 and λ3. Simultaneously, for a signal arriving at input port 31, virtual device 30 can be configured to drop a different arbitrary selection of the wavelength channels contained therein onto drop ports 33-35, for example λ2, λ3 and λ5. All of the other wavelength channels contained in either signal on port 21 or 31 that are not dropped onto the drop ports are directed to the corresponding output port 22 or 32 respectively via the corresponding express paths 29 or 39 of the device. As is Known in the operation of an OADM, the add ports of each of the virtual devices can be used to add signal onto the express path of the device to be transmitted to the output port, however in the case of the present embodiment, the added signals can either be of the same wavelength as any of the dropped signals or a different wavelength entirely for example, the wavelength channels added to virtual device 20 can be λ2 and λ(n+1). Device 1 The preferred embodiment of the Device 1 above is shown in schematic form in FIG. 3. The device 100 includes an array of input and output ports consisting of 4 fibres (101-104) comprising a ROADM where fibre port 102 is designated as the express Input port, fibre port 103, the express Output port, fibre port 101 as a first Add port, and fibre port 104 as a first Drop port. A device such as this in practice may also include a plurality of additional Add and Drop ports (not shown). The fibres are all aligned vertically in what will be referred to as the x-dimension of the 3-axis 105 and separated by about 250 μm. The output from the fibres is firstly incident on a microlens array of spherical lenses spaced with a separation corresponding to the fibre separation. The focal length of the lens is chosen to be 500 μm positioned to form beam waists of approximately 50 μm diameter. The effect of the spherical microlens array 110 is to decrease the numerical aperture (NA) of the fibres say from their single mode value of 0.1 to about 0.02. This relaxes the requirements on the optical quality of the subsequent optical elements. The beam emerging from the input fibres is split in the x direction into two polarization states (v in the x-dimension and h in the y-dimension) by the walk off crystal 115 of thickness 1.25 mm. The result of the walk-ff crystal if one were to look back at the fibre array in the −z-direction would be an image of 8 fibres separated by 125 μm. The beams then enter a birefringent wedge (BRW) element 130 which is shown as a compensating element (CBRW) to give equal path lengths between the fibre ports. The CBRW works on the principle of “double refraction” and causes an angular offset to be imparted on the beams in one polarisation state with respect to the other. In FIG. 3, this offset is in the vertical or x-dimension. In other embodiments, the CBRW 130 can be a simple non-compensating element however this would correspond to unequal path lengths from each of the fibre ports resulting in a spatial offset on refocusing onto an output port, ultimately affecting the efficiency of the return path. FIG. 4 shows the fibre ports 101-104, the NA modifying optical power microlens array 110, the birefringent walk-off element 115 and the CBRW 130. An output beam 191 from fibre 101 is split into two beams 192 and 193 by element 115, where beam 192 is in the vertical or v-polarisation state and beam 193 is in the horizontal or h-polarisation state. The now polarisation tagged beams enter the CBRW 130 which imparts an angular offset on the beams in one polarisation state with respect to the other. This angular offset is in the vertical or x-dimension and propagates through the optical train to result in a spatial separation between beams of different polarisations at the OPMC as will be seen. Returning to FIG. 3, each of the input beams is then projected to a first y-cylindrical mirror 140 with a focal length of 5 cm which provides collimation in the y axis. The angular misalignment between the v-polarised and h-polarised beams is unaffected and continues to separate spatially. The reflected beams are then projected onto a polarisation equalisation element 150 where the spatially separated v- and h-polarisations strike the element 150 in the upper and lower halves respectively. The element 150 is a composite λ/2 waveplate where the entire upper half 151 is a crystal-quartz waveplate with its optical axis at 45° with rotates the v-polarised beams into the h-polarisation, and the lower half 152 is simple glass which does not alter the polarisation state of the originally h-polarised beams. Equalisation of the polarisations states in this manner ensures efficient operation of the subsequent wavelength dispersing element and the spatial light modulator in the subsequent optical path. The beams are then directed to a cylindrical lens 160 having optical power in the x-dimension with a focal length of 20 cm before being incident on a wavelength dispersive element which in this case is a wedged grating prism combination 170, known commonly as a grism or Carpenter's prism, operating in the reflective orientation and aligned at the near-Littrow condition. The grism is a combination of two common optical elements, namely a diffraction grating 171 which can be of either the transmission or reflection type, and a wedged prism 172, which are bonded together. In the embodiments described here, 171 is a reflection grating and the beams traverse a double pass through the prism 172. In an alternative embodiment a grism element is used with the grating operating in transmission mode. In other embodiments of the system, the wavelength dispersive element 170 can be a simple grating operating in the near-Littrow reflective state for the 1.5 μm wavelength of the light (1200 lines/mm) emerging from the input fibre ports, however the addition of the wedged prism bonded to the grating adds significant advantages to the efficiency of the system, being: a) equalisation of the optical path lengths in the y-dimension; b) by suitable selection of the refractive index and input face angles the dispersion characteristics (in particular the angular dependence in the x-dimension) of the grating can be controlled and hence correct for effects such as conical diffraction from the grating resulting from non-orthogonal components of the beams striking the grating (since the prism has the opposite angular dependence to that of the grating) which ultimately results in errors in the focused position at the fibre ports on the return paths of the beams; c) modification of the effective wavelengths of the beams as they strike the grating to enable the use of higher resolution gratings for more efficient dispersion i.e. a 1.5 μm beam in air requires the use of gratings with ˜1200 lines/mm whereas in the prism with refractive index ˜1.5, the effective wavelength is ˜1 μm and thus gratings with 1700 lines/mm can be used. In the preferred embodiments, the angle of the prism is such that the light beams (which are in the p-polarisation state with respect to the prism) are incident on the prism surface substantially at the Brewster angle to avoid loss of the light due to reflection from the prism interface which is then lost to the system. In the preferred embodiments, the light which has travelled through the prism strikes the grating in the s-polarisation state (with respect to the grating). In the preferred embodiments, the characteristics of the prism 172 are designed to substantially compensate for the chirp of the grating 171, which in turn substantially eliminates errors due to conical diffraction in the image of the light beams at the output fibre ports. The now wavelength-dispersed beams then pass back through the prism element of the grism 170 and again are passed through the cylindrical lens 160. After the second pass of the x-dimension lens 160 the now diffracted beam is collimated in the x direction—the combined effect of the double pass of lens 160 being a lens with focal length of approximately 10 cm, being twice the focal length of the first cylindrical mirror 140. This condition ensures that the grating acts in the telecentric or Fourier plane of the beams in the y-dimension. On exiting from the cylindrical lens 160 the now collimated and spatially separated (in the x-dimension) beams pass by the polarisation equalisation element 150 and are incident again on the cylindrical mirror 140 which directs the beams in the y-dimension onto the optical phased-matrix coupling (OPMC) means (in the preferred embodiments this is a liquid crystal on silicon spatial light modulator (LCOS SLM)) 180. The projection on the OPMC comprises two groups of spatially separated wavelength channels, one group 185 being on the upper half (in the x-dimension) of the OPMC corresponding to beams originating in the v-polarisation state, and the second group 186 being on the lower half of the OPMC corresponding to beams originating from the h-polarisation state at the fibre input ports. The wavelength channels are separated spatially in the y-dimension and the image of each wavelength channel appears substantially as being highly asymmetric with orthogonal dimensions of 20 μm in the now focused y-dimension and approximately 700 μm in the collimated x-dimension. The individual wavelength channels from the input fibre ports can be accessed by the OPMC 180 independently of any of the other channels, and the orthogonal polarisation states of any particular wavelength channel can also be addressed individually. This offers the ability to be able to control the efficiency of the reflected beams from the OPMC in either polarisation and hence compensate for polarisation dependent loss on any particular channel that may exist in the input beams. In an alternative embodiment of the system, the mounting of the OPMC device 180 can be simplified as illustrated in FIG. 5 by folding the beams downwards (in the −x-dimension) by a prism 181 to allow simple mounting of the OPMC. Returning to FIG. 3, the OPMC is positioned at or near the focal point of the light in the y-dimension being focused by cylindrical lens 140, which coincides with the telecentric or Fourier plane of the collimated light in the x-dimension. This situation results in a 4-f (8-f for the complete return path) optical system for light in the y-dimension and a 2-f (4-f for the complete return path) optical system for light in the x-dimension. Thus, light in the y-dimension, when it retraces its path back through the optical system, it is focused in the same plane as the optical fibre ports. Conversely for light in the x-dimension, a complete inversion of the magnification occurs such that the focal position of the light at the fibres is inverted about the centre line (i.e. between fibre ports 102 and 103). The OPMC device 180 is able to couple any one independently or all the wavelength channels from the input port 102 or the add port 101 to either the drop port 104 or the express port 103. This coupling is achieved by inducing a phase hologram on the OPMC at each of the wavelength channels of the correct order to impart onto the beam the required amount of phase front correction to partially recreate the phase front of a beam which would approximately retrace its path through the system to be re-imaged on the desired output fibre port. Simultaneously when the input light from the input port 102 is directed to the drop port 104 at a particular wavelength the same wavelength will be directed from the add port 101 to the express output port 103. The technique used to create the phase hologram on the OPMC will be described later in detail. The re-imaged light at the output fibre port is again largely circularly symmetric as the effects of the cylindrical lenses and polarisation equalisation elements are reversed through the return propagation. Channel by channel control of optical power can be achieved by exciting a fraction of the power into an angle that doesn't correspond to an active port hence attenuating the power in the chosen path. Device 2 A second embodiment 200 is shown in schematic perspective view in FIG. 6 wherein the operation of all the elements with similar numbers as elements in FIG. 3 (eg 130 and 230) is equivalent. This embodiment 200 displays a multiple of functionalities for each device such as wavelength switching and channel by channel power control, wavelength blocking etc. Clearly a subset of these functionalities could be achieved such as a pure wavelength blocker device. In the preferred embodiment the input and output ports consist of 8 fibres (201-208) where the light from the odd-numbered fibres 201, 203, 205 and 207 are directed to a ROADM in one direction (ROADM1) and the even-numbered fibres 202, 204, 206 and 208 are directed to a second ROADM (ROADM2) operating independently of the first to be utilised in a second direction. The fibres are all aligned vertically in what will be referred to as the x-dimension and separated by about 250 μm. The fibres consisting ROADM1 include a first input port 203, a first output port 205, a first add port 201 and a first drop port 207. The fibres consisting ROADM2 include a first input port 204, a first output port 206, a first add port 2 and a first drop port 208. The output from the fibres undergoes adjustment of the NA via the spherical microlens array 210 in an equivalent manner as element 110 in the description of Device 1 above and is again split into orthogonally polarised beams by a walk-off crystal 215. The result of the walk-off crystal in this case is to generate 16 beams separated by 125 μm with polarisation states alternating between the v- and the h-polarisation. The beams then enter a polarization diversity optical element 220. Element 220 is a plate of λ/2 thickness (92 μm) for light with a wavelength of 1.5 μm and is constructed from alternating regions 221 and 222 of glass and crystal quartz respectively. The glass regions do not affect the polarisation state of the beam passing through it, whereas the quartz regions act as a λ/2 waveplate and consequently rotate the polarisation axis by 90° (between the x- and y-directions). To achieve this, the optical axis of the pieces 222 are rotated 45° with respect to the optical axis of the system. Turning to FIG. 7, there is shown the first 5 fibre ports 201-205, the NA modifying optical power microlens array 210, the birefringent walk-off element 215, the composite waveplate 220 and the CBRW 230 to show in detail the polarisation tagging architecture in more detail. An output beam 291 from fibre 201 is split into two beams 292 and 293 by element 215, where beam 292 is in the vertical or v-polarisation state and beam 293 is in the horizontal or h-polarisation state. The optical element 220 is shown as comprising of a first glass waveplate of height 125 μm followed by alternating regions of quartz and glass with heights of 250 μm. Beam 292 next passes through a glass region 221 of element 220 which does not alter the polarisation state and beam 293 passes through a quartz region 226 of element 220 which rotates the plane of polarisation by 90° into the v-polarisation. Beams 292 and 293, being all of the output from fibre port 201, are now both in the v-polarisation state. Looking now at the output beam 294 from fibre port 202 after being similarly separated into two subsequent beams 295 and 296 by element 215, the v-polarised beam 295 passes through a quartz region 222 of element 220 and is rotated into the h-polarisation state, whereas the undeviated h-polarised beam 296 passes though a glass region 221 as such is unchanged. All the output from fibre port 202 is now in the h-polarisation state. This sequence is repeated for each alternate fibre port such that the output from all the odd-numbered ports 201, 203, 205 and 207 corresponding to ROADM1 are output from 220 in the v-polarisation state and all the outputs from the even-numbered fibre ports 202, 204, 206 and 208 corresponding to ROADM2 are in the h-polarisation state. The now polarisation tagged beams enter the CBRW 230 to impart an angular offset on the beams in one polarisation state with respect to the other. This offset is again in the vertical or x-dimension. In other embodiments, element 230 can be a simple, non-compensating element, however this would correspond to unequal path lengths resulting in a spatial offset between say a beam emitted from fibre input port 201 and re-imaged to the output port 207 of approximately 40 μm, affecting the overlap efficiency of the re-imaged light onto the express output or drop fibre ports. The composite waveplate 220 can be constructed by first bonding alternating sheets each having thickness of about 250 μm as shown in FIG. 8. The front face 225 of the stack is polished to an optical quality finish and then cut transversely to the direction of the sheets along line 223. The cut piece is then attached to a substrate 227 as shown in FIG. 9 and polished on the cut face 228 to be the required thickness for a λ/2 waveplate at 1.5 μm (92 μm). The composite waveplate is finally removed from the substrate 227. Such waveplates can be produced by nano-optic lithographic techniques (as supplied by Nano Opto Corporation of Somerset, N.J. USA) or by an arrangement of standard quartz waveplate techniques as described above. Referring back to FIG. 6, the beams from the input ports are next projected to a first cylindrical mirror 240 with optical power in the y-dimension and a focal length of 5 cm which provides collimation in the y axis. The angular misalignment between the v-polarised and h-polarised beams is unaffected and continues to separate spatially. The beams are then projected onto polarisation equalisation element 250 where again, the spatially separated v- and h-polarisations strike 250 in the upper 251 and lower 252 halves respectively. After the element 250, to the polarisations of the beams are equalised for efficient operation of the wavelength dispersing element and the OPMC. The beams are then directed to the cylindrical lens 260 having optical power in the x-dimension with a focal length of 20 cm before being incident on a wavelength dispersive element shown as grism element 270 aligned at near-Littrow condition. In other embodiments of the system, the wavelength dispersive element can again be a simple grating operating in the near-Littrow reflective state for the 1.5 μm wavelength of the light (1200 lines/mm) emerging from the input fibre ports, however the grism embodiment adds significant advantages to the efficiency of the system as previously described. The now wavelength-dispersed beams then pass back through the prism element of the grism 270 and again are passed through the cylindrical lens 260. After the second pass of the x-dimension lens the now diffracted beam is collimated in the x direction—the combined effect of the double pass of the lens 260 being a lens with focal length of approximately 10 cm, being twice the focal length of the first cylindrical mirror 240. This condition ensures that the grating acts in the telecentric or Fourier plane of the beams in the y-dimension. On exiting from the cylindrical lens 260 the now collimated and spatially separated (in the x-dimension) beams pass by the polarisation equalisation element 250 and are incident again on the cylindrical mirror 240 which focuses the beams in the y-dimension onto the liquid crystal spatial light modulator (OPMC) 280. In practise it may be difficult to efficiently place element 250 into the beam path such that the beams only interact with it before striking the grism and not afterwards as well since: a) the beams have significantly expanded at this point; and b) the beams after the grism element are now angularly dispersed in the y-dimension. To correct this deficiency, it is possible to utilise a non-reciprocal composite element (either 350 of FIG. 11 or 450 of FIG. 12) incorporating a Faraday rotator and allow the beams to pass through the element twice in each direction. The first non-reciprocal embodiment of element 250 is shown in FIG. 11 as a composite λ/2 waveplate 350 similar to that of element 150 or 250, where however the bottom half 351 is a birefringent material such as quartz which has its optical axis at 22.5°, and the upper half 352 is a Faraday rotating material. In order to utilise this device the polarisation equalisation element 220 needs to be replaced with the alternative element 320 shown in FIG. 10. Element 320 is similarly constructed to 220, however all of the alternate regions are a birefringent material such as quartz with the optical axes alternately oriented to be ±22.5°. This has the effect of rotating the polarisation state of an incident beam by ±45′ on traversal of the λ/2 waveplate. This result in the odd-numbered fibres corresponding to ROADM1 being tagged with a polarisation state of +45°, and the even-numbered fibres corresponding to ROADM2 being tagged with a polarisation state of −45°. Additionally, the CBRW 30 must be rotated about the z-axis to align with the polarisations states thus imparting the angular multiplex between the tagged beams in the correct direction. Returning again to FIG. 11, beams 301 from ROAMD1 with polarisation +45° is incident on 352 and which exiting 302 has been rotated 45° clockwise (cw) to be in the h-polarisation state for efficient diffraction by the grism element. The polarisation state is unchanged on reflection 303 and on the second pass through element 352 it is again rotated 45° cw to emerge 308 in the −45° polarisation state. Conversely, beams 305 from ROADM2 with polarisation −45° incident on element 351 and are rotated 45° counter-clockwise (ccw) to be in the h-polarisation state 306 on exiting for efficient diffraction by the grism element. Again, the polarisation state is unchanged on reflection 307 and on the second pass through 351 it is rotated cw 45° to be in the 45° polarisation 308. Beams from both ROADMs are now in the same polarisation state and the OPMC can be aligned accordingly to achieve efficient diffraction of the beams. In a second embodiment of a non-reciprocal polarisation equalisation element to replace element 250, a composite λ/2 waveplate 450 such as that shown in FIG. 12 can be utilised. In this embodiment, no other changes need to be made in the optical system, such that elements 220 and 230 can be as shown in FIG. 6. The lower half 451 of the element 450 is simple glass and as such has no effect on the polarisation of the light passing through it in either direction. The upper half however is constructed of two elements in series: a) a birefringent material 452 such as quartz with its optical axis rotated at an angle of 22.5° and thickness λ/2 such that beam passing though it are rotated in a reciprocal manner by 45°; and b) a Faraday rotating material 453 of λ/2 thickness that rotates the polarisation state of the light by +45° (cw) in a non-reciprocal manner. Thus, light from ROADM1 401 which strikes element 452 with polarisation in the vertical direction has its polarisation rotated by +45° where it then strikes element 453 where the polarisation is rotated a further 450 to emerge 402 in the horizontal polarisation state before striking the grism. On the return path after the grism, the light 403 firstly strikes element 453 where it is rotated by 45° cw to be in the 45° polarisation state, and next strikes element 452 where the polarisation is then rotated ccw to emerge in the horizontal polarisation state. Beams from both ROADMs are again now in the same polarisation state for efficient operation of the OPMC. Returning to FIG. 6 the projection onto the OPMC comprises of two groups of spatially separated wavelength channels, one group 285 being on the upper half (in the x-dimension) of the OPMC corresponding to beams from the input fibre ports of ROADM1, and the second group 286 being on the lower half of the OPMC corresponding to beams from the input fibre ports of ROADM2. The wavelength channels are separated spatially in the y-dimension and the image of each wavelength channel appears substantially as being highly asymmetric with orthogonal dimensions of 20 μm in the now focused y-dimension and approximately 700 μm in the substantially collimated x-dimension. The individual wavelength channels from either ROADM1 or ROADM2 can be accessed by the OPMC 280 independently of any of the other channels. The OPCM 280 is positioned at approximately one focal length from the cylindrical lens 240, which coincides with the telecentric or Fourier plane of the collimated light in the x-dimension. This situation results in a 4-f (8-f for the complete return path) optical system for light in the y-dimension and a 2-f (4-f for the complete return path) optical system for light in the x-dimension. Thus, light in the y-dimension, when it retraces its path back through the optical system, is focused in the same plane as the optical fibre ports. Conversely for light in the x-dimension, a complete inversion of the magnification occurs such that the focal position of the light at the fibres is inverted about the centre line (i.e. between fibre ports 204 and 205). However, since in the present system alternate fibre ports are tagged with alternate polarisation states, such that each of the fibres located at equal distances from the centre line of the fibre port array is tagged with an orthogonal polarisation and no light from the other fibre port will be imaged onto its magnification equivalent since the polarisation equalisation elements in the system will only re-image the light back onto a fibre port if it is of the correct polarisation. This polarisation tagging architecture thus has the significant advantage of eliminating cross-talk between the two ROADMs since the interconnected fibre ports are twice the distance between the individual fibres of the total fibre array, and any light from either of the ROADM devices that appears onto the path of the other is lost to the space between the fibres due to the fact that it will be of incorrect polarisation and will not be combined in the walk-off crystal 215. The OPMC 280 is able to direct the image of any one wavelength channel independently or all the wavelength channels from the input fibres between the drop ports, either fibre ports 207 or 208, or the express ports, either fibre ports 205 or 207, for either of ROADM1 or ROADM2 respectively. This is achieved by inducing a phase hologram at each of the wavelength channels of the correct order to impart onto the beam the required amount of phase front correction to retrace its path through the system and be re-imaged on the desired output fibre port. Simultaneously when the input light from the input port 203 of ROADM1 is directed to the drop port 207 at a particular wavelength, the same wavelength will be directed from the corresponding add port 201 to the express output port of ROADM1 205. Similarly for ROADM2, when the input light from the input port 4 of ROADM2 is directed to the drop port 208 at a particular wavelength the same wavelength will be directed from the corresponding add port 202 to the express output port 206 of ROADM2. The re-imaged light at the fibre port is again largely circular symmetric as the effects of the cylindrical lenses and polarisation equalisation elements are reversed through the return propagation. The operation of the OPMC device will now be described. Description of the Optical Phased Matrix Coupling Device The optical phased array coupling (OPMC) element in the preferred implementations is a liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS) device. Liquid crystal devices are commonly used for optical modulators. They have a number of advantages over mechanical modulators such as large modulation depths, no moving parts, low power dissipation, potential for large aperture operation and low cost. The LCOS device is a reflective device where a liquid crystal is sandwiched between a transparent glass layer with a transparent electrode and a silicon substrate divided into a 2-dimensional array of individually addressed electrodes. LCOS technology enables very high resolution devices with pixel pitch on the order of 10-20 μm, with each pixel being individually addressed by electrodes on the silicon substrate. The liquid crystals commonly used are dependent on the particular application, where ferroelectric liquid crystals (FLC) are preferred for devices requiring very fast switching times and phase modulations of less than π/2, and Nematic Liquid Crystals (NLC) are preferred for applications requiring pure phase modulations of up to 2π in reflection on a pixel-by-pixel basis. The LCOS systems in the preferred embodiments use NLCs. Such devices are available from Boulder Nonlinear Systems of Lafayette, Colo., USA. The diffractive optical phased matrix can be thought of in terms of a diffraction grating formed by quantised multiple level phase grating set up by setting the amount of phase retardation on a pixel-by-pixel basis across the face of the beam to be routed. High efficiency of coupling and high isolation of switching states can be achieved through the use of a large number of elements in the phased matrix particularly in the axis of the x-dimension as is provided by the large size of the optical projection in that axis. As described in the descriptions above, the image on the OPMC is that of two groups of spatially separated wavelength channels, one group being on the upper half (in the x-dimension) of the OPMC corresponding to beams that have been tagged with a first polarisation state, and the second group being on the lower half of the OPMC corresponding to beams that have been tagged with a second polarisations state, which is orthogonal to the first. Since the LCOS device is highly polarisation dependent, for efficient operation, the light from both groups of beams when they arrive at the device have been manipulated to be in the same polarisation state as previously described. The wavelength channels are separated spatially in the y-dimension and the image of each wavelength channel appears substantially as being highly asymmetric with orthogonal dimensions of 20 μm in the focused y-dimension and approximately 700 μm in the collimated x-dimension. Due to the individually addressable nature of the LCOS pixels, the individual wavelength channels from either group of beams can be accessed by the OPMC 180 or 280 independently of any of the other channels. The OPMC device is divided into two series' of elongated cell regions substantially matching the elongated spatially separated wavelength bands. The cell regions each can include a plurality of drivable cells and wherein, in use, the cells are preferably driven so as to provide a selective driving structure which projects a corresponding optical signal falling on the cell region substantially into one of a series of output order modes. One method of visualising the coupling of a particular wavelength channel to a desired output port is that particular wavelength channel occupies on the LCOS device form an optical phase matrix. This matrix is set up in such a fashion so as to recreate the phase of the required output port from the phase front of the input port which will now be described. In this embodiment, for simplicity the beams are assumed to be collimated in the x-axis with a linearly varying phase front though the required functions can be easily calculated for converging or diverging or distorted phase fronts wherein the OPMC will provide optical power and routing simultaneously. Referring to FIG. 13 and FIG. 14, the forward propagating beam from an optical fibre input port 503 is generated with a phase-front orthogonal to the direction of propagation. It passes through a lens 510 with a focal length f. The beam is still travelling in the same direction so the phase-front 561 strikes the OPMC device 520 in the plane of the device. To couple this beam into an optical fibre output port 501, the phase-front of the beam after reflection from the OPMC needs to have a phase front 565 which has a phase slope s with respect to the incoming phase-front 561 in the switching plane given in units of radians per micrometer. Thus, after passing again through the lens 510, the backward propagating beam has been displaced by a distance d with respect to the forward propagating beam, and so is incident on the output port 501. The phase slope s that is needed on the backward propagating phase-front to align with a particular output port is found by s = tan - 1 ( d f ) . This phase slope then needs to be converted into a phase shift on the individual pixels of the LCOS in the form of a voltage ramp in the plane of the elongated image of the wavelength channel on the OPMC device. The phase shift φ that each pixel needs to impart on the beam is calculated by ϕ = 2 · π · X · Y · s λ where X is the pixel width in μm, Y is the number of pixels, and λ is the wavelength of the channel in μm. The relationship between the phase shift imparted on the beam by each pixel and the voltage applied to that pixel is determined using a lookup table. This results in an increasing function of voltage (or phase change) with respect to the pixel number as seen by example in the dotted lines 601 and 603 of FIG. 15 and FIG. 16 respectively using 256 pixels. To limit the amount of voltage applied to the pixel, however, it is recognised that a phase shift of 2π is equivalent to a phase shift of 0, so each time the phase shift of a particular pixel reaches 2π, the voltage of the next pixel is reset to give a phase shift of zero and the ramp repeated. This is seen by the solid lines 602 and 604 in FIG. 15 and FIG. 16 respectively. Channel by channel control of optical power can be achieved by exciting a fraction of the power into a mode that doesn't correspond to an active port hence attenuating the power in the chosen path. A second way to visualise the coupling is to presume that the optical phased-matrix at a particular wavelength channel is set up in such a fashion so as to create an overlap integral between the input and the desired output ports of that particular wavelength channel. The spatial overlap integral of the input Electric field vector at the OPCM times modified by the applied phase of the OPMC with Electric field vector of the output fibre projection on the OPCM will provide a measure of the coupling efficiency between those ports. It is clear that the OPCM can be used to correct for optical aberrations in the system or deliberate optical aberrations can be introduced to suppress back reflections by suitable design of the optical phased-matrix. Additionally, control over the relative phase of the reflected light in each fibre is provided which could be usefully employed if the optical wavelength processor is used in interferometric applications. In alternative embodiments the OPCM can provide part or all of the optical power required to allow refocusing of the beam in the y dimension. This can be calculated in an identical fashion as the OPCM only requires spatial overlap of the intensity of the beams to allow coupling to occur and is independent of the state of focus or collimation. A significant benefit of the phased matrix approach with the LCOS device is that the efficiency of the overlap coupling efficiency can be controlled on a wavelength-by-wavelength basis by active control of the coupling or diffraction efficiency of the phase matrix. This can be achieved by coupling a known amount of the wavelength channel into a mode which does not correspond to an output port and as such, the light is lost to the system. In the same fashion, if desired, known portions of light in any particular group or wavelength channel can be coupled into more than one output fibre. Although the invention has been described with reference to a specific example, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the invention may be embodied in many other forms. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The recent growth in the demand for broadband services has resulted in a pressing need for increased capacity on existing communication channels. The increased bandwidth of fibre optic communication fibres is still often insufficient to cope with this demand without utilising the ability of these fibres to carry large numbers of individual communication channels each identified by the particular wavelength of the light. This technique is known as dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM). The disadvantage of this technique is that the increasing density of wavelength channels places increasing demand on network functionality for connecting the individual channels to individual destination points on a dynamic basis, and for the ability to add or drop an individual wavelength channel into or out of the optical signal. Currently these functions are primarily performed by electronic techniques but the demand for increased network speed calls for these functions to be performed in the optical domain. The use of wavelength selective switching for applications of optical cross-connects has attracted much interest because of the goal of fully flexible networks, where the paths of each wavelength can be reconfigured to allow for arbitrary connection between nodes with the capacity appropriate for that link at a particular point in time. Although this goal is still valid, it is clear that optical networks will evolve to this level of sophistication in a number of stages. The first stage of the evolution is likely to be that of a reconfigurable add/drop node where a number of channels can be dropped or and added from the main path, whose number and wavelength can be varied over time—either as the network evolves or dynamically as the traffic demands vary. A further functionality demanded by optical communications networks is the ability to route incoming signals from two origins in the same fashion independently of each other in a single device. This immediately halves the device count required at any particular location, without the loss of functionality in the adding and dropping of channels from either source. This present invention is directed to applications such as dual-source reconfigurable optical add/drop multiplexer (ROADM) networks, dual-source wavelength reconfigurable cross-connects referred to generically as Wavelength Selective Switches (WSS), dual-source dynamic channel equalisation (DCE) and for single-source devices for correction of polarisation-dependant loss (PDL) mechanisms. The characteristics of a wavelength selective element which is ideal for the applications of Optical Add/Drop and Wavelength Selective Switching can be summarized follows: i) scalable to multiple fibre ports; ii) one channel per port or multiple channels per port operation; iii) reconfiguration of wavelength selectivity to different grids e.g. 50 GHz or 100 GHz or a combination of both; iv) low optical impairment of the express path; v) low losses on the drop and express paths; vi) ability to add and drop wavelengths simultaneously; vii) ability to be reconfigured between any ports or between any wavelengths without causing transient impairments to the other ports; viii) equalisation of optical power levels on express path (OADM) or all paths (WSS); ix) provision of shared optical power between ports for a given wavelength (broadcast mode); x) flat optical passband to prevent spectral narrowing; xi) power off configurations that leave the express path of an OADM undisturbed; and xii) small power and voltage and size requirements. In reviewing the many technologies that have been applied it is necessary to generalize somewhat, but the following observations can be made. Two basic approaches have been made for the OADM and WSS applications. i) The first has been based on wavelength blocking elements combined with a broadcast and select architecture. This is an optical power intensive architecture, which can provide for channel equalization and reconfiguration of wavelength selectivity, but is not scalable to multiple ports, has very high loss and because of the many auxiliary components such as wavelength tuneable filters has a large power and footprint requirement. ii) Wavelength switches have been proposed for OADMs, but do not naturally provide for channel equalization, the channel by channel switching in general leads to dispersion and loss narrowing of optical channels, and in the case of multiple port switches it is generally not possible to switch between ports without causing impairment (a hit) on intermediate ports. In addition the channel spacing cannot be dynamically reconfigured. Tuneable 3-port filters have also been proposed having a lack of impairment to the express paths but do not scale easily to multiple ports and may suffer from transient wavelength hits during tuning. Tuneable components are usually locked to a particular bandwidth which cannot be varied. In addition poor isolation of tunable 3 ports means they are less applicable to many add/drop applications which demand high through path isolation. One technology that has been applied to optical cross connects has become known as 3-D MEMS utilises small mirror structures which act on a beam of light to direct it from one port to another. Examples of this art are provided in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,960,133 and 6,501,877. The ports are usually arranged in a 2-dimensional matrix and a corresponding element of the 2-dimensional array of mirrors can tilt in two axes to couple between any one of the ports. Usually two arrays of these mirrors are required to couple the light efficiently and because of the high degree of analogue control required structures based on this technology have proved to be extremely difficult to realize in practice and there are few examples of commercially successful offerings. In this type of structure, a separate component is required to separate each wavelength division multiplexed (WDM) input fibre to corresponding single channel/single fibre inputs. One of the most promising platforms for wavelength routing application relies on the principle of dispersing the channels spatially and operating on the different wavelengths, either with a switching element or attenuation element. These technologies are advantageous in that the switching element is integrated with the wavelength dispersive element—greatly simplifying the implementation. The trade-off is that in general the switching is more limited, with most implementations demonstrated to date being limited to small port counts—and the routing between ports is not arbitrary. In general a diffraction grating is used for micro-optic implementations or an array waveguide grating for waveguide applications. Most of the switching applications have been based on MEMS micro mirrors fabricated in silicon and based on a tilt actuation in one dimension. The difficulty with this approach has been that to achieve the wavelength resolution required when the angular dispersion is mapped to a displacement. In such cases, an image of the fibre (with or without magnification) is mapped onto the tilt mirror array. In order to couple the light into a second port, additional optical elements are required that convert the angle into a displacement. Different approaches to this have included retroreflection cubes wedges (U.S. Pat. No. 6,097,519) which provide discrete displacements or Angle to Displacement elements (U.S. Pat. No. 6,560,000) which can provide continuous mapping using optical power provisioned at the Rayleigh length of the image. In all of these cases, in order to switch between ports, the tilt mirror needs to pass through the angles corresponding to intermediate ports. In addition, the number of ports is limited in each of these cases by the numerical aperture of the fibre as each of the different switch positions are discriminated by angles. For a fibre with a numerical aperture of 0.1, a switch which can tilt by +−12 degrees could not distinguish 8 different switch positions. One approach that can be used is to decrease the numerical aperture through the use of thermally expanded cores or micro lenses—but this is done at the expense of wavelength resolution. An alternative has been to use polarization to switch between ports. Obviously this is most appropriate to switching between 2 ports corresponding to the 2 polarisation states. Such a switch is described in Patel (J. S. Patel and Y. Silverberg, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters Vol. 7 No. 5, 1995, pp. 514-516) where an optical dispersion element (in this case a grating) is used to separate an optical signal into spatially separated wavelength channels incident onto a liquid crystal spatial light modulator (LC SLM). The SLM is then configured to rotate the polarisation of the light of a desired wavelength channel by 90° which causes the light to be deflected from the main channel by a birefringent crystal. The wavelengths are then recombined by a second grating element forming two spatially-displaced outputs: one containing the wavelength channels acted on by the LC SLM, and the second output containing the remaining wavelength channels. Since these types of switches are limited to only two polarisation states, they are not readily scalable, though more complicated schemes can be envisaged to allow for switching between multiple ports. With polarization switching, also, dynamic equalization of channels can only be done at the expense of the rejected light being channelled into the second fibre—so it is not applicable to equalization of the express path whilst dropping a number of wavelengths. A better alternative to switch between multiple ports has been the use of optical beam deflectors such as MEMS mirror arrays or LC SLMs. These devices deflect the light through free space, thus allowing multiple signal beams to be simultaneously interconnected without cross-talk between data channels. An example of a MEMS-based device is taught by Waverka (U.S. Pat. No. 6,501,877) which disperses the individual wavelength channels with a diffraction grating. The individual channels are each then focused on to spatially separated elements of the MEMS array which imparts an angular displacement on the beams. A retroreflection device is used to convert the angular displacement to a lateral offset, that when passed back through the optical system translates into a coupling to the desired output port. In this implementation the offset states are quantised and determined by the angles of the retroreflection prism. A similar technique is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 6,707,959 by Ducellier where a particular spatially separated wavelength channel is acted upon by a deflector array implemented either using a MEMS device or a transmissive LC deflector. A schematic block diagram of this device is shown in FIG. 1 . Ducellier introduces an improvement over Waverka by having the angle to offset (ATO) element 1 being able to translate continuously for an arbitrary state by placing an angle to offset lens at the Rayleigh point of the optical array 2 . The angular array is then transmitted through a standard 4 -f lens design (telecentric telescope) using a spherical reflector 3 to the deflection array 4 with preservation of the angular multiplex. The individual wavelength channels in the optical signal are separated by an optical dispersion element 5 at the telecentric point of the optical system. The deflection array 4 can be operated in either reflective or transmissive mode and (similarly to Waverka and Patel) provides a deflection of a desired wavelength channel perpendicularly to the wavelength dispersion direction. The deflection is such that an ATO element at the output array translates the new angular multiplex into an offset corresponding to the desired output port. In this system, the input array, the optical dispersion element, the deflection array, and the output array all lie in the same focal plane due to the spherical symmetry of the optics. The disadvantage of this is that large deflection angles are required to switch between fibre ports and a requirement for large numerical aperture optics. The requirement also of a duplicate optical system in the transmissive deflection array embodiment places severe restrictions on the compactness and cost of the final device. Additionally, none of the devices described above can operate on the light from two input sources or two groupings of light having the same wavelength channels independently. Due to the existence of polarisation dependent loss and polarisation mode dispersion—it is often convenient to consider two orthogonal polarisation states as two separate sources and it could be advantageous to act on these separately. Various techniques have been proposed for the correction of polarisation dependent loss (PDL) in optical communication systems on a wavelength basis such as those discussed by Roberts (US Patent Application Publication 2004/0004755). These techniques however are only applicable to a single optical fibre and operate in transmission mode only. To our knowledge, there have been no techniques have been proposed or demonstrated to provide broadband PDL correction for multiple optical fibre devices or in a switching architecture. It is an object of the present invention to overcome or ameliorate at least some of the disadvantages of the prior art by providing a reconfigurable optical add/drop multiplexer and wavelength selective switch capable of independently operating on arbitrary wavelength channels contained in light from two distinct sources or groups. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided an optical signal manipulation system including: a series of ports for carrying a series of optical signals to be manipulated; a spatial separating means for spatially separating at least a first and a second group of light from the series of optical signals; wavelength dispersion element subsequently spatially separating wavelengths of the first and second series; wavelength processing means for separately processing separated wavelengths of the first and second series. The spatial separating means preferably can include a polarisation manipulation element separating a first and second series of predetermined polarisations from predetermined ones of the ports and projecting the first series in a first angular direction and the second series in a second angular direction. The spatial separating means preferably can also include a series of optical power elements offset from the ports separating at least a first and second series of predetermined optical signals from predetermined ones of the ports and projecting the first series in a first angular direction and the second series in a second angular direction. Signals processed by the wavelength processing means are preferably transmitted back through the wavelength dispersion element, the polarisation manipulation element for output at the optical signal ports. The particular port to which particular wavelengths are preferably output can be determined by the processing carried out by the wavelength processing means. The wavelength processing means preferably can include a series of zones and the wavelength processing means separately manipulates the phase front of light striking each of the zones in order to control the output destination of wavelengths striking a particular zone. The wavelength processing means can comprise a spatial light modulator having a plurality of independently addressable pixels with the pixels being manipulated in a predetermined manner so as to manipulate the phase front striking a corresponding zone. The optical signals received by the wavelength processing means are preferably in the form of wavelength separated elongated bands. The wavelength separated elongated bands are preferably substantially collimated along their major axis and substantially focused along their minor axis. The ratio of the width of the major axis to the width of the minor axis of the bands can be equal to or greater than 5. The width of the bands major axis can be substantially 700 microns and the width of a bands minor axis can be substantially 20 microns. Preferably, the first series forms a first row of wavelength separated elongated bands and the second series forms a second row of wavelength separated elongated bands. The first and second row are preferably substantially parallel. The first series of predetermined polarisations can be derived from a first polarisation state of the optical signals and the second series of predetermined polarisations can be derived from a second substantially orthogonal polarisation state of the optical signals. Alternatively, the first series of predetermined polarisations can be derived from orthogonal polarisations of a first series of optical signals and the second series of predetermined polarisations can be derived from orthogonal polarisations of a second series of optical signals. In one embodiment, the wavelength processing means can comprise a liquid crystal display device having a series of light modulating pixels formed thereon. The optical signals traversing the wavelength dispersion element are preferably substantially polarisation aligned. The light emitted from the optical signal ports passes through a numerical aperture modifying means before traversing the polarisation manipulation element. The numerical aperture of the light from the optical signal ports can be modified by a series of lenses having a pitch substantially in accordance with the pitch of the optical signal ports. The polarisation manipulation element can comprise a first polarisation separation element for spatially separating orthogonal polarisations and a second polarisation deflection element for angularly deflecting an optical signal in accordance with the polarisation state of the signal. The polarisation manipulation element can also include, in series, a polarisation separation element for spatially separating orthogonal polarisations, a polarisation alignment element for aligning the separated orthogonal polarisations and a polarisation deflection element for angularly deflecting an optical signal in accordance with the polarisation state of the signal. The system can also include a first optical power element for collimating the light emitted from the polarisation manipulation element onto the wavelength dispersion element and a second optical power element for focusing the light emitted from the wavelength dispersion element onto the wavelength processing means. The first and second optical power elements can comprise of reflective mirror surfaces with the first optical power element having optical power in a first optical axis only and the second optical power element having optical power in a first optical axis only. The system can also include a third optical power element for collimating the light emitted from the polarisation manipulation element onto the wavelength processing means. The third optical power element can comprise of a lens that has optical power in a second optical axis only. The second optical axis can be orthogonal to the first optical axis. In accordance with a further aspect of the present invention, there is provided an optical signal manipulation system including: a series of optical signal ports; numerical aperture modifying means for modifying the numerical aperture of light emitted from the optical signal ports to form modified optical signals; polarisation manipulation means for imparting a different angular projection to substantially orthogonal polarisation states of the modified optical signals; polarisation alignment means for substantially aligning the polarisation state of the substantially orthogonal polarisation states; wavelength dispersion element for angularly dispersing by wavelength the aligned modified optical signals; a wavelength control element having a series of elongated control zones for receipt and manipulation of a region of the wavelength dispersed optical signals. The different substantially orthogonal polarisation states are preferably manipulated by different elongated control zones. A first polarisation state can be manipulated by a first series of substantially adjacent control zones and a second orthogonal polarisation state can be manipulated by a second series of substantially adjacent control zones. The first and second series of substantially adjacent control zones are preferably substantially parallel with one another. Light from the wavelength control element can be projecting through a second wavelength dispersion element so as to combine wavelengths of the first and second series; Light from the second wavelength dispersion element can be projected through a second polarisation manipulation element for combining the orthogonal polarisations to output at predetermined optical signal ports. Light projected from the optical signal ports to the wavelength control element can undergo at least two reflections on reflective optical power surfaces. The wavelength dispersion element preferably can include a diffraction grating mounted on an optical prism. Light from the polarisation manipulation means and light from the wavelength control element can strike the prism substantially at Brewster's angle. The path lengths of light in the first and second polarisation states can be substantially equalised on traversal through the prism. In accordance with a further aspect of the present invention, there is provided an optical system including: a series of optical signal ports; numerical aperture modifying means for modifying the numerical aperture of light emitted from the optical signal ports to form modified optical signals; a polarisation alignment means for substantially aligning the polarisation state of substantially orthogonal polarisation states from the optical signal ports; wavelength dispersion element for angularly dispersing by wavelength the aligned modified optical signals; an optical phase control matrix for receipt and manipulation of a region of the wavelength dispersed optical signals; a series of optical power elements for creating a spatial intensity overlap on the wavelength control element between projections from a first selected optical signal port and a second selected optical signal port. The optical phase control matrix preferably can include a series of elongated control zones. Each the control zone of the optical phase control matrix can comprise a plurality of individually addressable pixels with each of the pixel modifying the phase of light passing through it. The projections of optical signals at the optical phase control matrix along a first optical axis are preferably in the image plane of the series of optical power elements. The projections of optical signals at the optical phase control matrix along a second optical axis are preferably substantially in the fourier or telecentric plane of the series of optical power elements. The first optical axis can be substantially orthogonal to the second optical axis. Signals from the first selected optical signal port received by the optical phase control matrix are preferably manipulated and transmitted back through the wavelength dispersion element for output at the second selected optical signal port. The optical system in the first optical axis can be substantially 2n times the focal length of the series of optical power elements in the first optical axis, where n can be a positive integer. The optical system in the second optical axis can be substantially 2m times the focal length of the series of optical power elements in the second optical axis where m can be a positive integer. In one embodiment n can be an even integer and m can be an odd integer. The optical signals received by the optical phase control matrix are preferably in the form of wavelength separated elongated bands. Each wavelength separated elongated band aligns with an independent one of the elongated control zones. The minor axis of the elongated bands lies in the first optical axis and the major axis of the elongated bands lies in the second optical axis. The reconfigurable dual-source optical wavelength processor of the present device includes: a series of optical ports for generating and/or receiving an optical beam; an optical phased-matrix coupling (OPMC) device for receiving and reflecting said beams; a series of optical power elements positioned between said ports and said OPMC device to provide a spatial overlap between the said beams from said ports on the phase coupling device; a series of optical path separating elements arrayed in such a way as to create at least two independent groups of light; an optical dispersion element designed to separate at least a first and second wavelengths of light; and wherein said optical phased-matrix device provides for individual control of at least a first and second wavelength's coupling efficiency between an input port and at least one output port. The device in its preferred embodiments can include: a series of optical ports which can include optical fibre arrays; a series of optical ports where the optical fibre arrays are single mode fibres; a series of optical ports where the optical fibre array includes at least a first input port, a first output port, a first add port and a first drop port; a series of optical ports where the optical fibre array includes a plurality of add ports and/or a plurality of drop ports; a series of optical ports where the optical fibre array includes a second input ports, a second output port; a series of optical ports where the optical fibre array includes a plurality of input ports, and a plurality of output port; a series of optical power elements which can include spherical microlens arrays for altering the numerical aperture of each of the optical ports; optical power elements including cylindrical lenses with a first focal length and cylindrical mirrors with a second focal length for projecting light from the ports on the optical phased-array coupling means comprising at least a spatially separated first group of spatially dispersed wavelength channels, each wavelength channel being substantially collimated in one axis and substantially focused in the orthogonal axis; polarisation diversity elements including a birefringent walk-off crystal composite λ/2 waveplates for 1550 nm light, compensating birefringent wedges, and/or Faraday rotators; an optical dispersion element which is a Carpenter's Prism (grism) operating in the reflective mode at near Littrow condition, and a wedge angle substantially at Brewster's angle of the incident light: and an optical phased matrix coupling (OPMC) means providing 2-dimensional optical phase only or phase and optical amplitude such as can be provided by a liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS) spatial light modulator (SLM). Possible practical applications of a dual-source optical switch are: Device 1 . A Polarisation Dependent Loss (PDL) correcting Reconfigurable Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer (ROADM) where light from an input optical fibre port is separated into two beams with orthogonal polarisation states, with each beam being dispersed into spatially separated wavelength channels, and the two groups of spatially separated wavelength channels being projected onto spatially separated regions of a liquid crystal spatial light modulator. The orthogonal polarisation states of a particular wavelength channel can then be addressed independently which allows for equalisation of the PDL of the wavelength channel before being directed to a choice of output fibre ports (either an express output port or a drop port). Device 2 . A dual-source ROADM consisting of two independent groups of fibre ports, with each group as a minimum containing an input port and an express output port, and optionally a drop port. (In practise each of the independent ROADMs can include a plurality of add and drop ports.) The light corresponding to the paths into and out of the ports corresponding to either group can be tagged, for example by assigning each independent device to an orthogonal polarisation state, spatially separating the light from the two polarisations and imaging the light from each polarisation onto a spatially separated region of the OPMC to act on the channels from each device independently; | 20040614 | 20080708 | 20051215 | 70835.0 | 1 | CHIEM, DINH D | DUAL-SOURCE OPTICAL WAVELENGTH PROCESSOR | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,868,588 | ACCEPTED | Method of retaining components strung on a bead wire | The method of easily and securely retaining components strung on a bead line by placing a portion of the bead line between coil members of a tension spring comprises applying torque action to leverable members of the tension coil between the thumb and index finger of the user's hand to spread apart contiguous coil members of the spring, placing a portion of the bead line between a pair of coil members which had been spread apart, releasing the torque action from the leverable members, and allowing coil members to close and securely maintain the portion of bead line in position on the coil spring in a manner to resist removal therefrom. | 1. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line by placing a portion of the bead line between adjacent coil members of a helical coil tension spring, which method comprises: grasping leverable members of the coil spring between a thumb and finger, applying torque action to the leverable members by action of thumb and finger to spread apart coil members on side of coil spring opposite leverable members, placing a portion of bead line between open coil members, releasing torque action from leverable members, and allowing coil members to close and securely maintain portion of bead line in position in relation to tension force of the coil spring 2. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line as described in claim 1, in which: adjacent coil members are initially in contact with each other. 3. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line as described in claim 2, in which: leverable components comprise integral coil members at each end of the spring, with each leverable components oriented in a plane at an angle to the axis of the coil spring. 4. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line as described in claim 3, in which: leverable components are oriented at a substantial grasping angle for grasping between user's thumb and finger. 5. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line as described in claim 4, in which: portion of bead line maintained on the spring is a portion near an end of the bead line. 6. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line as described in claim 5, in which: portion of bead line maintained on the spring is a portion beyond last component string on the line. 7. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line as described in claim 6, in which: preferred dimensions of the coil spring include an overall length between extensions of leverable components of at least three centimeters. 8. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line by cooperation with a coil tension spring which comprises: placing a helical tension spring having a plurality of coil members in operable position, grasping leverable loop components at ends of the spring between thumb and index finger, applying force to the loop members by action of the thumb and index finger to produce a lever action by coil members along one side of the spring to spread apart coil members along opposite side of spring, placing a portion of bead line between a pair of coil members being spread apart, relaxing the loop members from the force of the thumb and index finger, and allowing coil members to close and securely maintain portion of bead line in position between coil members. 9. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line as described in claim 8, in which: the loop members comprise contiguous coil members extending outwardly from the same side of the spring at a suitable grasping angle. 10. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line as described in claim 9 in which: The coil spring is formed of flexible stainless steel to secure a portion of bead line with suitable high tension. 11. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line as described in Claim 10, in which: the portion of bead line maintained on the spring is a portion near an end of the bead line. 12. The method of retaining components strung on a bead line as described in claim 10, in which: the portion of bead line maintained on the spring is a portion beyond last component strung on the line. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION My invention relates to a method of quickly and easily protecting components strung on a bead wire during preparation of a necklace to prevent those components from accidental removal. My invention further relates to a method of permitting an artist-craftsman to retain components positioned on a beaded portion of a necklace in proper position during preparation or to permit an artist-craftsman to safely and conveniently protect components on separate bead lines during preparation of a necklace. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION I had initially, many years ago, invented my basic coil spring device for a completely different field of use, and I have very recently have had unexpectedly great success with my coil spring device in the present field of endeavor, the field of jewelry design and construction, by providing an artist-craftsman who produces various items of necklace designs with an important greatly useful means of protecting the safety and stability of his ornamentation. I immediately recognized a completely new field of use for my earlier invention when I became familiar with the art and hobby of designing and producing jewelry necklace articles, those ornamental jewelry products which are comprised of a multitude of small components which are placed on a string or fine wire for decorative purposes. The artist-craftsman who engages in designing and constructing a beaded necklace is always faced with the disconcerting and frustrating problem of seeing many or all of the components placed on a necklace line suddenly and quickly slide off the line at the least accidental action or inaction, or slipping from hand, perhaps destroying a unique and complicated design.. To my knowledge, there has never been any simple device in use, which was easily and quickly attachable to a bead line to protect the intricate design from such destruction. An artist-craftsman prepares a necklace by carefully string beads, or various decorative components, on a suitable necklace line, and must always be aware of the care with which the work must be done in order to prevent accidental destruction of his work by untoward slippage of components from the line. Also, there is no device currently available to serve as a means of protecting the bead line from accidental loss during a period of rest by the artist-craftsman, or during a time of unexpected interruption. I have found out that the ease and convenience with which my tension spring device can be applied makes it ideal for quick and temporary placement on a bead line. My invention, which I refer to as a bead stopper, can be very quickly and easily applied to a bead line, and will hold the line extremely securely between a pair of coil members of the coil spring because of the high tension which the coil spring possesses. When I recognized the need for my device in the field to which my coil spring suddenly appealed, and developed my method of use and began actual manufacture and sale of my invention, I have had unusual overnight success with the popularity and demand for my invention. I have had orders from all over the country. I have had to appear at various trade shows on behalf of necklace hobbyists, and have been approached by manufacturer's representatives seeking agency rights upon hearing of my invention. When I had developed my coil spring for another different purpose, I had become aware of the following published references: U.S. Pat. No. 2,630,316 Foster, Edwin E. issued Mar. 3, 1953 DIN 2097 Ausschuss Fedem im Deutschen Normenausschuss Mai 1973 Foster describes a coil spring device of much larger structure than my invention and which is intended for a totally different use. The Foster spring is described as a “Constant Compression Spring”. Foster states in Column 2: “As shown in FIG. 2, movement of the trunnions 13 and 14 toward one another, while the coils 10 are free to move laterally, results in equal resistance or load throughout a wide movement of the trunnions 13 and 14 toward one another” for a “compression” force. Also, the German reference describes a coil spring in FIG. 14 in which the loops are oriented in an opposite direction from those of my device. The result of the opposite orientation would produce a torque completely different from my coil spring and leverage of a completely different value or convenience. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The primary object of my invention is to provide a method of maintaining components on a line, which is easy to use, convenient, and comprising simple components. Another object of my invention is to provide a method of easily and securely retaining components strung on a line by cooperating simple components. Another object of my invention is to provide a method of easily and securely retaining components strung on a bead line by means of cooperation of bead line with a tension spring. Another object of my invention is to provide a method of retaining components on a bead line by the capability of easily and quickly placing a tension spring security member where it is needed most acutely. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side view of a coil spring member in a relaxed condition as it would be adaptable for use in a method according to my invention. FIG. 1A is a front view of a coil spring member as described in FIG. 1 along the lines 1A-1A in FIG. 1. FIG. 2 is a side view of a coil spring retaining member according to my invention as it would be placed in a tensionable condition preparatory for securing to a bead line according to my invention.. FIG. 3 is a side view of a coil spring being placed under tension between a person's fingers, shown in shadow, with coil spring having a portion of a bead line placed therein. FIG. 4 is a side view of a pair of coil spring members placed in relaxed position on a bead line with a person's fingers shown in shadow. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In FIG. 1 I show a form of tension spring 10, generally, in a relaxed position, as it would be prior to engagement with a bead line in performing the method of my invention. Tension spring 10, generally, is shown as a coil spring, and comprises a multiplicity of coil members 12, with loop members 14, generally, extending contiguously from coil members 12 from each end of the spring member 10, generally. I have designed my coil spring member 10, generally, to be adaptable to cooperate with a typical or common bead line as is used for various necklace designs and structures. A necklace might be a single flexible string or wire, or might be comprised of a plurality of strings or wires. In either case, I have become aware that the tension spring is ideal for this use because the spring can be attached very quickly and easily at any position on the string or wire and will remain securely in place. As an artist-craftsman is placing various components on a bead line, those components are loosely in place, without any formidable stop member applied to the line. Thus, a slight accident or slip will allow many or all of the components to slide quickly from the line. For the most common type of necklace, I have found that the most suitable dimensions of the spring 10, generally, would be: over-all length of about 3 to 4 centimeters; each coil 10, generally, made of wire of a diameter of about 1 millimeter; each coil member of a diameter of about 1 centimeter; and each loop member 14 having a diameter of about 1.5 to 2.0 centimeters, preferably of a diameter chosen for a most comfortable size, most conveniently for the easiest grasping by the person designing the necklace. As I show in FIG. 1, loop members 14 extend outwardly at an angle of from 120 to 150 degrees from coil members 12, in order to provide the greatest leverage action with the most adequate amount of torque. For example, if loop members 14 were 20 positioned angularly directly over the coil members 12, the device would not be capable of proper manipulation, and would be extremely difficult to operate. In FIG. 1A, I have shown the manner in which spring 10, generally, is held between a thumb 16 and index finger 18, generally, of a person's hand 20, generally, as person is squeezing loop members 14 toward each other in order to provide leverage on a first side 22 of coil members 12 to provide a space 24 on an opposite side of coil members 12, to permit the placing of a string 26 of a necklace within a space between two coil members 18. Thus, in FIG. 3, strong tension is being applied to loop members 14. This action describes the easy manner in which the bead stopper may be quickly grasped and easily spread apart to be quickly applied on a bead line where it is most needed. Then, in FIG. 4 I show an advanced method of use of my bead retaining method by showing a bead line having a number of bead components 28 and 30, already in position; and a person having just relaxed a second spring member 10 at a second location farther along string 26, generally, in position to retain bead components 28 and securely thereon. In FIG. 4, I refer to bead components 28 and 30, but these may also include any type of ornamental components, which may be strung on string 26 in performing the method of my invention. Therefore, since many different embodiments of my invention may be made without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, it is to be understood that the specific embodiments described in detail herein are not to be taken in a limiting sense, since the scope of the invention is best defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>I had initially, many years ago, invented my basic coil spring device for a completely different field of use, and I have very recently have had unexpectedly great success with my coil spring device in the present field of endeavor, the field of jewelry design and construction, by providing an artist-craftsman who produces various items of necklace designs with an important greatly useful means of protecting the safety and stability of his ornamentation. I immediately recognized a completely new field of use for my earlier invention when I became familiar with the art and hobby of designing and producing jewelry necklace articles, those ornamental jewelry products which are comprised of a multitude of small components which are placed on a string or fine wire for decorative purposes. The artist-craftsman who engages in designing and constructing a beaded necklace is always faced with the disconcerting and frustrating problem of seeing many or all of the components placed on a necklace line suddenly and quickly slide off the line at the least accidental action or inaction, or slipping from hand, perhaps destroying a unique and complicated design.. To my knowledge, there has never been any simple device in use, which was easily and quickly attachable to a bead line to protect the intricate design from such destruction. An artist-craftsman prepares a necklace by carefully string beads, or various decorative components, on a suitable necklace line, and must always be aware of the care with which the work must be done in order to prevent accidental destruction of his work by untoward slippage of components from the line. Also, there is no device currently available to serve as a means of protecting the bead line from accidental loss during a period of rest by the artist-craftsman, or during a time of unexpected interruption. I have found out that the ease and convenience with which my tension spring device can be applied makes it ideal for quick and temporary placement on a bead line. My invention, which I refer to as a bead stopper, can be very quickly and easily applied to a bead line, and will hold the line extremely securely between a pair of coil members of the coil spring because of the high tension which the coil spring possesses. When I recognized the need for my device in the field to which my coil spring suddenly appealed, and developed my method of use and began actual manufacture and sale of my invention, I have had unusual overnight success with the popularity and demand for my invention. I have had orders from all over the country. I have had to appear at various trade shows on behalf of necklace hobbyists, and have been approached by manufacturer's representatives seeking agency rights upon hearing of my invention. When I had developed my coil spring for another different purpose, I had become aware of the following published references: U.S. Pat. No. 2,630,316 Foster, Edwin E. issued Mar. 3, 1953 DIN 2097 Ausschuss Fedem im Deutschen Normenausschuss Mai 1973 Foster describes a coil spring device of much larger structure than my invention and which is intended for a totally different use. The Foster spring is described as a “Constant Compression Spring”. Foster states in Column 2: “As shown in FIG. 2 , movement of the trunnions 13 and 14 toward one another, while the coils 10 are free to move laterally, results in equal resistance or load throughout a wide movement of the trunnions 13 and 14 toward one another” for a “compression” force. Also, the German reference describes a coil spring in FIG. 14 in which the loops are oriented in an opposite direction from those of my device. The result of the opposite orientation would produce a torque completely different from my coil spring and leverage of a completely different value or convenience. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The primary object of my invention is to provide a method of maintaining components on a line, which is easy to use, convenient, and comprising simple components. Another object of my invention is to provide a method of easily and securely retaining components strung on a line by cooperating simple components. Another object of my invention is to provide a method of easily and securely retaining components strung on a bead line by means of cooperation of bead line with a tension spring. Another object of my invention is to provide a method of retaining components on a bead line by the capability of easily and quickly placing a tension spring security member where it is needed most acutely. | 20040615 | 20060530 | 20051215 | 61816.0 | 1 | KOEHLER, CHRISTOPHER M | METHOD OF RETAINING COMPONENTS STRUNG ON A BEAD WIRE | MICRO | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,868,610 | ACCEPTED | Circuit protection device with timed negative half-cycle self test | The present invention is directed to an electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load. The device includes an automated self-test circuit coupled to the AC power distribution system. The automated self-test circuit is configured to generate at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined half-cycle of AC power. A detector circuit is coupled to the automated self-test circuit. The detector circuit generates a detection signal in response to the at least one simulated fault signal. An interval timing circuit is coupled to the test circuit. The interval timing circuit is configured to enable the automated self-test circuit to generate the at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined interval and not enable the test circuit during a subsequent second predetermined interval. The first predetermined interval and the second predetermined interval are recurring time intervals. | 1. An electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling AC power through an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load, the device comprising: an automated self-test circuit coupled to the AC power distribution system and configured to generate at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power; a detector circuit coupled to the automated self-test circuit, the detector circuit generating a detection signal in response to the at least one simulated fault signal; and an interval timing circuit coupled to the automated self-test circuit, the interval timing circuit being configured to enable the automated self-test circuit to generate the at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined interval and not enable the automated self-test circuit during a subsequent second predetermined interval, the first predetermined interval and the second predetermined interval being recurring time intervals. 2. The device of claim 1, further comprising: a gate circuit coupled to the detector circuit, the gate circuit generating a gated test detection pulse in response to receiving the detection signal, the gated test detection pulse corresponding to the at least one simulated fault signal and having a duration not extending into a second predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power; and a checking circuit coupled to the gate circuit, the checking circuit including a timer configured to initiate an end-of-life fault signal if the gated test detection pulse is not received within a predetermined period of time. 3. The device of claim 2, further comprising a response mechanism coupled to the checking circuit, the response mechanism being actuated in response to the end-of-life fault signal. 4. The device of claim 2, wherein the checking circuit transmits the end-of-life fault signal to the gate circuit, the gate circuit providing the response mechanism with a gated end-of-life detection pulse, the response mechanism being actuated in response to the gated end-of-life detection pulse. 5. The device of claim 3, wherein the response mechanism does not respond to the gated test detection pulse. 6. The device of claim 3, wherein the response mechanism includes a circuit interrupter configured to decouple the AC power from the at least one electrical load. 7. The device of claim 6, wherein the circuit interrupter includes a first and second solenoid, the first solenoid being activated by the end-of-life fault signal, the second solenoid being activated by a gated fault detection pulse, the gated fault detection pulse being generated in response to a fault in the AC power distribution system. 8. The device of claim 6, further comprising a reset mechanism configured to reset the circuit interrupter after the AC power distribution system is decoupled from the at least one load. 9. The device of claim 6, further comprising a trip light indicator configured to emit light when the circuit interrupter is in a tripped state. 10. The device of claim 3, wherein the response mechanism includes an indicator device configured to alert a user to the presence of the end-of-life condition. 11. The device of claim 10, wherein the indicator device includes at least one light emitting element and/or an audible annunciator. 12. The device of claim 3, wherein the detection circuit is configured to generate a fault detection signal in response to a true fault signal, the gate circuit being configured to generate a gated fault detection pulse in response to receiving the fault detection signal, the gated fault detection pulse being transmitted in the second predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power. 13. The device of claim 12, wherein the response mechanism is responsive to the gated fault detection pulse. 14. The device of claim 12, further comprising a circuit interrupter configured to decouple the AC power distribution system from the at least one electrical load in response to the gated fault detection pulse.. 15. The device of claim 2, wherein the checking circuit further comprises a ring circuit coupled to the gate circuit, the ring circuit generating a ringing signal in response to the gated test detection pulse if each of a plurality of device components are operational. 16. The device of claim 15, wherein the plurality of device components are selected from a group including the automated self-test circuit, the detector circuit, the interval timer, the gate circuit, a trip solenoid, a diode, a resistor, a capacitor, a snubber circuit, a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and/or a self test relay circuit. 17. The device of claim 1, further comprising: a bypass circuit coupled to the detector circuit, the bypass circuit generating a bypass detection signal in response to sensing a fault current in the AC power distribution system exceeding a predetermined threshold; and a response mechanism coupled to the bypass circuit, the response mechanism being configured to decouple the AC power distribution system from the at least one load in response to receiving the bypass detection signal. 18. The device of claim 17, wherein the bypass detection signal is generated in either the first predetermined half cycle of AC power or the second predetermined half cycle of AC power and/or the first predetermined interval or second predetermined interval. 19. The device of claim 1, wherein the detector circuit includes a ground fault sensor. 20. The device of claim 1, wherein the detector circuit includes a grounded neutral sensor. 21. The device of claim 1, wherein the detector circuit includes an arc fault sensor. 22. The device of claim 1, further comprising a self-test relay circuit coupled between the interval timer and the automated self-test circuit, the self-test relay circuit being configured to actuate the automated self-test circuit in response to a signal from the interval timer. 23. The device of claim 1, further comprising load terminals configured to couple AC power to the at least one electrical load and a miswire prevention circuit that detects if AC power has been miswired to the load terminals. 24. The device of claim 23, further comprising a circuit interrupter configured to decouple the AC power distribution system from the at least one electrical load when the miswire prevention circuit produces an output signal. 25. An electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling an AC power through an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load, the device comprising: a test circuit coupled between a hot conductor and a neutral conductor of the AC power distribution system, the test circuit being configured to generate at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power; a detector circuit coupled to the test circuit, the detector circuit generating a detection signal in response to the at least one simulated fault signal; an interval timing circuit coupled to the test circuit, the interval timing circuit being configured to enable the test circuit to generate the at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined interval and not enable the test circuit during a subsequent second predetermined interval, the first predetermined interval and the second predetermined interval being recurring time intervals; a gate circuit coupled to the detector circuit, the gate circuit generating a gated test detection pulse in response to receiving the detection signal, the gated test detection pulse corresponding to the at least one simulated fault signal and having a duration not extending into a second predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power subsequent to the first predetermined half-cycle of AC power; a checking circuit coupled to the gate circuit, the checking circuit including a timer configured to initiate an end-of-life fault signal if the gated test detection pulse is not received within a predetermined period of time; and a response mechanism coupled to the checking circuit, the response mechanism being actuated in response to the end-of-life fault signal. 26. The device of claim 25, wherein one or more of the detector circuit, interval timing circuit, gate circuit, and/or checking circuit are disposed in an integrated chip (IC). 27. The device of claim 26, wherein the IC includes a microprocessor, an application specific IC (ASIC), and/or a microprocessor and an ASIC. 28. The device of claim 25, wherein one or more of the detector circuit, interval timing circuit, gate circuit, and/or checking circuit are implemented using discrete circuit components. 29. The device of claim 25, wherein the response mechanism includes a circuit interrupter configured to decouple the AC power distribution system from the at least one electrical load and/or an indicator device configured to alert a user to the presence of the end-of-life condition. 30. The device of claim 29, wherein the circuit interrupter includes a first and second solenoid, the first solenoid being activated by the end-of-life fault signal, the second solenoid being activated by a gated fault detection signal corresponding to a fault in the AC power distribution system. 31. The device of claim 29, wherein said circuit interrupter includes a reset mechanism configured to reset the circuit interrupter after the AC power distribution system has been decoupled from the at least one load. 32. The device of claim 29, wherein the response mechanism further comprises a delay circuit, the delay circuit being configured to delay actuation of the circuit interrupter for a predetermined delay interval, whereas the indicator device being actuated immediately in response to the end-of-life fault signal. 33. The device of claim 32, wherein the predetermined delay interval is less than or equal to forty-eight (48) hours. 34. The device of claim 25, wherein the checking circuit further comprises a ring circuit coupled to the gate circuit, the ring circuit being configured to generate a ringing signal in response to the gated test detection pulse if each of a plurality of device components are operational. 35. The device of claim 34, wherein the ring circuit includes a resonating tank circuit. 36. The device of claim 29, wherein the detection circuit is configured to generate a fault detection signal in response to a true fault signal, and the gate circuit is configured to generate a gated fault detection pulse in response to receiving the fault detection signal, the gated fault detection pulse being transmitted in the second predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power, the circuit interrupter decoupling the AC power distribution system from the at least one load in response to receiving the gated fault detection pulse. 37. The device of claim 36, further comprising a bypass circuit coupled between the detector circuit and the circuit interrupter, the bypass circuit generating a bypass detection signal in response to sensing a fault current in the AC power distribution system exceeding a predetermined threshold, the circuit interrupter decoupling the AC power distribution system from the at least one load in response to receiving the bypass detection signal. 38. The device of claim 37, wherein the predetermined threshold is substantially equal to 100 mA. 39. The device of claim 36, wherein the bypass detection signal is generated in either the first or second predetermined intervals. 40. The device of claim 25, wherein the time interval from the gated test detection pulse to a minimum detection threshold value of the detection signal is in a range between 30 to 50 milliseconds. 41. The device of claim 25, wherein the detector circuit includes a ground fault sensor. 42. The device of claim 25, wherein the detector circuit includes a grounded neutral sensor. 43. The device of claim 25, wherein the detector circuit includes an arc fault sensor. 44. The device of claim 25, further comprising a self-test relay circuit coupled between the interval timer and the automated self-test circuit, the self-test relay circuit being configured to actuate the automated self-test circuit in response to a signal from the interval timer. 45. The device of claim 25, wherein the checking circuit transmits the end-of-life fault signal to the gate circuit, the gate circuit gating the end-of-life fault signal and providing the response mechanism with a gated end-of-life detection pulse in response thereto, the response mechanism being actuated in response to the gated end-of-life detection pulse. 46. The device of claim 25, wherein the response mechanism is not responsive to the gated test detection pulse. 47. The device of claim 25, further comprising load terminals for coupling AC power to the at least one electrcial load and a miswire prevention circuit configured to detect a miswiring condition, wherein the miswiring condition includes coupling AC power to the load terminals. 48. An electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load, the device comprising: a test circuit coupled to the AC power distribution system and configured to generate at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power; a detector circuit coupled to the test circuit, the detector circuit generating a detection signal in response to the at least one simulated fault signal; a processor coupled to the test circuit and the detector circuit, the processor being programmed to, generate a self-test enable signal during a first predetermined time interval and not during a second predetermined time interval, the self-test enable signal enabling the test circuit to generate the at least one simulated fault signal, and generate a gated test detection pulse in response to receiving the detection signal, the gated test detection pulse corresponding to the at least one simulated fault signal and having a pulse duration not extending into a second predetermined half cycle polarity of AC power subsequent to the first predetermined half cycle polarity of AC power; a checking circuit coupled to the processor, the checking circuit including a timer configured to initiate an end-of-life fault signal if the gated test detection pulse is not received within a predetermined period of time; and a response mechanism coupled to the checking circuit, the response mechanism being actuated in response to the end-of-life fault signal. 49. The device of claim 48, wherein the response mechanism is coupled to the checking circuit, and the gate circuit. 50. The device of claim 48, wherein the processor includes a microprocessor and/or an application specific integrated chip (ASIC). 51. The device of claim 48, wherein the response mechanism includes a circuit interrupter configured to decouple the AC power distribution system from the at least one electrical load and/or an indicator device configured to alert a user to the presence of the end-of-life-condition. 52. The device of claim 51, wherein the circuit interrupter includes a first and second solenoid, the first solenoid being activated by the end-of-life fault signal, the second solenoid being activated by a gated fault detection signal corresponding to a fault in the AC power distribution system. 53. The device of claim 5 1, wherein said circuit interrupter includes a reset mechanism configured to reset the circuit interrupter after the AC power distribution system has been decoupled from the at least one load. 54. The device of claim 51, wherein the indicator device includes at least one light emitting element and/or an audible annunciator. 55. The protection device of claim 48, further comprising a trip light indicator configured to light when the circuit interrupter is tripped. 56. The device of claim 48, wherein the response mechanism further comprises a delay circuit, the delay circuit being configured to delay actuation of the circuit interrupter for a predetermined delay interval, the indicator device being actuated immediately, in response to the end-of-life fault signal. 57. The device of claim 48, wherein the checking circuit further comprises a ring circuit coupled to the gate circuit, the ring circuit being configured to generate a ringing signal in response to the gated test detection pulse if each of a plurality of device components are operational. 58. The device of claim 48, wherein the detection circuit is configured to generate a fault detection signal in response to a true fault signal, and the processor is configured to generate a gated fault detection pulse in response to receiving the fault detection signal, the gated fault detection pulse being transmitted in the second predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power, the response mechanism being actuated in response to the gated fault detection pulse. 59. The device of claim 51, further comprising a bypass circuit coupled between the detector circuit and the circuit interrupter, the bypass circuit generating a bypass detection signal in response to sensing a fault current in the AC power distribution system exceeding a predetermined threshold, the circuit interrupter being configured to decouple the AC power distribution system from the at least one load in response to receiving the bypass detection signal. 60. The device of claim 59, wherein the predetermined threshold is substantially equal to 100 mA. 61. The device of claim 59, wherein the bypass detection signal is generated in either the first predetermined half cycle of AC power or the second predetermined half cycle of AC power, or the first predetermined time interval or the second predetermined time interval. 62. The device of claim 48, wherein the checking circuit transmits the end-of-life fault signal to the processor, and the processor providing the response mechanism with a gated end-of-life detection pulse in response thereto, the response mechanism being actuated in response to the gated end-of-life detection pulse. 63. The device of claim 48, wherein the response mechanism is not responsive to the gated test detection pulse. 64. The device of claim 48, wherein the detector circuit includes a ground fault sensor. 65. The device of claim 48, wherein the detector circuit includes a grounded neutral sensor. 66. The device of claim 48, wherein the detector circuit includes an arc fault sensor. 67. The device of claim 48, further comprising load terminals for coupling AC power to the at least one electrical load and a miswire prevention circuit that detects if AC power has been miswired to the load terminals. 68. The device of claim 67, further comprising a circuit interrupter configured to decouple the AC power distribution system from the at least one electrical load when the miswire prevention circuit produces an output signal. 69. A method for automatically self testing an electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load, the device comprising: generating at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined polarity of AC power, the at least one simulated fault being generated during a test state interval and not being generated during a subsequent non-test state interval, the test state interval and the non-test state interval being recurring time intervals each of predetermined length; transmitting a detection signal in response to detecting the at least one simulated fault signal; generating an grated test detection pulse in response to the detection signal, the gated test detection pulse having a pulse duration not extending into a second predetermined polarity of AC power; and initiating an end-of-life fault signal if the gated detection pulse is not received within a predetermined period of time. 70. The method of claim 69, further comprising the step of actuating a response mechanism in response to the end-of-life fault signal. 71. The method of claim 69, further comprising the step of gating the end-of-life fault signal, wherein the response mechanism is responsive to the gated end-of-life mechanism. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/668,654 filed on Sep. 23, 2003, the content of which is relied upon and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, and the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. §120 is hereby claimed. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/668,654 claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §120 based on U.S. Pat. No. 6,674,289, which was filed on Nov. 29, 2000, the content of which is also relied upon and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. U.S. Pat. No. 6,674,289 claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) based on U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/183,273, filed Feb. 17, 2000, the contents of which are relied upon and incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to electric circuit protection devices, and particularly to protection devices which periodically self check for simulated fault conditions. 2. Technical Background Electric systems used to supply AC power to residential, commercial, and industrial facilities typically include a breaker panel that is configured to receive power from a utility source. The breaker panel distributes AC power to one or more branch electric circuits disposed in the facility. The electric circuits transmit AC power to one or more electrically powered devices, commonly referred to in the art as load circuits. Each electric circuit typically employs one or more electric circuit protection devices. Examples of such devices include ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), arc fault circuit interrupters (AFCIs), or both GFCIs and AFCIs. Further, AFCI and GFCI protection may be included in one protective device. A protective device may be conveniently packaged in a receptacle that is configured to be installed in a wall box. The receptacle includes input terminals configured to be connected to an electric branch circuit, i.e., the receptacle includes a hot line terminal and a neutral line terminal for connection to a hot power line and a neutral power line, respectively. The receptacle includes output terminals configured to be connected to a load circuit. In particular, the receptacle has feed-through terminals that include a hot load terminal and a neutral load terminal. The receptacle also includes user accessible plug receptacles connected to the feed through terminals. Accordingly, load devices equipped with a cord and plug may access AC power by way of the user accessible plug receptacles. When a fault condition is detected, the protection device eliminates the fault condition by interrupting the flow of electrical power to the load circuit by causing interrupting contacts to break the connection between the line terminals and load terminals. As indicated by the name of each respective device, an AFCI protects the electric circuit in the event of an arc fault, whereas a GFCI guards against ground faults. An arc fault is a discharge of electricity between two or more conductors. An arc fault may be caused by damaged insulation on the hot line conductor or neutral line conductor, or on both the hot line conductor and the neutral line conductor. The damaged insulation may cause a low power arc between the two conductors and a fire may result. An arc fault typically manifests itself as a high frequency current signal. Accordingly, an AFCI may be configured to detect various high frequency signals and de-energize the electrical circuit in response thereto. On the other hand, a ground fault occurs when a current carrying (hot) conductor contacts ground to create an unintended current path. The unintended current path represents an electrical shock hazard. Further, because some of the current flowing in the circuit is diverted into the unintended current path, a differential current is created between the hot/neutral conductors. As in the case of an arc fault, ground faults may also result in fire. A ground fault may occur for several reasons. If the wiring insulation within a load circuit becomes damaged, the hot conductor may contact ground, creating a shock hazard for a user. A ground fault may also occur when the equipment comes in contact with water. A ground fault may also be caused by damaged insulation within the facility. As noted above, a ground fault creates a differential current between the hot conductor and the neutral conductor. Under normal operating conditions, the current flowing in the hot conductor should equal the current in the neutral conductor. Thus, GFCIs typically compare the current in the hot conductor(s) to the return current in the neutral conductor by sensing the differential current between the two conductors. The GFCI may respond by actuating an alarm and/or interrupting the circuit. Circuit interruption is typically effected by opening the line between the source of power and the load. Another type of ground fault may occur when the load neutral terminal, or a conductor connected to the load neutral terminal, becomes grounded. This condition does not represent an immediate shock hazard. Under normal conditions, a GFCI will trip when the differential current is greater than or equal to approximately 6 mA. However, when the load neutral conductor is grounded the GFCI becomes de-sensitized because some of the return path current is diverted to ground. When this happens, it may take up to 30 mA of differential current before the GFCI trips. This scenario represents a double-fault condition, i.e., when both the hot conductor and the load neutral conductor are grounded, the GFCI may fail to trip, causing a user to experience serious injury or death. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a protection device that is capable of self-testing for both the grounded hot fault condition and the grounded neutral fault condition. In one approach that has been considered, a GFCI is configured to include a timer that initiates a periodic self test of the GFCI. Alternatively, the GFCI initiates a periodic alarm to alert the user to manually push the test button on the GFCI. One drawback to this approach is that the circuitry is relatively expensive and increases the size of the GFCI circuitry. In another approach that has been considered, a GFCI includes a visual indicator adapted to display a miswire condition. If the hot power source conductor and the neutral power source conductor are inadvertently miswired to the load terminals of the GFCI, the visual indicator is actuated to display the miswire alarm condition. Those of ordinary skill in the art will understand that a miswire condition of this type will result in a loss of GFCI protection at the duplex receptacles on the face of the GFCI. One drawback to this approach is that the GFCI does not include a self-test of the electrical circuit. Another drawback to this approach is that the visual display does not indicate a lock-out of load side power by the interrupting contacts. As such, the user is obliged to correctly interpret and take action based on appearance of the visual indicator. In yet another approach that has been considered, a GFCI is configured to self-test the relay solenoid that opens the GFCI interrupting contacts when a fault condition is sensed. However, the self-test does not include a test of the electrical circuit. In yet another approach that has been considered, the self-test is configured to detect the failure of certain components, such as the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). If a failure mode is detected, the device is driven to a lock-out mode, such that power is permanently de-coupled from the load. In light of all of the approaches discussed above, there are many other types of failures, such as those involving the GFCI sensing circuitry, that require manual testing. Of course, manual testing requires a user to push the test button disposed on the GFCI. If a fault condition is present, the GFCI trips out after the test button is pushed. This prompts the user to reset the GFCI. If the device fails to reset, the user understands that the device has failed and is in a lock-out condition. This approach has drawbacks as well. While regular testing is strongly encouraged by device manufacturers, in reality, few users test their GFCIs on a regular basis. Therefore, there is a need for a protection device that is configured to self-test internal device components. There is a further need for a GFCI that is adapted to self-test for both the grounded hot fault condition and the grounded neutral fault condition. There is also a need for a self-testing GFCI which performs self-testing every half-cycle, during a time period when the SCR tripping mechanism does not conduct. There is yet another need for a self-testing device that self-tests without generating false tripping. Finally, a need exists for a self-testing protection device that is characterized by noise immunity. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention addresses the needs described above by providing a protection device that is configured to self-test internal device components. The present invention is adapted to self-test for both the grounded hot fault condition and the grounded neutral fault condition. The present invention performs self-testing every half-cycle, during a time period when the SCR tripping mechanism does not operate. The self-testing device of the present invention self-tests without generating false tripping. Finally, the present invention is characterized by noise immunity. One aspect of the present invention is an electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling AC power through an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load. The device includes an automated self- test circuit coupled to the AC power distribution system. The test circuit is configured to generate at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power. A detector circuit is coupled to the automated self-test circuit. The detector circuit generates a detection signal in response to the at least one simulated fault signal. An interval timing circuit is coupled to the automated self-test circuit. The interval timing circuit is configured to enable the automated self-test circuit to generate the at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined interval and not enable the automated self-test circuit during a subsequent second predetermined interval. The first predetermined interval and the second predetermined interval are recurring time intervals. In another aspect, the present invention includes an electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling an AC power through an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load. The device includes a test circuit coupled between a hot conductor and a neutral conductor of the AC power distribution system. The test circuit is configured to generate at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power. A detector circuit is coupled to the test circuit. The detector circuit generates a detection signal in response to the at least one simulated fault signal. An interval timing circuit is coupled to the test circuit. The interval timing circuit is configured to enable the test circuit to generate the at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined interval and not enable the test circuit during a subsequent second predetermined interval. The first predetermined interval and the second predetermined interval are recurring time intervals. A gate circuit is coupled to the detector circuit. The gate circuit generates a gated test detection pulse in response to receiving the detection signal. The gated test detection pulse corresponds to the at least one simulated fault signal and has a duration not extending into a second predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power subsequent to the first predetermined half-cycle of AC power. A checking circuit is coupled to the gate circuit. The checking circuit includes a timer configured to initiate an end-of-life fault signal if the gated test detection pulse is not received within a predetermined period of time. A response mechanism is coupled to the checking circuit. The response mechanism is actuated in response to the end-of-life fault signal. In yet another aspect, the present invention includes an electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load. The device includes a test circuit coupled to the AC power distribution system. The test circuit is configured to generate at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power. A detector circuit is coupled to the test circuit. The detector circuit generates a detection signal in response to the at least one simulated fault signal. A processor is coupled to the test circuit and the detector circuit. The processor is programmed to: generate a self-test enable signal during a first predetermined time interval and not during a second predetermined time interval, the self-test enable signal enabling the test circuit to generate the at least one simulated fault signal; and generate a gated test detection pulse in response to receiving the detection signal, the gated test detection pulse corresponding to the at least one simulated fault signal and having a pulse duration not extending into a second predetermined half cycle polarity of AC power subsequent to the first predetermined half cycle polarity of AC power. A checking circuit is coupled to the processor. The checking circuit includes a timer configured to initiate an end-of-life fault signal if the gated test detection pulse is not received within a predetermined period of time. A response mechanism is coupled to the checking circuit. The response mechanism is actuated in response to the end-of-life fault signal. In yet another aspect, the present invention includes a method for automatically self testing an electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load. The device includes the step of generating at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined polarity of AC power. The at least one simulated fault is generated during a test state interval and not being generated during a subsequent non-test state interval. The test state interval and the non-test state interval are recurring time intervals each of predetermined length. A detection signal is transmitted in response to detecting the at least one simulated fault signal. A gated test detection pulse is generated in response to the detection signal. The gated test detection pulse has a pulse duration not extending into a second predetermined polarity of AC power. An end-of-life fault signal is initiated if the gated detection pulse is not received within a predetermined period of time. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be set forth in the detailed description which follows, and in part will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art from that description or recognized by practicing the invention as described herein, including the detailed description which follows, the claims, as well as the appended drawings. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are merely exemplary of the invention, and are intended to provide an overview or framework for understanding the nature and character of the invention as it is claimed. The accompanying drawings are included to provide a further understanding of the invention, and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification. The drawings illustrate various embodiments of the invention, and together with the description serve to explain the principles and operation of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic of a circuit protection device in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a chart showing the ground fault interrupter (GFI) circuit output voltage under normal conditions; FIG. 3 is a chart showing the GFI circuit output voltage under an internal fault condition; FIG. 4 is a schematic showing a GFI output circuit in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a chart showing the output voltage of the GFI output circuit depicted in FIG. 4 under normal conditions; FIG. 6 is a schematic showing a GFI output circuit in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a chart showing the typical output voltage of the GFI output circuit depicted in FIG. 6; FIG. 8 is a schematic showing a GFI output circuit in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a chart showing the typical output voltage of the GFI output circuit depicted in FIG. 8; FIG. 10 is a chart showing the typical output voltage of the GFI output circuit depicted in FIG. 8 under a fault condition; FIG. 11 is a schematic of a circuit protection device in accordance with a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 is a schematic of a circuit protection device in accordance with a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 13 is a schematic of a circuit protection device in accordance with a fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 is an example of a timing diagram illustrating the operation of the circuit depicted in FIG. 12; and FIG. 15 is an alternate circuit interrupter in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Reference will now be made in detail to the present exemplary embodiments of the invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts. An exemplary embodiment of the protection device of the present invention is shown in FIG. 1, and is designated generally throughout by reference numeral 10. In accordance with the invention, the present invention is directed to an electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling AC power through an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load. The device includes an automated self- test circuit coupled to the AC power distribution system. The test circuit is configured to generate at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power. A detector circuit is coupled to the automated self-test circuit. The detector circuit generates a detection signal in response to the at least one simulated fault signal. An interval timing circuit is coupled to the automated self-test circuit. The interval timing circuit is configured to enable the automated self-test circuit to generate the at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined interval and not enable the automated self-test circuit during a subsequent second predetermined interval. The first predetermined interval and the second predetermined interval are recurring time intervals. Accordingly, the present invention provides a protection device that is configured to self-test internal device components. The present invention is adapted to self-test for both the grounded hot fault condition and the grounded neutral fault condition. The instant self-testing GFCI performs self-testing every half-cycle, during a time period when the SCR tripping mechanism does not conduct. Furthermore, the self-testing device of the present invention self-tests without generating false tripping. Finally, the protection device of the present invention is characterized by noise immunity. As embodied herein, and depicted in FIG. 1, a schematic of a circuit protection device 10 in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention is disclosed. In particular, FIG. 1 is an illustration of a GFCI 10 which self checks for ground fault detection every negative half cycle during the period when an electronic switch such as an SCR 24 cannot conduct. If the self test fails, GFCI 10 is tripped out on the subsequent positive half cycle. GFCI 10 includes a GFI circuit 102 and a self test checking circuit 100. GFI circuit 102 includes a standard GFCI device in which a load-side ground fault is sensed by a differential transformer 2. A transformer 3, which is a grounded neutral transmitter, is used to sense grounded neutral faults. The transformer 2 output is processed by a GFI detector circuit 16 which produces a signal on output 20 that, after filtering in a circuit 21, activates a trip SCR 24. When SCR 24 turns ON, it activates a solenoid 38 which in turn operates a mouse trap device 73, releasing a plurality of contacts 74 and interrupting the load. A power supply 18 provides power for GFI detector circuit 16 for full cycle operation. A negative cycle bypass circuit 5, which preferably includes a diode 4 in series with a resistor 8, introduces a bypass current, simulating a ground fault, between neutral and hot lines 11, 13 during the negative half cycle of the AC power. The same bypass current could also be produced by placing bypass circuit 5 between lines 11 and 13 with the diode 4 anode at neutral line 11. The GFI 102 output circuit is formed by placing capacitor 40 in series with solenoid 38 to thereby form a resonating tank circuit. The tank circuit is placed in parallel with SCR 24 and a snubber circuit 35. Capacitor 40 charges on the positive half cycle of the AC power, but is prevented from discharging on the negative half cycle of the AC power by a blocking diode 42. An across-the-line metal oxide varistor (MOV1), also commonly referred to as a movistor, may be included in the protective device such as MOV 15 to prevent damage of the protective device from high voltage surges from the AC power source. The movistor is typically 12 mm in size. Referring to FIG. 2, a chart showing the ground fault interrupter (GFI) circuit output voltage under normal operating conditions is disclosed. Accordingly, capacitor 40 is charged to the peak of the AC wave as shown at point 200. On each negative portion of the AC wave, when SCR 24 cannot conduct line current, bypass 5 introduces a simulated ground fault which is sensed by transformers 2 and detected by GFI detector circuit 16, thereby activating SCR 24. Activation of SCR 24 discharges capacitor 40 through solenoid 38 and SCR 24 as shown at point 201. Capacitor 40 and solenoid 38 form a resonant circuit. When SCR 24 discharges capacitor 40 during the negative AC power cycle, a field is built up around solenoid 38 which, when collapsing, causes a recharge of capacitor 40 in the opposite direction, thereby producing a negative voltage across the capacitor when referenced to circuit common. When the SCR current falls below the minimum holding current, SCR 24 switches OFF, so that the negative charge remains on capacitor 40 until the next positive AC cycle. At that time, current passing through diode 42 charges capacitor 40 in the positive voltage direction. The negative voltage across capacitor 40 also appears across capacitor 36 of snubber circuit 35 as shown at point 202. Referring to FIG. 3, a chart showing the GFI circuit output voltage under an internal fault condition is shown. For example, the negative voltage across capacitor 40 does not appear if solenoid 38 is shorted because no solenoid magnetic field exists to collapse and produce the negative voltage. Thus, if any of the components including differential transformer 2, GFI detector circuit 16, circuit 21, power supply 18, SCR 24, solenoid 38, capacitor 40, and blocking diode 42 of circuit 102 fail, capacitor 40 does not discharge through solenoid 38, and the negative voltage across capacitor 40 from the collapsing field of solenoid 38 does not appear. Referring back to FIG. 1, checking circuit 100 is a stand-alone circuit preferably with its own power supply 44 providing power to a timer 52. Timer 52 is shown here as a 555 timer, but other timers known to those skilled in the art can be used. When the negative voltage appears across capacitor 40 and therefore across capacitor 36 as described above, a diode 46 conducts, pulling an input 50 of timer 52 LOW, triggering timer 52 into a monostable timeout mode. An output 53 of timer 52 goes HIGH, keeping a transistor 58 turned OFF. The timeout of timer 52 is long enough for timer 52 to be repeatedly re-triggered by the negative cycle discharge of capacitor 40 so that timer 52 does not time out. Thus, output 53 stays HIGH keeping transistor 58 OFF. An optional integrator formed by a resistor 54 and a capacitor 60 acts to hold transistor 58 OFF during any brief transitions when timer 52 times out just before timer 52 is re-triggered. If GFI circuit 102 fails to discharge capacitor 40 to a negative voltage, then timer 52 is not re-triggered, causing output 53 to go LOW and turning transistor 58 ON. Turning transistor 58 ON preferably activates a fault lamp 64 thereby indicating a failure of GFCI circuit 102. Turning transistor 58 ON sends a signal through a differentiator 32 and blocking diode 26 to trigger SCR 24. Differentiator 32 sends a one-shot pulse to SCR 24 which lasts long enough to overlap into a positive AC cycle, so that triggering SCR 24 activates mouse trap device 73, trips contacts 74, and disables GFCI 10. Optional outcomes of a failure in GFCI 10 are locking out power, indicating the failure on a lamp, or both. As embodied herein and depicted in FIG. 4, a schematic showing a GFI output circuit in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention is disclosed. In this alternate embodiment, diode 39 replaces the snubber circuit 35 shown in FIG. 1. Diode 39 provides a bypass of SCR 24 and allows the ring to continue as energy moves back and forth between solenoid 38 and capacitor 40. Referring to FIG. 5, the voltage waveform of the GFI output circuit depicted in FIG. 4 is shown. In particular, FIG. 5 shows the voltage ring across capacitor 40. Ring detector block 400 monitors the output voltage. Ring detector block 400 is performs a function similar to the one performed by checking circuit 100 shown in FIG. 1. The absence of a proper output ring voltage fails to reset the timer in circuit 400. Accordingly, the timer in circuit 400 will time out, indicating a failure of the GFI circuit 102. It will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the pertinent art that modifications and variations can be made to ring detector block 400 of the present invention depending on the variations of the GFI output circuit and their resultant waveforms. As embodied herein and depicted in FIG. 6, a schematic showing a GFI output circuit in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention is disclosed. In this alternate embodiment, a secondary 401 intercepts the magnetic field from solenoid 38. Referring to FIG. 7, the output voltage waveform of the GFI output circuit depicted in FIG. 6 is shown. Detector circuit 400 detects the ring and issues an output if the ring fails due to circuit failure. As embodied herein and depicted in FIG. 8, a schematic showing a GFI output circuit in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention is disclosed. Referring to FIGS. 8-10, another embodiment is shown for obtaining the ringing waveform. If the protective device is operational, SCR 24 turns on during the negative half cycles, causing capacitor 40 to discharge through solenoid 38. When the current through solenoid 38 starts to reverse in order to return stored energy to capacitor 40, SCR 24 turns off and the reverse current flows through diode 801, charging capacitor 800. There is a succession of ringing periods during the negative half cycle of the AC power source in which energy is transferred from capacitor 40 to solenoid 38 and back again. Each time the energy is transferred to solenoid 38, SCR 24 turns on. When SCR 24 is ON, the voltage across capacitor 800 forward biases diode 802 to produce a signal at the input of ring detector 400, shown in FIGS. 9 as positive pulse 900. Ring detector 400 produces an output signal upon detection of a predetermined number of one or more positive pulses, indicative of ringing. FIG. 10 shows a GFI output circuit voltage waveform during a fault condition. In particular, FIG. 10 illustrates the circuit response when solenoid 38 is shorted. Waveform 902 is the voltage across the switching terminals of SCR 24. Waveform 903 is the waveform at the input of ring detector 400. When solenoid 38 is shorted, indicating a failed solenoid, SCR 24 conducts as before during the negative half cycle of the power source. Since diode 42 is non-conductive during the negative half cycle, SCR 24 discharges capacitor 40. Since solenoid 38 is shorted, it has little or no inductance. Thus capacitor 40 discharges as before, but due to lack of inductance there is no reverse current through diode 801 to produce a charge of the correct polarity on capacitor 800. Accordingly, capacitor 800 is unable to discharge a positive pulse through diode 802. Without the positive pulse, the timer in detector 400 is not reset before time out occurs. In response, ring detector 400 transmits an output signal and device 10 is tripped. Furthermore, failure of other components may be configured to prevent a ringing signal, including opening or shorting of solenoid 38, capacitor 40, capacitor 800 or diode 801. It will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that although the circuit examples so far described perform a self test for correct circuit operation during the negative power cycle, i.e., when the SCR of the disclosed embodiments is inactive as far as carrying line current, the circuit reference and SCR orientation could be reversed so as to become non-conducting during the positive line cycle. Thus, the present invention is equally applicable to positive half-cycle testing. Further, in another embodiment, SCR 24 is replaced by another unipolar conducting device, such as a transistor or field effect transistor (FET), and placed in series with a blocking diode. Those of ordinary skill in the art will also recognize that circuits described herein may be adapted for use in a GFEP (ground fault equipment protector) or AFCI (arc fault interrupter circuit), as well as in a GFCI. Furthermore, although the GFCI is described herein as being connected to the hot and neutral lines, the present invention could be connected between any two lines, whether hot or neutral, multiple phase systems and multiple phase systems do not have a neutral conductor, by changing component values as appropriate. As described above, the self-test signal is confined to either the negative half cycle or the positive half cycle of the AC power depending on whether negative half cycle or positive half cycle testing is employed. However, there are circumstances in which the self-test simulation signal is confined to a negative half cycle but the resulting self-test signal extends into one or more of the following cycles of AC power, including one or more positive half cycle. This phenomenon may have several deleterious effects. The presence of an extended signal in the positive half cycle may cause the protective device to false trip. Further, an extended signal may interfere with a true fault signal that device 10 is configured to detect during the positive half cycle. In other words, the interference of the extended signal affects the sensitivity of the device. Thus, the extended signal may result in device unresponsiveness or device false tripping, depending on whether the extended signal opposes or aids the true fault signal. Referring again to FIG. 1, one possible cause of signal extension relates to the characteristics of transformer 2. As shown, transformer 2 includes a toroidal core 1102 through which neutral and hot lines 11 and 13 are passed to form primary windings. A secondary winding, 1104, is wound about the toroid. Toroidal core 1102 may be implemented using a magnetic material, having a predetermined permeability. As those of ordinary skill in the art understand, if there is a load 1106 coupled to hot and neutral load terminals 1108 and 1110, the currents through hot line 13 and neutral line 11 are equal and opposite, producing equal and opposite signals in the two primary windings. As a result, there should be no magnetic flux in core 1102 and, therefore, no output signal on winding 1104. However, if there is a load-side ground fault 1112 coupled to load hot terminal 1108, a true ground fault current flows through hot line 13 that does not flow through neutral line 11. A difference current between the two primary windings is generated. The difference current generates a magnetic flux in toroidal core 1102 and a sensor output signal is provided to GFI detector 16 by way of resistor 1114 which is coupled to winding 1104. Resistor 1114 is typically referred to as the “burden resistance” on winding 1104. The relationship between the burden resistance and the core permeability is discussed in the following paragraph. Those of ordinary skill in the art recognize that it is desirable to operate transformer 2 in a current transformer mode. Current transformer mode operation is advantageous because the output signal from winding 1104 is substantially independent of the permeability of core 1102. This is important because the permeability value of the core is difficult to accurately manufacture. The inductance of winding 1104 is typically 10 Henries. The corresponding inductive reactance is about 3,600 Ohms if the frequency of the AC power, i.e., the frequency of the fault current, is 60 Hz. The burden resistance is typically chosen to be about a tenth of the inductive reactance of winding 1104 at the frequency of the AC power, if transformer 2 is to operate in a current transformer mode. Therefore, there are constraints of the value of secondary winding inductance and burdening resistance (or impedance) for the proper operation of the GFI. As alluded to above, the self-test flux residue causes self test signal extension into a positive half cycle. The secondary winding inductance (L) and the burden resistance (R) establish a rate of decay of the extended test signal. Accordingly, there is an optimal L/R time constant for the given AC power frequency, wherein L is the secondary winding inductance and R is the burden resistance on the winding. The flux that is induced by the negative half cycle self-test signal decays at a rate established by the L/R time constant. If the AC power frequency is 60 Hz, for example, the L/R time constant is typically chosen to be 15 to 30 milliseconds, as compared to the 16.6 mS period (60 Hz) of the power frequency. Although the values are described for a 60 Hz power distribution system, similar considerations apply to other frequencies that are in use, such as 50 Hz and 400 Hz. Thus, the flux residue from the negative half cycle self test interferes with the flux induced by a true ground fault for multiple AC power periods (16.6 mS per period), adversely affecting true fault current detection. Another cause for an extended test signal is the delay time associated with filter circuit 21. Filter circuit 21 is typically a low pass filter configured to reject high frequency noise. As embodied herein and depicted in FIG. 11, a schematic of a circuit protection device 10 in accordance with a second embodiment of the present invention is disclosed. This embodiment differs from the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 1-10 by the addition of control gate 1116, by-pass circuit 1126, and several alternative routes for the ring detector 400 output. Control gate 1116 is coupled to detector 16 and configured to receive either detector output signal 1120 or filtered detector output signal 20. Control gate 1116 gates these signals and provides a gated and delayed detection signal to SCR 24 (SCR out). Control gate 1116 is configured to recycle between a test state and a non-test state. The durations of each of the two states are established by a timing circuit. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the timing circuit may be of any suitable type. For example, the timing circuit may be an external clocking arrangement driven by a local oscillator (not shown), a timer disposed in controller 1116, or by a zero cross circuit 1117 coupled to the AC power. As will be described in greater detail below, when control gate 1116 is in the test state, it is configured to actuate self-test relay 1118 during a negative half-cycle. Upon actuation, self-test relay 1118 is configured to actuate the self-test circuit to initiate the self-test procedure. As described below, control gate 1116 may also receive an input 1125 from ring detector 400 via SCR 1122. Automated self-test circuit 1128 is coupled between line hot 13 and line neutral 11. Circuit 1128 includes contacts 1130 which are disposed in series with diode 4 and resistor 8. One approach is shown in FIG. 11. Self-test signal is generated by ground fault simulation circuit 1128 when relay 1118 turns on to close contacts 1130. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that test circuit 1128 may be implemented using various alternate fault simulation circuits. If contacts 1130 are configured to close during the negative half cycle, diode 4 may be omitted. Alternatively, if contacts 130 are configured to close for a full line cycle, diode 4 should be included to limit the simulated ground fault current to the negative half cycle. The current flowing through resistor 8 produces a difference current between the hot and neutral conductors, conductors 13 and 11, which is sensed by transformer 2, as has been previously described. The various embodiments of the device may be equipped with a manually accessible test button 1132 for closing switch contacts 1134 for initiating a simulated grounded hot fault signal, as current through resistor 1136, or alternatively, a simulated grounded neutral fault signal (not shown.) If GFI 10 is operational, closure of switch contacts 1134 initiates a tripping action. The purpose of the test button feature may be to allow the user to control GFCI 10 as a switch for applying or removing power from load 1106, in which case test button 1132 and reset button 75 have been labeled “off” and “on” respectively. Usage of test button 1132 does not affect the performance of checking circuit 100, or vice-versa. By-pass circuit 1126 is coupled to sensor 2. By-pass circuit 1126 is activated when the differential current exceeds a predetermined amount. The output of by-pass 1126 is directly connected to SCR 24. Thus, when the differential current exceeds the predetermined current, control gate 1116 is by-passed and SCR 24 is actuated and device 10 is tripped. The rationale for by-pass circuit 1126 is discussed below in greater detail. Referring to ring detector 400, the ring detector output signal may be used in two ways. In the first alternative, line ALT 1 is directly coupled between detector output SCR 1122 and solenoid 38. In the same manner as described above, if the timer in detector 400 times out, detector 400 transmits a signal by way of ALT 1 to trip device 10. LED 1124 can be illuminated at the same time to indicate that an end-of-life condition exists. In the second alternative, ALT 1 is replaced by line ALT 2. When detector 400 indicates that an end-of-life condition exists, the signal is transmitted via line ALT 2 to input 1125 and LED 1124 is illuminated. In response to the signal from detector 400, control gate 1116 activates SCR 24 after a predetermined period of time has elapsed. In this alternative embodiment, a user is given the predetermined period of time to replace the device before power is interrupted. It will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the pertinent art that modifications and variations can be made to control gate 1116 of the present invention depending on device selection and design issues. For example, control gate 1116 may be implemented using a microprocessor, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), or a combination of other electronic devices familiar to those skilled in the art. In the example shown in FIG. 11, control gate 1116 is implemented as a discrete microprocessor component. In another embodiment, control gate 1116 is combined in an ASIC with other device components and sub-systems. For example, an ASIC may include detector 16, self-test circuit 400, and other such components. As those of ordinary skill in the pertinent art will recognize, self-test relay 1118 may be of any suitable type depending on electrical device characteristics. For example, relay 1118 may be implemented using an electro-mechanical relay. Relay 1118 may also be implemented using a solid state switches such as a thyristor, SCR, triac, transistor, MOSFET, or other semiconductor devices. Turning now to the operation of control gate 1116, during recurring non-test state intervals, the detector output signal 20, or 1120, is directed to control gate 1116, as previously described. When control gate 1116 is in the non-test state, control gate 1116 de-activates the negative half cycle self-test signal by turning off self-test relay 1118, permitting detection of the true fault signal while avoiding the self-test signal interference. In this state, GFI 10 may detect a true fault signal in either half cycle, but is responsive to the fault only in the positive half cycles. The duration of the non-test state intervals may be selected within a time range between one (1) second and one (1) month. One month is typically considered as being the maximum safe interval between tests. In one embodiment, the duration of the non-test state interval is about one minute. The test/non-test cycle is recurring; each non-test cycle is followed by a test state cycle, and each test cycle is followed by a non-test state cycle. Accordingly, GFI 10 is in a self-test mode during the test state interval. In one embodiment, a self-test signal is transmitted during the first negative half cycle in the test state interval. In another embodiment, the simulated test is effected is effected in selected negative half-cycles, or in each negative half-cycle in the test interval. In the circuit example depicted in FIG. 11, control gate 1116 activates simulated fault signal during a negative half cycle by turning on self-test relay 1118. The simulated test signal causes detector 16 to produce a signal at output 20 or at an alternate output 1120 during each negative half-cycle. Output 1120 provides the same information as output 20, but is configured to generate digital logic levels. Control gate 1116 gates the detector 16 output signal received during the negative half cycle to SCR 24. The gate functions to block any extended signal for a predetermined amount of time after the negative half cycle. The predetermined time interval is chosen such that any remaining extended signal is substantially less than the expected true fault signal. The predetermined interval is typically set at 30 to 50 milliseconds. As a result, any self-test signal that extends beyond the negative half cycle does not cause false activation of SCR 24. However, the portion of the self-test signal propagating during the negative half cycles will cause the timer in ring detector 400 to reset. With regard to the predetermined time interval, by-pass circuit 1126 is provided to allow device 10 to respond in accordance with UL trip time requirements if a true fault condition occurs during the 30 to 50 millisecond dead period described above. By-pass circuit 1126 circumvents control gate 1116 under certain circumstances. In the event of a ground fault, the operation of control gate 1116 may be delayed by capacitive charging time constants in power supply 18 and by delays in control gate 1116, including software-related delays. These delays might prevent trip mechanism 73 from interrupting high amplitude ground fault currents greater than about 100 mA within known safe maximum time limits. The trip time requirement is provided in UL 943. UL 943 includes an inverse time-current curve: t=(20/I)1.43 where “I” is the fault current in milliamps (mA) and “t” is the trip time in seconds. Typical values for the fault current range between 6 mA and 264 mA. The 6 mA current is the “let-go threshold.” In other words, UL does not consider currents less than 6 mA to be a hazard. The 264 mA limit corresponds to 132 VAC (the maximum source voltage) divided by 500 Ohms (the least body resistance for a human being). Applying the trip time curve, a 6 mA fault current is allowed a maximum trip time of 5 seconds. A 264 mA fault current is allowed a maximum trip time of 0.025 seconds. By-pass circuit 1126 is configured to actuate SCR 24 when the fault current exceeds 100 mA. According to the trip time curve, if the fault current equals 100 mA, the calculated trip time is 0.1 seconds (100 milliseconds.) Thus, the 30 to 50 millisecond dead period does not violate the UL trip time curve for true ground faults below 100 mA. For true fault currents above 100 mA, bypass circuit 1126 overrides the dead period lock-out. Accordingly, the present invention is in accordance with UL trip time requirements. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that bypass circuit 1126 and detector 16 may be combined in a single monolithic integrated circuit. Referring back to the checking circuit in FIG. 11, if GFI 10 has reached end of life, the timer internal to ring detector 400 will not be reset because of the absence of the ring pulse. At this point the timer transmits a time-out signal which results in SCR 1122 being activated and a response is initiated. As noted above, the response may include an end-of-life indication by indicator 1124. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the end-of-life indication may be a visual indication (as shown), an audible indication, or both. Alternatively, if line ALT 1 is implemented, the response can include activation of solenoid 38 to operate mouse trap device 73, or the response can include both the visual/audible indication and solenoid actuation. If line ALT 2 is implemented in place of line ALT 1, SCR 1122 is coupled to gate controller 1116 to provide delayed circuit interruption. As in the first alternative design, the second alternative design may include both the end-of-life indication via indicator 1124 and delayed circuit interruption. Delayed circuit interruption is accomplished by activation of SCR 1122. SCR 1122 transmits a signal to control gate input 1125. In response, control gate 1116 initiates a timer and actuates SCR 24 after a pre-determined time delay. One benefit from this response method is that the user is alerted by an indication that the device has reached end-of-life. The user is then afforded a reasonable amount of time to replace the device before power to the load terminals becomes denied by the circuit interrupter. In one embodiment, the pre-determined time delay is twenty-four (24) hours. Any suitable time interval may be chosen. For example, the delay may be set at forty-eight (48) hours. Another feature of the present invention relates to noise immunity. The sources of transient noise include switching noise from the AC power source, electrical noise associated with loads having commutating motors with brushes, or the noise associated with various kinds of lamps or appliances. Noise immunity is a consideration because transient noise may interfere with the self-test signal. Under certain circumstances, noise may interfere with, or cancel, the self-test signal. Accordingly, the timer in ring detector 400 may not be reset despite the fact that there is no internal fault condition in GFCI 10. In one embodiment, the timer in ring detector 400, or timer 52 in FIG. 1, is programmed to measure a time interval that spans four simulated test cycles, or a predetermined amount of time, such as four minutes, for example. Thus, ring detector 400 need only detect one in four ringing pulses during the time interval for timer reset. It is unlikely that a transient noise event would disturb either four consecutive negative half cycles or last for a period of 4 minutes. As such, programming the timer in this manner desensitizes GFCI 10 to the effects of transient electrical noise. As embodied herein and depicted in FIG. 12, a schematic of a circuit protection device in accordance with a third embodiment of the present invention is disclosed. FIG. 12 is a schematic diagram of an alternate embodiment in which the fault simulation circuit generates a simulated negative half cycle grounded neutral signal. Reference is made to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/768,530, which is incorporated herein by reference as though fully set forth in its entirety, for a more detailed explanation of the fault simulation signal. Note that test circuit 1128 does not include diode 4. The GFI circuit 102 in FIG. 12 includes a transformer 2 that is configured to sense a load-side ground fault when there is a difference in current between the hot and neutral conductors. Transformer 2 sends sensed signal to detector circuit 16. GFI circuit 102 also includes a grounded neutral transmitter 3 that is configured to detect grounded neutral conditions. Those skilled in the art understand that the conductor connected to neutral line terminal 11 is deliberately grounded in the electrical circuit. On the other hand, a grounded neutral condition occurs when a conductor connected to load neutral terminal 1110 is accidentally grounded. The grounded neutral condition creates a parallel conductive path with the return path disposed between load terminal 1110 and line terminal 11. When a grounded neutral condition is not present, grounded neutral transmitter 3 is configured to couple equal signals into the hot and neutral conductors. As noted above, transformer 2 senses a current differential. Thus, when no fault condition exists, the current flowing in the hot conductor cancels the current flowing in the neutral conductor. However, when a grounded neutral condition is present, the signal coupled onto the neutral conductor circulates as a current around the parallel conductive path and the return path, forming a conductive loop 1212. Since the circulating current conducts through the neutral conductor but not the hot conductor, a differential current is generated. Transformer 2 detects the differential current between the hot and neutral conductors. As such, detector 16 produces a signal on output 20 in response to the grounded neutral condition. In one embodiment, ground fault detector 16 is implemented using an RV 4141 integrated circuit manufactured by Fairchild Semiconductor which receives signal from transformer 2. Those of ordinary skill in the art will understand that any suitable device may be employed herein. As in previous embodiments, transformer 2 includes a toroidally shaped magnetic core 1102 about which a winding 1104 is wound. Winding 1104 is coupled to an input terminal 1202 of ground fault detector 16. Winding 1104 typically has 1,000 turns. Grounded neutral transmitter 3 comprises a second toroidally shaped magnetic core 1204 about which a winding 1206 is wound. Winding 1206 is coupled in series with a capacitor 1208 to the gain output terminal 1210 of ground fault detector 16. Winding 1206 typically has 200 turns. Hot and neutral conductors 13 and 11 pass through the apertures of cores 1102 and 1204. During a grounded neutral condition, low level electrical noise indigenous to the electrical circuit or to ground fault detector 16 creates a magnetic flux in either core 1102 or 1204, or both. The flux in core 1204 is induced by winding 1206. Core 1204 induces a circulating current in electrical loop 1212, which induces a flux in core 1102. The resulting signal from winding 1104 is amplified by the gain of ground fault detector 16 to produce an even greater flux in core 1204 via winding 1206. Because of this regenerative feedback action, ground fault detector 16 breaks into oscillation. The frequency typically is in a range between 5 kHz and 10 kHz. This oscillation produces a signal on output 20. Control gate 1116 ultimately signals SCR 24 to trip the device 10. Electrical loop 1212 is part of the fault simulation circuit 1128. Loop 1212 has a resistance associated with it. The resistance is shown in FIG. 12 as lumped resistance 1214. Resistance 1214 is typically less than 2 Ohms. Electrical loop 1212 couples the grounded neutral transmitter 3 and ground fault detector 2 when contacts 1130 are closed during the first negative half cycle of each test state interval. Accordingly, a simulated grounded neutral condition is generated only during the negative half cycle. The simulated grounded neutral condition causes detector 16 to generate a fault detect output signal on line 20 to retrigger the timer in ring detector 400 during test state intervals. Absence of the timer reset signal indicates that the device has reached its end of life. As previously discussed, the end of life condition causes activation of an end of life indicator, tripping of interrupting contacts, or both. Again, the various embodiments of the device may be equipped with a manually accessible test button 1132 configured to close switch contacts 1134. Upon closure of contacts 1134, current flows through resistor 1136 and a simulated grounded hot fault signal is initiated. In another embodiment, a simulated grounded neutral fault signal (not shown) is initiated by actuating test button 1132. If GFI 10 is operational, closure of switch contacts 1134 initiates a tripping action. The purpose of the test button feature may be to allow the user to control GFCI 10 as a switch for applying or removing power from load 1106. As such, test button 1132 and reset button 75 may be labeled “off” and “on,” respectively. Usage of test button 1132 does not affect the performance of checking circuit 100, or vice-versa. As embodied herein and depicted in FIG. 13, a schematic of a circuit protection device in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention is disclosed. FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram that illustrates how the present invention may be applied to a general protective device 1300. If sensor 1302 is included, the protective device is an AFCI. If transformers 2 and 3 are included, the protective device is a GFCI. If sensor 1302, and transformers 2 and 3 are included, the protective device is a combination AFCI-GFCI. Stated generally, the protective device may include one or more, or a combination of sensors configured to sense one or more type of hazardous conditions in the load, or in the AC electrical circuit supplying power to the load. Sensor 1302 senses an arc fault signature in load current. Detector 1304 is similar to ground fault detector 16, but is configured to detect signals from any of the variety of sensors employed in the design. Detector may also provide a signal to a transmitter, such as transformer 3. Fault simulation circuit 1306 is similar to fault simulation circuit 1128 but configured to produce one or more simulation signal to confirm that the protective device is operational. Contacts 1130 are closed by operation of relay 1118 during a test state interval. A fault simulation signal is thereby generated during the negative half cycle of the AC power line. The embodiment of FIG. 13 is similar to the previous embodiments discussed herein, in that extended test fault signal from fault detector 1304 to SCR 24 is blocked by control gate 1116. In this manner, simulation signal that extends into positive half cycles of the AC power line do not result SCR 24 being turned on, which would otherwise cause false actuation of the circuit interrupter. Other features and benefits can be added to the various embodiments of the invention. GFCI 10 may be equipped with a miswiring detection feature such as miswire network 1308. Reference is made to U.S. Pat. No. 6,522,510, which is incorporated herein by reference as though fully set forth in its entirety, for a more detailed explanation of miswire network 1308. Briefly stated, miswire network 1308 is configured to produce a simulated ground fault condition. During the installation of protective device 1300 if the power source voltage is coupled to the line terminals 11 and 13 as intended, the current through network 1308 causes the protective device to trip. However, the current through network 1308 continues to flow until a fusible component in network 1308 open circuits due to I2R heating. The fusible component may be implemented by resistor 1310, which is configured to fuse in typically 1 to 10 seconds. The protective device 1300 may be reset after the fusible component opens. Subsequently, the protective device 1300 and checking circuit 100 operate in the previously described manner. However, when the device is miswired by connecting the power source to the load terminals 1108 and 1110 during installation, GFI 102 trips the interrupting contacts 74 before the fusible component opens. The current flow through network 1308 is terminated in less than 0.1 seconds. This time period is too brief an interval to cause the fusible component to fail. Thus, when protective device 1300 is miswired, the fusible element in network 1308 remains intact. Accordingly, reset button 75 cannot effect a resetting action. Protective device 1300 cannot be reset regardless of signals to or from checking circuit 100. As discussed above and shown in FIG. 1, an across-the-line metal oxide varistor (MOV), also commonly referred to as a movistor, may be included in the protective device to prevent damage of the protective device from high voltage surges from the AC power source. The movistor is typically 12 mm in size. Alternatively, a much smaller MOV may be employed in the circuit when it is coupled with an inductance. In this embodiment, MOV 15′ is coupled with solenoid 38. The value of the inductive reactance of solenoid 38 is typically greater than 50 Ohms at the frequency of the surge voltage. The inductive reactance serves to reduce the surge current absorbed by the movistor, permitting MOV 15′ to have a lower energy rating. Accordingly, the size of the movistor may be reduced to a 5 mm diameter device. Further, the MOV may be replaced altogether by a surge-absorbing capacitor, air gap, or any of other surge protection methods familiar to those who are skilled in the art. Protective device 1300 may also include a trip indicator 1312. Indicator 1312 is configured to illuminate a trip indication, or audibly annunciate a trip indication, when protective device 1300 is tripped. Trip indicator 1312 also functions to direct the user to the location of the tripped device. Another feature of the embodiment shown in FIG. 13 relates to the dual solenoid design. Upon reaching end-of-life, solenoid 38 typically fails by developing an open circuit condition. Solenoid 1314 may be added to checking circuit 100 to provide redundancy. If solenoid 38 open circuits, secondary 401 does not receive self-test signal. However, checking circuit 100 is able to trip out the protective device by actuating solenoid 1314. Solenoid 1314 may be magnetically coupled to solenoid 38. Other redundancies may be included in device 1300. Redundant components permit the protective device and/or permit checking circuit 100 to function. For example, diode 1316 included in power supply 18 can comprise two diodes in parallel, such that if one diode open circuits, that second diode continues to maintain supply voltage. Referring to FIG. 14, a timing diagram illustrating the operation of the circuit depicted in FIG. 12 is shown. FIG. 14a shows the AC power source signal 1400. AC signal 1400 includes positive half cycles 1402 and negative half cycles 1404. Control gate 1116 subdivides time into alternating test state interval 1406 and non-test state interval 1408. FIG. 14b represents the gain output waveform at detector input terminal 1210. Voltage signal 1410 is the quiescent level when there is no fault condition, whether a simulated fault condition or true fault condition. The quiescent voltage level 1410 is centered between pre-established voltage thresholds 1412 and 1412′. The threshold levels are established by ground fault detector 16. During the first negative half cycle 1414 within second state interval 1406, contacts 1130 close, initiating a simulated grounded neutral fault. The simulated grounded neutral fault results in signal 1416. The positive amplitude and the negative amplitude of signal 1416 is greater than voltage threshold 1412 or less than voltage threshold 1412′, respectively. Both the positive amplitude peak and the negative amplitude nadir cause detector 16 to generate a detection signal at output 20. FIG. 14c represents the resultant signal from filter circuit 21. Control gate 1116 couples signals 1416 to timer 52 (embodiment of FIG. 1), or the timer internal to detector 400, causing the timer to reset. Although the simulated grounded neutral fault terminates abruptly at the conclusion of negative half cycle 1414, there is residual flux in core 1102, shown electrically as transient 1418. The transient signal is delayed by filter circuit 21. The delayed transient is shown in FIG. 14c as delayed transient signal 1422. Referring to FIGS. 14c-14d, the residual flux and other similar effects cause the self-test signal 1420 to extend into positive half cycles 1424. Note that a portion 1426 of delayed transient signal 1422 extends into the next positive half cycle and exceeds the predetermined threshold 1423. Referring to FIG. 14d, control gate 1116 transmits pulse 1428 to SCR 24. Pulse 1428 corresponds to that portion of signal 1420 propagating during the negative half cycle 1414. Thus, control gate 1116 prevents nuisance tripping. Referring back to FIG. 14a, test state intervals 1406 are typically chosen to be 50 milliseconds, a time interval that is greater than the expected intervals of transients 1418 and 1422. As such, non-test state intervals 1408 are devoid of test signal transients (extended signal.) However, if a true fault current is present during either interval, the fault is detected by detector 16, filtered by circuit 21, and coupled to SCR 24 by control gate 1116 in the manner previously described herein. Referring back to the issue of transient electrical noise, the elapsed time measured by timer 52 can be increased to include one or more test state intervals. If the transient electrical noise interferes with the generation of pulse 1428, the fault detection circuitry may generate pulse 1428′ during a subsequent test state interval. Because the timer is configured to measure more than one set of test and non-test state intervals, the timer may be reset before a false end-of-life tripping occurs. In this manner, false end-of-life indication can be avoided by selecting an established time that is greater than the duration of at least two first state intervals. FIG. 14e shows the output of timer 52. If a retrigger signal is not received by timer 52 within the established time set by timer 52, timer 52 generates signal 1430 which actuates the end-of-life response mechanism. Although the timing diagrams in FIG. 14 have been described in association with the embodiment shown in FIG. 12, the principles of operation similarly apply to the other embodiments of the invention. Referring to FIG. 15, an alternate circuit interrupter is described. The circuit interrupter includes trip mechanism 1506, interrupting contacts 1508 and reset button 1510 that are similar to previously described element designated as reference elements 73, 74 and 75. The circuit interrupter is coupled to line conductors 11 and 13 and is configured to decouple one or more loads from the utility source when a true fault condition or a simulated fault condition has been detected, or when an automated self-test signal has failed. In particular, when decoupling occurs there is a plurality of air gaps 1512 that serve to electrically isolate a plurality of load structures from one another. The load may include, for example, feed-through terminals 1514 that are disposed in the protective device. The feed through terminals are configured to connect wires to a subsequent portion of the branch electrical circuit. The portion of the branch circuit, in turn, is protected by the protective device. The load structures can also include at least one user accessible plug receptacle 1516 disposed in the protective device. The plug receptacle is configured to mate with an attachment plug of a user attachable load. Accordingly, the user load is likewise protected by the protective device. As has been previously described, if the device 10 (1300) is inadvertently miswired during installation into the branch electrical circuit, i.e., source voltage is connected to the feed-through terminals 1514, the protective device can be configured so as to only momentarily reset each time resetting is attempted, e.g. each time the reset button 1510 is depressed. Alternatively, the protective device can be configured so that during a miswired condition, the ability to reset the device 10 (1300) is blocked. In either case, air gap(s) 1512 prevent power from the utility source at feed-through terminals 1514 from powering plug receptacle(s) 1516. At least one air gap 1512 can be provided for each utility source hot conductor. The user is protected from a fault condition in the user attachable load. Alternatively, at least one air gap 1512 can be provided but in a single utility source conductor. Power to receptacle 1516 would be denied. Therefore the user would be motivated to remedy the miswired condition before a fault condition is likely to arise, In yet another alternative, utility source conductors may selectively include air gaps 1512 for electrically decoupling the load structures. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made to the present invention without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Thus, it is intended that the present invention cover the modifications and variations of this invention provided they come within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to electric circuit protection devices, and particularly to protection devices which periodically self check for simulated fault conditions. 2. Technical Background Electric systems used to supply AC power to residential, commercial, and industrial facilities typically include a breaker panel that is configured to receive power from a utility source. The breaker panel distributes AC power to one or more branch electric circuits disposed in the facility. The electric circuits transmit AC power to one or more electrically powered devices, commonly referred to in the art as load circuits. Each electric circuit typically employs one or more electric circuit protection devices. Examples of such devices include ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), arc fault circuit interrupters (AFCIs), or both GFCIs and AFCIs. Further, AFCI and GFCI protection may be included in one protective device. A protective device may be conveniently packaged in a receptacle that is configured to be installed in a wall box. The receptacle includes input terminals configured to be connected to an electric branch circuit, i.e., the receptacle includes a hot line terminal and a neutral line terminal for connection to a hot power line and a neutral power line, respectively. The receptacle includes output terminals configured to be connected to a load circuit. In particular, the receptacle has feed-through terminals that include a hot load terminal and a neutral load terminal. The receptacle also includes user accessible plug receptacles connected to the feed through terminals. Accordingly, load devices equipped with a cord and plug may access AC power by way of the user accessible plug receptacles. When a fault condition is detected, the protection device eliminates the fault condition by interrupting the flow of electrical power to the load circuit by causing interrupting contacts to break the connection between the line terminals and load terminals. As indicated by the name of each respective device, an AFCI protects the electric circuit in the event of an arc fault, whereas a GFCI guards against ground faults. An arc fault is a discharge of electricity between two or more conductors. An arc fault may be caused by damaged insulation on the hot line conductor or neutral line conductor, or on both the hot line conductor and the neutral line conductor. The damaged insulation may cause a low power arc between the two conductors and a fire may result. An arc fault typically manifests itself as a high frequency current signal. Accordingly, an AFCI may be configured to detect various high frequency signals and de-energize the electrical circuit in response thereto. On the other hand, a ground fault occurs when a current carrying (hot) conductor contacts ground to create an unintended current path. The unintended current path represents an electrical shock hazard. Further, because some of the current flowing in the circuit is diverted into the unintended current path, a differential current is created between the hot/neutral conductors. As in the case of an arc fault, ground faults may also result in fire. A ground fault may occur for several reasons. If the wiring insulation within a load circuit becomes damaged, the hot conductor may contact ground, creating a shock hazard for a user. A ground fault may also occur when the equipment comes in contact with water. A ground fault may also be caused by damaged insulation within the facility. As noted above, a ground fault creates a differential current between the hot conductor and the neutral conductor. Under normal operating conditions, the current flowing in the hot conductor should equal the current in the neutral conductor. Thus, GFCIs typically compare the current in the hot conductor(s) to the return current in the neutral conductor by sensing the differential current between the two conductors. The GFCI may respond by actuating an alarm and/or interrupting the circuit. Circuit interruption is typically effected by opening the line between the source of power and the load. Another type of ground fault may occur when the load neutral terminal, or a conductor connected to the load neutral terminal, becomes grounded. This condition does not represent an immediate shock hazard. Under normal conditions, a GFCI will trip when the differential current is greater than or equal to approximately 6 mA. However, when the load neutral conductor is grounded the GFCI becomes de-sensitized because some of the return path current is diverted to ground. When this happens, it may take up to 30 mA of differential current before the GFCI trips. This scenario represents a double-fault condition, i.e., when both the hot conductor and the load neutral conductor are grounded, the GFCI may fail to trip, causing a user to experience serious injury or death. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a protection device that is capable of self-testing for both the grounded hot fault condition and the grounded neutral fault condition. In one approach that has been considered, a GFCI is configured to include a timer that initiates a periodic self test of the GFCI. Alternatively, the GFCI initiates a periodic alarm to alert the user to manually push the test button on the GFCI. One drawback to this approach is that the circuitry is relatively expensive and increases the size of the GFCI circuitry. In another approach that has been considered, a GFCI includes a visual indicator adapted to display a miswire condition. If the hot power source conductor and the neutral power source conductor are inadvertently miswired to the load terminals of the GFCI, the visual indicator is actuated to display the miswire alarm condition. Those of ordinary skill in the art will understand that a miswire condition of this type will result in a loss of GFCI protection at the duplex receptacles on the face of the GFCI. One drawback to this approach is that the GFCI does not include a self-test of the electrical circuit. Another drawback to this approach is that the visual display does not indicate a lock-out of load side power by the interrupting contacts. As such, the user is obliged to correctly interpret and take action based on appearance of the visual indicator. In yet another approach that has been considered, a GFCI is configured to self-test the relay solenoid that opens the GFCI interrupting contacts when a fault condition is sensed. However, the self-test does not include a test of the electrical circuit. In yet another approach that has been considered, the self-test is configured to detect the failure of certain components, such as the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). If a failure mode is detected, the device is driven to a lock-out mode, such that power is permanently de-coupled from the load. In light of all of the approaches discussed above, there are many other types of failures, such as those involving the GFCI sensing circuitry, that require manual testing. Of course, manual testing requires a user to push the test button disposed on the GFCI. If a fault condition is present, the GFCI trips out after the test button is pushed. This prompts the user to reset the GFCI. If the device fails to reset, the user understands that the device has failed and is in a lock-out condition. This approach has drawbacks as well. While regular testing is strongly encouraged by device manufacturers, in reality, few users test their GFCIs on a regular basis. Therefore, there is a need for a protection device that is configured to self-test internal device components. There is a further need for a GFCI that is adapted to self-test for both the grounded hot fault condition and the grounded neutral fault condition. There is also a need for a self-testing GFCI which performs self-testing every half-cycle, during a time period when the SCR tripping mechanism does not conduct. There is yet another need for a self-testing device that self-tests without generating false tripping. Finally, a need exists for a self-testing protection device that is characterized by noise immunity. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention addresses the needs described above by providing a protection device that is configured to self-test internal device components. The present invention is adapted to self-test for both the grounded hot fault condition and the grounded neutral fault condition. The present invention performs self-testing every half-cycle, during a time period when the SCR tripping mechanism does not operate. The self-testing device of the present invention self-tests without generating false tripping. Finally, the present invention is characterized by noise immunity. One aspect of the present invention is an electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling AC power through an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load. The device includes an automated self- test circuit coupled to the AC power distribution system. The test circuit is configured to generate at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power. A detector circuit is coupled to the automated self-test circuit. The detector circuit generates a detection signal in response to the at least one simulated fault signal. An interval timing circuit is coupled to the automated self-test circuit. The interval timing circuit is configured to enable the automated self-test circuit to generate the at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined interval and not enable the automated self-test circuit during a subsequent second predetermined interval. The first predetermined interval and the second predetermined interval are recurring time intervals. In another aspect, the present invention includes an electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling an AC power through an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load. The device includes a test circuit coupled between a hot conductor and a neutral conductor of the AC power distribution system. The test circuit is configured to generate at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power. A detector circuit is coupled to the test circuit. The detector circuit generates a detection signal in response to the at least one simulated fault signal. An interval timing circuit is coupled to the test circuit. The interval timing circuit is configured to enable the test circuit to generate the at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined interval and not enable the test circuit during a subsequent second predetermined interval. The first predetermined interval and the second predetermined interval are recurring time intervals. A gate circuit is coupled to the detector circuit. The gate circuit generates a gated test detection pulse in response to receiving the detection signal. The gated test detection pulse corresponds to the at least one simulated fault signal and has a duration not extending into a second predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power subsequent to the first predetermined half-cycle of AC power. A checking circuit is coupled to the gate circuit. The checking circuit includes a timer configured to initiate an end-of-life fault signal if the gated test detection pulse is not received within a predetermined period of time. A response mechanism is coupled to the checking circuit. The response mechanism is actuated in response to the end-of-life fault signal. In yet another aspect, the present invention includes an electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load. The device includes a test circuit coupled to the AC power distribution system. The test circuit is configured to generate at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined half-cycle polarity of AC power. A detector circuit is coupled to the test circuit. The detector circuit generates a detection signal in response to the at least one simulated fault signal. A processor is coupled to the test circuit and the detector circuit. The processor is programmed to: generate a self-test enable signal during a first predetermined time interval and not during a second predetermined time interval, the self-test enable signal enabling the test circuit to generate the at least one simulated fault signal; and generate a gated test detection pulse in response to receiving the detection signal, the gated test detection pulse corresponding to the at least one simulated fault signal and having a pulse duration not extending into a second predetermined half cycle polarity of AC power subsequent to the first predetermined half cycle polarity of AC power. A checking circuit is coupled to the processor. The checking circuit includes a timer configured to initiate an end-of-life fault signal if the gated test detection pulse is not received within a predetermined period of time. A response mechanism is coupled to the checking circuit. The response mechanism is actuated in response to the end-of-life fault signal. In yet another aspect, the present invention includes a method for automatically self testing an electrical wiring protection device for use in coupling an AC power distribution system to at least one electrical load. The device includes the step of generating at least one simulated fault signal during a first predetermined polarity of AC power. The at least one simulated fault is generated during a test state interval and not being generated during a subsequent non-test state interval. The test state interval and the non-test state interval are recurring time intervals each of predetermined length. A detection signal is transmitted in response to detecting the at least one simulated fault signal. A gated test detection pulse is generated in response to the detection signal. The gated test detection pulse has a pulse duration not extending into a second predetermined polarity of AC power. An end-of-life fault signal is initiated if the gated detection pulse is not received within a predetermined period of time. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be set forth in the detailed description which follows, and in part will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art from that description or recognized by practicing the invention as described herein, including the detailed description which follows, the claims, as well as the appended drawings. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are merely exemplary of the invention, and are intended to provide an overview or framework for understanding the nature and character of the invention as it is claimed. The accompanying drawings are included to provide a further understanding of the invention, and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification. The drawings illustrate various embodiments of the invention, and together with the description serve to explain the principles and operation of the invention. | 20040615 | 20051227 | 20050929 | 76849.0 | 1 | DEB, ANJAN K | CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICE WITH TIMED NEGATIVE HALF-CYCLE SELF TEST | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,868,687 | ACCEPTED | Wheel centering pin, kit and method | A wheel centering pin 15 disclosed for vehicle wheels having apertures of uniform diameter. The wheel centering pin is provided as a set of three that are threaded on three circumferentially spaced hub bolts on which a wheel is mounted to center the wheel. Nuts are threaded on the remaining bolts and tightened to fasten the wheel to the hub. The centering pins are removed, and remaining nuts are applied in their place and tightened on the remaining bolts to center the wheel. | 1. A wheel centering pin comprising: a hollow main body portion having an exterior surface of uniform diameter and sized to slide into one of a plurality of apertures on a wheel when the wheel is mounted on a hub having a plurality of bolts, said main body portion terminating in an open first end, said main body portion having internal threads to enable said main body portion to be threaded on one of said bolts and, a tool engageable portion at a second end of said shaft portion opposite said first end that is engaged by a tool for rotating said tool engageable portion to thread and unthread said shaft portion, whereby upon the installation of a set of three pins on selected of three circumferentially spaced bolts said wheel is centered on said hub and a nut is tightened on each remaining of said bolts to fasten said wheel to said hub after which said pins are removed. 2. The pin as set forth in claim 1 wherein said main body portion is of cylindrical shape. 3. The pin as set forth in claim 1 wherein said tool engageable portion is a multi-sided head. 4. The pin as set forth in claim 3 wherein said head is hexagonal in shape. 5. The pin as set forth in claim 1 wherein said exterior surface of said main body portion is cylindrical and smooth. 6. The pin as set forth in claim 1 wherein said exterior surface substantially fills said wheel aperture and is slidable therein. 7. The pin as set forth in claim 1 wherein said set of three centering pins are installed on bolts disposed at degree intervals of 108, 144, and 108 degrees on said hub proceeding clockwise from a twelve o'clock position. 8. The pin as set forth in claim 1 wherein said three pins are at twelve, four and eight o'clock positions. 9. The pin as set forth in claim 1 wherein said main body portion and tool engageable portion are of a one piece metal construction. 10. A wheel centering pin comprising: a hollow main body portion having a smooth exterior surface of uniform diameter and sized to slide into one of a plurality of circumferentially spaced apertures on a wheel when the wheel is mounted on a hub having a plurality of circumferentially spaced bolts, said main body portion terminating in an open first end, said exterior surface of said shaft portion is cylindrical and smooth, substantially fills said wheel aperture and is slidable therein, said main body portion having internal threads to enable said main body portion to be threaded on one of said bolts and, a tool engageable portion at a second end of said main body portion opposite said first end that is engaged by a tool for rotating said head portion to thread and unthread said shaft portion, the said tool engageable portion is a hexagonal head, whereby upon the installation of a set of three centering pins on selected of three circumferentially spaced bolts said wheel is centered on said hub and a nut is tightened on each remaining of said bolts to fasten said wheel to said hub after which said centering pins are removed. 11. A wheel centering pin for use as a set of three that are temporarily installed on selected circumferentially spaced bolts on a hub for a wheel having a plurality of circumferentially spaced apertures of uniform diameter, the pin comprising: a hollow cylindrical shape portion having a smooth, exterior surface of uniform diameter and sized to slide into one of said wheel apertures and substantially fill said aperture to center said wheel on said hub, said hub portion having a socket terminating in an open first end having, an internally threaded portion to enable said hub portion to be threaded on one of said threaded bolts and, a wrench engaging head portion of hexagonal shape at a closed second end of said hub portion opposite said first end that is engaged by a wrench of a selected size to rotate said head portion to thread and un-thread said shaft portion on said one threaded bolt, whereby upon the installation of said set of three pins on selected of three circumferentially spaced bolts said wheel is centered on said hub and a nut may be tightened on each of remaining of said bolts to fasten said wheel to said hub after which said alignment pins are removed from associated of said bolts. 12. A wheel centering kit comprising: a set of three identical centering pins that are temporarily installed on selected of a plurality of circumferentially spaced threaded bolts on a hub for a wheel having a plurality of circumferentially spaced apertures of uniform diameter, each pin having, a hollow main body portion having a smooth, exterior surface of uniform diameter and sized to slide into one of said wheel apertures to center the wheel on said hub, said main body portion terminating in an open first end having, an internally threaded portion to enable said hub portion to be threaded on one of said bolts and, a tool engageable portion at a second end opposite said first end that is engaged by a tool to rotate said tool engageable portion to thread and un-thread said shaft portion on said one bolt, whereby upon the installation of said set of three pins on selected of three circumferentially spaced bolts said wheel is centered on said hub and a wheel nut is tightened on each remaining of said threaded bolts to fasten said wheel to said hub after which said set of three pins are removed from associated of said threaded bolts. 13. A method of centering a wheel having circumferentially spaced apertures of uniform diameter on a hub having circumferentially spaced bolts comprising the steps of: threading three centering pins on three of said bolts, mounting the wheel on the hub with said bolts in said apertures, threading nuts on the remaining of said bolts, removing the centering pins, and threading nuts on the remaining three of said bolts. 14. The method as set forth in claim 1 wherein said three centering pins are mounted at degree intervals of 108, 144, and 108 degrees proceeding clockwise from a twelve o'clock position. | TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to mounting vehicle wheels on hubs and more particularly to a device, kit and method for centering a vehicle wheel, particularly a truck wheel, on a hub. BACKGROUND ART In the past vehicle wheels have typically incorporated a taper or bevel on each wheel aperture and a complementary taper on the wheel nut to center the wheel on the hub when the wheel is mounted. Presently there are truck wheels such as the 22.5 and 24.5 UNI-Mount truck wheels that have wheel apertures of uniform diameter and use flanged nuts with no taper. This construction does not ensure the wheel is centered on the hub during mounting. If the wheel is not centered on the hub, the wheel is usually unbalanced and results in unnecessary tire wear. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A wheel centering pin disclosed is used as a set of three that are threaded on three hub bolts to center the wheel on the hub during wheel mounting. The wheel centering pin has a hollow main body portion, preferably cylindrical with an exterior surface of uniform diameter sized to slide into and substantially fill one of the wheel apertures when the wheel is mounted on the hub. The hollow main body portion has internal threads with an open first end to thread on a hub bolt. A tool engaging portion shown as a multi-sided head portion at a second end of the shaft portion opposite the first end is engaged by a wrench for rotating the main body portion to thread and un-thread the main body portion on the hub bolt. In use, with the wheel on the hub, three centering pins are threaded on three bolts, preferably at three selected degree intervals shown at 108, 144, and 108 degree intervals proceeding clockwise from the zero or twelve o'clock position. The wheel nuts are threaded on the remaining bolts and tightened. The centering pins are removed and replaced by wheel nuts that are also tightened. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a wheel centering pin embodying features of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a top view of FIG. 1 FIG. 3 is a side elevation view of FIG. 1 partially broken away to show internal threads. FIG. 4 is a perspective view showing a set of three of the centering pins shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 5 is a front elevation view of a wheel mounted on a hub with three centering pins of FIG. 1, centering the wheel on the hub and wheel nuts on the remaining bolts. FIG. 6 is a sectional view taken along line 6-6 of FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is an enlarged view of a portion of FIG. 6. Referring now to FIGS. 1-3, there is shown a wheel centering pin 11 embodying features of the present invention. Each wheel centering pin 11 has a hollow main body portion 12 of cylindrical shape, having a cylindrical, smooth exterior surface 13 of uniform diameter that is sized to slide into and substantially fill one of the wheel apertures described hereinafter. The main body portion 12 terminates in an open first end 14 and has internal threads 15. A tool engageable portion 16 at a closed second end 17 opposite the first end 14 is engaged by a tool or wrench for rotating the portion 16 and shaft portion 12 to thread and un-thread the shaft portion on a hub bolt described hereinafter. The tool engageable portion 16 shown is a multi-sided head portion of hexagonal shape to be engaged by a conventional wrench. Other tool engageable portions such as a screw driver slot could be used. The pin 11 preferably is made as a one piece construction with the main body portion 12 and tool engageable portion 16 formed together from metal such as mild steel that is heat treated for wear. The centering pins 11 are preferably provided as a set of three as shown in FIG. 4. Referring now to FIGS. 4-7, there is shown a truck wheel 22 of the UNI-Mount type without the tire having ten circumferentially spaced apertures 23 at 36 degree intervals. The wheel 22 is shown mounted on a hub 24 having ten circumferentially spaced, studs or bolts 25 each of which extends through an associated wheel aperture 23 when the wheel 22 is mounted on the hub 24. Seven flanged wheel nuts 27 are shown threaded on seven of the bolts 25. Three identical wheel centering pins 11 are shown threaded on three bolts 25 at three selected degree intervals shown at 108, 144 and 108 degree intervals proceeding clockwise from the zero or twelve o'clock position. Specifically at twelve, four and eight o'clock positions. Also beginning at the zero or twelve o'clock position and proceeding clockwise these are the first, fourth and eight studs. In use, in carrying out the method of the present invention, the vehicle is elevated and the wheel nuts are removed from the hub 14. Three centering pins 11 are threaded on three hub bolts at three selected degree intervals of 108, 144, and 108 degrees proceeding clockwise from the zero position as above described. The wheel is mounted on the hub. Seven wheel nuts 27 are installed on the remaining hub bolts and tightened lightly. The centering pins 11 are removed by unthreading. Three wheel nuts 27 are threaded on the three remaining bolts. Finally, all wheel nuts 27 are firmly tightened. From the foregoing it is apparent the wheel centering pins are easily installed and removed. The device has been found effective in providing balanced wheels and thereby minimize wheel vibration and tire wear. Although the present invention has been described with a certain degree of particularity, it is understood that the present disclosure has been made by way of example and that changes in details of structure may be made without departing from the spirit thereof. | <SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>In the past vehicle wheels have typically incorporated a taper or bevel on each wheel aperture and a complementary taper on the wheel nut to center the wheel on the hub when the wheel is mounted. Presently there are truck wheels such as the 22.5 and 24.5 UNI-Mount truck wheels that have wheel apertures of uniform diameter and use flanged nuts with no taper. This construction does not ensure the wheel is centered on the hub during mounting. If the wheel is not centered on the hub, the wheel is usually unbalanced and results in unnecessary tire wear. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A wheel centering pin disclosed is used as a set of three that are threaded on three hub bolts to center the wheel on the hub during wheel mounting. The wheel centering pin has a hollow main body portion, preferably cylindrical with an exterior surface of uniform diameter sized to slide into and substantially fill one of the wheel apertures when the wheel is mounted on the hub. The hollow main body portion has internal threads with an open first end to thread on a hub bolt. A tool engaging portion shown as a multi-sided head portion at a second end of the shaft portion opposite the first end is engaged by a wrench for rotating the main body portion to thread and un-thread the main body portion on the hub bolt. In use, with the wheel on the hub, three centering pins are threaded on three bolts, preferably at three selected degree intervals shown at 108, 144, and 108 degree intervals proceeding clockwise from the zero or twelve o'clock position. The wheel nuts are threaded on the remaining bolts and tightened. The centering pins are removed and replaced by wheel nuts that are also tightened. | 20040615 | 20070220 | 20051215 | 96078.0 | 1 | BELLINGER, JASON R | WHEEL CENTERING PIN, KIT AND METHOD | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,868,819 | ACCEPTED | Telephonic voice message transmission control method | The present invention is directed to a method of controlling transmission of voice messages or information via telephonic voice message systems, which are sometimes referred to as Voice Mail Systems. Users of the system selectively specify voice message transmission instructions for controlling transmission of voice messages directed to them. Upon receipt of a user's voice message address, the voice message system determines whether the destination voice message address has a specified voice message transmission instruction previously selected by the recipient and processes the voice message in accordance with the instruction. | 1. A method for controlling a message in a message system, the method comprising the steps of: acquiring and storing a message from a sender; acquiring and storing a destination address; acquiring and storing a sender delivery command; and processing the message according to a recipient instruction and the sender delivery command, the recipient instruction taking priority over the sender delivery command, the recipient instruction corresponding to the destination address and an identity of the sender, the recipient instruction including an instruction either to transmit or to block transmission of the message. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the recipient instruction to transmit comprises an instruction to the transmit the message in a message format. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the message format comprises an electronic mail format. 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the message format comprises a facsimile format. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of acquiring and storing a message from a sender comprises the steps of: digitizing a voice message spoken by the sender; and storing the message, the message including the digitized voice message. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the recipient instruction to transmit comprises an instruction to transmit the message to an alternate destination: 7. The method of claim 1; wherein the recipient instruction to transmit comprises an instruction to encrypt the message prior to transmitting. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the recipient instruction to transmit comprises an instruction to mark the message private prior to transmitting. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the recipient instruction to transmit comprises an instruction to certify delivery of the message. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the sender delivery command is selected from a plurality of delivery commands. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the plurality of delivery commands comprises: transmit to alternate destination; transmit to additional destination; assign priority to the message; mark the message private; prevent the message from being copied; prevent the message from being forwarded; encrypt the message; certify delivery of the message; convert the message to an email format; and convert the message to a facsimile format. 12. A method for selectively transmitting a message between a first and a second message network subsystem, each message network subsystems having a message system and a network interface device, the method comprising the steps of: the first message network subsystem acquiring a message from a sending user having a source address; the first message network subsystem digitizing and storing the message; the first message network subsystem acquiring a destination address from the sending user, the destination address corresponding to the message; the first message network subsystem storing the destination address; the first message network subsystem acquiring a transmission instruction from the sending user; the first message network subsystem storing the transmission instruction; the first message network subsystem transmitting the destination address to the second network subsystem; the first message network subsystem receiving a delivery instruction from the second network subsystem, the delivery instruction corresponding to the destination address and the source address, the delivery instruction including an instruction to convert the message into a message type or to block transmission of the message; and the first message network subsystem processing the message according to the delivery instruction and the transmission instruction, the delivery instruction taking precedence over the transmission instruction. 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the delivery instruction to convert the message into a message type comprises an instruction to convert the message into an electronic mail format. 14. The method of claim 12, wherein the delivery instruction to convert the message into a message type comprises an instruction to transmit the message to an alternate destination address. 15. The method of claim 12, wherein the delivery instruction to convert the message into a message type comprises an instruction to mark the message private. 16. The method of claim 12, wherein the delivery instruction to convert the message into a message type comprises an instruction to certify delivery of the message. 17. The method of claim 12, wherein the delivery instruction to convert the message into a message type comprises an instruction to convert the message into a facsimile format. 18. The method of claim 12, wherein the step of the first message subsystem acquiring and storing a transmission instruction comprises acquiring and storing a transmission instruction selected from a plurality of transmission instructions. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the plurality of transmission instructions comprises: transmit message to destination; transmit message to alternate destination; transmit to additional destination; assign priority to the message; mark the message private; encrypt the message; certify delivery of the message; prevent the message from being copies; prevent the message from being forwarded; convert the message to an email format; and convert the message to a facsimile format. 20. The method of claim 12, wherein the step of the first message network subsystem receiving a delivery instruction from the second network subsystem comprises the step of the first network interface device receiving the delivery instruction from the second network interface device, and storing the delivery instruction in the first message system. 21. A method for selectively transmitting a message between a first and a second message network subsystem, each message network subsystems having a message system and a network interface device, the method comprising the steps of: the second message network subsystem acquiring and storing a delivery instruction from a recipient having a recipient address, the delivery instruction corresponding to a sender, the delivery instruction including an instruction either to transmit the message in an electronic mail format or to block transmission of the message; the second message network subsystem receiving the destination address from the first message network subsystem; the second message network subsystem determining if the destination address corresponds to the recipient address; the second message network subsystem retrieving the delivery instruction; and the second message network subsystem transmitting the delivery instruction to the first message network subsystem. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the delivery instruction to transmit the message in an electronic mail format further comprises an instruction to transmit the message to an alternate destination address. 23. The method of claim 21, wherein the delivery instruction to transmit the message in an electronic mail format further comprises an instruction to assign a priority to the message. 24. The method of claim 21, wherein the delivery instruction to transmit the message in an electronic mail format further comprises an instruction to encrypt the message. 25. The method of claim 21, wherein the delivery instruction to transmit the message in an electronic mail format further comprises an instruction to mark the message as private. 26. The method of claim 21, wherein the step of the second message network subsystem determining if the destination address corresponds to the recipient address comprises the step of: the second network interface device determining if the destination address corresponds to the recipient address. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the step of the second message network subsystem acquiring and storing a delivery instruction from a recipient having a recipient address comprises the steps of: the second message system acquiring and storing the delivery instruction from a recipient; and the second message system periodically transferring the recipient address and the delivery instruction to the second network interface device. | This application is a continuation of prior application Ser. No. 10/656,162, filed Sep. 8, 2003, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to telephonic voice message systems, sometimes referred to as Voice Mail systems and, in particular, to a method of controlling transmission of telephonic voice message data in such systems. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Electronic interpersonal communication may be conducted in a variety of formats including direct telephonic voice communication, facsimile document communication, electronic mail communication, and telephonic voice message communication. Facsimile document communication and electronic mail communication may be characterized as document-based, and the other two formats as voice-based. Direct telephonic voice communication is unique among these formats in that it requires contemporaneous participation by all parties. In many business situations, the requirement for contemporaneous participation is unnecessary, disruptive, and time consuming. As a consequence, the noncontemporaneous communication formats of facsimile document communication, electronic mail communication, and telephonic voice message communication are becoming preferred over direct telephonic voice communication for many situations. With increasing volumes of information being transmitted by the different noncontemporaneous communication formats, recipients of the information can be burdened by the effort of sorting through and reviewing the information. In this regard, the document basis of facsimile and electronic mail communication formats allow a recipient to visually sort through large amounts of information relatively quickly. In contrast, voice-based information or messages on telephonic voice message systems are reviewed aurally, which requires that the recipient review telephonic voice messages serially. With increasing numbers of telephonic voice messages, the review of messages by a recipient can become excessively time-consuming and burdensome. This burden can be exacerbated because conventional telephonic voice message systems provide the recipient with little control over which information is received over the system. In contrast, some conventional communication systems other than telephonic voice message systems provide the recipient of the information with at least minor control over the information received. For example, some direct telephonic communication systems include features such as call forwarding. Some electronic mail systems include message notification prioritization based on the identity of the sending party. EP-A-0 588 101 discloses a message storage and retrieval system employing selected caller processing which uses automatic number identification (ANI) to implement several voice message instruction features such as message forwarding, message priority, customized greetings and single digit call-back to the voice message originator. The instructions are executed on voice messages that have already been transmitted and stored by a sender in the recipient's voice message system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is, therefore, to provide a method of controlling transmission of telephonic voice message information. Another object of this invention is to provide such a method in which the recipient controls the telephonic voice message data to be received. A further object of this invention is to provide such a method in which the telephonic voice message data to be received is controlled according to the voice message system address of the sender. The present invention is directed to a method of controlling transmission of voice messages or information via telephonic voice message systems. In a preferred embodiment, a person speaks into a telephone to create or originate a voice message to he sent to another person. The recipient of the message has an assigned address or “mailbox” on the telephonic voice message system analogous to a telephone number and referred to as the destination voice message address. The sender may have an assigned address on and be a system user of the voice message system or may be a system visitor without a permanent system address and who, for example, accesses the system after an unsuccessful direct telephone call to the recipient. After the sender has originated the voice message, the sender directs the voice message to the recipient by sending the voice message and the destination address to the telephonic voice message system. In many systems, the originator keys the destination address number into a DTMF telephone keypad. Other voice message systems include voice recognition subsystems that allow the originator to enter the destination address merely by stating it. Upon receipt of the voice message and the destination address, the telephonic voice message system determines whether the destination voice message address is valid and whether it has a specified voice message transmission instruction previously selected by the recipient for controlling voice messages directed to the destination address. Preferably, a variety of voice message transmission instructions can be selected by the recipient. The selectable voice message transmission instructions can include, for example, transmitting the telephonic voice message data to an alternate or additional voice message destination having a voice message address different from the destination voice message address, determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one acceptable origin address and transmitting the voice message to the destination only if the origination address is included in the preselected set, or determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one unacceptable origin address and blocking transmission of the voice message to the destination address whenever the origination address is included in the list. The selectable voice message transmission instructions also can include assigning voice messages from a specified origination address with a delivery priority (e.g., high or low) that determines the sequence in which messages are retrieved by the recipient, or designating voice messages from a specified origination address as being private so the messages cannot be copied or forwarded. If the voice message system includes a voice recognition and conversion subsystem, the selectable voice message transmission instructions can include converting voice messages to electronic mail or facsimile documents and delivering them to a selected electronic mailbox or facsimile device, respectively. Whenever the destination address has a specified voice message transmission instruction for controlling transmission of the telephonic voice message data, the voice message system processes the voice message according to the instruction. Whenever the destination address has no specified voice message transmission instruction for controlling transmission of the telephonic voice message data, the voice message is transmitted to the destination address and stored for retrieval by the recipient, as in conventional operation of voice message systems. Additional objects and advantages of this invention will be apparent from the following detailed description of preferred embodiments thereof which proceeds with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a simplified schematic block diagram of a telephonic voice message system in which voice message transmission is controllable according to the method of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a flow diagram showing a method of controlling voice message transmission in the system of FIG. 1 according to the present invention. FIG. 3 is a simplified schematic block diagram of a pair of networked telephonic voice message systems in which voice message transmission is controllable according to the method of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a flow diagram showing a method of controlling voice message transmission in the system of FIG. 3 according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 represents a generally conventional telephonic voice message apparatus or system 10 that controls transmission, delivery, and storage of voice messages, which are sometimes referred to as Voice Mail messages. Telephonic voice message system 10 may be of the type manufactured and sold by any of a large number of manufacturers that include VMI, Comverse, Centigram, Rolm, Northern, or Boston Technology. Exemplary models of voice message system 10 may include the INFINITY 2 manufactured by Comverse Technology Inc. of Woodbury, N.Y. and the ONE-VIEW manufactured by Centigram Communications of San Jose, Calif. Voice message system 10 may be telephonically accessed by multiple system users, each of which has an assigned message address or “mailbox,” as well as system visitors who do not have assigned message addresses on voice message system 10. For reference purposes, voice message system 10 is shown connected to telephones 12 and 14 by which, respectively, a message sender (user A) and a message recipient (user B) access voice message system 10. It will be appreciated that telephones 12 and 14 may be located anywhere and can access voice message system through any switching or transmission systems, including a private branch exchange (PBX), local public switched telephone network (PSTN), or long distance or international telephone lines or channels. Telephones 12 and 14 require only basic capabilities (e.g., a DTMF keypad) to be operable with voice message system 10. For purposes of clarity, message senders and recipients having assigned voice message addresses on voice message system 10 are referred to herein as system users. Voice message system 10 is also capable of receiving voice messages from others, who are referred to herein as system visitors. The following description is directed mainly to communication between system users A and B, but is similarly applicable to communication between a system visitor and either of system users A and B. In conventional operation of voice message system 10, user A sends user B a voice message by telephoning voice message system 10 from telephone 12 and speaking into it to create a voice message or voice message data. Voice message system 10 automatically digitizes the voice message for storage User A directs the voice message to its destination (e.g., user B) and adds any conventional sender delivery commands for voice message system 10 (e.g., message delivery priority) by keying the destination message address and sender delivery command codes on the DTMF keypad of telephone 12. Alternatively, voice message system 10 includes a voice recognition subsystem that allows the sender to enter the destination address and any sender delivery commands merely by stating them. Voice message system 10 associates the digitized voice message data with the destination message address and sender delivery commands and stores them for retrieval by the recipient (user B). Typically, voice message system 10 delivers to telephone 14 an indication that a message is available for retrieval by user B. Alternatively, user B may call voice message system 10 to check, for any voice messages. In generally this manner, a system user A on virtually any voice mail system is able to send a voice message to another system user B. In accordance with the present invention, users A and B, as well as any others of the many system users, can control the transmission of voice messages or information directed to their message addresses by selecting preprogrammed voice message transmission instructions that are stored on voice message system 10. With increasing numbers of telephonic voice messages and voice message system users, voice message transmission instructions selectable by the recipient can prevent voice message system 10 from becoming inconvenient or burdensome to use. FIG. 2 is a flow diagram showing a preferred method 20 of controlling transmission of voice message data according to the present invention. Voice message transmission control method 20 is described with reference to communication between systems users A and B, but is similarly applicable to communication from a system visitor to a system user. Process block 22 represents that user A makes telephone contact with voice message system 10. The telephone contact with voice message system 10 may be specifically initiated by user A, or user A may be automatically transferred to voice message system 10 as a result of attempting to make a direct telephonic call to user B. Process block 26 represents that user A speaks into a telephone to create or originate for user B a voice message from which voice message system 10 generates and stores voice message data or information. Voice message system 10 also acquires and stores the message address for user B and any sender delivery commands selected by user A. As is known in the art, the message address for user B may be keyed into a DTMF telephone keypad by user A or may have been previously acquired by voice message system 10. Alternatively, voice message system 10 includes a voice recognition subsystem that allows the sender to enter the destination address and any sender delivery commands merely by stating them. Inquiry block 28 represents an inquiry whether the destination message address is a valid address on voice message system 10 and whether there is a specified voice message transmission instruction previously selected by user B for controlling voice messages directed to the destination message address. This inquiry takes place in response to the entry by user A of a destination message address or any sender delivery commands that are stored for delivery to the destination voice message address of user B. For example, voice message system 10 confirms whether the destination message address is a valid address and reviews a stored first listing of destination message addressees that have specified voice message transmission instructions. If the destination message address is valid and has a specified voice message transmission instruction, inquiry block 28 proceeds to process block 30. If the destination message address is valid and does not have a specified voice message transmission instruction, inquiry block 28 proceeds to process block 34. If the destination message address is not valid, an invalid address message is delivered to user A. Process block 30 represents that voice message system 10 accesses the specified voice message transmission instructions for the destination message address from a stored listing of destination message addresses and associated specified voice message transmission instructions. It will be appreciated that voice message system 10 is analogous to a computer by being programmable and having large information storage capacity. Storing the listings and programming voice message system 10 to create, review and access the listings is within the capabilities of persons skilled in the art. The selectable voice message transmission instructions can include, for example, transmitting the telephonic voice message data to an alternate or additional voice message destination having a voice message address different from the destination voice message address, determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one acceptable origin address and transmitting the voice message to the destination only if the origination address is included in the preselected set, or determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one unacceptable origin address and blocking transmission of the voice message to the destination address whenever the origination address is included in the list. The selectable voice message transmission instructions also can include assigning voice messages from a specified origination address with a priority (e.g., high or low) that determines the sequence in which messages are retrieved by the recipient, or designating voice messages from a specified origination address as being private so the messages cannot be copied or forwarded. If voice message system 10 includes a voice recognition and conversion subsystem, the selectable voice message transmission instructions can include converting voice messages to text data suitable for delivery as electronic mail to a selected electronic mailbox. The selectable voice message transmission instructions can further include converting the text data to a facsimile document suitable for delivery to a facsimile device. User B selects voice message transmission instructions by keying corresponding command or selection codes on the DTMF keypad of telephone 14 in response to interactive voice prompts from voice message system 10. Alternatively, voice message system 10 includes a voice recognition subsystem that allows user B to select voice message transmission instructions merely by stating the corresponding command or selection codes. As another alternative, user B can select voice message transmission instructions by entering corresponding command or selection codes into voice message system 10 with a personal computer in communication with system 10. Process block 32 represents that voice message system 10 processes the voice message data in accordance with any specified voice message transmission instruction. Process block 34 represents that voice message system 10 directs the voice message data to the destination message address as a conventional voice message, stores it for retrieval by the recipient (user B), and provides an indication at telephone 14 that a voice message is available for retrieval. It will be appreciated that the internal operation of voice message systems from different manufacturers will vary. For example, directing voice message data to the destination message address may or may not include shifting or transmitting voice message data. With regard to the present invention, the signal processing details by which a particular voice message system makes a voice message available for retrieval are not material. Process block 36 represents that method 20 is completed. Voice message transmission control method 20 has been described with reference to a single otherwise conventional voice message system 10. The voice message transmission control method of the present invention is also applicable to a network of at least two separate voice message systems. With the increased numbers of users and potential voice messages on such a network, recipient control over voice messages becomes particularly desirable. FIG. 3 shows a telephonic voice message apparatus 40 having a pair of generally conventional telephonic voice message systems 50 and 52 that are operable independently and communicate with each other through a voice message system network 54. Telephonic voice message systems 50 and 52 are preferably similar to voice message system 10. Voice message systems 50 and 52 may be telephonically accessed by multiple system users of either system, each system user having an assigned message address or “mailbox,” as well as system visitors who do not have message addresses on voice message system 50 or 52. For reference purposes, voice message systems 50 and 52 are shown connected to telephones 56 and 58 by which a message sender (user X) and a message recipient (user Y) access voice message systems 50 and 52, respectively. Telephones 56 and 58 provide substantially the same access to respective voice message systems 50 and 52 that telephones 12 and 14 provide to voice message system 10. Voice message system network 54 includes network interface nodes or devices 60 and 62 through which voice message systems 50 and 52 access each other, as well as other voice message systems connected to network 54 but not shown. Network interface devices 60 and 62 may be, for example, an APOGEE WORLDGATE manufactured by the assignee of this application. Voice message system 50 and network interface device 60 compose a first voice message network subsystem 61, and voice message system 52 and network interface device 62 compose a second voice message network subsystem 63. Network interface devices 60 and 62 are operable independently of and may each serve one or more voice message systems. Network interface devices 60 and 62 are interconnected by at least one telecommunication channel 64, which is preferably a high capacity digital telecommunication channel over which large volumes of voice message data can be transmitted efficiently. Due to the independent operability of voice message systems 50 and 52, the method by which a recipient controls voice messages directed to him preferably differs from voice message transmission control method 20. FIG. 4 is a flow diagram showing a preferred method 70 of controlling transmission of voice message data between independently operable voice message systems 50 and 52 in accordance with the present invention. Voice message transmission control method 70 is described with reference to communication between system users X and Y, but is similarly applicable to communication between. a system user and a system visitor. Process block 72 represents that user X makes telephone contact with voice message system 50. The telephone contact with voice message system 50 would typically be specifically initiated by user X. If user X attempts to make a direct telephonic call to user Y and is redirected to a voice message system, user X typically would be transferred to voice message system 52 with which user Y is associated. A voice message left by user X directly on voice message system 52 would preferably be processed by voice message transmission control method 20. Process block 76 represents that user X speaks into telephone 56 to create or originate for user Y a voice message from which voice message system 50 generates and stores voice message data or information. Voice message system 50 also acquires and stores the message address for user Y and any sender delivery instructions selected by user X. As is known in the art, the destination message address may be keyed into a DTMF telephone keypad by user X or may have been previously acquired by voice message system 50. Alternatively, voice message system 50 includes a voice recognition subsystem that allows user X to enter the destination address and any sender delivery commands merely by stating them. Since the destination message address does not reside on voice message system 50, user X would typically have to enter an expanded destination message address that includes an indication that it resides on voice message system 52. Process block 78 represents that expanded destination message address of recipient's (user Y's) telephone 58 is transmitted from voice message system 50 to associated network interface device 60. Inquiry block 80 represents an inquiry whether the destination message address is a valid address on voice message system 52 and whether there is a specified voice message transmission instruction previously selected by user Y for controlling voice messages directed to the destination message address. In a first preferred embodiment, voice message system 50 transmits the expanded destination message address to associated network interface device 60, which forwards the destination message address over channel 64 to network interface device 62 associated with voice message system 52. Network interface device 62 confirms whether the destination message address is a valid address of voice message system 52 and reviews a stored first listing of destination message addressees that have specified voice message transmission instructions. In this embodiment, information regarding valid addresses of voice message system 52 and their associated voice message transmission instructions are periodically transferred from system 52 to network interface device 62. In a second preferred embodiment, the expanded destination message address is transmitted to voice message system 52 via network interface device 60, channel 64, and network interface device 62. In response to a query from network interface device 62, voice message system 52 confirms whether the destination message address is a valid address and reviews a stored first listing of destination message addressees that have specified voice message transmission instructions. If the destination message address is valid and has a specified voice message transmission instruction, inquiry block 80 proceeds to process block 82. If the destination message address is valid and does not have a specified voice message transmission instruction, inquiry block 80 proceeds to process block 88. If the destination message address is not valid, an invalid address message is provided to user X by way of the sender's voice message address. Process block 82 represents that the specified voice message transmission instructions for the destination message address are accessed from a stored listing of destination message addresses and associated specified voice message transmission instructions. In the first and second preferred embodiments, the instructions are accessed by network interface device 62 and voice message system 52, respectively. It will be appreciated that voice message systems 50 and 52 and network interface devices 60 and 62 are analogous to computers by being programmable and having large information storage capacity. Storing the listings on and programming voice message system 52 or network interface devices 62 to create, review and access the listings is within the capabilities of persons skilled in the art. The voice message transmission instructions and manner of selecting them can include those described above with reference to voice message system 10. Alternatively, network 54 could provide operator assistance services by which user Y could select voice message transmission instructions by calling and informing a network operator of the instructions the user has selected. Process block 84 represents that a signal carrying the voice message transmission instructions is transmitted to network interface device 60 via network interface device 62 and channel 64. Thus, a message recipient (user Y) can block or reroute selected messages before there is an attempt to transmit them to the recipient as designated by the message originator (user X). Process block 86 represents that voice message system 50 transmits the voice message data to network interface device 60, which processes the voice message data in accordance with any specified voice message transmission instruction. Thus, because of the noncontemporaneous nature of voice message communication, the message originator and recipient are not in communication during the processing of voice message transmission instructions established by the recipient. Process block 88 represents that voice message system 50 directs the voice message data to the destination message address on voice message system 52 via network 54. Voice message system 52 stores the voice message data for retrieval by the recipient (user Y) and provides an indication at telephone 58 that a voice message is available for retrieval. Process block 90 represents that method 70 is completed. To control costs and message retrieval time, large entities using voice messaging need to regulate the originators of incoming voice messages and restrict the number of them. Significant costs include delivery system transient memory storage capacity, local access charges (e.g., 800 number or Bell Operating Company access charges), potential loss of opportunity (e.g., recipient is in different place and time from place and time of message transmission), and message transmission costs. The following example demonstrates the capability of the invention to achieve significant cost savings by allowing a recipient to block or re-route selected messages before they are transmitted to the recipient as designated by the message originator. For purposes of illustration only, the example is described with reference to the FIG. 3 embodiment. EXAMPLE User X wants to leave a message for uses Y. User X specifies certain delivery instructions such as routine delivery scheduling and nonconfidential message, but user Y has specified for messages addressed to him different message delivery instructions that include location re-routing, priority delivery, private message, encrypted message, and delivery certification. Processing of the message by user X proceeds as follows. User X records a message on voice message system 50 and, upon completing his message, proceeds to other, unrelated activities. voice message system 50 communicates with network interface device 60 to indicate the presence of the message user X left and gives delivery instructions including the delivery address, length, and urgency of the message. Network interface device 60 communicates the delivery instruction information across telecommunication channel 64 to network interface device 62, which in turn communicates with voice message system 52 to validate the delivery address and check for any alternative delivery instructions placed by user Y in either network interface device 62 or voice message system 52. Voice message system 52 provides back to network interface device 62 the alternative instructions specified by user Y and a confirmation of a valid delivery address. The alternative instructions and confirmation are then transmitted across telecommunication channel 64 to network interface device 60 to substitute the message delivery instructions of user Y for those of user X. Because user Y specified that messages addressed to him be re-routed, a significant cost saving is achieved as a consequence of the nontransmission of the message of user X to the original delivery address of user Y. The processing of message setup instructions is analogous to that for real-time telephone call setup instructions, and in both cases the cost is relatively low. Neither user X nor user Y incurs a cost above that of normal network overhead; therefore, the transmission of voice message transmission instructions achieves the savings objective for user Y. In response to the change in message instructions, network interface device 60 can reroute the message in accordance with the alternative instructions, which at a minimal cost change the delivery address, priority, confidentiality, encryption, and certification to those specified by user Y. For, example, if user Y specifies an address on the same system as that of the address of user X, the only cost incurred to deliver the message would be the local access charge to point the message to the delivery address commanded by user Y. This example demonstrates that no message originator or recipient is on line during message management processing of a previously recorded message, which processing is based on functions a message nonoriginator has defined. This example also shows the invention can be implemented in a local system, local area network (LAN), and wide area network (WAN) environment. Skilled persons will appreciate that the message management functions carried out by way of example with reference to the FIG. 3 system can be distributed to other system components, such as those of the system of FIG. 1. Skilled workers will recognize that the above-described voice message transmission example would also be applicable to other types of non-contemporaneous message transmission such as those found in facsimile document store and forward services and electronic mail, and that the communications medium employed need not be a telecommunications channel. Skilled workers will further recognize that many changes may be made to the details of the above-described embodiment of this invention without departing from the underlying principles thereof. For example, voice message transmission control method 70 is described with reference to separate network interface devices 60 and 62 for respective voice message systems 50 and 52. As an alternative embodiment, voice message transmission control method 70 could operate with voice message systems 50 and 52 and only a single network interface device in direct communication with both message systems. The scope of the present invention should be determined, therefore, only by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Electronic interpersonal communication may be conducted in a variety of formats including direct telephonic voice communication, facsimile document communication, electronic mail communication, and telephonic voice message communication. Facsimile document communication and electronic mail communication may be characterized as document-based, and the other two formats as voice-based. Direct telephonic voice communication is unique among these formats in that it requires contemporaneous participation by all parties. In many business situations, the requirement for contemporaneous participation is unnecessary, disruptive, and time consuming. As a consequence, the noncontemporaneous communication formats of facsimile document communication, electronic mail communication, and telephonic voice message communication are becoming preferred over direct telephonic voice communication for many situations. With increasing volumes of information being transmitted by the different noncontemporaneous communication formats, recipients of the information can be burdened by the effort of sorting through and reviewing the information. In this regard, the document basis of facsimile and electronic mail communication formats allow a recipient to visually sort through large amounts of information relatively quickly. In contrast, voice-based information or messages on telephonic voice message systems are reviewed aurally, which requires that the recipient review telephonic voice messages serially. With increasing numbers of telephonic voice messages, the review of messages by a recipient can become excessively time-consuming and burdensome. This burden can be exacerbated because conventional telephonic voice message systems provide the recipient with little control over which information is received over the system. In contrast, some conventional communication systems other than telephonic voice message systems provide the recipient of the information with at least minor control over the information received. For example, some direct telephonic communication systems include features such as call forwarding. Some electronic mail systems include message notification prioritization based on the identity of the sending party. EP-A-0 588 101 discloses a message storage and retrieval system employing selected caller processing which uses automatic number identification (ANI) to implement several voice message instruction features such as message forwarding, message priority, customized greetings and single digit call-back to the voice message originator. The instructions are executed on voice messages that have already been transmitted and stored by a sender in the recipient's voice message system. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An object of the present invention is, therefore, to provide a method of controlling transmission of telephonic voice message information. Another object of this invention is to provide such a method in which the recipient controls the telephonic voice message data to be received. A further object of this invention is to provide such a method in which the telephonic voice message data to be received is controlled according to the voice message system address of the sender. The present invention is directed to a method of controlling transmission of voice messages or information via telephonic voice message systems. In a preferred embodiment, a person speaks into a telephone to create or originate a voice message to he sent to another person. The recipient of the message has an assigned address or “mailbox” on the telephonic voice message system analogous to a telephone number and referred to as the destination voice message address. The sender may have an assigned address on and be a system user of the voice message system or may be a system visitor without a permanent system address and who, for example, accesses the system after an unsuccessful direct telephone call to the recipient. After the sender has originated the voice message, the sender directs the voice message to the recipient by sending the voice message and the destination address to the telephonic voice message system. In many systems, the originator keys the destination address number into a DTMF telephone keypad. Other voice message systems include voice recognition subsystems that allow the originator to enter the destination address merely by stating it. Upon receipt of the voice message and the destination address, the telephonic voice message system determines whether the destination voice message address is valid and whether it has a specified voice message transmission instruction previously selected by the recipient for controlling voice messages directed to the destination address. Preferably, a variety of voice message transmission instructions can be selected by the recipient. The selectable voice message transmission instructions can include, for example, transmitting the telephonic voice message data to an alternate or additional voice message destination having a voice message address different from the destination voice message address, determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one acceptable origin address and transmitting the voice message to the destination only if the origination address is included in the preselected set, or determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one unacceptable origin address and blocking transmission of the voice message to the destination address whenever the origination address is included in the list. The selectable voice message transmission instructions also can include assigning voice messages from a specified origination address with a delivery priority (e.g., high or low) that determines the sequence in which messages are retrieved by the recipient, or designating voice messages from a specified origination address as being private so the messages cannot be copied or forwarded. If the voice message system includes a voice recognition and conversion subsystem, the selectable voice message transmission instructions can include converting voice messages to electronic mail or facsimile documents and delivering them to a selected electronic mailbox or facsimile device, respectively. Whenever the destination address has a specified voice message transmission instruction for controlling transmission of the telephonic voice message data, the voice message system processes the voice message according to the instruction. Whenever the destination address has no specified voice message transmission instruction for controlling transmission of the telephonic voice message data, the voice message is transmitted to the destination address and stored for retrieval by the recipient, as in conventional operation of voice message systems. Additional objects and advantages of this invention will be apparent from the following detailed description of preferred embodiments thereof which proceeds with reference to the accompanying drawings. | 20040617 | 20070522 | 20050203 | 72174.0 | 1 | GAUTHIER, GERALD | TELEPHONIC VOICE MESSAGE TRANSMISSION CONTROL METHOD | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,868,842 | ACCEPTED | Telephonic voice message transmission control method | The present invention is directed to a method of controlling transmission of voice messages or information via telephonic voice message systems, which are sometimes referred to as Voice Mail Systems. Users of the system selectively specify voice message transmission instructions for controlling transmission of voice messages directed to them. Upon receipt of a user's voice message address, the voice message system determines whether the destination voice message address has a specified voice message transmission instruction previously selected by the recipient and processes the voice message in accordance with the instruction. | 1. A method of controlling a voice message in a telecommunication network, said method comprising the steps of: acquiring an address for a recipient of the voice message; prior to transmitting the voice message to the recipient, obtaining a recipient voice message instruction over a telecommunication network channel; and processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the recipient address is acquired from a sender of the voice message. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein said step of acquiring the recipient address comprises the step of: the sender providing the address by voice. 4. The method of claim 2, wherein said step of acquiring the recipient address comprises the step of: the sender entering the recipient address using dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF) signals. 5. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of: determining whether the recipient address is a valid address prior to obtaining the recipient voice message instruction. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the voice message is processed in accordance with the step of processing the voice message, if the recipient address is determined to be valid. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction comprises the step of: forwarding the voice message to the recipient address over a telecommunication network channel. 8. The method of claim 6, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction comprises the step of: forwarding the voice message over a telecommunication network channel to an alternative address, in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction. 9. The method of claim 6, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction comprises the step of: processing the voice message based on a sender identification. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction further comprises the step of: blocking the transmission of the voice message to the recipient address based on the sender identification. 11. The method of claim 9, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction further comprises the step of: permitting the transmission of the voice message to the recipient address based on the sender identification. 12. The method of claim 9, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message further instruction comprises the step of: prioritizing the voice message relative to other voice messages based on the sender identification. 13. The method of claim 6, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction comprises the steps of: converting the voice message to a text message; and emailing the text message over a telecommunication network channel in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction. 14. The method of claim 6, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction comprises the steps of: converting the voice message to a text message; and sending the text message by facsimile over a telecommunication network channel in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction. 15. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of: the recipient selecting a preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein said step of selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises the step of: selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction from a list of preprogrammed voice message instructions. 17. The method of claim 15, wherein said step of selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises the step of: selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction by speaking the instruction. 18. The method of claim 15, wherein said step of selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises the step of: selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction by entering the instruction using dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF) signals. 19. The method of claim 15, wherein said step of selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises the step of: selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction by computer. 20. A method of controlling a voice message from a sender to a recipient in a telecommunication network, said method comprising the steps of: at a first network subsystem, providing an address associated with the recipient; generating and storing a voice message at the first network subsystem; prior to transmitting the voice message to the recipient, acquiring a recipient voice message transmission instruction over a telecommunication network channel from a second network subsystem; and processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction. 21. The method of claim 20, wherein said step of providing the recipient address comprises the step of: providing the recipient address using a telephonic device associated with the sender. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein said step of providing the recipient address using the telephonic device associated with the sender comprises the step of: the sender speaking the voice message. 23. The method of claim 21, wherein said step of providing the recipient address using the telephonic device associated with the sender comprises the step of: the sender entering the voice message using dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF) signals. 24. The method of claim 20 further comprising the steps of: transmitting the recipient address from the first network subsystem to the second network subsystem over a telecommunication network channel; validating the recipient address; and transmitting a validation result to the first network subsystem over a telecommunication network channel. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein said steps of acquiring the recipient voice message transmission instruction from the second network subsystem and processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction are executed if the recipient address is validated. 26. The method of claim 20, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction comprises the step of: forwarding the voice message from the first network subsystem to the recipient address over a telecommunication network channel. 27. The method of claim 20, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction comprises the step of: forwarding the voice message from the first network subsystem to an alternative address in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction over a telecommunication network channel. 28. The method of claim 20, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction comprises the step of: processing the voice message based on a sender identification. 29. The method of claim 28, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction further comprises the step of: blocking the transmission of the voice message to the recipient address based on the sender identification. 30. The method of claim 28, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction further comprises the step of: permitting the transmission of the voice message to the recipient address based on the sender identification. 31. The method of claim 28, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction further comprises the step of: prioritizing the voice message relative to other voice messages based on the sender identification. 32. The method of claim 20, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction comprises the steps of: converting the voice message to a text message; and emailing the text message from the first network subsystem over a telecommunication network channel in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction. 33. The method of claim 20, wherein said step of processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction comprises the steps of: converting the voice message to a text message; and sending the text message from the first network subsystem by facsimile over a telecommunication network channel in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction. 34. The method of claim 20, wherein the telecommunication network involves a local area network. 35. The method of claim 20, wherein the telecommunication network involves a wide area network. 36. The method of claim 20 further comprising the step of: the recipient selecting the recipient voice message transmission instruction. 37. The method of claim 36, wherein said step of selecting the recipient voice message transmission instruction comprises the step of: selecting the recipient voice message transmission instruction from a list of preprogrammed voice message transmission instructions. 38. The method of claim 36, wherein said step of selecting the recipient voice message transmission instruction comprises the step of: the recipient selecting the instruction by speaking into a telephonic device. 39. The method of claim 36, wherein said step of selecting the recipient voice message transmission instruction comprises the step of: the recipient selecting the instruction using dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF) signals. 40. The method of claim 36, wherein said step of selecting the recipient voice message transmission instruction comprises the step of: the recipient selecting the instruction using a computer. 41. A voice message system comprising: first telecommunication network subsystem; second telecommunication network subsystem; means for obtaining a recipient address and a recipient voice message transmission instruction, prior to transmitting a voice message from the first telecommunication network subsystem to the second telecommunication network subsystem over a telecommunication network channel; and means for processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction. 42. The system of claim 41 further comprising: means for determining whether the recipient address is a valid address prior to obtaining the recipient voice message instruction. 43. The system of claim 42, wherein said means for processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message transmission instruction processes the voice message if said means for determining whether the recipient address is valid determines that the recipient address is valid. 44. The system of claim 43, wherein said means for processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction comprises: means for forwarding the voice message to the recipient address over a telecommunication network channel. 45. The system of claim 41, wherein said means for processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction comprises: means for forwarding the voice message over a telecommunication network channel to an alternative address in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction. 46. The system of claim 41, wherein said means for processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction comprises: means for processing the voice message based on a sender identification. 47. The system of claim 46, wherein said means for processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction further comprises: means for blocking the transmission of the voice message to the recipient address based on the sender identification. 48. The system of claim 46, wherein said means for processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction further comprises: means for permitting the transmission of the voice message to the recipient address based on the sender identification. 49. The system of claim 46, wherein said means for processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction comprises: means for prioritizing the voice message relative to other voice messages based on the sender identification. 50. The system of claim 41, wherein said means for processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction comprises: means for converting the voice message to a text message; and means for emailing the text message over a telecommunication network channel in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction. 51. The system of claim 41, wherein said means for processing the voice message in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction comprises: means for converting the voice message to a text message; and means for sending the text message by facsimile over a telecommunication network channel in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction. 52. The system of claim 41 further comprising: means for the recipient to select a preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction. 53. The system of claim 52, wherein said means for selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises: means for selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction from a list of preprogrammed voice message instructions. 54. The system of claim 52, wherein said means for selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises: means for selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction by speaking the instruction. 55. The system of claim 52, wherein said means for selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises: means for selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction using dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF) signals. 56. The method of claim 52, wherein said means for selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises: means for selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction using a computer. 57. The system of claim 41, wherein said first telecommunication network subsystem comprises: a voice message subsystem. 58. The system of claim 57, wherein said first telecommunication network subsystem further comprises: a network interface device. 59. The system of claim 41, wherein said second telecommunication network subsystem comprises: a voice message subsystem. 60. The system of claim 59, wherein said second telecommunication network subsystem further comprises: a network interface device. 61. A method of controlling a voice message in a telecommunication network, said method comprising the steps of: providing an address associated with a recipient of the voice message; prior to transmitting the voice message to the recipient, providing a recipient voice message instruction over a telecommunication network channel, wherein the voice message is to be processed in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction. 62. The method of claim 61 further comprising the step of: determining whether the recipient address is a valid address prior to providing the recipient voice message instruction. 63. The method of claim 61, wherein the recipient voice message instruction instructs that the voice message is to be forwarded, over a telecommunication network channel, to the recipient address. 64. The method of claim 61, wherein the recipient voice message instruction instructs that the voice message is to be forwarded, over a telecommunication network channel, to an alternative address. 65. The method of claim 61, wherein the recipient voice message instruction instructs that the voice message is to be processed based on a sender identification. 66. The method of claim 65, wherein the recipient voice message instruction further instructs that the transmission of the voice message is to be blocked based on the sender identification. 67. The method of claim 65, wherein the recipient voice message instruction further instructs that the transmission of the voice message is to be permitted based on the sender identification. 68. The method of claim 65, wherein the recipient voice message instruction further instructs that the transmission of the voice message is to be prioritized relative to other voice messages based on the sender identification. 69. The method of claim 61, wherein the recipient voice message instruction instructs that the voice message is to be converted into a text message and emailed over a telecommunication network channel in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction. 70. The method of claim 61, wherein the recipient voice message instruction instructs that the voice message is to be converted into a text message and transmitted by facsimile over a telecommunication network channel in accordance with the recipient voice message instruction. 71. The method of claim 61 further comprising the step of: the recipient selecting a preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction. 72. The method of claim 71, wherein said step of selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises the step of: selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction from a list of preprogrammed voice message instructions. 73. The method of claim 71, wherein said step of selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises the step of: selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction by speaking the instruction. 74. The method of claim 71, wherein said step of selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises the step of: selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction by entering the instruction using dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF) signals. 75. The method of claim 71, wherein said step of selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction comprises the step of: selecting the preprogrammed recipient voice message instruction by computer. | This application is a continuation of prior application Ser. No. 10/656,162, filed Sep. 8, 2003, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to telephonic voice message systems, sometimes referred to as Voice Mail systems and, in particular, to a method of controlling transmission of telephonic voice message data in such systems. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Electronic interpersonal communication may be conducted in a variety of formats including direct telephonic voice communication, facsimile document communication, electronic mail communication, and telephonic voice message communication. Facsimile document communication and electronic mail communication may be characterized as document-based, and the other two formats as voice-based. Direct telephonic voice communication is unique among these formats in that it requires contemporaneous participation by all parties. In many business situations, the requirement for contemporaneous participation is unnecessary, disruptive, and time consuming. As a consequence, the noncontemporaneous communication formats of facsimile document communication, electronic mail communication, and telephonic voice message communication are becoming preferred over direct telephonic voice communication for many situations. With increasing volumes of information being transmitted by the different noncontemporaneous communication formats, recipients of the information can be burdened by the effort of sorting through and reviewing the information. In this regard, the document basis of facsimile and electronic mail communication formats allow a recipient to visually sort through large amounts of information relatively quickly. In contrast, voice-based information or messages on telephonic voice message systems are reviewed aurally, which requires that the recipient review telephonic voice messages serially. With increasing numbers of telephonic voice messages, the review of messages by a recipient can become excessively time-consuming and burdensome. This burden can be exacerbated because conventional telephonic voice message systems provide the recipient with little control over which information is received over the system. In contrast, some conventional communication systems other than telephonic voice message systems provide the recipient of the information with at least minor control over the information received. For example, some direct telephonic communication systems include features such as call forwarding. Some electronic mail systems include message notification prioritization based on the identity of the sending party. EP-A-0 588 101 discloses a message storage and retrieval system employing selected caller processing which uses automatic number identification (ANI) to implement several voice message instruction features such as message forwarding, message priority, customized greetings and single digit call-back to the voice message originator. The instructions are executed on voice messages that have already been transmitted and stored by a sender in the recipient's voice message system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is, therefore, to provide a method of controlling transmission of telephonic voice message information. Another object of this invention is to provide such a method in which the recipient controls the telephonic voice message data to be received. A further object of this invention is to provide such a method in which the telephonic voice message data to be received is controlled according to the voice message system address of the sender. The present invention is directed to a method of controlling transmission of voice messages or information via telephonic voice message systems. In a preferred embodiment, a person speaks into a telephone to create or originate a voice message to he sent to another person. The recipient of the message has an assigned address or “mailbox” on the telephonic voice message system analogous to a telephone number and referred to as the destination voice message address. The sender may have an assigned address on and be a system user of the voice message system or may be a system visitor without a permanent system address and who, for example, accesses the system after an unsuccessful direct telephone call to the recipient. After the sender has originated the voice message, the sender directs the voice message to the recipient by sending the voice message and the destination address to the telephonic voice message system. In many systems, the originator keys the destination address number into a DTMF telephone keypad. Other voice message systems include voice recognition subsystems that allow the originator to enter the destination address merely by stating it. Upon receipt of the voice message and the destination address, the telephonic voice message system determines whether the destination voice message address is valid and whether it has a specified voice message transmission instruction previously selected by the recipient for controlling voice messages directed to the destination address. Preferably, a variety of voice message transmission instructions can be selected by the recipient. The selectable voice message transmission instructions can include, for example, transmitting the telephonic voice message data to an alternate or additional voice message destination having a voice message address different from the destination voice message address, determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one acceptable origin address and transmitting the voice message to the destination only if the origination address is included in the preselected set, or determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one unacceptable origin address and blocking transmission of the voice message to the destination address whenever the origination address is included in the list. The selectable voice message transmission instructions also can include assigning voice messages from a specified origination address with a delivery priority (e.g., high or low) that determines the sequence in which messages are retrieved by the recipient, or designating voice messages from a specified origination address as being private so the messages cannot be copied or forwarded. If the voice message system includes a voice recognition and conversion subsystem, the selectable voice message transmission instructions can include converting voice messages to electronic mail or facsimile documents and delivering them to a selected electronic mailbox or facsimile device, respectively. Whenever the destination address has a specified voice message transmission instruction for controlling transmission of the telephonic voice message data, the voice message system processes the voice message according to the instruction. Whenever the destination address has no specified voice message transmission instruction for controlling transmission of the telephonic voice message data, the voice message is transmitted to the destination address and stored for retrieval by the recipient, as in conventional operation of voice message systems. Additional objects and advantages of this invention will be apparent from the following detailed description of preferred embodiments thereof which proceeds with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a simplified schematic block diagram of a telephonic voice message system in which voice message transmission is controllable according to the method of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a flow diagram showing a method of controlling voice message transmission in the system of FIG. 1 according to the present invention. FIG. 3 is a simplified schematic block diagram of a pair of networked telephonic voice message systems in which voice message transmission is controllable according to the method of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a flow diagram showing a method of controlling voice message transmission in the system of FIG. 3 according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 represents a generally conventional telephonic voice message apparatus or system 10 that controls transmission, delivery, and storage of voice messages, which are sometimes referred to as Voice Mail messages. Telephonic voice message system 10 may be of the type manufactured and sold by any of a large number of manufacturers that include VMI, Comverse, Centigram, Rolm, Northern, or Boston Technology. Exemplary models of voice message system 10 may include the INFINITY 2 manufactured by Comverse Technology Inc. of Woodbury, N.Y. and the ONE-VIEW manufactured by Centigram Communications of San Jose, Calif. Voice message system 10 may be telephonically accessed by multiple system users, each of which has an assigned message address or “mailbox,” as well as system visitors who do not have assigned message addresses on voice message system 10. For reference purposes, voice message system 10 is shown connected to telephones 12 and 14 by which, respectively, a message sender (user A) and a message recipient (user B) access voice message system 10. It will be appreciated that telephones 12 and 14 may be located anywhere and can access voice message system through any switching or transmission systems, including a private branch exchange (PBX), local public switched telephone network (PSTN), or long distance or international telephone lines or channels. Telephones 12 and 14 require only basic capabilities (e.g., a DTMF keypad) to be operable with voice message system 10. For purposes of clarity, message senders and recipients having assigned voice message addresses on voice message system 10 are referred to herein as system users. Voice message system 10 is also capable of receiving voice messages from others, who are referred to herein as system visitors. The following description is directed mainly to communication between system users A and B, but is similarly applicable to communication between a system visitor and either of system users A and B. In conventional operation of voice message system 10, user A sends user B a voice message by telephoning voice message system 10 from telephone 12 and speaking into it to create a voice message or voice message data. Voice message system 10 automatically digitizes the voice message for storage User A directs the voice message to its destination (e.g., user B) and adds any conventional sender delivery commands for voice message system 10 (e.g., message delivery priority) by keying the destination message address and sender delivery command codes on the DTMF keypad of telephone 12. Alternatively, voice message system 10 includes a voice recognition subsystem that allows the sender to enter the destination address and any sender delivery commands merely by stating them. Voice message system 10 associates the digitized voice message data with the destination message address and sender delivery commands and stores them for retrieval by the recipient (user B). Typically, voice message system 10 delivers to telephone 14 an indication that a message is available for retrieval by user B. Alternatively, user B may call voice message system 10 to check, for any voice messages. In generally this manner, a system user A on virtually any voice mail system is able to send a voice message to another system user B. In accordance with the present invention, users A and B, as well as any others of the many system users, can control the transmission of voice messages or information directed to their message addresses by selecting preprogrammed voice message transmission instructions that are stored on voice message system 10. With increasing numbers of telephonic voice messages and voice message system users, voice message transmission instructions selectable by the recipient can prevent voice message system 10 from becoming inconvenient or burdensome to use. FIG. 2 is a flow diagram showing a preferred method 20 of controlling transmission of voice message data according to the present invention. Voice message transmission control method 20 is described with reference to communication between systems users A and B, but is similarly applicable to communication from a system visitor to a system user. Process block 22 represents that user A makes telephone contact with voice message system 10. The telephone contact with voice message system 10 may be specifically initiated by user A, or user A may be automatically transferred to voice message system 10 as a result of attempting to make a direct telephonic call to user B. Process block 26 represents that user A speaks into a telephone to create or originate for user B a voice message from which voice message system 10 generates and stores voice message data or information. Voice message system 10 also acquires and stores the message address for user B and any sender delivery commands selected by user A. As is known in the art, the message address for user B may be keyed into a DTMF telephone keypad by user A or may have been previously acquired by voice message system 10. Alternatively, voice message system 10 includes a voice recognition subsystem that allows the sender to enter the destination address and any sender delivery commands merely by stating them. Inquiry block 28 represents an inquiry whether the destination message address is a valid address on voice message system 10 and whether there is a specified voice message transmission instruction previously selected by user B for controlling voice messages directed to the destination message address. This inquiry takes place in response to the entry by user A of a destination message address or any sender delivery commands that are stored for delivery to the destination voice message address of user B. For example, voice message system 10 confirms whether the destination message address is a valid address and reviews a stored first listing of destination message addressees that have specified voice message transmission instructions. If the destination message address is valid and has a specified voice message transmission instruction, inquiry block 28 proceeds to process block 30. If the destination message address is valid and does not have a specified voice message transmission instruction, inquiry block 28 proceeds to process block 34. If the destination message address is not valid, an invalid address message is delivered to user A. Process block 30 represents that voice message system 10 accesses the specified voice message transmission instructions for the destination message address from a stored listing of destination message addresses and associated specified voice message transmission instructions. It will be appreciated that voice message system 10 is analogous to a computer by being programmable and having large information storage capacity. Storing the listings and programming voice message system 10 to create, review and access the listings is within the capabilities of persons skilled in the art. The selectable voice message transmission instructions can include, for example, transmitting the telephonic voice message data to an alternate or additional voice message destination having a voice message address different from the destination voice message address, determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one acceptable origin address and transmitting the voice message to the destination only if the origination address is included in the preselected set, or determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one unacceptable origin address and blocking transmission of the voice message to the destination address whenever the origination address is included in the list. The selectable voice message transmission instructions also can include assigning voice messages from a specified origination address with a priority (e.g., high or low) that determines the sequence in which messages are retrieved by the recipient, or designating voice messages from a specified origination address as being private so the messages cannot be copied or forwarded. If voice message system 10 includes a voice recognition and conversion subsystem, the selectable voice message transmission instructions can include converting voice messages to text data suitable for delivery as electronic mail to a selected electronic mailbox. The selectable voice message transmission instructions can further include converting the text data to a facsimile document suitable for delivery to a facsimile device. User B selects voice message transmission instructions by keying corresponding command or selection codes on the DTMF keypad of telephone 14 in response to interactive voice prompts from voice message system 10. Alternatively, voice message system 10 includes a voice recognition subsystem that allows user B to select voice message transmission instructions merely by stating the corresponding command or selection codes. As another alternative, user B can select voice message transmission instructions by entering corresponding command or selection codes into voice message system 10 with a personal computer in communication with system 10. Process block 32 represents that voice message system 10 processes the voice message data in accordance with any specified voice message transmission instruction. Process block 34 represents that voice message system 10 directs the voice message data to the destination message address as a conventional voice message, stores it for retrieval by the recipient (user B), and provides an indication at telephone 14 that a voice message is available for retrieval. It will be appreciated that the internal operation of voice message systems from different manufacturers will vary. For example, directing voice message data to the destination message address may or may not include shifting or transmitting voice message data. With regard to the present invention, the signal processing details by which a particular voice message system makes a voice message available for retrieval are not material. Process block 36 represents that method 20 is completed. Voice message transmission control method 20 has been described with reference to a single otherwise conventional voice message system 10. The voice message transmission control method of the present invention is also applicable to a network of at least two separate voice message systems. With the increased numbers of users and potential voice messages on such a network, recipient control over voice messages becomes particularly desirable. FIG. 3 shows a telephonic voice message apparatus 40 having a pair of generally conventional telephonic voice message systems 50 and 52 that are operable independently and communicate with each other through a voice message system network 54. Telephonic voice message systems 50 and 52 are preferably similar to voice message system 10. Voice message systems 50 and 52 may be telephonically accessed by multiple system users of either system, each system user having an assigned message address or “mailbox,” as well as system visitors who do not have message addresses on voice message system 50 or 52. For reference purposes, voice message systems 50 and 52 are shown connected to telephones 56 and 58 by which a message sender (user X) and a message recipient (user Y) access voice message systems 50 and 52, respectively. Telephones 56 and 58 provide substantially the same access to respective voice message systems 50 and 52 that telephones 12 and 14 provide to voice message system 10. Voice message system network 54 includes network interface nodes or devices 60 and 62 through which voice message systems 50 and 52 access each other, as well as other voice message systems connected to network 54 but not shown. Network interface devices 60 and 62 may be, for example, an APOGEE WORLDGATE manufactured by the assignee of this application. Voice message system 50 and network interface device 60 compose a first voice message network subsystem 61, and voice message system 52 and network interface device 62 compose a second voice message network subsystem 63. Network interface devices 60 and 62 are operable independently of and may each serve one or more voice message systems. Network interface devices 60 and 62 are interconnected by at least one telecommunication channel 64, which is preferably a high capacity digital telecommunication channel over which large volumes of voice message data can be transmitted efficiently. Due to the independent operability of voice message systems 50 and 52, the method by which a recipient controls voice messages directed to him preferably differs from voice message transmission control method 20. FIG. 4 is a flow diagram showing a preferred method 70 of controlling transmission of voice message data between independently operable voice message systems 50 and 52 in accordance with the present invention. Voice message transmission control method 70 is described with reference to communication between system users X and Y, but is similarly applicable to communication between a system user and a system visitor. Process block 72 represents that user X makes telephone contact with voice message system 50. The telephone contact with voice message system 50 would typically be specifically initiated by user X. If user X attempts to make a direct telephonic call to user Y and is redirected to a voice message system, user X typically would be transferred to voice message system 52 with which user Y is associated. A voice message left by user X directly on voice message system 52 would preferably be processed by voice message transmission control method 20. Process block 76 represents that user X speaks into telephone 56 to create or originate for user Y a voice message from which voice message system 50 generates and stores voice message data or information. Voice message system 50 also acquires and stores the message address for user Y and any sender delivery instructions selected by user X. As is known in the art, the destination message address may be keyed into a DTMF telephone keypad by user X or may have been previously acquired by voice message system 50. Alternatively, voice message system 50 includes a voice recognition subsystem that allows user X to enter the destination address and any sender delivery commands merely by stating them. Since the destination message address does not reside on voice message system 50, user X would typically have to enter an expanded destination message address that includes an indication that it resides on voice message system 52. Process block 78 represents that expanded destination message address of recipient's (user Y's) telephone 58 is transmitted from voice message system 50 to associated network interface device 60. Inquiry block 80 represents an inquiry whether the destination message address is a valid address on voice message system 52 and whether there is a specified voice message transmission instruction previously selected by user Y for controlling voice messages directed to the destination message address. In a first preferred embodiment, voice message system 50 transmits the expanded destination message address to associated network interface device 60, which forwards the destination message address over channel 64 to network interface device 62 associated with voice message system 52. Network interface device 62 confirms whether the destination message address is a valid address of voice message system 52 and reviews a stored first listing of destination message addressees that have specified voice message transmission instructions. In this embodiment, information regarding valid addresses of voice message system 52 and their associated voice message transmission instructions are periodically transferred from system 52 to network interface device 62. In a second preferred embodiment, the expanded destination message address is transmitted to voice message system 52 via network interface device 60, channel 64, and network interface device 62. In response to a query from network interface device 62, voice message system 52 confirms whether the destination message address is a valid address and reviews a stored first listing of destination message addressees that have specified voice message transmission instructions. If the destination message address is valid and has a specified voice message transmission instruction, inquiry block 80 proceeds to process block 82. If the destination message address is valid and does not have a specified voice message transmission instruction, inquiry block 80 proceeds to process block 88. If the destination message address is not valid, an invalid address message is provided to user X by way of the sender's voice message address. Process block 82 represents that the specified voice message transmission instructions for the destination message address are accessed from a stored listing of destination message addresses and associated specified voice message transmission instructions. In the first and second preferred embodiments, the instructions are accessed by network interface device 62 and voice message system 52, respectively. It will be appreciated that voice message systems 50 and 52 and network interface devices 60 and 62 are analogous to computers by being programmable and having large information storage capacity. Storing the listings on and programming voice message system 52 or network interface devices 62 to create, review and access the listings is within the capabilities of persons skilled in the art. The voice message transmission instructions and manner of selecting them can include those described above with reference to voice message system 10. Alternatively, network 54 could provide operator assistance services by which user Y could select voice message transmission instructions by calling and informing a network operator of the instructions the user has selected. Process block 84 represents that a signal carrying the voice message transmission instructions is transmitted to network interface device 60 via network interface device 62 and channel 64. Thus, a message recipient (user Y) can block or reroute selected messages before there is an attempt to transmit them to the recipient as designated by the message originator (user X). Process block 86 represents that voice message system 50 transmits the voice message data to network interface device 60, which processes the voice message data in accordance with any specified voice message transmission instruction. Thus, because of the noncontemporaneous nature of voice message communication, the message originator and recipient are not in communication during the processing of voice message transmission instructions established by the recipient. Process block 88 represents that voice message system 50 directs the voice message data to the destination message address on voice message system 52 via network 54. Voice message system 52 stores the voice message data for retrieval by the recipient (user Y) and provides an indication at telephone 58 that a voice message is available for retrieval. Process block 90 represents that method 70 is completed. To control costs and message retrieval time, large entities using voice messaging need to regulate the originators of incoming voice messages and restrict the number of them. Significant costs include delivery system transient memory storage capacity, local access charges (e.g., 800 number or Bell Operating Company access charges), potential loss of opportunity (e.g., recipient is in different place and time from place and time of message transmission), and message transmission costs. The following example demonstrates the capability of the invention to achieve significant cost savings by allowing a recipient to block or re-route selected messages before they are transmitted to the recipient as designated by the message originator. For purposes of illustration only, the example is described with reference to the FIG. 3 embodiment. EXAMPLE User X wants to leave a message for uses Y. User X specifies certain delivery instructions such as routine delivery scheduling and nonconfidential message, but user Y has specified for messages addressed to him different message delivery instructions that include location re-routing, priority delivery, private message, encrypted message, and delivery certification. Processing of the message by user X proceeds as follows. User X records a message on voice message system 50 and, upon completing his message, proceeds to other, unrelated activities voice message system 50 communicates with network interface device 60 to indicate the presence of the message user X left and gives delivery instructions including the delivery address, length, and urgency of the message. Network interface device 60 communicates the delivery instruction information across telecommunication channel 64 to network interface device 62, which in turn communicates with voice message system 52 to validate the delivery address and check for any alternative delivery instructions placed by user Y in either network interface device 62 or voice message system 52. Voice message system 52 provides back to network interface device 62 the alternative instructions specified by user Y and a confirmation of a valid delivery address. The alternative instructions and confirmation are then transmitted across telecommunication channel 64 to network interface device 60 to substitute the message delivery instructions of user Y for those of user X. Because user Y specified that messages addressed to him be re-routed, a significant cost saving is achieved as a consequence of the nontransmission of the message of user X to the original delivery address of user Y. The processing of message setup instructions is analogous to that for real-time telephone call setup instructions, and in both cases the cost is relatively low. Neither user X nor user Y incurs a cost above that of normal network overhead; therefore, the transmission of voice message transmission instructions achieves the savings objective for user Y. In response to the change in message instructions, network interface device 60 can reroute the message in accordance with the alternative instructions, which at a minimal cost change the delivery address, priority, confidentiality, encryption, and certification to those specified by user Y. For, example, if user Y specifies an address on the same system as that of the address of user X, the only cost incurred to deliver the message would be the local access charge to point the message to the delivery address commanded by user Y. This example demonstrates that no message originator or recipient is on line during message management processing of a previously recorded message, which processing is based on functions a message nonoriginator has defined. This example also shows the invention can be implemented in a local system, local area network (LAN), and wide area network (WAN) environment. Skilled persons will appreciate that the message management functions carried out by way of example with reference to the FIG. 3 system can be distributed to other system components, such as those of the system of FIG. 1. Skilled workers will recognize that the above-described voice message transmission example would also be applicable to other types of non-contemporaneous message transmission such as those found in facsimile document store and forward services and electronic mail, and that the communications medium employed need not be a telecommunications channel. Skilled workers will further recognize that many changes may be made to the details of the above-described embodiment of this invention without departing from the underlying principles thereof. For example, voice message transmission control method 70 is described with reference to separate network interface devices 60 and 62 for respective voice message systems 50 and 52. As an alternative embodiment, voice message transmission control method 70 could operate with voice message systems 50 and 52 and only a single network interface device in direct communication with both message systems. The scope of the present invention should be determined, therefore, only by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Electronic interpersonal communication may be conducted in a variety of formats including direct telephonic voice communication, facsimile document communication, electronic mail communication, and telephonic voice message communication. Facsimile document communication and electronic mail communication may be characterized as document-based, and the other two formats as voice-based. Direct telephonic voice communication is unique among these formats in that it requires contemporaneous participation by all parties. In many business situations, the requirement for contemporaneous participation is unnecessary, disruptive, and time consuming. As a consequence, the noncontemporaneous communication formats of facsimile document communication, electronic mail communication, and telephonic voice message communication are becoming preferred over direct telephonic voice communication for many situations. With increasing volumes of information being transmitted by the different noncontemporaneous communication formats, recipients of the information can be burdened by the effort of sorting through and reviewing the information. In this regard, the document basis of facsimile and electronic mail communication formats allow a recipient to visually sort through large amounts of information relatively quickly. In contrast, voice-based information or messages on telephonic voice message systems are reviewed aurally, which requires that the recipient review telephonic voice messages serially. With increasing numbers of telephonic voice messages, the review of messages by a recipient can become excessively time-consuming and burdensome. This burden can be exacerbated because conventional telephonic voice message systems provide the recipient with little control over which information is received over the system. In contrast, some conventional communication systems other than telephonic voice message systems provide the recipient of the information with at least minor control over the information received. For example, some direct telephonic communication systems include features such as call forwarding. Some electronic mail systems include message notification prioritization based on the identity of the sending party. EP-A-0 588 101 discloses a message storage and retrieval system employing selected caller processing which uses automatic number identification (ANI) to implement several voice message instruction features such as message forwarding, message priority, customized greetings and single digit call-back to the voice message originator. The instructions are executed on voice messages that have already been transmitted and stored by a sender in the recipient's voice message system. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An object of the present invention is, therefore, to provide a method of controlling transmission of telephonic voice message information. Another object of this invention is to provide such a method in which the recipient controls the telephonic voice message data to be received. A further object of this invention is to provide such a method in which the telephonic voice message data to be received is controlled according to the voice message system address of the sender. The present invention is directed to a method of controlling transmission of voice messages or information via telephonic voice message systems. In a preferred embodiment, a person speaks into a telephone to create or originate a voice message to he sent to another person. The recipient of the message has an assigned address or “mailbox” on the telephonic voice message system analogous to a telephone number and referred to as the destination voice message address. The sender may have an assigned address on and be a system user of the voice message system or may be a system visitor without a permanent system address and who, for example, accesses the system after an unsuccessful direct telephone call to the recipient. After the sender has originated the voice message, the sender directs the voice message to the recipient by sending the voice message and the destination address to the telephonic voice message system. In many systems, the originator keys the destination address number into a DTMF telephone keypad. Other voice message systems include voice recognition subsystems that allow the originator to enter the destination address merely by stating it. Upon receipt of the voice message and the destination address, the telephonic voice message system determines whether the destination voice message address is valid and whether it has a specified voice message transmission instruction previously selected by the recipient for controlling voice messages directed to the destination address. Preferably, a variety of voice message transmission instructions can be selected by the recipient. The selectable voice message transmission instructions can include, for example, transmitting the telephonic voice message data to an alternate or additional voice message destination having a voice message address different from the destination voice message address, determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one acceptable origin address and transmitting the voice message to the destination only if the origination address is included in the preselected set, or determining whether the origination address is included in a list of at least one unacceptable origin address and blocking transmission of the voice message to the destination address whenever the origination address is included in the list. The selectable voice message transmission instructions also can include assigning voice messages from a specified origination address with a delivery priority (e.g., high or low) that determines the sequence in which messages are retrieved by the recipient, or designating voice messages from a specified origination address as being private so the messages cannot be copied or forwarded. If the voice message system includes a voice recognition and conversion subsystem, the selectable voice message transmission instructions can include converting voice messages to electronic mail or facsimile documents and delivering them to a selected electronic mailbox or facsimile device, respectively. Whenever the destination address has a specified voice message transmission instruction for controlling transmission of the telephonic voice message data, the voice message system processes the voice message according to the instruction. Whenever the destination address has no specified voice message transmission instruction for controlling transmission of the telephonic voice message data, the voice message is transmitted to the destination address and stored for retrieval by the recipient, as in conventional operation of voice message systems. Additional objects and advantages of this invention will be apparent from the following detailed description of preferred embodiments thereof which proceeds with reference to the accompanying drawings. | 20040617 | 20070529 | 20050203 | 72174.0 | 1 | GAUTHIER, GERALD | TELEPHONIC VOICE MESSAGE TRANSMISSION CONTROL METHOD | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,009 | ACCEPTED | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR UNIFORMITY AND BRIGHTNESS CORRECTION IN AN OLED DISPLAY | A method for the correction of brightness and uniformity variations in OLED displays, comprising: a) providing an OLED display having a plurality of light-emitting elements with a common power signal and local control signals; b) providing a digital input signal for displaying information on each light-emitting element, the signal having a first bit depth; c) transforming the digital input signal into a transformed digital signal having a second bit depth greater than the first bit depth; and d) correcting the transformed signal for one or more light-emitting elements of the display by applying a local correction factor to produce a corrected digital signal. In accordance with various embodiments, the present invention may provide the advantages of improved uniformity in a display that reduces the complexity of calculations, maintains a consistent bit-depth for all light-emitting elements, provides a pre-determined output brightness, improves the yields of the manufacturing process, and reduces the electronic circuitry needed to implement the uniformity calculations and transformations. | 1. A method for the correction of brightness and uniformity variations in OLED displays, comprising: a) providing an OLED display having a plurality of light-emitting elements with a common power signal and local control signals; b) providing a digital input signal for displaying information on each light-emitting element, the signal having a first bit depth; c) transforming the digital input signal into a transformed digital signal having a second bit depth greater than the first bit depth; and d) correcting the transformed signal for one or more light-emitting elements of the display by applying a local correction factor to produce a corrected digital signal. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising providing a global correction factor for all light-emitting elements and correcting the transformed signal by the global correction factor in combination with the local correction factor to produce the corrected digital signal. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein correction of the transformed signal is performed by integer scaling. 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the global and local corrections are performed with a combined correction factor to produce the corrected digital signal. 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the global and local corrections are performed with in separate steps with separate correction factors to produce the corrected digital signal. 6. The method of claim 2 further comprising the step of calculating the average brightness of the display with a nominal digital input signal and wherein the global correction factor is a multiplication factor equal to the desired brightness of the display at the nominal digital input signal divided by the average brightness of the display at the nominal digital input signal. 7. The method of claim 6 further comprising the step of calculating the local correction factor for a light-emitting element with the nominal digital input signal and wherein the local correction factor is a multiplication factor equal to the desired brightness of the light-emitting element at the nominal digital input signal divided by the brightness of the globally corrected light-emitting element at the nominal digital input signal. 8. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of calculating the local correction factor for a light-emitting element with a nominal digital input signal and wherein the local correction factor is a multiplication factor equal to the desired brightness of the display at the nominal digital input signal divided by the brightness of the light-emitting element at the nominal digital input signal. 9. The method of claim 1 wherein the transformation is a multiplication of the digital input signal by a factor of two. 10. The method of claim 1 wherein the light-emitting elements are organized and controlled by rows and columns and a single, common local correction factor is applied to each light-emitting element in a row or column of light-emitting elements. 11. The method of claim 10 wherein the single, common local correction-factor applied to light-emitting element in a row or column of light-emitting elements is the average, maximum, or minimum of the local correction factors of the light-emitting elements in the row or column. 12. The method of claim 10 wherein a single, common row local correction factor is first applied to each light-emitting element in a row of light-emitting elements and a single, common local correction factor is then calculated and applied to each light-emitting element in a column of light-emitting elements. 13. The method of claim 10 wherein a single, common column local correction factor is first applied to each light-emitting element in a column of light-emitting elements and a single, common local correction factor is then calculated and applied to each light-emitting element in a row of light-emitting elements. 14. The method of claim 1 wherein a plurality of corrections are provided for each light-emitting element for a corresponding plurality of brightness levels. 15. The method of claim 14 wherein the corrections are scaling factors stored in a look-up value in a table. 16. The method of claim 1 wherein the OLED display is a color display comprising light emitting elements of multiple colors, and further comprising providing a separate global correction factor for all light-emitting elements of a common color and correcting the transformed signal for each light-emitting element by the common color global correction factor in combination with the local correction factor to produce the corrected digital signal. 17. The method of claim 1, further comprising converting the corrected digital signal to an analog signal, and providing a global correction factor for the analog signal. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the OLED display is a color display comprising light emitting elements of multiple colors, and wherein separate global correction factors are provided for all light-emitting elements of a common color. 19. The method of claim 1, further comprising providing a global power correction factor for the common power signal. 20. The method of claim 19, further comprising adjusting the common power signal based on a relative lifetime of the device materials and an application requirement. 21. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of providing a uniformity threshold below which the local correction is applied and above which the local correction is not applied. 22. The method of claim 21 wherein the uniformity threshold is selected based on a relative lifetime of the device materials and an application requirement. 23. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of providing an acceptability threshold below which the local correction is not applied and above which the local correction is applied. 24. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of sorting the corrected OLED displays based on a relative lifetime of the device materials and an application requirement. 25. The method of claim 1, wherein correction of the transformed signal is performed by integer scaling. 26. The method of claim 1 wherein the first bit depth is 8 bits. 27. The method of claim 26 wherein the second bit depth is 10 bits. 28. A method for the correction of brightness and uniformity variations in OLED devices and improving the manufacturing yields of OLED devices, comprising: a) providing an OLED device having a plurality of light-emitting elements having a nominal lifetime and a nominal brightness at a nominal drive current density and one or more non-uniform light-emitting elements that do not produce the nominal brightness at the nominal drive current density; b) providing an application for the OLED display having a required lifetime lower than the nominal OLED device lifetime; and c) driving the one or more non-uniform light-emitting elements in the OLED device at a current density higher than the nominal drive current density so that the nominal brightness is achieved. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to OLED displays having a plurality of light-emitting elements and, more particularly, correcting for non-uniformities in the display. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) have been known for some years and have been recently used in commercial display devices. Such devices employ both active-matrix and passive-matrix control schemes and can employ a plurality of light-emitting elements. The light-emitting elements are typically arranged in two-dimensional arrays with a row and a column address for each light-emitting element and having a data value associated with each light-emitting element to emit light at a brightness corresponding to the associated data value. However, such displays suffer from a variety of defects that limit the quality of the displays. In particular, OLED displays suffer from non-uniformities in the light-emitting elements. These, non-uniformities can be attributed to both the light emitting materials in the display and, for active-matrix displays, to variability in the thin-film transistors used to drive the light emitting elements. A variety of schemes have been proposed to correct for non-uniformities in displays. U.S. Pat. No. 6,081,073 entitled “Matrix Display with Matched Solid-State Pixels” by Salam granted Jun. 27, 2000 describes a display matrix with a process and control means for reducing brightness variations in the pixels. This patent describes the use of a linear scaling method for each pixel based on a ratio between the brightness of the weakest pixel in the display and the brightness of each pixel. However, this approach will lead to an overall reduction in the brightness of the display and a reduction and variation in the bit depth at which the pixels can be operated. U.S. Pat. No. 6,414,661 B1 entitled “Method and apparatus for calibrating display devices and automatically compensating for loss in their efficiency over time” by Shen et al issued Jul. 7, 2002 describes a method and associated system that compensates for long-term variations in the light-emitting efficiency of individual organic light emitting diodes in an OLED display device by calculating and predicting the decay in light output efficiency of each pixel based on the accumulated drive current applied to the pixel and derives a correction coefficient that is applied to the next drive current for each pixel. The compensation system is best used after the display device has been calibrated to provide uniform light output. This patent provides a means for correcting the non-uniformities through the use of a look-up table. However, this approach does not reduce variation and reductions in bit-depth for the various pixels in the display and requires a large lookup table and complex calculation and circuit to implement. U.S. Pat. No. 6,473,065 B1 entitled “Methods of improving display uniformity of organic light emitting displays by calibrating individual pixel” by Fan issued Oct. 29, 2002 describes methods of improving the display uniformity of an OLED. In order to improve the display uniformity of an OLED, the display characteristics of all organic-light-emitting-elements are measured, and calibration parameters for each organic-light-emitting-element are obtained from the measured display characteristics of the corresponding organic-light-emitting-element. The calibration parameters of each organic-light-emitting-element are stored in a calibration memory. The technique uses a combination of look-up tables and calculation circuitry to implement uniformity correction. However, this approach uses complex and large electronic means to implement, and also suffers from reduced and variable bit-depth in display gray-scale. Other techniques rely upon complex sensing and driving circuitry to provide uniformity correction. For example, US20020030647 entitled “Uniform Active Matrix OLED Displays” by Hack et al published Mar. 14, 2002 describes such a technique. In this design, an active matrix display comprises an array of pixels, each pixel including an organic light emitting device and at least one thin film transistor. A uniformity correction circuit that is capable of producing a selected pixel brightness is connected to the array of pixels. The uniformity correction circuit is capable of maintaining the brightness of the pixels in a range that does not vary, for example, by more than about 5-10% from their selected brightness values. In other examples, improved uniformity is achieved through complex pixel driving circuits in each pixel. For example, see EP0905673 entitled “Active matrix display system and a method for driving the same” by Kane et al published Mar. 31, 1999. These approaches can unfavorably reduce the area in the OLED display available for emitting light, reduce manufacturing yields, and are subject to uniformity variation in the pixel circuits themselves. There is a need, therefore, for an improved method of providing uniformity in an OLED display that overcomes these objections. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The need is met according to the present invention by providing a method for the correction of brightness and uniformity variations in OLED displays, comprising: a) providing an OLED display having a plurality of light-emitting elements with a common power signal and local control signals; b) providing a digital input signal for displaying information on each light-emitting element, the signal having a first bit depth; c) transforming the digital input signal into a transformed digital signal having a second bit depth greater than the first bit depth; and d) correcting the transformed signal for one or more light-emitting elements of the display by applying a local correction factor to produce a corrected digital signal. ADVANTAGES In accordance with various embodiments, the present invention may provide the advantage of improved uniformity in a display that reduces the complexity of calculations, maintains a consistent bit-depth for all light-emitting elements, provides a predetermined output brightness, improves the yields of the manufacturing process, and reduces the electronic circuitry needed to implement the uniformity calculations and transformations. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a flow diagram illustrating the method of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram illustrating an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 3-8 are schematic diagrams illustrating alternative embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring to FIG. 1, the present invention is directed to a method for the correction of brightness and uniformity variations in OLED displays, comprising the steps of providing 8 an OLED display having a plurality of light-emitting elements with a common power signal and local control signals; providing 10 a digital input signal for displaying information on each light-emitting element, the signal having a first bit depth; transforming 12 the digital input signal into a transformed digital signal having a second bit depth greater than the first bit depth; integer scaling 14 the transformed signal by a global correction factor for all light-emitting elements to produce a globally corrected signal; integer scaling 16 the globally corrected signal for one or more light-emitting elements of the display by a local correction factor to produce an output 18 corrected signal. An integer scaling operation is an operation in which an input integer value is multiplied by an integer to form a second output integer value. Such operations are simple to implement in hardware and do not involve complex floating point calculations or division operations that are difficult or expensive to construct in conventional integrated circuits. Moreover, the use of an integer multiplier greatly reduces the need for large look-up tables in providing functional mathematical transformations. For example, an OLED display having 256 rows and 256 columns, three colors, and an 8-bit signal value, will require approximately 50 Mbytes of storage data to store a correction value for each color of each light-emitting element at each possible signal value. While integrated circuits available today can readily achieve these storage densities, they cannot easily integrate storage of the needed density and speed into the controllers used for displays at the required low cost. The design of the current invention requires less than 500 kbytes for a three-color system; this is readily achievable at the required costs. Moreover, the global and local corrections used in the present invention may be combined into a single operational step, further reducing the hardware needs. Referring to FIG. 2, a simple embodiment of the present invention is illustrated. A digital input data signal 20 is input with an address value 22. A global correction factor 26 is stored in a memory 24. The digital input data signal 20 is transformed from the input bit-depth (shown as eight bits) to a larger bit-depth (shown as ten bits) digital data signal 30. This is readily accomplished by adding one bit 21 to the least significant bit of the digital input signal 20, thereby forming a nine-bit value for which each digital input value 20 is effectively multiplied by two, and adding one bit 23 to the most significant bit of the digital input signal 20 thereby forming a digital data signal having a larger bit-depth, ten-bit integer whose values are even and range from 0 to 510. The larger bit-depth digital data signal 30 is multiplied by the global correction factor 26 using integer multiplier 27 to form a globally corrected 10-bit signal 32. A local correction value 34 is stored in a look-up table 36 and addressed by the input address value 22. The globally corrected larger bit-depth digital data signal 32 is multiplied by the local correction value 34 using integer multiplier 29 to form a corrected digital signal 40 having a larger bit-depth than the digital input signal 20. While the global correction is illustrated as being performed prior to the local correction, the order of global and local correction steps may be interchanged to optimize the dynamic range of the correction and the use of the available bits in the signal. The corrected signal is then converted through a 10-bit digital-to-analog converter 42 to form a driving signal 44 suitable for driving the OLED display. Additional driving circuits may be combined with converter 42 to provide suitable power, data, and control signals for the OLED display. A separate circuit may be provided for each color in a color display. The two-step correction described above maybe combined into a single operational step process. Referring to FIG. 3, the look-up table 46 has a combined correction value 48 applied to the first integer multiplier 27 to form the larger bit-depth corrected digital signal 40. However, the range of the combined multiplication may be larger than the two-step process, and hence may be slower. As is taught in the prior art, if a light-emitting element having reduced efficiency (and hence non-uniformity) outputs only 150 cd/m2 when driven by a signal with a code value intended to output 200 cd/m2, the signal may be corrected by multiplying the code value by the ratio of the desired output by the actual output, in this example, 200/150 or 1.333 (for simplicity, presuming a linear relationship between code value and brightness). For example, it may be desired to output a brightness of 200 cd/m2 corresponding to a maximum signal code value (e.g., 255 for an eight bit signal). In this case, however, any corrected code value above 191 (i.e., 255/1.333) can be set only to the maximum code value of 255, and cannot be properly corrected. Thus, there are only 191 different possible output values. This is a reduced bit depth that may result in contouring (reduced gray scale) in display of an image. Further, if the maximum code value corresponds to the maximum drive voltage, the inefficient light-emitting element cannot be corrected. In the prior art, this is addressed by using an uncorrected code value that is less than the maximum code value, and that corresponds to a drive voltage that is less than the maximum drive voltage. Thus, when the code value is corrected it may still be within the bit depth range and correspond to an obtainable drive voltage. For example, a code value of 191 may be intended to provide an output of 200 cd/m2. When corrected, the code value of 191 may be less than or equal to 255, thus driving the voltage to a higher voltage in order to obtain an output of 200 cd/m2. However, the available bit depth of the signal would still be limited to only 191 different possible output values. According to the present invention, the light-emitting element is scaled to a larger bit-depth when performing the uniformity correction, thereby enabling both the desired brightness and bit-depth to be obtained. Using the example above, a code value of 200 may be transformed to a value of 400, and then multiplied by 1.333 to provide a corrected code value of 533. The code values having an expanded bit depth must be converted to a suitable driving signal for the display at the expanded bit depth to maintain the advantage of the larger bit-depth, for example using a 10-bit digital-to-analog converter to drive the OLED display. Moreover, if the 10-bit digital-to-analog converter has a wider driving range than the range of the 8-bit signal value, the non-uniformity may be corrected. The integrated circuit hardware necessary to accomplish these calculations is well-known in the prior art. Means to measure the brightness of each light-emitting element in a display are known and described, for example, in the references provided above. In a particular embodiment, systems and methods as described in copending, commonly assigned U.S. Ser. No. ______ (Kodak Docket 88142), filed Jun. 1, 2004, may be employed, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein. For example, a uniformity correction value may be found by calculating the average brightness of the display with a nominal digital input signal and wherein the global correction factor is a multiplication factor equal to the desired brightness of the display at the nominal digital input signal divided by the average brightness of the display at the nominal digital input signal. Alternatively, given the brightness of each light-emitting element and a desired brightness for the display, the global correction factors for each light-emitting element in the display can be calculated by finding the brightest light-emitting element in the display. The global correction factor is then the desired brightness divided by the brightest light-emitting element. Note that if the brightest light-emitting element is brighter than the desired brightness of the light-emitting element, then the correction factor must reduce the brightness of the light-emitting element (that is the global correction factor is less than 1). Integer multiplications using fractions are readily accomplished using multipliers having a bit range greater than the larger of the two input values. Such multiplication techniques are well-known in computer science. According to the present invention, division or floating point operations are not required to achieve the overall brightness and uniformity requirements of a display. The local correction factor associated with each light-emitting element may be found by calculating the local brightness of a light-emitting element with a nominal digital input signal and wherein the local correction factor is a multiplication factor equal to the desired brightness of the light-emitting element at the nominal digital input signal divided by the local brightness of the display at the nominal digital input signal. The global correction factor should first be applied to each light-emitting element and then the local correction factor necessary to cause each light-emitting element to output the desired brightness calculated. The correction factor will be greater than one, because the global correction factor was calculated using the brightest light-emitting element. The local correction factor will be the desired brightness divided by the brightness of the globally corrected light-emitting element. The local correction factor can be combined with the global correction factor by multiplying them together, thereby forming a combined correction factor. In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention, to fully maintain the signal bit depth, the number of bits added to the least significant bits of the digital input value must be at least as large as the absolute value of the base 2 logarithm of the combined correction factor. That is, if a combined correction factor for a light-emitting element is a multiplication by ½, the number of bits added to the least significant bits of the digital input value must be at least 1. If a combined correction factor for a light-emitting element is a multiplication by ¼, the number of bits added to the least significant bits of the digital input value must be at least 2. If this restriction is not accommodated, the resulting bit-depth will be reduced, but may still provide an advantage relative to a signal with no additional bits. If, on the other hand, the combined correction value is greater than one, that is the light-emitting element must become brighter, the number of bits added to the most significant bit of the digital input signal must be equal to or larger than the base 2 logarithm of the combined correction factor (again, to fully maintain the signal bit depth in accordance with preferred embodiments of the present invention). For example, if a combined correction factor for a light-emitting element is a multiplication by 2, the number of bits added to the most significant bits of the digital input value must be at least 1. If a combined correction factor for a light-emitting element is a multiplication by 4, the number of bits added to the least significant bits of the digital input value must be at least 2. If this restriction is not accommodated, the resulting bit-depth will be reduced (but again, may still provide an advantage relative to a signal with no additional bits). The calculation of the global correction factor may also be performed using the brightness of the dimmest light-emitting element in the array or the average brightness of all of the light-emitting elements in the array. In these cases, the global and local correction factors may each change, but the combined correction does not. The brightness of an OLED light-emitting element is not always linearly related to the code values supplied to the display. Although the driving circuits used in such displays provide a functional transform in the relationship between the code values and the associated light-emitting element brightness, the desired correction factors for a light-emitting element may vary in non-linear ways at different brightness levels. Experiments performed by applicant have taught this is especially true for non-uniform light-emitting elements that, by definition, do not behave as desired or expected. Hence, it is useful to provide a variable global correction that varies with light-emitting element brightness. This can be accomplished by providing a look-up table having a corrected code value for every possible brightness level for every light-emitting element but, as noted above, this is unrealistic in practical products. However, experiments performed by applicant have shown that the global corrections needed are often linear over a portion of the code value range. Hence, a variable global correction value can be implemented with a series of linear approximations to the desired curve. Referring to FIG. 4, the four most significant bits of the data value are provided to a variable global correction lookup table 50 to provide correction factors for code values within the range of the four most significant bits. The number of bits employed can be adjusted to suit the application. An additional integer adder/subtracter 52 may be provided with the multiplier to provide offsets in the output value. Likewise, the same data values may be optionally provided (shown by a dashed line) to the local correction look-up table to select an appropriate variable local correction value. However, the need for a more customized correction is less for the local correction, because the uniformity variation from the desired output level is, in general, lower. Moreover, the local correction table, because it has a separate value for each light-emitting element, will grow rapidly if multiple local correction values are associated with each light-emitting element. Hence, by employing a two-step correction, uniformity of an OLED display may be improved while reducing the overall hardware requirements. It is important to consider a global correction separately from a local correction because of the nature of OLED devices. Variability in an OLED device comes from at least two sources: variability in the performance of the OLED light emissive materials, and variability in the electronics used to drive the light emissive materials. As has been observed by applicant in manufacturing processes, the variability in the light emissive materials tends to be global although not exclusively so, while variability in the electronics, for example thin-film driver circuits, tends to be local, although not exclusively so. In typical applications, displays are sorted after manufacture, into groups that may be applied to different purposes. Some applications require displays having no, or only a few, faulty light-emitting elements. Others can tolerate variability but only within a range, while others may have different lifetime requirements. The present invention provides a means to customize the performance of an OLED display to the application for which it is intended. It is well known that OLED devices rely upon the current passing through them to produce light. As the current passes through the materials, the materials age and become less efficient. By applying a correction factor to a light-emitting element to increase its brightness, a greater current is passed through the light-emitting element, thereby reducing the lifetime of the light-emitting element while improving the uniformity. The correction factors applied to an OLED device, according to one embodiment of the present invention, may be related to the expected lifetime of the materials and the lifetime requirements of the application for which the display is intended. The maximum combined correction factor may be set, e.g., so as to not exceed the ratio of the expected lifetime of the display materials to the expected lifetime of the display in the intended application. For example, if a display has an expected lifetime of 10 years at a desired brightness level, and an application of that display has a requirement of 5 years, the maximum combined correction factor for that display may be set so as not to exceed two, if the current-to-lifetime relationship is linear. If the relationship is not linear, a transformation to relate the lifetime and current density is necessary. These relationships can be obtained empirically. Hence, the combined correction factor for a display may be limited by application. Alternatively, one can view this relationship as a way to improve the yields in a manufacturing process by enabling uniformity correction in a display application (up to a limit) so that displays which might have been discarded, may now be used. Moreover, OLED devices having more-efficient light-emitting elements may have a reduced power requirement thereby enabling applications with more stringent power requirements. The display requirements may be further employed to improve manufacturing yields by correcting the uniformity of specific light-emitting elements or only partially correcting the uniformity of the light-emitting elements. As noted above, some applications can tolerate a number of non-uniform light-emitting elements. These light-emitting elements may be chosen to be more or less noticeable to a user depending on the application and may remain uncorrected, or only partially corrected, thereby allowing the maximum combined correction factor to remain under the limit described above. For example, if a certain number of bad light-emitting elements were acceptable, the remainder may be corrected as described in the present invention and the display made acceptable. In a less extreme case, bad light-emitting elements may be partially corrected so as to meet the lifetime requirement of the display application and partially correcting the uniformity of the display. Hence, the global and local uniformity correction factors may be chosen to exclude light-emitting elements, or only partially correct light-emitting elements, that fall outside of a correctable range. This range, as observed above, may be application dependent. There are a variety of ways in which light-emitting elements may be excluded from correction. For example, a minimum or maximum threshold may be provided outside of which no light-emitting elements are to be corrected. The threshold may be set by comparing the expected lifetime of the materials and the application requirements. Depending on the hardware design of the correction circuitry, light-emitting elements that fall within an acceptable uniformity range may also be excluded. If for example, the required data rate and the signal bit-depth for a display were very high, the process of correcting the signal for every light-emitting element may be too expensive or time-consuming. In such a case, it can be useful to correct only those light-emitting elements that fall outside an acceptability range but inside a correctable threshold range. Referring to FIG. 5, this may be accomplished by providing a control circuit 56 that bypasses the correction calculation for specific addresses or for specific data values. In an alternative embodiment of the present invention, a simplified correction mechanism may be employed to further reduce the complexity and size of the correction hardware. Applicant has determined that a large number of significant non-uniformity problems are associated with rows and columns of light-emitting elements. This is attributable to the manufacturing process. Rather than supplying an individual correction factor for every light-emitting element, correction factors for rows and columns might be employed. In this case, a global correction factor can be obtained as described above. However, the local correction factor is a combination of a row correction and a column correction. The row correction for each row may be a combination of the corrections for each row and the column correction for each column may be a combination of the corrections for each column. Suitable combinations include the average, maximum, or minimum of the corrections in each row or column. The corrections are best obtained by first calculating and applying one of the row or column corrections to the light-emitting elements in the display, and then obtaining the other. In operation, the global correction is applied as before. The local correction, however, is divided into two parts, a row correction and a column correction. Referring to FIG. 6, the row correction value 60 is found in a row address 68 look-up table 62 and applied to the integer multiplier 29. Similarly, the column correction value 64 is found in a column address 70 look-up table 66 and applied to another integer multiplier 31. The advantage of this arrangement, is that the required memory is greatly reduced. For a 256 by 256 color display, the row and column look-up tables each require only 256 entries for each color in comparison to the 256×256 entries in a local correction look-up table with a separate entry for each light-emitting element location. Thus, using this approach, an individual correction value could be applied for every brightness level for every light-emitting element by supplying a correction value for each brightness level for each row and each column. The global correction may be combined with the row and column corrections, further reducing the hardware requirement. It is important for the driving circuitry (converter 42) to provide the correct range of voltage and/or current to drive the light-emitting elements at a level corresponding to the bit-depth of the corrected signal. For example, if the correction values are all unity, the brightness corresponding to the corrected digital output signal should be the same as the brightness corresponding to the digital input signal. In other words, the driving circuitry needs to accommodate the expected range of code values and driving levels. Moreover, according to the present invention, some of the light-emitting elements may require a greater voltage and/or current to provide a corrected output having improved uniformity. Therefore, the driving circuitry must have additional range so that it can provide greater power to dimmer light-emitting elements. If no additional range is available in the driving circuitry, that is the circuit is driving light-emitting elements at the maximum value before the light-emitting elements are corrected, then either the light-emitting element cannot be corrected or the overall brightness of the display must be reduced. The global correction factor 26 may be applied in analog circuitry after the local correction. Referring to FIG. 7, a global analog correction 76 is provided. This technique may be combined with that shown in FIG. 2, so that both an analog global compensation is provided and a local digital code value correction is performed. This correction may be applied either within a controller or, for example, within the display. In a further embodiment, the analog correction may be provided in the power circuitry, e.g., the global correction can be provided by adjusting a common power signal to the display. An increase in the power provided to light-emitting elements in a display can be accommodated by increasing the voltage or current provided to the OLED elements in the display. Referring to FIG. 8, a global power correction 82 is provided. Power signal 78 is scaled according to a global correction factor 26 to produce a corrected power signal 80 that is supplied in common to all light-emitting elements. This correction can be done manually, for example with a potentiometer, or under the control of a digital circuit. The power analog global compensation is combined with a local digital code value correction. The invention has been described in detail with particular reference to certain preferred embodiments thereof, but it will be understood that variations and modifications can be effected within the spirit and scope of the invention. PARTS LIST 8 Provide display step 10 Input signal step 12 Transform signal step 14 Global correction step 16 Local correction step 18 output correction step 20 digital input data signal 21 bit 22 address value 23 bit 24 memory 26 global correction factor 27 integer multiplier 29 integer multiplier 30 larger bit-depth digital data signal 31 integer multiplier 32 globally corrected signal 34 local correction value 36 look-up table 40 corrected digital signal 42 digital-to-analog converter 44 driving signal 46 combined look-up table 48 combined correction value 50 global correction look-up table 52 integer adder/subtractor 56 control circuit 60 row correction value 62 look-up table 64 column correction value 66 look-up table 68 row address 70 column address 76 global analog correction 78 power signal 80 corrected power signal 82 global power correction | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) have been known for some years and have been recently used in commercial display devices. Such devices employ both active-matrix and passive-matrix control schemes and can employ a plurality of light-emitting elements. The light-emitting elements are typically arranged in two-dimensional arrays with a row and a column address for each light-emitting element and having a data value associated with each light-emitting element to emit light at a brightness corresponding to the associated data value. However, such displays suffer from a variety of defects that limit the quality of the displays. In particular, OLED displays suffer from non-uniformities in the light-emitting elements. These, non-uniformities can be attributed to both the light emitting materials in the display and, for active-matrix displays, to variability in the thin-film transistors used to drive the light emitting elements. A variety of schemes have been proposed to correct for non-uniformities in displays. U.S. Pat. No. 6,081,073 entitled “Matrix Display with Matched Solid-State Pixels” by Salam granted Jun. 27, 2000 describes a display matrix with a process and control means for reducing brightness variations in the pixels. This patent describes the use of a linear scaling method for each pixel based on a ratio between the brightness of the weakest pixel in the display and the brightness of each pixel. However, this approach will lead to an overall reduction in the brightness of the display and a reduction and variation in the bit depth at which the pixels can be operated. U.S. Pat. No. 6,414,661 B1 entitled “Method and apparatus for calibrating display devices and automatically compensating for loss in their efficiency over time” by Shen et al issued Jul. 7, 2002 describes a method and associated system that compensates for long-term variations in the light-emitting efficiency of individual organic light emitting diodes in an OLED display device by calculating and predicting the decay in light output efficiency of each pixel based on the accumulated drive current applied to the pixel and derives a correction coefficient that is applied to the next drive current for each pixel. The compensation system is best used after the display device has been calibrated to provide uniform light output. This patent provides a means for correcting the non-uniformities through the use of a look-up table. However, this approach does not reduce variation and reductions in bit-depth for the various pixels in the display and requires a large lookup table and complex calculation and circuit to implement. U.S. Pat. No. 6,473,065 B1 entitled “Methods of improving display uniformity of organic light emitting displays by calibrating individual pixel” by Fan issued Oct. 29, 2002 describes methods of improving the display uniformity of an OLED. In order to improve the display uniformity of an OLED, the display characteristics of all organic-light-emitting-elements are measured, and calibration parameters for each organic-light-emitting-element are obtained from the measured display characteristics of the corresponding organic-light-emitting-element. The calibration parameters of each organic-light-emitting-element are stored in a calibration memory. The technique uses a combination of look-up tables and calculation circuitry to implement uniformity correction. However, this approach uses complex and large electronic means to implement, and also suffers from reduced and variable bit-depth in display gray-scale. Other techniques rely upon complex sensing and driving circuitry to provide uniformity correction. For example, US20020030647 entitled “Uniform Active Matrix OLED Displays” by Hack et al published Mar. 14, 2002 describes such a technique. In this design, an active matrix display comprises an array of pixels, each pixel including an organic light emitting device and at least one thin film transistor. A uniformity correction circuit that is capable of producing a selected pixel brightness is connected to the array of pixels. The uniformity correction circuit is capable of maintaining the brightness of the pixels in a range that does not vary, for example, by more than about 5-10% from their selected brightness values. In other examples, improved uniformity is achieved through complex pixel driving circuits in each pixel. For example, see EP0905673 entitled “Active matrix display system and a method for driving the same” by Kane et al published Mar. 31, 1999. These approaches can unfavorably reduce the area in the OLED display available for emitting light, reduce manufacturing yields, and are subject to uniformity variation in the pixel circuits themselves. There is a need, therefore, for an improved method of providing uniformity in an OLED display that overcomes these objections. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The need is met according to the present invention by providing a method for the correction of brightness and uniformity variations in OLED displays, comprising: a) providing an OLED display having a plurality of light-emitting elements with a common power signal and local control signals; b) providing a digital input signal for displaying information on each light-emitting element, the signal having a first bit depth; c) transforming the digital input signal into a transformed digital signal having a second bit depth greater than the first bit depth; and d) correcting the transformed signal for one or more light-emitting elements of the display by applying a local correction factor to produce a corrected digital signal. | 20040616 | 20060124 | 20051222 | 72646.0 | 0 | TRAN, THUY V | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR UNIFORMITY AND BRIGHTNESS CORRECTION IN AN OLED DISPLAY | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,052 | ACCEPTED | Sterilization methods and apparatus which employ additive-containing supercritical carbon dioxide sterilant | Sterilization methods and apparatus are effective to achieve a 6-log reduction in CFUs of industry standard bacteria and bacterial spores, i.e., B. stearothermophilus and B. subtilis spores, by subjecting sterilizable materials to a chemical additive-containing carbon dioxide sterilant fluid at or near its supercritical pressure and temperature conditions. Most preferably, the chemical additive-containing supercritical carbon dioxide sterilant fluid is agitated during sterilization, e.g., via mechanical agitation or via pressure cycling. | 1. A sterilization method comprising (a) bringing a material in need of sterilization into contact with a sterilant fluid comprised of carbon dioxide at or near its supercritical pressure and temperature conditions, and a sterilization enhancing effective amount of a chemical sterilization additive, and (b) maintaining said contact with the sterilant fluid under said temperature and pressure conditions for a time sufficient to achieve a 6-log reduction or greater in colony forming units (CFUs). 2. The sterilization method of claim 1, which comprises agitating the sterilant fluid. 3. The sterilization method of claim 2, wherein said step of agitating the sterilant fluid is practiced by subjecting the sterilant fluid to mechanical agitation or by cycling the pressure of the sterilant fluid between at least two different pressure conditions. 4. The sterilization method of claim 1, wherein the chemical sterilization additive comprises a peroxide or a carboxylic acid. 5. The sterilization method of claim 4, wherein the chemical sterilization additive comprises an alkanecarboxylic acid and/or an ialkanepercarboxylic acid, each of which may optionally include one or more electron-withdrawing group selected from halogen oxygen or nitrogen groups substituted at the alpha carbon thereof. 6. The sterilization method of claim 1, wherein the chemical sterilization additive comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of hydrogen peroxide, acetic acid, peracetic acid and trifluoroacetic acid. 7. The sterilization method of claim 1, wherein the chemical sterilization additive comprises a mixture of acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid. 8. The sterilization method of any one of claims 1-7, wherein the sterilization additive is present in an amount of between about 0.001% to about 2.0% based on the total volume of the sterilant fluid. 9. A sterilant fluid which comprises carbon dioxide at or near its supercritical pressure and temperature conditions, and a sterilization enhancing effective amount of a chemical sterilization additive. 10. The sterilization method of claim 9, wherein the chemical sterilization additive comprises a peroxide or a carboxylic acid. 11. The sterilization method of claim 10, wherein the chemical sterilization additive comprises an alkanecarboxylic acid and/or an alkanepercarboxylic acid, each of which may optionally include one or more electron-withdrawing group selected from halogen oxygen or nitrogen groups substituted at the alpha carbon thereof. 12. The sterilant fluid of claim 9, wherein the chemical sterilization additive comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of hydrogen peroxide, acetic acid, peracetic acid and trifluoroacetic acid. 13. The sterilant fluid of claim 9, wherein the chemical sterilization additive comprises a mixture of acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid. 14. The sterilant fluid of any one of claims 9-13, wherein the sterilization additive is present in an amount of between about 0.001% to about 2.0% based on the total volume of the sterilant fluid. 15. Apparatus for sterilizing an article in need of sterilization comprising: a pressure vessel for containing the article in need of sterilization; a source of supercritical carbon dioxide connected to the pressure vessel; a source of a liquid chemical sterilization additive connected operatively to the pressure vessel; means for introducing the supercritical carbon dioxide and sterilization additive to the pressure vessel; and a depressurization line fluid-connected to the pressure vessel for evacuating at least some portion of the carbon dioxide and sterilization additive from the pressure vessel so as to depressurize the same. 16. Apparatus as in claim 15, further comprising a liquid-gas separator in said depressurization line for separating carbon dioxide gas from the liquid sterilization additive. 17. Apparatus as in claim 15 or 16, further comprising a valve in said evacuation line to allow said at least some portion of the carbon dioxide and sterilization additive to be evacuated from the pressure vessel through the depressurization line. 18. Apparatus as in claim 15, further comprising agitation means for agitating the carbon dioxide and sterilization additive within the pressure vessel. 19. Apparatus as in claim 18, wherein said agitation means comprises means for periodically changing pressure conditions within the pressure vessel. 20. Apparatus as in claim 18, wherein said agitation means comprises a stirrer for mechanically stirring the carbon dioxide and sterilization additive within the pressure vessel. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is based on, and claims domestic priority benefits under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) from, Provisional Application No. 60/480,410, filed Jun. 23, 2003, the entire content of which is hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to sterilization methods and apparatus in which supercritical carbon dioxide is employed as a sterilization fluid. In especially preferred embodiments, the present invention relates to methods and apparatus in which the efficacy of the supercritical carbon dioxide is enhanced by certain chemical additives. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A need has developed in the tissue implantation or transplantation, biomedical polymers, medical equipment, and drug delivery industries for a gentle and reliable sterilization method that results in greater than 106 log reductions of microbial and viral contaminants without impacting the properties of the material being sterilized. Indeed many new medical advances cannot be implemented because the sterilization industry is unable to provide a suitable sterilant as part of the manufacturing process. In the case of polymers, gamma irradiation has been shown to compromise the mechanical properties.1 Furthermore, steam sterilization 1Jahan et al, “Long-term effects of gamma-sterilization on degradation of implant materials.” Applied Radiation and Isotopes: Including Data, Instrumentation and Methods For Use in Agriculture, Industry and Medicine 46(6-7): 637-8 (1995), incorporated expressly hereinto by reference. is incompatible with thermally or hydrolytically labile polymers. Ethylene oxide, a common and widely used sterilant, is toxic, mutagenic, and a carcinogenic substance that can react with some polymers, and also requires prolonged periods of outgassing. Biological tissues, including macromolecular biopolymers, are also incompatible with steam. Gamma radiation results in a significant decrease in tissue integrity and bone strength.2 Certain antibacterial washes have been used to disinfect tissue, but incomplete sterilization is achieved and the washes leave residual toxic contaminants in the tissues.3 Ethylene oxide also reacts with biological tissue and is thus an undesirable sterilant for such reason. 2 Cornu et al, “Effect of freeze-drying and gamma irradiation on the mechanical properties of human cancellous bone”, Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 18(3), p. 426-31 (2000); and Akkus et al, “Fracture resistance of gamma radiation sterilized cortical bone allografts.” Journal of Orthopaedic Research: Official Publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society 19(5): 927-34 (2001), the entire content of each incorporated expressly hereinto by reference. 3 Holyoak et al, “Toxic effects of ethylene oxide residues on bovine embryos in vitro”, Toxicology, 108(1-2, p. 33-8 (1996), the entire content of each incorporated hereinto by reference. Many medical devices, such as stents, catheters and endoscopes, are fabricated from, or coated with, sensitive polymers that cannot tolerate steam, irradiation, or ethylene oxide. Plasma sterilization has been shown to be incompatible with some medical equipment and leaves toxic residues (Ikarashi, Tsuchiya et al. 1995; Duffy, Brown et al. 2000).4 4 Ikarashi et al, “Cytotoxicity of medical materials sterilized with vapour-phase hydrogen peroxide.” Biomaterials 16(3): 177-83 (1995) and Duffy et al, “An epidemic of corneal destruction caused by plasma gas sterilization. The Toxic Cell Destruction Syndrome Recently, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,149,864 to Dillow et al (the entire content of which is expressly incorporated hereinto by reference), the use of supercritical CO2 was disclosed as an alternative to existing technologies for sterilizing a wide range of products for the healthcare industry with little or no adverse effects on the material treated. Specifically, the Dillow '864 patent disclosed the inactivation of a wide range of vegetative microbial cells using supercritical carbon dioxide with agitation and pressure cycling. However, only one spore-forming bacterium was investigated in the Dillow '864 patent, specifically, B. cereus. No disclosure appears in Dillow '864 patent regarding the efficacy of the therein suggested techniques using currently accepted bio-indicator standards used to judge sterilization (i.e., B. stearothermophilus and B. subtilis). Subsequently, however, other investigators achieved only a 3.5 log reduction in B. subtilis spores using the method disclosed in the Dillow et al '864 patent.5 5Spilimbergo et al, “Microbial inactivation by high-pressure.” J. Supercritical Fluids 22: 55-63 (2002), the entire content expressly incorporated hereinto by reference. Bacterial spores are more difficult to sterilize than vegetative cells. B. stearothermophilus and B. subtilis spores represent the greatest challenge to sterilization methods (FDA 1993) and are the currently accepted standards within the industry for validating sterilization methods. Sterilization is defined as greater than or equal to 6-log (106)reduction in colony forming units (CFUs). Reproducible inactivation of these resistant microbes is required for commercialization of novel sterilization equipment and processes. It therefore would be highly desirable if sterilization methods and apparatus could be provided which are effective to achieve a 6-log reduction in CFUs of industry standard bacterial spores. It would more specifically be especially desirable if sterilization methods and apparatus could be provided that achieve a 6-log reduction in CFUs of B. stearothermophilus and B. subtilis spores. The present invention is therefore directed to fulfilling such needs. Investigative Team.” Archives of Ophthalmology 118(9): 1167-76 (2000), the entire content of each expressly incorporated hereinto by reference. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Broadly, sterilization methods and apparatus are provided by the present invention which are effective to achieve a 6-log reduction in CFUs of industry standard bacterial spores. More specifically, according to the present invention, sterilization methods and apparatus are provided which are effective to achieve a 6-log reduction in CFUs of B. stearothermophilus and B. subtilis spores. These 6-log reductions are achieved by the present invention by subjecting sterilizable materials under sterilization pressure and temperature conditions using a chemical additive-containing supercritical carbon dioxide as a sterilant fluid. Most preferably, the chemical additive-containing supercritical carbon dioxide sterilant fluid is agitated during sterilization. The apparatus and methods of the present invention are especially well suited for the sterilization of thermally or hydrolytically sensitive, medically-important materials, including biodegradable and other medical polymers, tissue for implantation or transplantation, medical equipment, drugs and drug delivery systems. Most preferably, such materials are sterilized by treatment with a chemical additive-containing carbon dioxide sterilant at or near its supercritical pressures and temperatures. Sterilization is specifically further enhanced by imparting turbulence or agitation to the sterilant fluid either mechanically or by means of pressure cycling (see, the above-cited Dillow et al '864 patent). Process variables depend on the material being sterilized. The improved method enhances the mass transfer and sterilization capabilities of supercritical carbon dioxide. Medically useful log reductions (>106) in microbial contaminants are realized for a range of resistant bacteria, their vegetative forms, and spores, especially bacteria and bacterial spores which are traditionally known to be the hardest to inactivate, such as B. stearotheromophilus, B. pumilus and/or B. subtilis and spores. Thus, as used herein the term “sterilization” is meant to refer to at least a 6-log (>106) reduction of industry standard bacteria and related bacterial spores selected from B. stearotheromophilus, B. pumilus and/or B. subtilis. Thus, a “sterile” surface or article is one which has at least a 6-log (>106) reduction of such bacteria and spores following a sterilization treatment, as compared to the surface or article prior to such sterilization treatment. These and other aspects and advantages will become more apparent after careful consideration is given to the following detailed description of the preferred exemplary embodiments thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE ACCOMPANYING DRAWINGS Reference will hereinafter be made to the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals throughout the various FIGURES denote like structural elements, and wherein; FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a presently preferred sterilization apparatus in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a detailed schematic view of the pressure vessel employed in the apparatus of FIG. 1; and FIG. 3 is a graph of the log reduction in CFU's of B. stearothermophilus spores versus time obtained from the data of Example 8 below and shows the linearity of inactivation achieved by means of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The sterilization apparatus and methods of the present invention are usefully employed to sterilize a variety of materials, biological tissues, instruments, and devices that are thermally or hydrolytically unstable, or otherwise incompatible with conventional sterilization techniques, or where such techniques are not preferred. Examples of materials that may be sterilized by the present invention include, but are not limited to, biodegradable polymers such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) or poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based polymers, which can be used in various embodiments as implantable drug delivery devices; tissues for implantation or transplantation, including but not limited to, bone, cartilage, ligament, or other connective or musculoskeletal tissue for allografts in the treatment of orthopaedic trauma and joint reconstruction; grafted or artificial skin tissue for the treatment of burns and other dermal abrasions or damage; medical devices, such as cardiac or urological stents and catheters, including drug- or gene-coated stents and catheters, rigid and flexible endoscopes for orthopaedic, plastic, and gastroenterological surgery; drug delivery devices, including, but not limited to, implantable polymer devices, polymer microspheres, or other specifically shaped drug-releasing devices comprised of PLA, PLGA, or other biodegradable polymers, and drugs in solid or liquid forms (i.e., any substance or active agent used in the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of a disease or illness). As noted previously, 6-log reductions in CFUs may be achieved in accordance with the present invention by subjecting materials to be sterilized under sterilization temperature and pressure conditions using a chemical additive-containing supercritical carbon dioxide as a sterilant fluid, and especially where the sterilant fluid is agitated during the sterilization process. Most preferably, the sterilant is carbon dioxide at or near its supercritical pressures and temperature conditions. Thus, the sterilization process of the present invention is practiced using carbon dioxide as a sterilant at pressures between about 1000 to about 3500 psi, at temperatures in the range between about 25° C. to about 60° C. Most preferably, the article to be sterilized is subject to carbon dioxide at or near such pressure and temperature conditions for times ranging from about 20 minutes to about 12 hours. The carbon dioxide employed in the practice of the present invention is most preferably substantially pure. Thus, trace amounts of other gases may be tolerated provided that the sterilization properties of the carbon dioxide are not impaired. For ease of further discussion below, the term “supercritical carbon dioxide” will be used, but it will be understood that such a term is non-limiting in that carbon dioxide within the pressure and temperature ranges as noted immediately above may be employed satisfactorily in the practice of the present invention. The chemical additives employed in the present invention most preferably include peroxides and/or carboxylic acids. Preferred carboxylic acids include alkanecarboxylic acids and/or alkanepercarboxylic acids, each of which may optionally be substituted at the alpha carbon with one or more electron-withdrawing substituents, such as halogen, oxygen and nitrogen groups. Particularly preferred species of chemical additives employed in the practice of the present invention include hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), acetic acid (AcA), peracetic acid (PAA) and trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), and mixtures thereof. One particularly preferred liquid additive that may be employed in the practice of the present invention is commercially available Sporeclenz® sterilant which is a mixture of acetic acid with hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid. The chemical sterilization additive is employed in a sterilization enhancing effective amount of at least about 0.001 vol. % and greater, based on the total volume of the carbon dioxide. The amount of sterilization additive will be dependent upon the particular sterilization additive that is employed. Thus, for example, peracetic acid may be present in relatively small amounts of about 0.005 vol. % and greater, while acetic acid may need to be employed in amount of about 1.0 vol. % and greater. Thus, a range of at least about 0.001 vol. % and greater, up to about 2.0 vol. % will typically be needed in order to achieve a sterilization enhancing effect in combination with carbon dioxide. One presently preferred embodiment of an apparatus 10 according to the present invention is depicted in accompanying FIGS. 1 and 2. In this regard, it can be seen that the apparatus includes a standard compressed gas cylinder 12 containing carbon dioxide, and a standard air compressor 14 used in operative association with a carbon dioxide booster 16 (e.g., Haskel Booster AGT 7/30). Alternatively, the air compressor 14 and booster 16 can be replaced with a single carbon dioxide compressor. An additive cycle is also provided by means of a series of an inlet port 18 which allows additive contained in reservoir 20 to be added to a pressure vessel 22 through valve 24 and additive line 26. The carbon dioxide is introduced to the pressure vessel 22 from header line 27 via valve 28 and CO2 supply line 30. A filter 32 (e.g., a 0.5 micron filter) is provided in the supply line 30 to prevent escape of material from the vessel. A pressure gauge 34 is provided downstream of CO2 shut-off valve 36 in supply header 27 to allow the pressure to be visually monitored. A check valve 38 is provided in the line 27 upstream of the valve 36 to prevent reverse fluid flow into the booster 16. In order to prevent an overpressure condition existing in line 27, a pressure relief valve 9 may be provided. An outlet line 40 through valve 52 allows the pressure vessel 22 to be depressurized. In this regard, the depressurized fluid exits the vessel 22 via line 40, is filtered by filter unit 42 and then is directed to separator 44 where filtered CO2 gas may be exhausted via line 48, and liquid additive collected via line 50 for possible reuse. Valves 52, 54 may be provided in lines 46 and 27, respectively, to allow fluid isolation of upstream components. The reactor vessel 22 is most preferably constructed of stainless steel (e.g., 316 gauge stainless steel) and has a total internal volume sufficient to accommodate the materials being sterilized either on a laboratory or commercial scale. For example, in laboratory studies, an internal volume of 600 mL (e.g., approximately 8 inches long by about 2.5 inches inside diameter) was deemed adequate As is perhaps more clearly shown in FIG. 2, the pressure vessel 22 includes a vibrator 60, a temperature control unit 62, and a mechanical stirring system most preferably comprised of an impeller 64 and a magnetic driver 66. The reactor vessel 22 contains a conventional basket (not shown) which is also preferably constructed of 316 gauge stainless steel. The basket serves to hold the items to be sterilized as well as to protect the impeller 64 and direct the sterilant fluid in a predetermined manner. The reactor vessel 22 may be operated at a constant pressure or under continual pressurization and depressurization (pressure cycling) conditions without material losses due to splashing or turbulence, and without contamination of pressure lines via back diffusion. The valves 24, 28 and 52 allow the vessel 22 to be isolated and removed easily from the other components of the apparatus 10. The top 68 of the pressure vessel 22 may be removed when depressurized to allow access to the vessel's interior. In use, the material to be sterilized is introduced into the interior space of the pressure vessel 22 along with any initial portion of liquid sterilization additive from reservoir 20. The temperature control unit 62 is operated so as to set the desired initial temperature for sterilization. The vessel 22 may then be pre-equilibrated with carbon dioxide from gas cylinder 12 at atmospheric pressure, following which the magnetic driver 66 is operated so as to activate the impeller 64. The pressure vessel 22 may thereafter be pressurized to a desired pressure by introducing additional carbon dioxide gas from cylinder 12 via the air compressor 14 linked to booster 16. In order to effect a pressure cycling of the vessel 22, an amount of carbon dioxide may be released therefrom via depressurization line by momentarily opening valve 52 sufficient to partially reduce pressure within the vessel 22. Additive may be introduced into the vessel 22 for any given pressure cycle by opening valve 24 which allows liquid additive to flow from reservoir 20 into inlet port 18. It will be understood that the sterilization additives may be introduced prior to pressurization and/or during pressure cycling. Prior to pressurization, additives are introduced directly into the reactor vessel 22 prior to sealing and/or via the additive port 18. The sterilization additives are most preferably introduced during the cycling stages by measured addition to the additive port 18 at ambient pressures. The port 18 is subsequently sealed and the additive chamber is pressurized so that the additive may enter the reactor vessel 22 without altering the internal pressure. The exact mechanism of addition may be modified such that the process is more efficient and/or convenient. Following additive introduction, the vessel 22 may be repressurized to a desired pressure following introduction of the liquid additive therein. Such depressurization/repressurization with introduction of liquid additive may be repeated for any number of cycles that may be desired. The cycle of depressurization and repressurization as well as the introduction of the carbon dioxide and liquid additive may be automatically controlled via a controller (not shown) which sequences the various valves discussed previously so as to achieve the desired pressure conditions and cycles. Most preferably, periodic agitation to the contents of vessel 22 is effected using vibrator 60 through the entire process. Intermittent or continuous agitation of the reactor vessel and its contents is performed by vibrating the reactor vessel during sterilization. Agitation enhances mass transfer of the carbon dioxide and additives by eliminating voids in the fluid such that the material being sterilized comes into more complete contact with sterilant. The specific means of agitation may be adjusted to accommodate the particular apparatus employed and to optimize sterilization times, temperatures, and pressure cycles. When sterilization is complete, the vessel 22 is depressurized, the magnetic drive 66 is stopped thereby stopping the stirring impeller 64, and the thus sterilized material removed by opening top 68 of vessel 22. Although the precise mechanism by which the present invention enhances sterilization is not entirely understood at this time it is theorized that, in conjunction with near-critical or supercritical carbon dioxide, the chemical sterilization additives employed in the present invention likely enhance sterilization by increasing the acidity of the interior of the bacterial cell, especially in the presence of water. Moreover, additives may enhance the permeability of the cell to carbon dioxide, irreversibly inhibit essential cellular processes, and/or extract components required for cell viability, all of which could possibly contribute to enhancements in sterilization that have been observed. The present invention will be further understood after careful consideration is given to the following Examples. EXAMPLE 1 The effects of using an additive in accordance with the present invention was compared using the method described by U.S. Pat. No. 6,149,864 to Dillow et al for inactivating B. stearothermophilus spores. Specifically, as noted in Table 1 below, the most extreme sterilizations conditions as disclosed in the Dillow et al '864 patent were employed and resulted in only a 1 log reduction in CFUs/mL for the experiment in which no additive was employed (Ex. A). In contrast, a greater than 6 log reduction was achieved using the method of the present invention (Ex. B). The additive was placed on a cotton ball and inserted in the chamber prior to closure. No further additive was used. Agitation Pressure # Random/ Temp Time Initial Final Log Additive range psi cycles Directional ° C. hrs CFU/ml CFU/ml Reduction Ex. A. Water 1500- 3 +/− 60 2 2.3 × 106 2.1 × 105 1.0 3000 Ex. B Water + 1100- 3 +/+ 60 2 2.3 × 106 0* 6.4 TFA 3000 *confirmed by turbidity test EXAMPLE 2 Invention The apparatus generally depicted in FIGS. 1 and 2 was employed for this Example. A sample of B. stearothermophilus spores (1 mL) of greater than 106 CFU/mL was placed in 16 mm diameter test tubes in a stainless steel basket. Trifluoroacetic acid (4 mL) was transferred by syringe onto the surface of a cotton ball placed in the basket and water (6 mL) was placed at bottom of vessel. The basket was then loaded into the 600 mL reactor vessel. The reactor vessel was heated to 50° C. and equilibrated with CO2 at atmospheric pressure. The stirring and agitation mechanisms were activated and the reactor vessel pressurized to 2000 psi for 40 minutes. The CO2 pressure was then allowed to drop to 1100 psi at a rate of 300 psi/minute. Agitation by means of vibration of the vessel was carried out for 1 minute. The pressurization/stirring/agitation/depressurization process was repeated a total of three times. After the third cycle, a series of three flushing cycles to remove the additive was performed by pressurizing and partial de-pressurizing the reactor vessel using CO2. The stirring was stopped and the basket was removed from the reactor vessel. The residual CFUs were counted after serial dilution and culturing of both treated and untreated controls. Complete kill of bioindicators were achieved over multiple experimental evaluations. These reductions correspond to a log reduction in CFUs of between 6.2 to 6.9. EXAMPLE 3A Invention The apparatus generally depicted in FIGS. 1 and 2 was employed for this Example. A sample of B. subtilis spore/vegetative preparations (1 mL) of greater than 106 CFU/mL was placed in a 16 mm diameter test tube in a stainless steel basket. Acetic acid (6 mL) was transferred by syringe onto the surface of a cotton ball placed in the basket, which was then loaded into the 600 mL reactor vessel. The reactor vessel was heated to 50° C. and equilibrated with CO2 at atmospheric pressure. The stirring and agitation mechanisms were activated and the reactor vessel pressurized to 3000 psi for 40 minutes. The CO2 pressure was then allowed to drop to 1500 psi at a rate of 300 psi/minute. Agitation was carried out for 1 minute. After depressurizing the reactor vessel, more acetic acid (4 mL) was introduced at ambient pressure to the additive loop via port 18 (FIG. 1). The loop was sealed and pressurized to 3000 psi. The reactor vessel was the re-pressurized through the additive loop to 3000 psi such that acetic acid was transported into the reactor vessel. The pressurization/stirring/agitation/depressurization/additive addition process was repeated a total of three times. After the third cycle, a series of three flushing cycles to remove the additive was performed by pressurizing and de-pressurizing the reactor vessel using CO2. The stirring was stopped and the basket was removed from the reactor vessel. The residual CFUs were counted after serial dilution and culturing of both treated and untreated controls. A log reduction in CFUs of between 6.0 to 6.9 was observed for multiple experimental evaluations using the procedure described above. EXAMPLE 3B Invention Example 3A was repeated except that samples containing less than 106 CFU/ml of B. subtilis was used. Sterilization resulted in total kill of the B. subtilis present. It can therefore be extrapolated from this Example that, had greater than 106 CFU/ml of B. subtilis been presented, the sterilization procedure would have resulted in a corresponding 6 log reduction in CFUs. EXAMPLE 3C Comparative Example 3A was repeated except that the acetic acid was added only once at the beginning of the procedure. Although a 6 log reduction in CFUs was not observed, relatively high log reductions of between 4.5 and 4.7 were observed. This data suggests that multiple additions of acetic acid would be needed in order to achieve the desired 6 log reduction in B. subtilis CFUs. EXAMPLE 3D Invention Example 3A was repeated except that pressure was maintained at a constant 2000 psi rather than cycling Compete kill of bioindicators were observed over multiple tests. These log reductions in CFUs ranged from 6.0 to 7.2. EXAMPLE 4 Invention Using the equipment and procedure in Example 1, samples of fresh or freeze-dried bone (1 cm×1 cm×0.5 cm) were placed into 16 mm test tubes in a stainless steel basket. Trifluoroacetic acid (4 mL) was transferred by syringe onto the surface of a cotton ball placed in basket, and the basket then loaded into the 600 mL reactor vessel. The reactor vessel was heated to 50° C. and equilibrated with CO2 at atmospheric pressure. The stirring and agitation mechanisms were activated and vessel pressurized to 3000 psi for 40 minutes. Agitation is carried out for 5 minutes. The CO2 pressure was then allowed to drop to 1500 psi at a rate of 300 psi/minute. The pressurization/stirring/agitation/depressurization process was repeated a total of 3 times. After the third cycle, a series of three flushing cycles to remove the additive was performed by pressurizing and de-pressurizing the reactor vessel using CO2. The stirring was stopped and the basket was removed from the reactor vessel. Bone samples were assayed for sterility and compression strength with the results being that there was sterilization (i.e., >106 reduction in bacterial spores), and there was no reduction in compression strength attributes. EXAMPLE 5 Invention To evaluate the efficacy of the improved method for sterilization of bone tissue for implantation, human bone tissue was saturated with a solution containing 106 CFUs/mL of B. subtilis spores and subjected to the presented method. The treatments were carried using the following conditions: 4 hours, 60° C., 6 cycles form 3000-1500 psi, constant stirring of SCD, periodic agitation of vessel, addition of 6 mL acetic acid to vessel prior to pressurization, addition of acetic acid (4 mL) per cycle, and ending in two 5 minute flushing cycles. The sterilized samples and unsterilized controls were assayed for the presence of B. subtilis spores by two methods. In the first method, bone was immersed in bacterial media allowing germination and growth of B. subtilis spores. Turbidity of media indicated incomplete inactivation while clear media was complete inactivation. When cultured for bacterial growth, none of the bone samples treated with the above method showed detectable turbidity of the culture medium as compared to controls (Table 2). A sample of sterilized bone tissue was pulverized by grinding under aseptic conditions, then cultured in media. No turbidity was detected, indicating that the sterilization process had permeated the bone tissue (Table 2). TABLE 2 Sterilization of bone tissue using supercritical carbon dioxide with the presented method Intact Bone Pulverized Bone Bone Inoculants Culture Culture Treated 106 CFUs/ml No-growth No-growth of B. subtilis spores Untreated 106 CFUs/ml Growth Growth of B. subtilis spores EXAMPLE 6A Invention Example 3D was repeated except that peracetic acid was employed as the sterilization additive. A log reduction in CFUs of between 6.5 to 7.2 was observed for multiple experimental evaluations using the procedure described above. EXAMPLE 6B Invention Example 6A was repeated except that pressure was maintained at a constant 2000 psi rather than cycling. Complete kill of bioindicators was observed over multiple tests with log reductions in CFUs ranging from 6.0 to 7.2. EXAMPLE 7 Comparative Example 3A was repeated except that the additives listed in Table 3 below were employed under the conditions stated. The results also appear in Table 3. TABLE 3 Quantity Log Additive Temp C. Time (vol. %) Cycles reduction HOCl 60 3 hours 1.0 4 0-0.50 Ethanol 60-50 3 hours 1.0 4 1.2-4.0 Yeast Extract 60 2 hours 1.0 3 0.37-1.1 50% Citric acid 60 2 hours 1.0 3 0.03-0.62 Succinic acid 50 2 hours 1.0 3 0.25-0.29 Phosphoric acid 50 2 hours 1.0 3 0.18-0.25 Formic acid 50 2 hours 1.0 3 0 Malonic acid 50 2 hours 1.0 3 0-0.12 None of the additives tested in this Example showed efficacy to achieve at least a 6 log reduction in CFUs of B. stearothermophilus spores. EXAMPLE 8 Linearity of Inactivation Example 2B was repeated except that 4.5% peracetic acid was initially added to the vessel at 0.02 vol. % on a cotton ball and water was added on a separate cotton ball at 1 vol. %. B. stearothermophilus spores were inoculated onto glass fiber filters, allowed to dry and packaged into pouches formed of nonwoven fine polyethylene fibers (1073B TYVEK® brand material) and served as bioindicators. Total CFUs per filter were greater than 1. The bioindicators were exposed to differing times of treatment with 4 replicates per time point. The total remaining CFUs were then determined and a plot was generated of log reduction in CFUs over time (FIG. 3). Results revealed that inactivation rates are linear and the time for a single log reduction in the bioindicator packaged in the pouches was 14.24 minutes. While the invention has been described in connection with what is presently considered to be the most practical and preferred embodiment, it is to be understood that the invention is not to be limited to the disclosed embodiment, but on the contrary, is intended to cover various modifications and equivalent arrangements included within the spirit and scope of the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A need has developed in the tissue implantation or transplantation, biomedical polymers, medical equipment, and drug delivery industries for a gentle and reliable sterilization method that results in greater than 10 6 log reductions of microbial and viral contaminants without impacting the properties of the material being sterilized. Indeed many new medical advances cannot be implemented because the sterilization industry is unable to provide a suitable sterilant as part of the manufacturing process. In the case of polymers, gamma irradiation has been shown to compromise the mechanical properties. 1 Furthermore, steam sterilization 1 Jahan et al, “Long-term effects of gamma-sterilization on degradation of implant materials.” Applied Radiation and Isotopes: Including Data, Instrumentation and Methods For Use in Agriculture, Industry and Medicine 46(6-7): 637-8 (1995), incorporated expressly hereinto by reference. is incompatible with thermally or hydrolytically labile polymers. Ethylene oxide, a common and widely used sterilant, is toxic, mutagenic, and a carcinogenic substance that can react with some polymers, and also requires prolonged periods of outgassing. Biological tissues, including macromolecular biopolymers, are also incompatible with steam. Gamma radiation results in a significant decrease in tissue integrity and bone strength. 2 Certain antibacterial washes have been used to disinfect tissue, but incomplete sterilization is achieved and the washes leave residual toxic contaminants in the tissues. 3 Ethylene oxide also reacts with biological tissue and is thus an undesirable sterilant for such reason. 2 Cornu et al, “Effect of freeze-drying and gamma irradiation on the mechanical properties of human cancellous bone”, Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 18(3), p. 426-31 (2000); and Akkus et al, “Fracture resistance of gamma radiation sterilized cortical bone allografts.” Journal of Orthopaedic Research: Official Publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society 19(5): 927-34 (2001), the entire content of each incorporated expressly hereinto by reference. 3 Holyoak et al, “Toxic effects of ethylene oxide residues on bovine embryos in vitro”, Toxicology, 108(1-2, p. 33-8 (1996), the entire content of each incorporated hereinto by reference. Many medical devices, such as stents, catheters and endoscopes, are fabricated from, or coated with, sensitive polymers that cannot tolerate steam, irradiation, or ethylene oxide. Plasma sterilization has been shown to be incompatible with some medical equipment and leaves toxic residues (Ikarashi, Tsuchiya et al. 1995; Duffy, Brown et al. 2000). 4 4 Ikarashi et al, “Cytotoxicity of medical materials sterilized with vapour-phase hydrogen peroxide.” Biomaterials 16(3): 177-83 (1995) and Duffy et al, “An epidemic of corneal destruction caused by plasma gas sterilization. The Toxic Cell Destruction Syndrome Recently, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,149,864 to Dillow et al (the entire content of which is expressly incorporated hereinto by reference), the use of supercritical CO 2 was disclosed as an alternative to existing technologies for sterilizing a wide range of products for the healthcare industry with little or no adverse effects on the material treated. Specifically, the Dillow '864 patent disclosed the inactivation of a wide range of vegetative microbial cells using supercritical carbon dioxide with agitation and pressure cycling. However, only one spore-forming bacterium was investigated in the Dillow '864 patent, specifically, B. cereus . No disclosure appears in Dillow '864 patent regarding the efficacy of the therein suggested techniques using currently accepted bio-indicator standards used to judge sterilization (i.e., B. stearothermophilus and B. subtilis ). Subsequently, however, other investigators achieved only a 3.5 log reduction in B. subtilis spores using the method disclosed in the Dillow et al '864 patent. 5 5 Spilimbergo et al, “Microbial inactivation by high-pressure.” J. Supercritical Fluids 22: 55-63 (2002), the entire content expressly incorporated hereinto by reference. Bacterial spores are more difficult to sterilize than vegetative cells. B. stearothermophilus and B. subtilis spores represent the greatest challenge to sterilization methods (FDA 1993) and are the currently accepted standards within the industry for validating sterilization methods. Sterilization is defined as greater than or equal to 6-log (10 6 )reduction in colony forming units (CFUs). Reproducible inactivation of these resistant microbes is required for commercialization of novel sterilization equipment and processes. It therefore would be highly desirable if sterilization methods and apparatus could be provided which are effective to achieve a 6-log reduction in CFUs of industry standard bacterial spores. It would more specifically be especially desirable if sterilization methods and apparatus could be provided that achieve a 6-log reduction in CFUs of B. stearothermophilus and B. subtilis spores. The present invention is therefore directed to fulfilling such needs. Investigative Team.” Archives of Ophthalmology 118(9): 1167-76 (2000), the entire content of each expressly incorporated hereinto by reference. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Broadly, sterilization methods and apparatus are provided by the present invention which are effective to achieve a 6-log reduction in CFUs of industry standard bacterial spores. More specifically, according to the present invention, sterilization methods and apparatus are provided which are effective to achieve a 6-log reduction in CFUs of B. stearothermophilus and B. subtilis spores. These 6-log reductions are achieved by the present invention by subjecting sterilizable materials under sterilization pressure and temperature conditions using a chemical additive-containing supercritical carbon dioxide as a sterilant fluid. Most preferably, the chemical additive-containing supercritical carbon dioxide sterilant fluid is agitated during sterilization. The apparatus and methods of the present invention are especially well suited for the sterilization of thermally or hydrolytically sensitive, medically-important materials, including biodegradable and other medical polymers, tissue for implantation or transplantation, medical equipment, drugs and drug delivery systems. Most preferably, such materials are sterilized by treatment with a chemical additive-containing carbon dioxide sterilant at or near its supercritical pressures and temperatures. Sterilization is specifically further enhanced by imparting turbulence or agitation to the sterilant fluid either mechanically or by means of pressure cycling (see, the above-cited Dillow et al '864 patent). Process variables depend on the material being sterilized. The improved method enhances the mass transfer and sterilization capabilities of supercritical carbon dioxide. Medically useful log reductions (>10 6 ) in microbial contaminants are realized for a range of resistant bacteria, their vegetative forms, and spores, especially bacteria and bacterial spores which are traditionally known to be the hardest to inactivate, such as B. stearotheromophilus, B. pumilus and/or B. subtilis and spores. Thus, as used herein the term “sterilization” is meant to refer to at least a 6-log (>106) reduction of industry standard bacteria and related bacterial spores selected from B. stearotheromophilus, B. pumilus and/or B. subtilis . Thus, a “sterile” surface or article is one which has at least a 6-log (>106) reduction of such bacteria and spores following a sterilization treatment, as compared to the surface or article prior to such sterilization treatment. These and other aspects and advantages will become more apparent after careful consideration is given to the following detailed description of the preferred exemplary embodiments thereof. | 20040617 | 20060919 | 20050203 | 97872.0 | 1 | JASTRZAB, KRISANNE MARIE | STERILIZATION METHODS AND APPARATUS WHICH EMPLOY ADDITIVE-CONTAINING SUPERCRITICAL CARBON DIOXIDE STERILANT | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,133 | ACCEPTED | Compound metal analyte sensor | A sensing element adapted to, at least in part, be inserted into a mammalian body. The sensing element is made up of a core of a structurally robust metal and a plated portion made of an electrochemically active metal conjoined to at least a portion of the core. This sensing element may be used as part of a method for the continuous or intermittent monitoring of an analyte within a mammalian body. The method includes inserting at least a portion of the sensing element into the mammalian body and measuring any electric current produced by at least of portion of the sensor. | 1. A sensing element adapted to be, at least in part, inserted into a mammalian body, said sensing element comprising: (a) a core of a structurally robust material; and (b) a layer of electrochemically active metal substantially circumferentially applied to at least a portion of said core. 2. The sensor of claim 1 wherein said electrochemically active metal is a noble metal. 3. The sensor of claim 1 wherein said structurally robust metal is stainless steel. 4. The sensor of claim 1 wherein said structurally robust metal is tantalum. 5. The sensor of claim 2 wherein said noble metal is gold. 6. The sensor of claim 2 wherein said noble metal is platinum. 7. The sensor of claim 2 wherein said noble metal is palladium. 8. The sensor of claim 1 wherein said core is round in cross-section and wherein said electrochemically active metal is applied to said core circumferentially. 9. The sensor of claim 1, further being biocompatible and flexible so that it may be implanted into a mammal for at least 24 hours. 10. The sensor of claim 1, further being rigid and sharp so that it can briefly pierce the skin and be brought into contact with body fluid for a measurement process lasting less than 3 minutes. 11. The sensor of claim 1 wherein said core and said layer are parts of a drawn filled tube that has been cut to an appropriate length. 12. The sensor of claim 1 wherein said core is round in cross-section. 13. A method for the measuring the concentration of an analyte within a mammalian body having body fluids, comprising: (a) providing a sensor having: (i) a core of structurally robust material; and (ii) a layer of electrochemically active metal applied to at least a portion of said core; (b) placing at least a portion of said sensor into contact with said body fluid; and (c) measuring any electric current produced by said at least of portion of said sensor and forming a measurement of analyte concentration based on said current measurement. 14. The method of claim 13 wherein said electrochemically active metal is a noble metal. 15. The method of claim 14 wherein said noble metal is gold. 16. The method of claim 13 wherein said structurally robust metal is stainless steel. 17. The method of claim 13 wherein said structurally robust metal is tantalum. 18. The method of claim 13 wherein said at least a portion of said sensor remains inserted for at least 24 hours and produces a multiplicity of analyte measurements. 19. The method of claim 13 wherein said at least a portion of said sensor remains inserted for less than 3 minutes. 20. The method of claim 19 wherein said at least a portion of said sensor provides a single measurement only. 21. The method of claim 19 wherein said at least a portion of said sensor is withdrawn from said mammalian body before a measurement is formed and wherein a measurement is formed using retained body fluid after said at least a portion of said sensor is withdrawn. 22. A method of producing a sensing element having good structural and electrochemical properties, said method comprising: (a) providing a core of a structurally robust metal; and (b) applying a layer of an electrochemically active metal onto at least a portion of said core. 23. The method of claim 22 wherein said electrochemically active metal is a noble metal. 24. The method of claim 22 wherein said noble metal is gold. 25. The method of claim 22 wherein said structurally robust material is stainless steel. 26. The method of claim 22 wherein said structurally robust material is tantalum. 27. The method of claim 22 wherein plasma vapor deposition is used in the step of applying a layer of an electrochemically active metal onto at least a portion of said core. 28. The method of claim 27 wherein said core is passivated directly before said plasma vapor deposition. 29. The method of claim 22 wherein said step of applying a layer of an electrochemically active metal onto at least a portion of said core is performed by electroplating. 30. The method of claim 29 wherein said electroplating is performed in a bath having a current density of less than 40 amps/ft2. 31. The method of claim 29 wherein a strike of an intermediate metal is applied to said structurally robust metal prior to said step of applying a layer of an electrochemically active metal onto at least a portion of said core. 32. The method of claim 31 wherein said intermediate metal is gold. 33. The method of claim 31 wherein said intermediate metal is chrome. 34. The method of claim 22 wherein said step of applying a layer of an electrochemically active metal onto at least a portion of said core is performed by cladding the core with a foil of said electrochemically active metal. | RELATED APPLICATIONS The present patent application claims priority from provisional application Ser. No. 60/479,141, filed Jun. 16, 2003, which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION With the advent of indwelling wire sensors has come the danger to the patient of having a cylindrical wire sensor fatigue from the flexure caused by bodily movement and break off inside the body. Under such circumstances a wire sensor can move through tissue relatively quickly and in an unpredictable manner, potentially posing a threat to the delicate internal organs. Unfortunately, the typical metal used for such a wire sensor is platinum, which is electrochemically active and generally very useful in sensing applications. Platinum, however, is a weak metal that is easily broken with only a little flexure. Moreover, the electrochemical nature of platinum surfaces is only imperfectly understood. Efforts to make sensors from very thin platinum wires that are stranded together, thereby providing greater flex resistance, have encountered negative effects on the biochemical reactivity of the more complex platinum surface. Also, platinum is very expensive costing on the order of $25- $30 per gram. For a multiple use sensing assembly incorporating a multiplicity of single use sensing elements, this may be a considerable expense. Also, for sensing elements that double as skin piercing lancets, greater strength is needed than may be available from a small diameter platinum wire. Even for sensors that are to be worn for a few days, the cost of the platinum portion of the sensor can place a strain on the overall budget for a production run of sensors. SUMMARY In a first separate aspect, the present invention is a sensor adapted to, at least in part, be inserted into a mammalian body. The sensor comprises a core of a structurally robust material and a plated portion, comprising an electrochemically active metal plated onto at least a portion of the core. In a second separate aspect, the present invention is a method for the continuous monitoring of an analyte within a mammalian body. The method includes inserting at least a portion of a sensor into the mammalian body, continuously monitoring any electric current produced by at least a portion of the sensor. The sensor, in turn, includes a core of structurally robust material and a plated portion, comprising an electrochemically active metal plated onto at least a portion of the core. In a third separate aspect, the present invention is a method of producing a sensor that is adapted to, at least in part, be inserted into a mammalian body and dwell within the mammalian body for at least an hour. The method comprises applying a layer of an electrochemically active metal onto at least a portion of a core made of a structurally robust material. The foregoing and other objectives, features and advantages of the invention will be more readily understood upon consideration of the following detailed description of the invention, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side cross-sectional view of a sensing element according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring to FIG. 1, sensing element 12 includes a bimetallic wire 20 that, when a voltage is placed on wire 20 relative to a reference electrode, in conjunction with a membrane system 22 reacts to the presence of glucose and oxygen (in some preferred embodiments, glucose only) by creating a current. Wire 20 is coated with a protective layer 23, made of durable, non-toxic material such as polyimide, except for where coated by membrane system 22. In production, protective layer 23 is dip-coated onto wire 20 and then removed, preferably with an excimer or ND:YAG laser in the area in which membrane system 22 is to be applied. In other preferred embodiments there is no protective layer 23 and the entire wire 20 is coated with membrane assembly 22. Wire 20 may have a diameter on the order of 227 microns and has a wire core 24 of structurally robust material such as stainless steel or tantalum that is 226 microns thick and an electrochemically active layer 26, such as platinum, that is less than a micron thick. In an alternative preferred embodiment, wire 20 is 177 microns in diameter, core 24 is 157 microns in diameter and is made of tantalum and layer 26 is 10 microns thick and is a platinum foil that has been joined to core 24. To expand somewhat on the specific construction, wire core 24 may be of any structurally robust material, such as tantalum, stainless steel or nitinol, which is an alloy of nickel and titanium. Tantalum and nitinol, although both fairly expensive, are desirable because they are both naturally flexible. This is of particular importance if sensing element 12 is to be inserted in a patient and worn for a period of days. In addition, core 24 could be made of polymeric material or a glass fiber. Electrochemically active layer 26 may be made of one of the noble metals, such as platinum, palladium, gold or a combination of any of the aforesaid with iridium. In a set of preferred embodiments, other noble metals are used in layer 26. A number of strategies are possible for making plated core or wire 20. In one method, a tube of platinum is prepared and molten stainless steel, tantalum or nitinol is poured inside of it, to form a filled tube. The filled tube is then drawn through progressively smaller apertures, until its diameter reaches the desired thickness. This produces a filled tube that typically is far longer than is necessary, but is available to be cut to whatever length is desired. Another issue with drawn filled tubes is that it is difficult to reduce the thickness of the layer of platinum to less than 20 microns. This increases the expense because it forces the use of a greater than otherwise necessary amount of platinum. Another method starts with a robust metal wire that is then electroplated with platinum or another noble metal, such as palladium. In this method the robust metal wire is typically negatively charged to form a cathode. A plating solution bath is positively charged to form an anode. Typically the first step is to plate the stainless steel with an intermediate layer that bonds well to both stainless steel and platinum. Typically this layer is gold, although it has been found to be advantageous to plate a first intermediate layer of nickel, plate gold over this layer of nickel and finally plate the gold with platinum. The plating solution may be either acid or alkaline. In one preferred method, a core of nitinol was used. In this method gold is plated over the nitinol. As nitinol oxidizes very rapidly, hydrofluoric acid is included in the gold bath to strip away any oxidation that may have formed on the nitinol. In yet another preferred method, a core of robust metal is circumferentially clad in noble metal foil. Although with this method a 1 micron cladding cannot be achieved, cladding in the neighborhood of 5 to 15 microns is possible. One advantage of a thicker cladding is that it is harder for pinholes to extend all the way through. Another possibility is coating by way of plasma vapor deposition, in which a metallic vapor is created and coats the core 24. First a wire of structurally robust material 24, such as tantalum, is passivated, meaning that a thin layer of oxide is created on the exterior of the wire. Then platinum is vaporized in a plasma environment, and deposition of layer 26 on the tantalum wire results. Using this technique a robust coating 26 of platinum (or another electrochemically active metal) can be created on an underlying tantalum (or other structurally robust metal) core. Moreover, the layer 26 of platinum is electrically isolated from the structurally sound material 24 by a layer of oxide, which is nonconducting. Accordingly, if there is a pinhole in the platinum 26, there will nevertheless be no electrical contact between the body fluid and the underlying core 24 of structurally sound material. If body fluid were to contact core 24, unpredictable electrical activity could result, potentially corrupting the measurement. In a similar manner, an electrochemically active metal may be deposited on a continuous wire of structurally sound metal, designed to host many sensing sites. Also, sputtering, in which free metallic charged particles are created, may be used to perform the coating or cladding step. Both plasma vapor deposition and sputtering are well known in the art. In yet another preferred method of producing a thin platinum coating over stainless steel, a strike, or extremely thin (<5 microns) coating of gold is first electroplated onto the stainless steel core. Then, platinum is electroplated in a bath having a current density on the order of 40 amperes/ft2 or less. It is important to electroplate with a comparatively low current density, causing a slow buildup of platinum, in order to prevent uneven growth of the platinum layer. The membrane system 22 must perform a number of functions. First, it must provide an enzyme that reacts with glucose and oxygen (or glucose only in some preferred embodiments) to form an electrolyte. A reactive layer 30 of glucose oxidase, glutaraldehyde and albumin, which produces hydrogen peroxide when contacted by glucose and oxygen, performs this function. Other enzymes may be used for this process and fall within the scope of this invention. Second, because glucose is far more prevalent in the blood and other body fluids than oxygen, system 22 must include a membrane placed over the reactive layer 30 to permit a greater permeation of oxygen than glucose, so that the glucose concentration measurement is not limited by the oxygen concentration in the immediately surrounding tissue. This function is performed by a permselective hard block/soft block copolymer layer 32. This layer is of the type described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,428,123; 5,589,563 and 5,756,632, which are hereby incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Layer 32 is preferably less than 10 microns thick, to permit rapid permeation by glucose and oxygen. Third, membrane system 22 must prevent interferents, such as acetaminophen, from corrupting the measurement by causing current flow unrelated to the presence of glucose. This function is performed by an inner interferent reducing layer 34 of a compound such as sulfonated polyether sulfone, 3-amino-phenol, or polypyrrole, which quickly permits the permeation of the hydrogen peroxide, which causes the current flow indicative of the concentration of glucose. Persons skilled in the relevant arts will readily recognize that quick permeation is highly desirable in a briefly indwelling sensor so that a measurement may be quickly obtained. To produce sensing element 12, first the interferent reducing layer 34 of 3-amino-phenol is solution-coated or electro polymerized onto the surface of platinum plating 26. Layer 34 may be from a few nanometers to 2 microns thick, to permit rapid permeation by H2O2 ions, thereby reacting very quickly to glucose concentration. Over this the reactive layer 30 of glucose oxidase is dip-coated or electrodeposited. Glutaraldehyde is deposited on the glucose oxidase to immobilize the glucose oxidase. The sensor is dip coated in the soft block/hard block copolymer 32. In the finished product, the surface of the sensing region 22 is slightly depressed relative the remainder of the surface of sensing element 12. In one embodiment, the glucose oxidase 30 is applied before layer 34, which is electrodeposited through layer 30. A voltage is placed between contacts 72 at the beginning of the measurement process. When electrical current flows between contacts 72, this indicates that body fluid has completely wet membrane system 22 and serves as a signal to place a voltage on conductor 24. In one preferred embodiment, a layer of absorbent metal is included over membrane system 22. In use, sensing element 12 may be either inserted into the body of a number of days and may provide a multiplicity of glucose measurement or may be used as a single use sensing element. When used as for a single use, sensing element 12 may be part of a multiple sensing element assembly. The measurement of glucose concentration may occur when sensing element 12 is briefly indwelling, or may occur after it has been withdrawn, with retained body fluid being tested. A single use element 12 is typically optimized to provide a fast readout, whereas a sensing element that dwells within the body for days is typically optimized for accuracy over time and for to satisfy the greater safety challenge posed by an indwelling device. The terms and expressions which have been employed in the foregoing specification are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention, in the use of such terms and expressions, of excluding equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, it being recognized that the scope of the invention is defined and limited only by the claims which follow. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>With the advent of indwelling wire sensors has come the danger to the patient of having a cylindrical wire sensor fatigue from the flexure caused by bodily movement and break off inside the body. Under such circumstances a wire sensor can move through tissue relatively quickly and in an unpredictable manner, potentially posing a threat to the delicate internal organs. Unfortunately, the typical metal used for such a wire sensor is platinum, which is electrochemically active and generally very useful in sensing applications. Platinum, however, is a weak metal that is easily broken with only a little flexure. Moreover, the electrochemical nature of platinum surfaces is only imperfectly understood. Efforts to make sensors from very thin platinum wires that are stranded together, thereby providing greater flex resistance, have encountered negative effects on the biochemical reactivity of the more complex platinum surface. Also, platinum is very expensive costing on the order of $25- $30 per gram. For a multiple use sensing assembly incorporating a multiplicity of single use sensing elements, this may be a considerable expense. Also, for sensing elements that double as skin piercing lancets, greater strength is needed than may be available from a small diameter platinum wire. Even for sensors that are to be worn for a few days, the cost of the platinum portion of the sensor can place a strain on the overall budget for a production run of sensors. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In a first separate aspect, the present invention is a sensor adapted to, at least in part, be inserted into a mammalian body. The sensor comprises a core of a structurally robust material and a plated portion, comprising an electrochemically active metal plated onto at least a portion of the core. In a second separate aspect, the present invention is a method for the continuous monitoring of an analyte within a mammalian body. The method includes inserting at least a portion of a sensor into the mammalian body, continuously monitoring any electric current produced by at least a portion of the sensor. The sensor, in turn, includes a core of structurally robust material and a plated portion, comprising an electrochemically active metal plated onto at least a portion of the core. In a third separate aspect, the present invention is a method of producing a sensor that is adapted to, at least in part, be inserted into a mammalian body and dwell within the mammalian body for at least an hour. The method comprises applying a layer of an electrochemically active metal onto at least a portion of a core made of a structurally robust material. The foregoing and other objectives, features and advantages of the invention will be more readily understood upon consideration of the following detailed description of the invention, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | 20040616 | 20061205 | 20050106 | 61881.0 | 1 | NASSER, ROBERT L | COMPOUND MATERIAL ANALYTE SENSOR | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,215 | ACCEPTED | Data entry systems | A data entry system includes a hand held data entry unit having a reading sensor for sensing commands and/or data, rewritable storage for storing information relating to selectable items, a controller (a microprocessor or other processing circuitry) and a display screen for displaying a user readable representation of the commands and/or stored information for a selected item, and a telecommunication interface for the telephonic transmission of information relating to a selected item or items from the storage to a remote processing center and for the telephonic information relating to selectable items from the remote processing center to the storage. Preferably a telecommunications interface is provided in the hand held unit for cellular or other wireless telephony systems. The hand held unit can be configured to combine the data entry functions with those of audio telephony. | 1. A data entry system comprising a hand held data entry unit, said hand held unit comprising: a reading sensor for sensing commands and/or data and for producing input signals in response to said sensed commands and/or data; rewritable storage programmable with information relating to selectable items; a controller connected to receive and process said input signals from said sensor, said controller being arranged to respond to said commands to control said hand held unit and to said data to select a said item; a display screen for displaying a user readable representation of said commands and said stored information for said selected item; and a telecommunications interface for telephonic transmission of information relating to a selected item or items from said storage to a remote processing center via a telecommunications network and for telephonic reception of information relating to said selectable items from said remote processing center to said storage via said telecommunications network, wherein said telecommunications interface is a telecommunications line interface integral to said hand held unit and directly connects said hand-held unit to said telecommunications network; wherein said hand held unit includes a speaker and/or microphone and switching means permitting said hand held unit to be used as a telephone handset. 2. A data entry system comprising a hand held data entry unit, said hand held unit comprising: a reading sensor for sensing commands and/or data and for producing input signals in response to said sensed commands and/or data; rewritable storage programmable with information relating to selectable items; a controller connected to receive and process said input signals from said sensor, said controller being arranged to respond to said commands to control said hand held unit and to said data to select a said item; a display screen for displaying a user readable representation of said commands and said stored information for said selected item; and a telecommunications interface for telephonic transmission of information relating to a selected item or items from said storage to a remote processing center via a telecommunications network and for telephonic reception of information relating to said selectable items from said remote processing center to said storage via said telecommunications network, wherein said telecommunications interface is a telecommunications line interface integral to said hand held unit and directly connects said hand-held unit to said telecommunications network; wherein said reading sensor is located in a reading head which is releasably attached to said hand held unit. 3. A data entry system comprising a hand held data entry unit, said hand held unit comprising: a reading sensor for sensing commands and/or data and for producing input signals in response to said sensed commands and/or data; rewritable storage programmable with information relating to selectable items; a controller connected to receive and process said input signals from said sensor, said controller being arranged to respond to said commands to control said hand held unit and to said data to select a said item; a display screen for displaying a user readable representation of said commands and said stored information for said selected item; a telecommunications interface for telephonic transmission of information relating to a selected item or items from said storage to a remote processing center via a telecommunications network and for telephonic reception of information relating to said selectable items from said remote processing center to said storage via said telecommunications network, wherein said telecommunications interface is a telecommunications line interface integral to said hand held unit and directly connects said hand-held unit to said telecommunications network; and a carrier for a plurality of data and/or command codes for association with means for displaying a plurality of selectable items, wherein said carrier carries a plurality of codes, each for a respective one of a plurality of natural language and/or numeric characters and a plurality of commands for controlling operation of said data entry or merchandising system, each code being associated with a visual representation of the corresponding natural language or numeric character or command and/or of a graphical representation thereof. 4. A data entry system according to claim 3, wherein said codes are bar and/or dot codes and/or other product identifications. 5. A portable hand held computer, wherein said hand held computer is capable of use by a user as a data entry device and as a portable wireless telephone for voice transmission and reception, said hand held computer comprising: memory, wherein said memory is operable for retaining information input by the user, operable for retaining downloaded information, and operable for retaining information for updating downloaded information previously retained in said memory; a manually operable key switch for input of information; a display interface comprising a touch sensitive screen, wherein said display interface is operable to display user commands, operable to display information retained by said memory, and operable to display a list of user selectable items comprising merchandisable items, and to selectively display information relating to one or more of said items; an antenna; a rechargeable power supply; a sensor operable to sense and capture data wherein said sensor is a camera; a wireless telecommunications interface operable directly to connect said hand held computer via said antenna to a wireless telecommunications network and operable for transmission and reception of voice, data, and information, wherein said wireless telecommunications interface is operable to transmit data captured by said sensor; an optical interface operable to establish an optical datalink for the transmission and reception of information from and to said hand held computer; a controller coupled to said display interface, key switch, memory, rechargeable power supply, optical interface, sensor, and wireless telecommunications interface; and a speaker and a microphone configuring said hand held computer for use as a telephone handset; wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, optical interface, sensor, speaker, and microphone comprise a self-contained assembly; and, wherein said hand held computer is operable: to download from a remote processing center via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network information relating to one or more merchandisable items for retention in said memory; to transmit data relating to one or more of said merchandisable items from said memory to said remote processing center via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network, and to download information relating to one or more of said merchandisable items from said remote processing center via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network in response to a said transmission of data; to download, via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network in response to entry of a user command, information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said merchandisable items; and as a portable wireless telephone for voice reception and transmission. 6. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said hand held computer comprises a connector interface operable to connect said hand held computer to a separate personal computer for inputting and outputting information to or from said hand held computer, said connector interface comprising a part of said self-contained assembly. 7. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said hand held computer is operable using said wireless telecommunications interface to receive a request from a said remote processing center for the user to input user identification information for utilization by said remote processing center. 8. A portable hand held computer according to claim 7 wherein said user identification information comprises a personal identification number. 9. A portable hand held computer according to claim 7 wherein said user identification information comprises a credit card number. 10. A portable hand held computer according to claim 7 wherein said hand held computer is operable, subsequent to an initial input of user identification information after a connection to a said remote processing center, for subsequent use with said remote processing center which is dependent on the user identification information. 11. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said hand held computer comprises a connector interface operable to connect said hand held computer to a separate personal computer for inputting and outputting information, and wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, optical interface, sensor and connector interface comprise a self-contained assembly, and wherein said hand held computer is operable using said wireless telecommunications interface to receive a request from a said remote processing center to the user to instruct the user to input user identification information for utilization by said remote processing center. 12. A portable hand held computer according to claim 11 wherein said user identification information comprises a personal identification number. 13. A portable hand held computer according to claim 11 wherein said user identification information comprises a credit card number. 14. A portable hand held computer according to claim 11 wherein said hand held computer is operable, subsequent to an initial input of user identification information after a connection to a said remote processing center, for subsequent use with said remote processing center which is dependent on the user identification information. 15. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said computer comprises one or two manually operable switches for scrolling said display in a first and/or second direction for selectively displaying said selectable items, and wherein operation of one of said switches in predetermined operational states of said hand held computer causes predetermined functions other than scrolling to be performed. 16. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 comprising a verification device in the form of a verification card or like carrier carrying a verification code to verify user information. 17. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 that is operable to provide audio feedback to the user to indicate input of information via a said manually operable key switch, and further comprises a plurality of manually operable key switches arranged as a numerical keypad. 18. A portable hand held computer according to claim 6 wherein said hand held computer is operable to connect to a said separate personal computer via said connector interface or said optical interface, and said separate computer has a separate telecommunications interface. 19. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said display interface is a reconfigurable user interface that is operable to display different information or data depending on user input. 20. A portable hand held computer according to claim 6 wherein said connector interface is also operable to connect said hand held computer to a source for recharging the rechargeable power supply. 21. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said wireless telecommunications interface is operable to download information to update information describing one or more of said merchandisable items previously retained wherein such information has changed or has not changed. 22. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said memory comprises one or more memory components. 23. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said wireless telecommunications interface comprises one or more radio components. 24. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said data captured by said sensor is one or more images. 25. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said memory comprises rewritable storage. 26. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said downloaded information is retained in said hand held computer at least in part by utilizing power from said rechargeable power source. 27. A portable hand held computer according to claim 6 wherein said connector interface is also operable to connect to a cradle. 28. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said display interface displays a carrier of data and/or command codes comprising coded data in the form of alphanumeric characters, and said hand held computer is operable to read said coded data. 29. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said optical interface is configured to connect to a printer or another hand held computer. 30. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein said hand held computer is operable by a user for initiating the purchase of one or more of said merchandisable items by means of the transmission of information from said memory via said antenna. 31. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 further comprising a carrier for a plurality of data and/or command codes, wherein said carrier carries a plurality of command codes arranged in the format of a numerical keypad or a typewriter keyboard layout displayed via said display interface. 32. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein information retained in said memory for a list of merchandisable items is kept up to date via information downloaded from said remote processing center. 33. A portable hand held computer according to claim 5 wherein programs for use in said hand held computer are downloadable from a processing center remotely located from said hand held computer and are updateable via said wireless telecommunications interface from said processing center. 34. A portable hand held computer, wherein said hand held computer is capable of use by a user as a data entry device and configured to be held in one hand for operable use as a portable wireless telephone for voice transmission and reception, said hand held computer comprising: memory, wherein said memory is operable for retaining information in response to input by the user, operable for retaining downloaded information, and operable for retaining information for updating downloaded information previously retained in said memory; a manually operable key switch for input of information; a display interface comprising a touch sensitive screen, wherein said display interface is operable to display user commands, operable to display information retained by said memory, and operable to display a list of user selectable items comprising merchandisable items, and to selectively display information relating to one or more of said items; an antenna; a rechargeable power supply; a wireless telecommunications interface operable directly to connect via said antenna to a wireless telecommunications network and operable for transmission and reception of voice, data, and information; a controller coupled to said display interface, key switch, memory, rechargeable power supply, and wireless telecommunications interface; a speaker and a microphone permitting said hand held computer to be used as a telephone handset; wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, speaker, and microphone comprise a self-contained assembly; and wherein said hand held computer is operable: to download from a remote processing center via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network information relating to one or more merchandisable items for retention in said memory; to transmit data relating to one or more of said merchandisable items from said memory to said remote processing center via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network, and to download information relating to one or more said merchandisable items from said remote processing center in response to a said transmission of data; to receive a request from said remote processing center to the user to input user identification information for utilization by said remote processing center; and as a portable wireless telephone for voice reception and transmission. 35. A portable hand held computer according to claim 34 wherein said hand held computer comprises a connector interface operable to connect said hand held computer to a separate personal computer for inputting and outputting data or information, and wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, and connector interface comprise a self-contained assembly. 36. A portable hand held computer according to claim 34 wherein said hand held computer comprises an optical interface operable to establish an optical datalink for the transmission and reception of information from and to said hand held computer, and wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, and optical interface comprise a self-contained assembly. 37. A portable hand held computer according to claim 34 wherein said hand held computer comprises a sensor operable to sense and capture data wherein said sensor is a camera, and wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, and sensor comprise a self-contained assembly. 38. A portable hand held computer according to claim 34 wherein said hand held computer comprises a connector interface operable to connect said hand held computer to a separate personal computer for inputting and outputting data or information to or from said hand held computer, and comprises an optical interface operable to establish an optical datalink for the transmission and reception of information from and to said hand held computer, and wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, optical interface, and connector interface comprise a self-contained assembly. 39. A portable hand held computer according to claim 34 wherein said hand held computer comprises a connector interface operable to connect said hand held computer to a separate personal computer for inputting and outputting data or information, comprises an optical interface operable to establish an optical datalink for the transmission and reception of information from and to said hand held computer, and comprises a sensor operable to sense and capture data wherein said sensor is a camera, and wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, optical interface, sensor, and connector interface comprise a self-contained assembly. 40. A portable hand held computer according to claim 34 wherein said hand held computer using a said wireless telecommunications interface also is operable in response to entry of a user command to download information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said merchandisable items. 41. A portable hand held computer according to claim 34 wherein said user identification information comprises a personal identification number. 42. A portable hand held computer according to claim 34 wherein said user identification information comprises a credit card number. 43. A portable hand held computer according to claim 34 wherein said hand held computer is operable, subsequent to an initial input of user identification information after a connection to a said remote processing center, for subsequent use with said remote processing center which is dependent on the user identification information. 44. A portable hand held computer according to claim 35 wherein said hand held computer using said antenna and at least said wireless communications network also is operable in response to entry of a user command to download information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said merchandisable items. 45. A portable hand held computer according to claim 36 wherein said hand held computer using said antenna and at least said wireless communications network also is operable in response to entry of a user command to download information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said merchandisable items. 46. A portable hand held computer according to claim 37 wherein said hand held computer using said antenna and at least said wireless communications network also is operable in response to entry of a user command to download information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said merchandisable items. 47. A portable hand held computer according to claim 38 wherein said hand held computer using said antenna and at least said wireless communications network also is operable in response to entry of a user command to download information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said merchandisable items. 48. A portable hand held computer according to claim 39 wherein said hand held computer using said antenna and at least said wireless communications network also is operable in response to entry of a user command to download information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said merchandisable items. 49. A portable hand held computer, wherein said hand held computer is capable of use by a user as a data entry device and configured to be held in one hand for operable use as a portable wireless telephone for voice transmission and reception, said hand held computer comprising: memory, wherein said memory is operable for retaining data or information in response to input by the user, operable for retaining downloaded information, and operable for retaining information for updating downloaded information previously retained in said memory; a manually operable key switch for input of information; a display interface, wherein said display interface is operable to display user commands, operable to display information retained by said memory, and operable to display a list of user selectable items comprising merchandisable items, and to selectively display information relating to one or more of said items; an antenna; a rechargeable power supply; a sensor operable for sensing user commands or data; a wireless telecommunications interface operable directly to connect via said antenna to a wireless telecommunications network and operable for transmission and reception of voice or data, wherein said wireless telecommunications interface is operable to transmit data captured by said sensor; a controller coupled to said display interface, key switch, memory, rechargeable power supply, sensor, and wireless telecommunications interface; and, a speaker and a microphone permitting said hand held computer to be used as a telephone handset; wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, connector interface, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, sensor, speaker, and microphone comprise a self-contained assembly; and wherein said hand held computer is operable: to download from a remote processing center via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network information relating to one or more merchandisable items for retention in said memory; to transmit data relating to one or more of said merchandisable items from said memory to said remote processing center via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network, and to download information relating to one or more of said merchandisable items from said remote processing center via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network in response to a said transmission of data; to receive a request from said remote processing center to the user to input user identification information for utilization by said remote processing center; and as a portable wireless telephone for voice reception and transmission. 50. A portable hand held computer according to claim 49 wherein said hand held computer comprises a connector interface operable to connect said hand held computer to a separate personal computer for inputting and outputting data or information, and wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, and connector interface comprise a self-contained assembly. 51. A portable hand held computer according to claim 49 wherein said hand held computer comprises a optical interface operable for an optical datalink to transmit information from said hand held computer and/or to receive information, and wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, and optical interface comprise a self-contained assembly. 52. A portable hand held computer according to claim 49 wherein said hand held computer comprises a sensor operable to sense and capture data wherein said sensor is a camera, and wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, and sensor comprise a self-contained assembly. 53. A portable hand held computer according to claim 49 wherein said hand held computer comprises a connector interface operable to connect said hand held computer to a separate personal computer for inputting and outputting data or information, and comprises a optical interface operable for an optical datalink to transmit data or information from said hand held computer and/or to receive data or information, and wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, optical interface, and connector interface comprise a self-contained assembly. 54. A portable hand held computer according to claim 49 wherein said hand held computer comprises a connector interface operable to connect said hand held computer to a separate personal computer for inputting and outputting data or information, comprises a optical interface operable for an optical datalink to transmit information from said hand held computer and/or to receive data or information, and comprises a sensor operable to sense and capture data wherein said sensor is a camera, and wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, optical interface, sensor, and connector interface comprise a self-contained assembly. 55. A portable hand held computer according to claim 49 wherein said user identification information comprises a personal identification number. 56. A portable hand held computer according to claim 49 wherein said user identification information comprises a credit card number. 57. A portable hand held computer according to claim 49 wherein said hand held computer is operable, subsequent to an initial input of user identification information after a connection to a said remote processing center, for subsequent use with said remote processing center which is dependent on the user identification information. 58. A portable hand held computer according to claim 50 wherein said hand held computer using said antenna and at least said wireless communications network also is operable in response to entry of a user command to download information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said merchandisable items. 59. A portable hand held computer according to claim 51 wherein said hand held computer using said antenna and at least said wireless communications network also is operable in response to entry of a user command to download information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said merchandisable items. 60. A portable hand held computer according to claim 52 wherein said hand held computer using said antenna and at least said wireless communications network also is operable in response to entry of a user command to download information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said merchandisable items. 61. A portable hand held computer according to claim 49 wherein said sensor is comprised of said display interface and at least one or two manually operable keys on said hand held computer for sensing user commands or data via input caused by use of one or more of said keys, wherein one or more of said keys is operable to cause scrolling through items displayed via said display interface, one or more of said keys is operable to select one or more of said items, and one or more of said keys is operable to select a said command displayed via said display interface. 62. A portable hand held computer according to claim 49 wherein said sensor is comprised of said display interface comprising a touch sensitive screen for sensing input by the user. 63. A portable hand held computer, wherein said hand held computer is capable of use by a user as a data entry device and configured to be held in one hand for operable use as a portable cellular telephone for voice transmission and reception, said hand held computer comprising: memory, wherein said memory is operable for retaining data or information in response to input by the user, operable for retaining downloaded information, and operable for retaining information for updating downloaded information previously retained in said memory; a manually operable key switch for input of information; a display interface, wherein said display interface is operable to display user commands, operable to display information retained by said memory, and operable to display a list of user selectable items comprising merchandisable items, and to selectively display information relating to one or more of said items; an antenna; a rechargeable power supply; a sensor operable for sensing user commands or data; a wireless telecommunications interface operable directly to connect via said antenna to a wireless telecommunications network and operable for transmission and reception of voice or data, wherein said wireless telecommunications interface is operable to transmit data captured by said sensor, and is a cellular telephone interface; a controller coupled to said display interface, key switch, memory, rechargeable power supply, sensor, and wireless telecommunications interface; and, a speaker and a microphone permitting said hand held computer to be used as a telephone handset; wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, connector interface, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, optical interface, sensor, speaker, and microphone comprise a self-contained assembly; and wherein said hand held computer is operable: to download from a remote processing center via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network information relating to one or more merchandisable items for retention in said memory; to transmit data relating to one or more of said merchandisable items from said memory to said remote processing center via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network, and to download information relating to one or more of said merchandisable items from said remote processing center via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network in response to a said transmission of data; to download, via said antenna and at least said wireless telecommunications network in response to entry of a user command, information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said merchandisable items; to receive a request from said remote processing center to the user to input user identification information for utilization by said remote processing center; and as a portable cellular telephone for voice reception and transmission. 64. A portable hand held computer operable as a data entry device and a portable wireless telephone by a user, comprising: memory, wherein said memory is operable for retaining data or information in response to input by the user, operable for retaining downloaded data or information, and operable for retaining data or information for updating downloaded data or information previously retained in said memory; a manually operable key switch for input of information; a display interface, wherein said display interface is operable to display user commands, operable to display information retained by said memory, and operable to display a list of user selectable items comprising merchandisable items, and to selectively display information relating to one or more of said items; an antenna; a rechargeable power supply; a sensor operable to sense and capture data wherein said sensor is a camera; a wireless telecommunications interface operable directly to connect via said antenna to a wireless telecommunications network and operable for transmission and reception of voice or data, wherein said wireless telecommunications interface is operable to transmit data captured by said sensor via said antenna; a controller coupled to said display interface, key switch, memory, connector interface, rechargeable power supply, optical interface, sensor, and wireless telecommunications interface; wherein said hand held computer is operable using said wireless telecommunications interface to download from a remote processing center information relating to one or more of said items for retention in said memory by utilizing at least said wireless telecommunications network, said hand held computer is operable using said wireless telecommunications interface to transmit data or information relating to one or more of said items from said memory to said remote processing center and to download information relating to one or more of said items from said remote processing center in response to a said transmission, said hand held computer using said wireless telecommunications interface also is operable in response to entry of a user command to download information from said remote processing center for retention in said memory to update information previously retained in said memory for one or more of said items, and said hand held computer is operable as a portable wireless telephone; wherein said display interface, antenna, key switch, rechargeable power supply, wireless telecommunications interface, memory, controller, optical interface, and sensor comprise a self-contained assembly; and wherein said assembly includes a speaker and a microphone permitting said hand held computer to be used as a telephone handset. | This invention relates to data entry systems, to applications of such data entry systems and to equipment for use therewith. UK patent GB-B-2,202,664 describes an example of an application for a data entry system for the automated ordering of merchandisable items. Merchandisable items are represented in a printed catalogue or other form of list and are associated with bar codes. A merchandise ordering unit comprises a bar code reader with a telephone transmission capability for use in selecting one or more items from the catalogue and transmitting electronically an order for the merchandise to a processing centre over the public telephone network. The orders for the merchandisable items received in this way are processed in the processing centre. As described, the hand held data entry terminal comprises a calculator-like processing unit with a pen-like bar code reader wand electrically connected to the processing unit via a flexible cable. The processing unit includes a display for displaying information and a telephone transmission capability for transmitting captured data via the telephone network. Although this system works well, it is rather bulky and can be somewhat inconvenient in use as it requires two handed operation, one hand for the processing unit and one hand for the wand. Alternatively, if the processing unit is not carried all the time, it needs to be located in a position where the display on the processing unit can be seen and the keys on the processing unit can be operated. It will be appreciated that particularly where the processing unit is being carried in the hand, operation of the keys on it while holding the wand requires considerable dexterity. European patent application EP-A-0,094,571 describes a self-contained portable data entry terminal positioned within a portable wand-type enclosure. The wand contains a bar code optical reader, signal conditioning electronics, a microprocessor, a memory and a rechargeable battery. The optical reader is operable as a transmitter/receiver so that readout of data stored in the memory is possible. An example of the use of the portable data terminal is described in which captured bar code data can be output from the memory via the optical reader to an optical receiver and from there via an audio coupler to a telephone line for transmission to a remote station. Another example is described where the bar code data relates to items on a menu in a restaurant. Captured menu selections can be output from the memory via the optical reader to an optical receiver and from there via a computer to a printer in a kitchen. Also described is the programming of the portable data entry terminal using an optical transmitter to input data via the optical reader. The wand includes a beeper for indicating the correct reading of a bar code and the current memory loading. The wand described in EP-A-0,094,571 is relatively simple in construction, and although it is readily portable, it does not provide any confirmation of what has been read. A further portable data entry terminal manufactured by Telxon Corporation is described in an article entitled “Telxon Corporation, Portable Data Collection and Entry Systems” published by McGraw-Hill in 1989 and referenced “R51-832-101 SKU/UPC Marking and Reading Equipment”. The article describes various models of data entry terminals similar to that described in UK patent GB-8-2,202,664. Data from the terminals can be transmitted to a remote station via various telecommunication options including direct connect modems and acoustic couplers. The data entry terminals have a generally rectangular format, similar to a large scientific calculator with a rectangular display and an array of keys. For most models, a separate bar code reader wand is provided which is connected to the data entry terminal via a flexible cable, requiring a two-handed operation as described above. One model PTC-620 has the same basic format as the other terminals, but is described as being for simple applications and features a snap-on reversible head for one-handed operation with either the left or the right hand. However, this terminal is still relatively bulky and cumbersome and in use it is easy inadvertently to operate one or more keys in the array of keys. An object of the present invention is to provide a data entry system which mitigates the problems of the prior art. In accordance with an aspect of the invention, there is provided a data entry system comprising a hand held data entry unit, the hand held unit comprising a reading sensor for sensing commands and/or data and for producing input signals in response to the sensed commands and/or data, rewritable storage for information relating to selectable items, a controller connected to receive and process the input signals from the sensor for responding to the commands to control the hand held unit and/or to the data to select the item and a display screen for displaying a user readable representation of the commands and/or stored information for the selected item, and a telecommunications interface for telephonic transmission of information relating to a selected item or items from the storage to a remote processing centre and for telephonic transmission of information relating to selectable items from the remote processing centre to the storage. The provision of a hand held unit having an integral sensor, control, storage, display means with a telecommunications interface enables the unit to be used in a particularly efficient and self-contained manner for the capture, processing, storage, display and transmission of data. The inclusion of the display in the hand held unit enables the user to verify the data being captured without taking his or her eyes off the areas in which data capture is taking place. Preferably, the telecommunications interface is integral to the hand held unit. The provision of a telecommunications interface in the hand held unit enables captured data to be used for direct telephonic transmission of the captured data via a telephone network to a remote processing centre. It also allows for data and/or commands to be received from the remote data processing centre. Preferably, the hand held unit includes a rechargeable power source. There can be provided a base unit separate from the hand held unit, wherein the base unit includes a charger unit and the base unit and the hand held unit are provided with respective interconnectable electrical connectors for recharging the rechargeable power source. In some embodiments of the invention, the data entry system can comprise a base unit separate from the hand held unit, wherein the base unit and the hand held unit are provided with a wireless data link which is operable for bidirectional data transfer between the hand held unit and the base unit, and wherein the base unit includes a telecommunications interface for telephonic transmission of information relating to a selected item or items from the storage to a remote processing centre and for telephonic transmission of information relating to selectable items from the remote processing centre to the storage. In this embodiment, the wireless data link preferably comprises, in the base unit and the hand held unit, optical transmitters and/or receivers which cooperate when the hand held unit is in the rest position to provide a two way optical data link for transferring data from the hand held unit to the base unit and/or from the base unit to the hand held unit. In other embodiments it could comprise respective radio frequency, rather than optical, transmitters and receivers, or indeed other types of transmitters and receivers. In preferred embodiments of the invention, the telecommunications interface is an interface for connection to a wireless telephony network. This provides for a particularly advantageous implementation of the invention, which can then be used without the need to plug in the data entry system to, for example, a conventional wired telephone network. In a preferred embodiment of the invention the telecommunications interface is a cellular telephone network interface. In this embodiment of the invention, particularly where the telecommunications interface is incorporated in the hand held unit, the data entry system can be used with the convenience, for example, of a portable cellular phone. Cellular telephone networks are now common place and give a very wide area of coverage. This facilitates the use of a data entry system in accordance with the invention in, for example, a user's home or workplace. Alternatively, the telecommunications interface can be a satellite telephone network interface, or some other form of wireless telephone interface, for example a telephone interface for a telephone network based on highly localised transponder stations. Where the telecommunications interface is intended to interface with an analogue telephone network, the telecommunications interface includes a modem. By arranging that the reading sensor can be used for the input of commands for controlling the hand held unit, the number of user input means (e.g., keys) can be kept to a minimum, reducing the possibility of inadvertent operation. Preferably, there are provided one or two manually operable switches for scrolling the display in a first and/or second direction for selectively displaying a plurality of data stored in the storage. The scrolling of the display enables a large number of items to be accessed with a relatively compact display. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the first and/or second switches are the only switches on the hand held unit. Preferably also, operation of the first and/or second switches in predetermined operational states of the hand held unit causes predetermined functions other than scrolling functions to be performed (e.g., powering-up or powering-down of the hand held unit). By the provision of only two keys on the hand held unit, the possibility of accidentally operating an incorrect key can be reduced, and also the hand held unit can be kept particularly compact. Preferably, the hand held unit comprises a sensor for reading coded data, the controller being arranged to access the stored information for selectable items to determine natural language characters or images corresponding to the coded data for display. The invention finds particular, but not exclusive application to the reading of bar codes and/or binary dot codes, whereby the sensor is a bar code and/or dot code reader. It will be appreciated that the invention also applies to other forms of codes. The hand held data entry unit may comprise a reading head including a reading sensor for producing input signals, wherein the reading sensor traces movements of the reading head and wherein the controller is responsive to signals from the sensor representative of the movements for identifying characters traced by the reading head as captured data. In this manner data entry can be made in an advantageous manner by tracing out the characters of the data to be input or characters representing commands for controlling the operation of the data entry system. Preferably, the controller is user programmable to cause the captured data to be displayed on the display either in a first orientation suitable for reading displayed data when the hand held unit is held in a user's right hand, or in a second orientation suitable for reading displayed data when the hand held unit is held in a user's left hand. In a preferred embodiment the display has a substantially rectangular display screen with a longitudinal axis arranged substantially parallel to a longitudinal axis of the hand held unit. For example, for right handed operation, a string of characters could, for example, be displayed along the display from an end nearest to the sensor to the end furthest therefrom, whereas for left handed operation, the same string of characters would be displayed from the end of the display furthest from the sensor to the end nearest thereto. A data entry system comprising a hand held unit with or without a base unit as described above, can also include means for displaying a plurality of selectable items with associated data sources for user selection of an item by operation of the hand held unit and a remote processing centre for processing user selections transmitted from the hand held unit. The controller in the hand held unit is preferably arranged to respond to appropriate commands input, for example via the reading sensor, to issue coded instructions via the telecommunications interface to the data processing centre and to receive programming data (e.g., relating to information for selectable items) from the programming centre for storage in the hand held unit. The data entry system may additionally be arranged to provide the functions of a telephone to permit audio communication. In particular, if a cellular telephone interface is provided in a hand held unit, this unit can advantageously combine the functions of the data entry unit and a cellular telephone. Accordingly, the invention also provides a data entry system additionally comprising means for displaying a plurality of selectable items with associated data sources for user selection of an item by operation of the hand held unit and a remote processing centre for processing user selections transmitted from the hand held unit. Preferably, the hand held unit is programmable remotely from the processing centre. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the hand held unit is configured as an elongate unit such that it may be held by a user in the manner of a pen or quill with the reading sensor being located in a reading head at or adjacent to one end of the hand held unit. The configuration of the hand held unit such that it may be held in the manner of a pen or quill means that the unit can be held in a familiar and comfortable manner. Also, it facilitates the provision of user input means (e.g. switches) on the hand held unit to be located such that inadvertent operation thereof can easily be avoided. Preferably the reading sensor is located in a reading head which is releasably attached to the hand held unit. This enables alternative types of reading head to be connected to the hand held unit and/or for faulty reading heads to be replaced easily. The invention also provides a merchandising system comprising a data entry system of this type wherein the selectable items are merchandisable items and the remote processing centre initiates processing of user orders of the selectable merchandisable items. Thus, a data entry system in accordance with the invention, especially a data entry system comprising a hand held unit including a telecommunications interface for use with a wireless telephony system, such as a cellular network telephone system, provides a particularly advantageous device for use, for example, for “home shopping”. It enables the user to make shopping selections from a catalogue or from a series of options displayed on a television screen from the comfort of his or her home without the need to connect the device to a conventional telephone network. A hand held unit including a wireless telephone network interface such as a cellular network interface finds particular application where the user of the system is travelling from place to place and may need to perform data entry functions when they are far from a conventional wired telephone network socket. A data entry system or a merchandising system as described above preferably includes a verification device in the form of a verification card (e.g., a credit, payment or other validation card) or like carrier carrying a verification bar code and/or dot code for verification of a user identity. Operation of the data entry system subsequent to an initial data capture operation can then be made dependent on the identification of authorised coded data. The invention also provides a carrier for a plurality of data and/or command codes (e.g., bar and/or dot codes) for association with means for displaying a plurality of selectable items in a data entry system or a merchandising system as defined above, wherein the carrier carries a plurality of codes, each for a respective one of a plurality of natural language and/or numeric characters, and a plurality of commands for controlling the operation of the data entry or merchandising system, each code being associated with a visual representation of the corresponding natural language or numeric character or command and/or of a graphical representation thereof. This avoids the need for a complete coded data source to be associated with each selectable item in, for example, a catalogue, rather a composite code can be built up by capturing a desired sequence of individual codes. By including the command characters as well, the need for a lot of keys on the data entry device can be avoided. As an alternative to the use of bar codes, other data representations could be used. Indeed, if the data entry device is provided with a reading sensor in the form of a camera or other scanning sensor rather than a bar code reader, and the data entry device is provided with character or image recognition logic, graphical or alphanumeric data representations can be captured directly. One application of an embodiment of the pen with a camera head as its sensor could be for fingerprint recognition. As an example of a possible mode of operation, a command character (e.g., a bar code) can be read using the reading head (e.g., a bar code reading head) and this can be used to load down remote data from a remote station. This is particularly advantageous mode of operation where the data entry system can set up a telephone connection to the remote station automatically, for example where the data entry device has cellular telephone capabilities. The carrier is preferably in the form of a sheet of material. The various characters and commands could be arranged in the manner of a standard typewriter keyboard layout to facilitate entry of individual codes to make up a desired code sequence (e.g., for a specific product code). Exemplary embodiments of the invention will be described hereinafter, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings in which like reference numerals are used for like features and in which: FIGS. 1A and 1B are schematic views of a substantially pen-shaped hand held data entry device. FIG. 2 is a schematic plan view of a base unit for use with the hand held unit of FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIG. 3 is a schematic block diagram of the functional elements of a first example of a hand held data entry device as shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIG. 4 is a schematic block diagram of the functional elements of a base unit as shown in FIG. 2 for use with the hand held data entry device of FIGS. 1A, 1B and 3; FIG. 5 is an overview of a merchandising system using a data entry terminal such as is illustrated in the preceding Figures; FIG. 6 represents a control card with bar codes for a number of numeric and control characters; FIG. 7 is flow diagram illustrating an example of the operation of a data entry system as described with reference to FIGS. 1 to 6; FIG. 8 is a schematic block diagram of the functional elements of a second example of a hand held data entry device as shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIG. 9 is a schematic block diagram of the functional elements of a further, self-contained, hand held data entry device which is intended for use without a base unit; FIG. 10 is a schematic block diagram of the functional elements of a further, self-contained, hand held data entry device for use without a base unit and intended, in particular, for use with a wireless telephone network such as a cellular network; FIG. 11 is a schematic block diagram illustrating components in an ASIC forming part of the apparatus of FIG. 10; and FIG. 12 is a schematic block diagram illustrating the inter-relationship of functional elements of FIGS. 10 and 11. FIGS. 1A and 1B are schematic views from above and below, respectively, of one embodiment of hand held data entry unit 10 which is substantially pen-shaped and which will hereinafter, for reasons of conciseness only, be referred to as the “pen 10”. The pen 10 is intended to be held for essentially one handed operation between the thumb and forefinger of either the left or right hand in the manner of a conventional, if rather thicker than usual, pen. The pen 10 has an elongate body 12 with, in the present example, external dimensions of approximately 120 mm by 40 mm, although the dimensions may be larger or smaller as desired subject to technical limitations. A reading head 14, for example a red or infra-red optical reading head (e.g., a laser diode) suitable for reading bar codes is located at one end of the pen. Other types of reading head may be provided. The reading head is preferably-replaceable for interchanging types of reading head. A removable battery cover 16 covering a battery compartment is located at the other end of the pen. As an alternative to a compartment for removable batteries, a removable and/or fixed rechargeable battery pack could be provided instead. Also, the reading head in the present embodiment is arranged to read with a reading angle of between 0° to 45° to the normal to the bar code to be read. On the upper surface of the pen shown in FIG. 1A a display screen 20, first and second microswitches 22 and 24, a first indicator light 26 and a second indicator light 28 are located. The display screen 20 preferably comprises a conventional two-dimensional array of pixels which can be selectively activated in order to provide the display of a wide range of displayable items. However, in a low cost version of the pen 10, the display may be configured only to display a predetermined range of characters and symbols, this reducing the complexity of the display and the controlling logic and thus reducing the cost as will be well understood by one skilled in the art. Any suitable display technology can be used which enables the displayed information to be read over a wide enough angular range such that it can be read by the user when the pen is held at an angle suitable for reading a bar code. In this way it is not necessary to change the orientation of the pen in order to read the display. In view of the low power consumption and advantageous readability characteristics, a 2 line by 16 character supertwist LCD display screen is employed in the preferred embodiment giving a viewing area of approximately 60 mm by 16 mm with a character size of approximately 3 mm by 5.5 mm. The display is preferably located towards the end of the pen 10 opposite to the reading head 14 with its longitudinal axis substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis of the pen 10. With the pen 10 held between thumb and forefinger with the user's hand below the pen as viewed in FIG. 1A, and with the pen held at an angle of, say, 30″ to the normal of a bar code to be read, (assuming that the normal to the bar code is generally in the direction of the line of sight of the user), the display screen can be read without difficulty. The switches 22 and 24 are used to control basic operations of the data entry system and for control of the sequential display of stored information (scrolling of the display) as will be explained later. The indicator light 26 is used to report successful scanning of a bar code. The indicator light 28 is used when rechargeable batteries (70, FIG. 3) are inserted in the battery compartment to indicate that the batteries are charging. On the lower surface of the pen 10 shown in FIG. 1B, an optical transmitter 32 and an optical receiver 34 are provided in a shallow recess 33. Also, provided on the lower surface are a locating groove 36 and first and second electrical contacts 30 and 31. The optical transmitter 32 and the optical receiver 34 are used in combination with an optical receiver 62 and optical transmitter 64, respectively, on a base unit 40 to be described with reference to FIG. 2, for the transfer of data between the pen 10 and the base unit 40. The locating groove 36 is used correctly to position the pen 10 with respect to a corresponding ridge in a cradle 56 on the base unit 40 when the pen 10 is placed in that cradle 56. The cradle 56 defines a rest position for the pen 10 on the base unit 40. The first and second contacts 30 and 31 are arranged to cooperate with corresponding contacts 60 and 61 in the cradle 56 on the base unit 40 for charging the rechargeable batteries. Turning now to FIG. 2, this illustrates a plan view of a base unit 40 for use with the pen 10 of FIGS. 1A and 1B. The base unit includes a generally rectangular housing 42 with a raised portion 44 containing a power supply unit (102, FIG. 4) which receives electrical power via a mains supply cable 45 and a mains switch 46. The mains switch 46 is located on the right hand side of the base unit housing 42. Cooling slots 47 for the power supply unit (102, FIG. 4) are provided in the upper surface of the raised portion 44. Further slots 48 in the upper surface of the base unit housing 42 are located over a speaker (110, FIG. 4) for relaying information to the user of the data entry system. The rear of the housing 42 is also provided with a socket 52 for a standard telephone plug for connecting the base unit 40 to a telephone line 50 and a standard serial connector 54 (e.g., an RS232 connector) for connecting the base unit to, for example, a personal computer (not shown). A manual switch 53 can be provided for switching between the telephone line and the serial connector. It will be appreciated that a parallel connector could be provided instead of, or in addition to, the serial connector 54. A separate telephone socket 55 can be provided for the connection of a standard telephone handset to the base unit. Towards the front of the base unit housing 42, a recess is formed which is configured as a cradle 56 for receiving the pen 10. An optical receiver 62 and an optical transmitter 64 are located in the bottom of the recess for cooperating with the optical transmitter 32 and optical receiver 34, respectively, when the pen is located in the cradle 56. The optical receiver 62 and the optical transmitter 64 are surrounded by a wall 63 which also forms a shroud between the optical receiver 62 and the optical transmitter 64. The wall 63 cooperates with the recess 33 in the pen 10 to prevent external light reaching the optical link, and the shroud between the optical receiver 62 and the optical transmitter 64 prevents light from the two optical paths between the pen and the base unit and between the base unit and the pen from interfering with each other. It will be appreciated that alternative configurations are possible, for example the wall could be provided on the pen and the recess on the base unit, although this could mean that the pen was less comfortable to use. First and second base contacts 60 and 61 are also located in the recess for cooperating with the contacts 30 and 31 on the pen 10 when it is inserted in the cradle 56, thus enabling rechargeable batteries (70, FIG. 3) in the pen 10 to be recharged. A locating ridge 58 is formed in the recess for cooperating with the locating groove 36 in the bottom of the pen 10 to enable to pen to be positioned correctly in the cradle 56 such that the optical transmitter/receiver pairs 32/62 and 64/34 and the contact pairs 30/60 and 31/61 are aligned correctly. The pen 10 can also be provided with a socket for directly charging the internal rechargeable batteries using an AC mains supply or a DC supply. In the first case the pen will include a transformer, in the second a transformer/rectifier could be incorporated in, for example, a mains plug. On a further raised portion 66, one or two base unit indicator lights are provided. The first base unit indicator light 67 is for indicating the base unit is receiving mains power and is turned on. Optionally, the second base unit indicator light 68 can used to indicate that rechargeable battery (70, FIG. 3) in the pen is being charged. FIG. 3 is a schematic block diagram of the functional elements of the pen 10. A processor 74 is preferably formed by a conventional programmable microprocessor (e.g., an Intel 80C31 12 MHz CMOS microprocessor with two internal clocks, an Intel 80486, etc.), although a special purpose or specially configured unit (e.g. an ASIC) could alternatively be used (compare FIG. 10). A read only memory (ROM) 76 is connected via a bus 84 to the processor 74 for the storage of control programs and data. The ROM 76 can be implemented by any appropriate technology, for example by a flash PROM. A random access memory (RAM) 78 (for example a 128K low power static RAM, or higher capacity RAM, e.g, a 256K, 512K . . . 5 Mb, etc., RAM) is connected to the processor via the bus 84. The RAM 78 is used as working storage and for the storage of data captured using the reading head 14. A display interface 80, which connects the display 20 to the bus 84, responds to display instructions from the processor to drive the display in a conventional manner. An optical interface 86 is connected to the bus to convert data to be transmitted into signals for driving the optical transmitter 32, and converts signals from the optical receiver 34 into data to be passed to the bus 84. In the present embodiment, other connections are made directly to the processor rather than via the bus. Thus, in the present embodiment, signals relating to data captured by the reader head 14 are passed directly to the processor 74 to be processed. The manual switch 22 is also connected directly to the processor. In use this switch serves as a “scroll-down” key. The second manual switch 24, which in use serves as a “scroll-up” key, is, however, connected to the processor via a power control module (PCM) 72. This is because the switch 24 also serves as a “power-up” key for turning the pen on or powering it up after it has been powered down. The power control module 72 responds to operation of the key 24 in a powered down state to connect the battery 70 to the processor 74. The power control module 72 also controls the charging of the battery 70 when the contacts 30 and 31 are connected to the corresponding contacts 60 and 61 in the cradle 56 of the base unit 40. The indicator light 67 (e.g., an LED or NEON) is connected to the processor 74 and indicates when the base unit is connected to the mains. The optional indicator light 68 (e.g., an LED or NEON) is connected to the power control module 72 to indicate when the battery 70 is being charged. The processor is programmed by means of control programs and data stored in the ROM 76 and, in use, in the RAM 78, to receive signals from the reading head 14, to interpret those signals and to derive data therefrom which are displayed on the display 20 and stored in the RAM 78 for subsequent transmission via the optical interface as will be described in more detail below. FIG. 4 is a schematic block diagram of the functional elements of the base unit 40 of FIG. 2. A power supply module 102 is connected to a mains supply via the switch 46 and the supply cable 45. The power supply unit 102 is also connected to the contacts 60 and 61 so that, when the pen 10 is located in the cradle 56, the battery 70 can be recharged. The power supply unit 102 also supplies power to the other elements of the base unit via supply lines which are represented schematically (for reasons of drawing simplicity) by the arrows 104. A modem 100 is connected via an optical link 106 to an optical receiver 62 and an optical transmitter 64. The optical interface 106 converts signals from the optical receiver 62 to data to be passed to the modem 100 and converts data from the modem 100 to signals to be transmitted by the optical transmitter 64. A further interface (e.g. a standard V24/RS232 interface—not shown) for connection to a personal computer (not shown) could also be provided. Also a socket for a connection to a standard telephone handset (not shown) could be provided. The modem 100 can be a conventional modem generally comprising a master control unit 112, a data pump 114 and memory 118. The master control unit 112 is connected to receive data from the optical interface 106 (and/or from a V24/RS232 interface, if a personal computer is connected). Data from the data pump 114 are coupled via a line interface 116 to the telephone line 50. The data pump 116 is also connected via an audio interface 120 to a speaker 110 for monitoring the transmission of data via the telephone line 50. FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of a data entry network comprising a plurality of pens/base units 10/40 connected via respective telephone connections 50 (telephone lines, wireless telephone channels, etc) to a processing centre 108 where data transmitted from the individual pens/base units 10/40 are processed. In the preferred embodiment of the invention, the pens/base units 10/40 are used for the placing of orders for merchandise and the processing centre 108 processes those orders and dispatches them to the users. FIG. 6 is a schematic representation of an example of a control card for use with the pen 10. The card shows bar codes for the numerals 0 to 9 and for a set of commands. The command bar codes are used for controlling the operation of the pen 10. The control card can be thought of as a keyboard extension for the pen 10. At this point it should be explained that the operation of reading a bar code is performed by the processor 74 in a conventional manner. Thus, where the head 14 comprises a red or infra-red light source and a light sensor, signals representing changing levels of reflected illuminations are supplied to the processor 74. Firmware stored in the ROM 76, or in other embodiments possibly hard-wired in the processor 74, is used then to decode the changing levels of reflected illumination to generate a numerical value. On successful reading of a bar code the good read light 26 is illuminated. The processor tests the numerical values to determine whether the sensed code relates to data or a command. A look up table containing the numerical values for individual commands (not shown) is configured in the ROM 76 and/or RAM 78. By accessing this table, input commands can be identified. The controlling software is aware of which commands can be executed for the current processing state. On identifying a currently executable command, the processor 74 executes that command and causes the display of a human readable command description for user verification purposes. The processor causes an error message to be displayed on the display screen if a non-executable command (e.g., a command has been input at a wrong time) has been input. If the code does not relate to a recognised command, it is treated as data. The data are then stored in RAM as the result of reading a bar code and are used to address a description of the item referenced by the bar code value from a further look-up table. If a description of the item corresponding to the bar code value is stored in the ROM 76 and/or the RAM 78 in a suitable data structure so that the bar code value can be used either directly or indirectly to address the appropriate description, then the item description can readily be displayed instead of or as well as the bar code value for user verification purposes. If the bar code is not read correctly, then an error message is displayed on the display screen. The item description data can relate, for example, to items from a merchandising catalogue. In the this case the rewritable storage capacity of the pen (e.g. the RAM 78) is chosen to be sufficient to store all the items from one or more merchandising catalogues. If the data is stored in volatile memory, this data is downloaded from the remote processing centre via the telecommunications link on restoring power to the memory in the pen. Preferably, if volatile memory is used, power is supplied to the memory even when the pen is “switched off”. An integral rechargeable back-up battery can be provided in addition to the battery 70 to maintain power to a volatile memory when the battery 70 is being changed. If non-volatile memory is provided, then this data can be retained during a period when no power is supplied to the memory. However, through the use of rewritable memory and control logic enabling the memory to be updated using data downloaded from the remote processing centre, it is possible to keep the pen's memory up to date on a full list of merchandisable items, including product description, availability, price, etc. Then on reading a bar code relating to an item stored in memory the display on the pen can indicate a description of the item corresponding to the code read, its availability and price. If the code read is not recognised, for example, the pen can be programmed automatically to call up the remote processing centre to check on whether an update of the pen's storage is needed when the pen is replaced in the base unit. FIG. 7 is a flow diagram illustrating an example of a possible series of operations using an example of data entry system such as that described with reference to FIGS. 1 to 6. It will be appreciated that other sequences and modes of operation may be provided in other embodiments of the invention. In a first step, S1, the pen 10 is removed from the base unit 40. In step S2, “Up” key switch 24 is operated. The power control module senses operation of this key switch and powers up the processor 74, which performs a series of diagnostic checks, calibrates itself and then displays an initial message (e.g., “Ready”) on the display 20. In step S3 the “Down” and “Up” scroll keys switches 22 and 24 are operated to scroll though a number of initial options pre-stored within the ROM 76 or the RAM 78 and presented on successive screens of data items on the display 20. In this example of operation, in step S4, when an option “Left-handed operation” is encountered on the screen, the pen is scanned over the “Enter” command bar code on the command sheet of FIG. 6. Whereas for right-handed operation, where text is displayed in English, the text is displayed in sequence from the end of the display nearest to the reading head 14 towards the opposite end, for left-handed operation the text display is inverted with the text then reading from the end of the display furthest from the reading head to the end nearest thereto. It can be seen, therefore, that the text is displayed in an orientation appropriate for the user. If left-handed operation has already selected and it is desired to use the pen in a right-handed mode, then “Right-handed operation” can be selected by scrolling the display using the “Down” and “Up” key switches 22 and 24 and then scanning the “Enter” command bar code when the appropriate option is displayed. Other options which could be provided in this manner could, for example, be the selected of one of a number of operating languages. In step S5, the scroll key switches 22 and 24 are again operated until the option “Ready” is encountered once more. Then a series of merchandise selections can be entered by the user by scanning the bar codes for the desired merchandise selections and the command bar codes “Enter”, “Clear”, “Quantity”, etc., as appropriate. As each bar code is scanned successfully, the good read indicator 26 lights and the data read by the bar code reader is displayed on the screen. Either the alphanumeric value of the bar code read is displayed or, if a description of the item corresponding to the bar code value is stored in the RAM or the ROM, then this can be displayed instead of or as well as the bar code value. Step S5 can be repeated as often as desired until all the desired items have been entered, or until the RAM 78 has become full or nearly full, in which case a “Memory full” error message is displayed on the display screen 20. If desired, the items entered and stored in the RAM 78 could be checked by selecting a “Check Entries” option with the scroll key switches 22 and 24. In this case the items entered can then be checked in sequence using the scroll key switches 22 and 24, and if necessary corrected by scanning the correct command bar code while the appropriate item is displayed. In the example shown in FIG. 6, however, after entering the desired items, a phone number is then entered in step S6 by scanning the command bar code “Phone” followed by the number of the processing centre 108 to be called. As an alternative to entering separately the telephone number, this could be pre-stored in memory, or could alternatively be included in the “Phone” bar code. After this, in step S7 the pen is placed in the cradle on the base unit and the “Down” key switch 22 is pressed to download the data from the pen. This causes the data for the telephone number to be downloaded to the modem 100 via the optical link 106. The downloading of the telephone number causes the base unit automatically to call the desired number and, once the normal modem handshaking is completed, to transfer the data stored in the RAM 78 in the pen 10. Preferably, in addition to the actual data stored, the processor 74 in the pen 10 automatically adds error correcting codes to enable the processing centre 108 to verify that successful transmission has occurred. The processing centre 108 then sends a message to confirm (or otherwise) whether successful transmission occurred after checking the error correcting codes. This message is then displayed on the display 20 of the pen 10. It will be appreciated that the steps S1 to S7 illustrated above merely form one possible method of operation. In an alternative embodiment of the invention, the scrolling function is only used for stepping though items which have already been entered into the pen, whether in the form of selectable items downloaded from the remote processing centre and/or items selected by means of the reading head. All other command functions are input by reading appropriate command codes from a command sheet. For this embodiment therefore, a command sheet should include commands for left and right handed operation, or a command for changing handedness. Then, to change between left and right-handed operation, it is merely necessary to scan an appropriate command bar code. In a final step (not shown in FIG. 7). the pen is turned off by pressing the “Down” and “Up” scroll key switches simultaneously. It should be noted that the processor, which is provided with a date and time clock, is arranged to power-down the pen to conserve battery power if no bar codes are scanned and no key switches operated during a predetermined interval (e.g. 30 seconds). However, as mentioned above, power will be maintained to the RAM 76 if this is a non-volatile memory. The software stored in the pen also permits the loading of data from the processing centre or another remote computer. The programming is performed using a series of commands preceded by dot codes. The programming commands are thus known as “dot” commands and cover operations such as RAM PEEK, RAM POKE, ROM PEEK, DISPLAY, SENSE, GET INFO, GET FIRST ITEM, GET NEXT ITEM, GET PREVIOUS ITEM, AMEND ITEM, DELETE ITEM, CLEAR ORDER, CLEAR CATALOGUE, ADD CATALOGUE ITEM, and AMEND CATALOGUE ITEM. In this way, a significant amount of catalogue data and/or program software can be held in the processing centre and be sent to the pens only when required. Where programs are to be downloaded, rewritable program storage will be needed in the pen, for example by implementing the ROM 76 in flash PROM technology. The processing centre can also send commands to a hand held unit to instruct the user to scan in a personal identification number (PIN) possibly with the scanning of a further verification number from, for example a verification device in the form of a verification card (e.g., a credit, payment or other validation card) or like carrier carrying a verification bar code and/or dot code for verification of a user identity. Alternatively, the verification device can be scanned prior to any connection to a remote processing centre. In this case a connection can then be made to the remote processing centre for verification of the user identity. Operation of the data entry system subsequent to an initial data capture operation can then be made dependent on the identification of authorised coded data and a PIN number. FIG. 8 illustrates another example of a pen 10 in accordance with the invention. This example is substantially the same as the pen 10 described with reference to FIGS. 1 and 3, apart from the addition of a touch sensitive screen 90 for the display 20. A touch screen interface 88 couples the touch sensitive screen to the bus 84 so that data sensed by the touch sensitive screen can be communicated to the processor 74. Although FIG. 8 shows a touch sensitive screen 90 (e.g., an overlay) separate from a conventional display screen, any applicable touch sensitive screen technology can be used, either though the use of an addition to an existing conventional display screen, or the use of a display screen with integral touch sensitivity. One or more touch sensitive areas can be defined on the touch sensitive screen area, in combination with the data displayed on the display screen, for the entry of commands and/or the selection of displayed items. In particular, the processor 74 can be arranged to display a menu of user selectable items and to be responsive to a location at which the screen is touched for input of a user selection of a menu item. The touch sensitive screen can then thus be used as a dynamic and reconfigurable user interface. Touch screen entry can be used in place of or in addition to the entry of commands by scanning the bar codes on the command bar code card. FIG. 9 illustrates another example of a pen 10 in accordance with the invention. This example includes much in common with the pen 10 of FIG. 3, except that here a modem 92, a socket 94 for a standard telephone plug and a speaker 95 for monitoring transmissions during operation of the modem are provided in place of the optical interface 86 and optical transmitter and receivers 32 and 34. In this example, therefore, data can be transmitted and received via a telephone line without the use of the base station, providing added portability. Preferably, a simplified base station is provided in the form of a charging unit for rechargeable batteries in the pen 10. It will be appreciated that the pen 10 could also be provided with the touch screen facility of the pen 10 of FIG. 8. Although in the above embodiments, the pens 10 are intended for manual scanning of bar codes, it will be appreciated that they could also be used for reading other optically readable codes, such as binary dot codes, by the provision of appropriate control software for programming the processor 74. Alternatively, in place of the sensor head 14 which is intended to be manually scanned, a self-scanning head could be provided. The invention is also applicable to the reading of other coded data sources such as, for example, magnetic strips, graphical representations and/or alphanumeric characters, by the provision of an appropriate reading head and control logic. Alternative removable heads could be attached to the tip of the pen by a screw, bayonet, friction or other appropriate attachment arrangement. For example, the data entry pen could be provided with a reading head which is responsive to movement of the pen for tracing out desired codes and or commands. In particular, by the provision of a rolling ball in a holder in the reading head, of rotation sensing means in the manner of a personal computer mouse for tracing movements of the ball and suitable interpretation logic in software or special purpose hardware, for defining a series of vectors as the pen is moved over a surface and for performing pattern recognition on the resulting vector patterns to identify control and/or alphanumeric characters traced out by the pen head, it is possible directly to input information into the pen by “writing” down those characters. By limiting the range of characters to be recognised (e.g., corresponding to the numerals and commands shown in FIG. 6) it is possible to use conventional pattern recognition techniques with relatively limited processing power and storage requirements. It will be appreciated that increased processing power and storage can be provided in the pen described above for the embodiments of FIGS. 1, 3, 8 and 9 by the use of a more powerful processor and increased memory capacity. FIG. 10 illustrates a further embodiment of the invention. This further embodiment of the invention is similar to the embodiment of FIG. 9, but this embodiment is intended for use with a wireless data transmission means, for example radio signals. In particular, the embodiment of FIG. 10 is intended for use with a cellular telephone network, although it could be adapted for use with some other form of wireless telephone system, for example a satellite based telephone network. The embodiment of FIG. 10 is intended to be used independently of a base unit and to contain all the necessary functionality for independent operation. In one alternative the hand held unit is provided with a rechargeable battery pack 70, which can be removed from the hand held unit for recharging. In another alternative the hand held unit is provided with a fixed rechargeable battery pack 70. In the latter alternative, and optionally in the former alternative, a mains voltage charging socket and transformer/rectifier can be provided in the hand held unit or the battery pack for receiving a mains lead for charging purposes rather than the low voltage connectors 30/31. The low voltage DC charging connectors 30/31 can be configured in a socket for receiving an adapter lead, with a transformer/rectifier being provided, possibly incorporated in a plug, for connection to a mains socket. It will be appreciated that an adapter for connection to, for example, a 12 volt DC supply from a car may also be provided. As a further alternative, contactless recharging (for example by magnetic induction) could be employed. The embodiment of FIG. 10 is implemented using a ASIC, although a conventional microprocessor and external hardware could be used. Likewise, it will be appreciated that the embodiments described with reference to the previous Figures could also be implemented using a ASIC or other equivalent technology instead of a microprocessor. In the embodiment of FIG. 10, the ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) performs the majority of the necessary processing functions of the device including: accepting data from the head 14; accepting data from the switches 22 and 24; driving the indicator 26; processing the data received from the head in the manner described with respect to the previous embodiments in order to extract the necessary information; controlling the flow of data in and out of the RAM 78; controlling the flow of data in and out of the ROM 76; interfacing with the power control module 72; implementing the modem function for use with an analogue telephony system and also providing the necessary processing and control for integration with a digital telephony system and/or a cellular telephone network; controlling the loudspeaker 95 permitting the progress of calls to be monitored; accepting input from a microphone 152 to enable the pen in combination with the loudspeaker 95 to operate as a hand set for the purposes of audio telephony; controlling the flow of data to an optional printer socket (not shown) allowing a user to print out information relative to the code being scanned in a predefined format; controlling the output of data via an optical link 153 to a peripheral device (e.g., a printer) using for example, infra red light; controlling an interface to the display 20, the display interface functions being performed in the ASIC. The optical link 153 could be implemented using the optical link technology described above for interfacing a hand held unit with a base station. Indeed, the printer or other peripheral device could be implement as, or connected to a base station for the hand held unit. FIG. 11 illustrates in more detail the configuration of the ASIC 150. The ASIC comprises the system controller 165 that controls the operation of the pen and of its associated components. In this embodiment system controller 165 consists of a microcontroller core incorporated into the ASIC. In other embodiments it could consist of some other control means using, for example, one or more finite state machines. If the system controller 165 is a microcontroller core, then the data that controls its operation is stored in an internal ROM 163 together with the external ROM 76. Alternatively, there could be no internal ROM 163 and the system controller 165 will then obtain all the data from the external ROM 76. Alternatively, again, the internal ROM 163 could be used exclusively without an external ROM 78. However, this would reduce the flexibility of the device. The use of the internal ROM 163 is advantageous where a pre-defined amount of the operations to be performed are fixed for all pen types, whilst the remainder of the operation is dependent on a particular model, to take account for example of language variations, number of switches used to enter data, etc. The RAM 161 in the ASIC can be used by the system controller 165 as a scratch pad RAM to speed up operations and in order to reserve the maximum amount of RAM 78 for the storage of the main data. This “main data” includes data identifying information relating to selectable items of, for example, a merchandising catalogue, which can be down loaded by telephonic transmissions from a remote station. The microcontroller receives requests via the bus 84 which is connected to the external bus 84 illustrated in FIG. 10. However, in an alternative embodiment where the system controller 165 consist of a number of finite state machines, then control would be by means of the fixed interconnection of the logic in the fixed state machines. RAM 161 could be used as a short term data store leaving the RAM 78 to store the main data, the data in RAM 78 being retained by the battery 70. An additional battery (not shown) could be provided for data retention to prevent the loss of data from the RAM 78 or the RAM 161 in the event of failure of the battery 70. The switch interface 155 responds to the operation of the switch 22 and ensures that the system controller 165 receives signals which are devoid of bounce (resulting for example from multiple operations of the switch due to the spring operation within the switch). The head interface 156 carries out the necessary signal conditioning as required on receiving signals from the head 14. The signal conditioning will depend on the exact configuration of the head and preferably comprises simple buffering of the data read. Alternatively, it could be implemented to provide at least some of the bar code conversion operations as will be apparent to one skilled in the art. Selector 159 is controlled by the system controller 165 and functions in such a manner to allow the microphone 152 and the speaker 95 to provide standard audio telephony transmission or to allow the system controller to transfer the data over the telephony network using, in the present embodiment, conventional cellular telephone technology. Thus the selector 159 enables the data entry device to be used as a conventional cellular telephone for the transmission of audio signals. In conventional telephony mode, the selector 159 takes signals from the microphone 152 that have been processed by the signal processor 158 and directs the output to the line interface 116. The processing performed by the processor 158 can comprise, as will be apparent to one skilled in the art, conventional operations of buffering the microphone to filter out any frequencies not required and to amplify the signal to a suitable level. Received audio data is directed to the audio interface 157 which performs necessary signal conditioning before passing the signal to the speaker 95. In the data transfer mode, the selector takes the output from the data formatter 160, which has prepared the data to be transmitted over the cellular telephone network, and directs this to the line interface 152. The speaker 95 is then used to output any tones or audio messages indicating errors, correct operation, etc., again via the audio interface 157. Switching between modes can be accomplished using the keys and/or the scanning sensor of the hand held unit in the manner described above for the entry of data and/or commands. The output formatter 164 prepares the data to be transmitted to a remote printer via an optical link 153 (not shown). This transmission could be in any one of a number of forms, for example, infra red light using technology as described above for interfacing the pen with a base unit. Alternatively, other remote link technology, for example a radio link, could be provided. FIG. 12 illustrates aspects from FIGS. 10 and 11 to illustrate in more detail the incorporation of an example of a cellular telephone system within the data entry unit. The telecommunications interface 116 comprises a line interface/duplexer which is connected to an aerial 178. The line interface/duplexer 116 is connected to a transmitter 170 and to a receiver/synthesizer 172 implemented in the selector 159. Also implemented in the selector 159 is selector logic 174 for connecting the transmitter 170 and the receiver/synthesizer 172 to the signal processor 158, the audio interface 157, the data formatter 160 and the control logic 165 within the ASIC 150. Although specific embodiments of the invention have been described hereinabove, it will be appreciated that many modifications and/or additions are possible within the scope of the present invention. Thus, for example, although in the presently preferred embodiments described above the hand held unit is configured with the shape of a pen, it will be appreciated that the hand held unit could be configured in other shapes as desired in other applications, for example in the shape of a pistol. Although in the examples of the pen and base unit described with reference to FIG. 1 to 4 and 8 an optical link between the pen and the base unit is provided, in an alternative embodiment other wireless data transmission means, for example radio signals, could be used, in the manner of a portable telephone of the type with a portable handset and a base unit. The data from the memory of the pen (e.g., the complete list of items which could be ordered from a catalogue) could conveniently be output in alphanumeric form via a modem to a facsimile (fax) machine for printing the content of the memory. In the preferred embodiments described above, catalogue data is down-loaded into the pen from a remote processing system by telephone, over the telecommunications interface. However, as an alternative to down-loading, for example a complete catalogue, via the telephone line, other data entry means could be provided for the bulk of the data, the telephone line then only being used for updating the stored data. For example the pen and/or the base unit as appropriate could be provided with a socket or connector or reader for a memory device (such as a plug-in ROM, a smart card, etc.). Although no speaker is illustrated in the examples of the pen described with reference to FIGS. 3 and 8, a speaker or other sound generator could be provided as in the FIGS. 9 and 10 embodiments for giving audio feedback to report on the correct reading, or otherwise, of a code. Thus, for example, when a code is correctly read, one beep can be sounded, and when a code is incorrectly read, two beeps could be sounded. Alternatively, appropriate synthetic or recorded voice messages could be output. Although in the examples described above the plane of the display in generally parallel to the axis of the pen, the plane of the display 20 could be arranged to slope progressively towards the axis of the pen away from the head end of the pen to reduce the angle between the normal to the plane of the display and the line of sight of the user. Also, although in the present examples two mechanical key switches are provided, in other embodiments one key switch only could be provided. Operating that key switch a predetermined number of times within a short period could be used to emulate the provision of two key switches for scrolling and other functions. More key switches could also be provided in other embodiments. For example, a numerical keypad could be provided. However, in preferred embodiments of the invention, the number of keys should be kept as low as possible for any particular application. As in the embodiments described above, two key switches are preferred. The control sheet or data carrier effectively forms a keyboard extension for the pen. Although in the example of a card or other carrier shown in FIG. 6 a set of bar codes for only numeric and command codes are indicated, if desired a set of bar codes for the complete alphabet could be provided. Alternative arrangements of the codes would also be possible, for example a complete set of codes and corresponding characters could be arranged in the format of a standard typewriter keyboard layout. The codes could also be incorporated in the letters and numerals, for example extending as a strip across the letters and numerals. For example, a bar code could replace the cross bar in a capital “A”, and similar modifications for the other letters of the alphabet. Also, as mentioned above, in appropriate embodiments of the invention, codes other than bar codes or dot codes could be used. For example a symbol blob code could be used, this requiring about 1 Kbyte of storage for decoding purposes. Indeed, in other embodiments of the invention full character recognition (OCR) could be employed where the reading sensor is in the form of a camera or other scanning sensor incorporated in the reading head. With a camera and appropriate recognition logic, the pen could be used, for example, for fingerprint recognition, either as an aim in itself, or for user validation purposes. In a merchandising system, where bar codes or other codes are associated with merchandisable items, this could be achieved simply by means of a printed catalogue, or some other form of list, or as a result of codes applied to examples of the products in question, or as a result of codes displayed, for example, on a TV screen with images relating to those products. The only requirement is that the display of the codes are readable by the data entry system of the present invention. Features from the respective embodiments of the invention described above could also be combined as desired to provide a configuration appropriate for a particular application. Thus, for example, the audio telephony functions described with reference to the embodiment of FIGS. 10 to 12 could be incorporated in the hand held or base unit, as appropriate, of the other embodiments of the invention. Although in the specific embodiments described above the telecommunications interface for the telephonic transmission of information is only provided in a hand held unit where no base unit with a telecommunications interface is provided, it will be appreciated that a hand held unit with a telecommunications interface could be combined with a base unit also having a telecommunications interface, either of the same or a different type. | 20040615 | 20061121 | 20050127 | 74233.0 | 7 | GELIN, JEAN ALLAND | HAND HELD TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND DATA ENTRY DEVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||||
10,869,328 | ACCEPTED | Semiconductor integrated circuit device having an ESD protection unit | A semiconductor integrated circuit device includes a semiconductor integrated circuit formed in a semiconductor chip, and a switching element that is formed in the semiconductor chip and has a current path whose one end and the other end are both connected to the semiconductor integrated circuit. The switching element receives a control signal produced by a control circuit and causes a current to flow from the one end to the other end of the current path by a bipolar operation. The semiconductor integrated circuit device further includes the control circuit that is formed in the semiconductor chip and configured to control a conductive/non-conductive state of the current path of the switching element. | 1. A semiconductor integrated circuit device comprising: a semiconductor integrated circuit formed in a semiconductor chip; a switching element that is formed in the semiconductor chip and has a current path whose one end and the other end are both connected to the semiconductor integrated circuit, the switching element receiving a control signal and causing a current to flow from said one end to the other end of the current path by a bipolar operation; and a control circuit that is formed in the semiconductor chip and configured to control a conductive/non-conductive state of the current path of the switching element, the control circuit producing, when a voltage across both ends of the current path exceeds a predetermined voltage value, the control signal that renders the current path of the switching element conductive, and rendering the current path of the switching element non-conductive when the voltage across both ends of the current path does not exceed the predetermined voltage value. 2. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 1, further comprising: a first pad functioning as an external connection terminal for connection to said one end of the current path; and a second pad functioning as an external connection terminal for connection to the other end of the current path. 3. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 1, wherein the control signal is an electric current. 4. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 1, wherein said switching element is a bipolar transistor that has one of a collector and an emitter, which corresponds to said one end of the current path, the other of the collector and the emitter, which corresponds to the other end of the current path, and a base that receives the control signal. 5. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 1, wherein said switching element is an insulated-gate field-effect transistor that has one of a source and a drain, which corresponds to said one end of the current path, the other of the source and the drain, which corresponds to the other end of the current path, and a backgate that receives the control signal. 6. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 1, wherein the control circuit includes a trigger circuit that detects a state in which the voltage across both ends of the current path exceeds the predetermined voltage value, and outputs a trigger signal, and a thyristor circuit that outputs the control signal on the basis of the trigger signal. 7. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 6, wherein one end of the trigger circuit is connected to the other end of the current path, and the other end of the trigger circuit is connected to the base of the thyristor circuit, and one of a cathode and an anode of the thyristor circuit is connected to said one end of the current path, and the other of the cathode and the anode of the thyristor circuit is connected to the other end of the current path. 8. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 7, wherein the entirety of the thyristor circuit comprises bipolar transistors, and the switching element comprises a first bipolar transistor. 9. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 7, wherein at least a part of the thyristor circuit comprises an insulated-gate field-effect transistor, and the switching element comprises a first insulated-gate field-effect transistor. 10. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 7, wherein the thyristor circuit includes: a first bipolar transistor having one of an emitter and a collector connected to said one end of the current path, and a second bipolar transistor having one of an emitter and a collector connected to the other end of the current path, the other of the emitter and the collector connected to a base of the first bipolar transistor, and a base connected to the other of the emitter and the collector of the first bipolar transistor, and wherein the trigger signal is supplied to a connection node between the base of the first bipolar transistor and the other of the emitter and the collector of the second bipolar transistor, and the control signal is output from a node between the other of the emitter and the collector of the first bipolar transistor and the base of the second bipolar transistor. 11. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 7, wherein the thyristor circuit includes a first bipolar transistor having one of an emitter and a collector connected to said one end of the current path, and a first insulated-gate field-effect transistor having one of a source and a drain connected to the other end of the current path, the other of the source and the drain connected to the base of the first bipolar transistor, and a backgate connected to the other of the emitter and the collector of the first bipolar transistor, and the trigger signal is supplied to a connection node between the base of the first bipolar transistor and the other of the source and the drain of the first insulated-gate field-effect transistor, and the control signal is output from a node between the other of the emitter and the collector of the first bipolar transistor and the backgate of the first insulated-gate field-effect transistor. 12. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 10, wherein the thyristor circuit further includes a resistor element having one end connected to said connection node between the other of the emitter and the collector of the first bipolar transistor and the base of the second bipolar transistor, and having the other end connected to the other end of the current path. 13. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 11, wherein the thyristor circuit further includes a resistor element having one end connected to said connection node between the other of the emitter and the collector of the first bipolar transistor and the backgate of the first insulated-gate field-effect transistor, and having the other end connected to the other end of the current path. 14. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 7, wherein the trigger circuit includes a diode having an anode and a cathode connected between the thyristor circuit and the other end of the current path, and the trigger signal is a forward current of the diode. 15. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 7, wherein the trigger circuit includes a diode-connected insulated-gate field-effect transistor having one of a source and a drain, which is connected to the thyristor circuit, the other of the source and the drain connected to the other end of the current path, and a gate, and the trigger signal is a forward current of the diode-connected insulated-gate field-effect transistor. 16. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 11, wherein said one end of the current path of the switching element corresponds to a first semiconductor region of a second conductivity type, which is formed in a semiconductor substrate of a first conductivity type, and the other end of the current path corresponds to a second semiconductor region of the second conductivity type, which is formed in the semiconductor substrate, and the other of the source and the drain of the first insulated-gate field-effect transistor corresponds to a third semiconductor region of the second conductivity type, which is formed in the semiconductor substrate, and said one of the source and the drain of the first insulated-gate field-effect transistor is shared with the second semiconductor region. 17. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 11, wherein said one end of the current path of the switching element corresponds to a first semiconductor region of a second conductivity type, which is formed in a semiconductor substrate of a first conductivity type, the other end of the current path corresponds to a second semiconductor region of the second conductivity type, which is formed in the semiconductor substrate, and the switching element has a gate electrode formed on that part of the semiconductor substrate, which is sandwiched between the first and second semiconductor regions, and one of the source and the drain of the first insulated-gate field-effect transistor corresponds to a third semiconductor region of the second conductivity type, which is formed in the semiconductor substrate, the other of the source and the drain of the first insulated-gate field-effect transistor corresponds to a fourth semiconductor region of the second conductivity type, which is formed in the semiconductor substrate, and a gate electrode of the first insulated-gate field-effect transistor is shared with the gate electrode of the switching element. 18. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 10, wherein the first bipolar transistor is disposed on a first well region of a second conductivity type, which is formed adjacent to a peripheral part of the switching element, and the trigger circuit is disposed on a second well region of the second conductivity type, which is formed adjacent to a peripheral part of the first well region. 19. The semiconductor integrated circuit device according to claim 11, wherein the first bipolar transistor is disposed on a first well region of a second conductivity type, which is formed adjacent to a peripheral part of the switching element, and the trigger circuit is disposed on a second well region of the second conductivity type, which is formed adjacent to a peripheral part of the first well region. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is based upon and claims the benefit of priority from the prior Japanese Patent Application No. 2003-209073, filed Aug. 27, 2003, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to a semiconductor integrated circuit device such as an IC (Integrated Circuit) and an LSI (Large Scale Integrated Circuit), and more particularly to a semiconductor integrated circuit device having an ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) protection circuit for protecting an internal circuit from ESD. 2. Description of the Related Art If ESD occurs, for example, while a semiconductor integrated circuit device is being conveyed by a machine, a high voltage of, e.g. about several-hundred V to several-thousand V is applied to the semiconductor integrated circuit device in a very short time. This may lead to destruction of an internal circuit (semiconductor integrated circuit). In order to protect the semiconductor integrated circuit device such as an IC or an LSI from ESD, a variety of ESD protection circuits have been proposed (see, for instance, Jpn. Pat. Appln. KOKAI Publication No. 7-240510, U.S. Pat. No. 6,249,414, and EOS/ESD SYMPOSIUM 2001, 1A.3 “GGSCRs: GGNMOS Triggered Silicon Controlled Rectifiers for ESD Protection in Deep Sub-Micron CMOS Processes”). An ESD protection circuit is provided in the semiconductor integrated circuit device, thereby to release a high voltage, which is applied to the internal circuit due to ESD, and to protect the internal circuit from destruction. Referring to FIG. 1 and FIG. 2, a prior-art ESD protection circuit is described. FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram depicting the prior-art ESD protection circuit. As is shown in FIG. 1, a pad 11 and a pad 12 are connected to an internal circuit 10 that is to be protected. The ESD protection circuit comprises a thyristor (SCR) circuit 13 for releasing an excessive ESD current, and a control circuit 15 that controls the on/off of the thyristor circuit 13. The thyristor circuit 13 has an anode connected to the pad 11 and a cathode connected to the pad 12. The thyristor circuit 13 comprises a PNP bipolar transistor 16, an NPN bipolar transistor 17 and a resistor element 18. The PNP bipolar transistor 16 has an emitter connected to the pad 11, a base connected to a collector of the NPN bipolar transistor 17, and a collector connected to the control circuit 15. The NPN bipolar transistor 17 has a base connected to the control circuit 15, and an emitter connected to the pad 12. The resistor element 18 has one end connected to the control circuit 15, and the other end connected to the pad 12. The control circuit 15 comprises a GG (Gate Grounded) NMOS transistor 19 and a resistor element 20. The GGNMOS transistor 19 has a drain connected to the pad 11, and a gate and a source both connected to the thyristor circuit 13. The resistor element 20 has one end connected to the gate and source of the NMOS transistor 19, and the other end connected to the pad 12. The operation of the prior-art ESD protection circuit will now be described referring to FIG. 2. FIG. 2 is a graph showing voltage/current characteristics of the GGNMOS transistor 19 shown in FIG. 1. The abscissa in FIG. 2 indicates a voltage V1 that is applied between the drain of the GGNMOS transistor 19, on the one hand, and the source and gate of the GGNMOS transistor 19, on the other hand. The ordinate indicates a current I1 that flows between the drain and the source and gate of the GGNMOS transistor 19 and flows through the thyristor circuit 13. If a high voltage due to ESD is applied between the pad 11 and pad 12, the high voltage due to ESD is applied to the drain of the GGNMOS 19. Then, as shown in FIG. 2, after the voltage reaches a trigger voltage Vt1, it drops to a hold voltage Vh due to a snap-back characteristic. Thereafter, breakdown occurs between the drain of the GGNMOS transistor 19 and the substrate, and a parasitic NPN bipolar transistor of the GGNMOS transistor 19 operates and a current flows with a sharp increase. Consequently, a base current flows to the base of the NPN bipolar transistor 17 of thyristor circuit 13, thereby turning on the thyristor circuit 13 and a large current due to ESD flows between the anode and cathode of the thyristor circuit 13. By this operation, the ESD voltage applied between the pad 11 and pad 12 is released through the thyristor circuit 13. Therefore, the ESD voltage is not applied to the internal circuit 10, and the internal circuit 10 is protected. As is shown in FIG. 2, in order to cause a large current to flow through the thyristor current 13, a sufficiently large current needs to be made to flow before the voltage V1 exceeds a gate breakdown voltage Vg of the internal circuit. However, with present-day miniaturization of an LSI, etc., which constitutes the internal circuit 10, the thickness of the gate oxide film of the MOS transistor in the LSI has decreased more and more. Consequently, the gate breakdown voltage Vg has decreased more and more. Since the thyristor 13 comprises the PNP bipolar transistor 16 and NPN bipolar transistor 17, the value of on-state resistance is high. As a result, before a large current is let to flow, the voltage V1 exceeds the gate breakdown voltage Vg. Moreover, in order to cause a sufficient current to flow before the voltage V1 exceeds the gate breakdown voltage Vg, it is necessary to increase the size of each bipolar transistor 16, 17 and to decrease the on-state resistance. This, however, leads to an increase in chip size and a rise in manufacturing cost. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A semiconductor integrated circuit device according to an aspect of the invention comprises a semiconductor integrated circuit formed in a semiconductor chip; a switching element that is formed in the semiconductor chip and has a current path whose one end and the other end are both connected to the semiconductor integrated circuit, the switching element receiving a control signal and causing a current to flow from the one end to the other end of the current path by a bipolar operation; and a control circuit that is formed in the semiconductor chip and configured to control a conductive/non-conductive state of the current path of the switching element, the control circuit producing, when a voltage across both ends of the current path exceeds a predetermined voltage value, the control signal that renders the current path of the switching element conductive, and rendering the current path of the switching element non-conductive when the voltage across both ends of the current path does not exceed the predetermined voltage value. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram showing a prior-art ESD protection circuit; FIG. 2 is a graph showing voltage/current characteristics of the prior-art ESD protection circuit shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a circuit diagram schematically showing an ESD protection circuit according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is a graph showing voltage/current characteristics of the ESD protection circuit shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a circuit diagram showing an ESD protection circuit according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a circuit diagram showing an example of a trigger circuit 41; FIG. 7 is a circuit diagram showing an ESD protection circuit according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 shows a first layout of the ESD protection circuit shown in FIG. 7; and FIG. 9 shows a second layout of the ESD protection circuit shown in FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Embodiments of the present invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. In the description below, common parts are denoted by like reference numerals throughout the drawings. To begin with, the outline of an ESD protection circuit according to the present invention is described referring to FIG. 3 and FIG. 4. FIG. 3 is a circuit diagram schematically showing an example of the ESD protection circuit according to the invention. As is shown in FIG. 3, an internal circuit (semiconductor integrated circuit) to be protected is formed in a semiconductor chip. For example, a first pad 21 and a second pad 22 are connected as external terminals to the internal circuit 23. An ESD protection circuit 24 is connected between the first pad 21 and second pad 22. The ESD protection circuit 24 includes a control circuit 25 and a switching element 26. The control circuit 25 has one end connected to the first pad 21 and the other end connected to the second pad 22. The switching element 26 has a current path. One end 27 of the current path is connected to the first pad 21, and the other end 28 connected to the second pad 22. The current path of the switching element 26 is on/off controlled by a control signal that is supplied from the control circuit 25. In the on-state, the switching element 26 releases a voltage through its current path by a bipolar operation. The operation of the ESD protection circuit shown in FIG. 3 is described referring to FIG. 4. FIG. 4 is a graph showing voltage/current characteristics of the ESD protection circuit 24 shown in FIG. 3. In FIG. 4, the abscissa indicates a voltage V that is applied to the ESD protection circuit 24, and the ordinate indicates a current I that flows through the ESD protection circuit 24. In addition, in FIG. 4, a solid line 30 indicates voltage/current characteristics of the ESD protection circuit 24 shown in FIG. 3, and a broken line 31 indicates the voltage/current characteristics of the ESD protection circuit shown in FIG. 2. When no high voltage due to ESD is applied between the first pad 21 and second pad 22, the ESD protection circuit 24 does not operate. Hence, the operation of the ESD protection circuit 24 does not affect the operation of the internal circuit 23. On the other hand, if a high voltage due to ESD is applied between the first pad 21 and second pad 22 and it reaches a predetermined voltage value Vt1, the control circuit 25 detects the reaching to value Vt1 and starts activating the ESD protection circuit 24. The voltage value Vt1 is a trigger voltage at which the ESD protection circuit 24 begins to operate. In this example, the control circuit 25 detects the applied ESD voltage. In the control circuit 25, once the voltage V reaches the trigger voltage Vt1, the voltage V between the first pad 21 and second pad 22 is decreased to a hold voltage Vh due to a snap-back characteristic. Then, the control circuit 25 outputs a control signal to the switching element 26, thereby to render the current path of the switching element 26 conductive. Thus, the current path of the switching element 26 is rendered conductive by the control signal. In this conductive state, if a high voltage due to ESD is applied to either one end 27 or the other end 28 of the switching element 26, the switching element 26 is turned on and a current is let to flow between the first pad 21 and second pad 22 by a bipolar operation. Thereby, the high voltage due to ESD is released to one of the first pad 21 and second pad 22. The above-described operation prevents the high voltage due to ESD from being applied to the internal circuit 23. In addition, the switching element 26 causes a current to flow through its current path by a bipolar operation. The high voltage can quickly be released to one of the first and second pads 21 and 22. The internal circuit 23 can be protected from the high voltage due to ESD. As has been described above, the high voltage caused by ESD can be released by making use of a current that is let to flow by the bipolar operation of the switching device 26. This can decrease the on-state resistance of the ESD protection circuit 24. As a result, as shown in FIG. 4, a large current can be caused to flow, without exceeding the gate breakdown voltage Vg, as shown in FIG. 4. Therefore, even in the case of the miniaturized internal circuit 23, the gate insulation film of the transistor in the internal circuit 23 cannot be destroyed. Moreover, the ESD protection circuit 24 can be composed of a single switching element 26. Thus, the chip size of the ESD protection circuit can be reduced. It should suffice if the control circuit 25 detects an ESD voltage and to output a control signal with such a low current value as to render the switching element 26 conductive. It is thus possible to reduce the chip size of the control circuit 25. Accordingly, the chip size of the entirety of the ESD protection circuit 24 can be reduced. The current value of the control signal is, for instance, several mA (milliampere). FIRST EMBODIMENT A first embodiment of the present invention will now be described with reference to FIG. 5. In the description below, the parts that have already described are not described, and different parts are described in detail. FIG. 5 is a circuit diagram showing an ESD protection circuit according to the first embodiment of the invention. As is shown in FIG. 5, an ESD protection circuit 24 comprises a switching element 26 and a control circuit 25. An NPN bipolar transistor 36 is applied to the switching element 26. The NPN bipolar transistor 36 has a base connected to the control circuit 25, an emitter connected to the second pad 22, and a collector connected to the first pad 21. The control circuit 25 comprises a thyristor circuit 40 that controls the base current to the NPN bipolar transistor 36, and a trigger circuit 41 for operating the thyristor circuit 40. The thyristor circuit 40 comprises a PNP bipolar transistor 30, an NPN bipolar transistor 31 and a resistor element 34. The PNP bipolar transistor 30 has a base connected to a collector 31 of the NPN bipolar transistor 31. The base of the transistor 31 is connected to the collector of the transistor 30. The emitter of the transistor 30 is connected to the first pad 21, and the emitter of the transistor 31 is connected to the second pad 22. A node between the base of the transistor 30 and the collector of the transistor 31 is connected to the second pad 22 via the trigger circuit 41. A node 33 between the base of the transistor 31 and the collector of the transistor 30 is connected to the second pad 22 via the resistor element 34. The node 33 is also connected to the base of the transistor 36 that functions as the switching element 26. For example, the trigger circuit 41 comprises a first diode 35-1 and a second diode 35-2, which are connected in series between the node 37 and the second pad 22. The anode of the first diode 35-1 is connected to the node 37, and the cathode of the first diode 35-1 is connected to the anode of the second diode 35-2. The cathode of the second diode 35-2 is connected to the second pad 22. Next, the operation of the ESD protection circuit shown in FIG. 5 is described. In the following description of the operation, the voltage/current characteristics of the ESD protection circuit are not described since they are similar to those shown in FIG. 4. When an ESD voltage is not applied between the first pad 21 and second pad 22, the ESD protection circuit 24 does not operate. On the other hand, if a high potential due to ESD is applied to the first pad 21 and a high voltage occurs between the first pad 21, which is a high potential side, and the second pad 22, which is a low potential side, the trigger circuit 41 detects the occurrence of the high voltage. Upon detecting the occurrence of the high voltage, the trigger circuit 41 produces a forward current toward the second pad 22. This forward current is a trigger signal (current) for activating the thyristor circuit 40. If the thyristor circuit 40 detects the trigger signal, the thyristor circuit 40 is turned on. If the thyristor circuit 40 is turned on, it produces a control signal (control current in this example). The control signal is supplied from the node 33 to the base of the transistor 36. The control signal serves as the base signal to the transistor 36 and renders the NPN bipolar transistor 36 conductive. Since the control signal produced by the thyristor circuit 40 is the base current to the transistor 36, it should suffice if the current value of the control signal is about several mA, for instance. If an ESD voltage is applied between the collector and emitter of the NPN bipolar transistor 36 in its on-state, the collector/emitter current path of the NPN bipolar transistor 36 is made completely conductive. Thus, current flows between the collector and emitter of the NPN bipolar transistor 36, and the high potential applied to the first pad 21 is released to the second pad 22. By the above-described operation, the internal circuit 23 can be protected from ESD voltage. As has been described above, since the ESD voltage is released through the single NPN bipolar transistor 36, the size of the ESD protection circuit 24 can be decreased and the manufacturing cost of the semiconductor IC device can be reduced. Further, making use of the collector-emitter current of the bipolar transistor 36, the high voltage applied due to ESD is released. Thus, compared to the thyristor, the on-state resistance can be reduced. Therefore, it is possible to alleviate such a problem that the gate breakdown voltage Vg is exceeded. The thyristor circuit 40 supplies the base current that renders the NPN bipolar transistor 36 conductive. Although the thyristor circuit 40 itself may have the ability to release voltage, the transistor 36 performs the main function of releasing voltage. For this reason, the thyristor circuit 40 may simply function to supply the base current, and there is no need to increase the current value. This can reduce the chip area of the thyristor circuit 40, and an increase in chip size can advantageously be suppressed. The thyristor circuit 40 is used to output the control signal to the gate of the transistor 36. Since a high-power control signal is not needed, the chip size and manufacturing cost of the thyristor circuit 40 can be reduced. In the above-described embodiment, the trigger circuit 41 comprises the first and second diodes 35-1 and 35-2. The structure of the trigger circuit 41 is not limited to this. For example, as shown in FIG. 6, the trigger circuit 41 may comprise a diode-connected N-channel MOS transistor 71 that has a drain connected to the thyristor circuit 40, and a gate and a source both connected to the second pad 22. SECOND EMBODIMENT A second embodiment of the present invention will now be described referring to FIG. 7. In the description below, the parts common to those in the first embodiment are not described, and different parts are described in detail. FIG. 7 is a circuit diagram showing an ESD protection circuit according to a second embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 7, in this embodiment, a parasitic bipolar transistor 36′ within an N-channel MOS transistor 45 is used as the switching element 26. The MOS transistor 45 has a drain connected to the first pad 21, a source and a drain both connected to the second pad 22, and a backgate connected to the node 33. Further, in this example, a parasitic bipolar transistor 31′ within an N-channel MOS transistor 46 is used for the NPN bipolar transistor 31 of the thyristor circuit 40. The MOS transistor 46 has a gate and a source both connected to the second pad 22, a backgate connected to the node 33, and a drain connected to the node 37. The description of the operation of the ESD protection circuit 24 according to the second embodiment is omitted since this operation is the same as that of the ESD protection circuit 24 according to the first embodiment. According to the second embodiment, the same advantages as with the first embodiment can be obtained. Further, the parasitic bipolar transistor within the MOS transistor is used as the switching element 26. It is thus possible to fabricate the ESD protection circuit 24 by MOS LSI process technology. Accordingly, fabrication steps can commonly be used, and the manufacturing cost and chip size can be reduced. These advantages are described in greater detail, referring to examples of layout in Modification 1 and Modification 2 below. [Modification 1] An ESD protection circuit according to Modification 1 will now be described referring to FIG. 8. FIG. 8 is a plan view illustrating an example of layout of the ESD protection circuit according to Modification 1. In this example of layout, the circuit shown in FIG. 7 is arranged on an LSI. In the description below, the parts common to those of the second embodiment are not described, and different parts are described in detail. As is shown in FIG. 8, a first ESD protection circuit 24-1 and a second ESD protection circuit 24-2 are arranged on the LSI so as to share the first pad 21. One of the protection circuits 24-1 and 24-2 corresponds to the protection circuit shown in FIG. 7. To begin with, the layout of the first ESD protection circuit 24-1 is described. The first ESD protection circuit 24-1 comprises an N-channel MOS transistor 45, which is disposed on a P-type substrate 50 and constitutes the switching element 26, an N-channel MOS transistor 46 and a PNP bipolar transistor 30, which constitute the thyristor circuit 40, and first and second diodes 35-1 and 35-2 which constitute the trigger circuit 41. An N+ drain 54 of the MOS transistor 45 is formed in the P-type substrate 50. An N+ source 55 of the MOS transistor 45 is connected to the second pad 22-1. A gate 56 of the MOS transistor 45 is connected to the source 55 and formed in the P-type substrate 50. The MOS transistor 46 has a source that is shared with the source 55 of the MOS transistor 45. An N+ drain 57 of the MOS transistor 46 is formed in the P-type substrate 50 and connected to an N-type well 51. A gate 58 of the MOS transistor 46 is connected to the source 55. The PNP bipolar transistor 30 is disposed on the well 51 that is provided on an outer periphery of the MOS transistor 46. The PNP bipolar transistor 30 has a base that corresponds to the N-type well 51. A collector 59 and an emitter 60 of the transistor 30 are formed in the N-type well 51. The collector 59 is connected to the first pad 21, and the emitter 60 is connected to the P-type substrate 50, that is, the backgate of the MOS transistor 45, 46. The diodes 35-1 and 35-2 are disposed on N-type wells 52 and 53 that are provided on an outer periphery of the transistor 30. The diode 35-1 has a cathode that corresponds to the N-type well 52. An anode 61 is formed in the N-type well 52. The anode 61 is connected to the N-type well 51, i.e. the base of the transistor 30. The diode 35-2 has a cathode that corresponds to the N-type well 53. An anode 62 of the diode 35-2 is formed in the N-type well 53. The anode 62 is connected to the cathode of the diode 35-1, i.e. the N-type well 52. In FIG. 8, an N+ region 63 formed in the N-type well 52 is a contact region for wiring contact. The cathode of the diode 35-2, that is, the N-type well 53, is connected to the second pad 22-1 via the N+ contact region 64. This configuration is similar to the second ESD protection circuit 24-2. The operation of the ESD protection circuit according to Modification 1 is the same as that of the second embodiment, and a description thereof is omitted here. According to Modification 1, the MOS transistor 45 and the MOS transistor 46 that constitutes the thyristor circuit are disposed on the common P-type substrate 50. Thus, the N+ region 55 can be shared by the source of the MOS transistor 45 and the source of the MOS transistor 46. As a result, the layout area of the ESD protection circuit 24 (24-1, 24-2) can be reduced in the gate length direction. In this example, two ESD protection circuits 24-1 and 24-2 are provided. In the case where the two ESD protection circuits 24-1 and 24-2 are provided, the drain of the MOS transistor 45 is shared. Hence, when the two ESD protection circuits 24-1 and 24-2 are juxtaposed, the layout area of the ESD protection circuit 24 (24-1, 24-2) can be reduced in the gate length direction. [Modification 2] An ESD protection circuit according to Modification 2 will now be described referring to FIG. 9. FIG. 9 is a plan view illustrating an example of layout of the ESD protection circuit according to Modification 2. In this example of layout, the circuit shown in FIG. 7 is arranged on an LSI. In the description below, the parts common to those of Modification 1 are not described, and different parts are described in detail. As is shown in FIG. 9, the pattern layout according to Modification 2 differs from that of Modification 1 in that the MOS transistors 45 and 46 are juxtaposed not in the gate length direction, but in a gate width direction that is perpendicular to the gate length direction. A single gate electrode 65 is shared by the gate of the MOS transistor 45 and the gate of the MOS transistor 46. In this way, the MOS transistors 45 and 46 are juxtaposed in the gate width direction. Compared to Modification 1, the layout area in the gate length direction can further be reduced. In this example, like Modification 1, two ESD protection circuits 24-1 and 24-2 are provided. According to Modification 2, not the drain 54 but the source 55 (55-1) of the MOS transistor 45 is shared. As regards the MOS transistor 46, the source 55 (55-2) is shared. Thereby, when the two ESD protection circuits are provided, the source 55-1 of the MOS transistor 45 and the source 55-2 of the MOS transistor 46 can be shared, and the layout area in the gate length direction can be reduced. The operation of the ESD protection circuit according to Modification 2 is the same as that of the second embodiment, and a description thereof is omitted here. As has been described above, according to the structures of the semiconductor IC devices of the embodiments and modifications of the present invention, the switching element releases ESD voltage by the bipolar operation. For example, compared to the thyristor operation, the on-state resistance can be decreased. Further, ESD voltage can be released by even a single switching element. Furthermore, since it should suffice if the control circuit detects ESD voltage and outputs such a control signal as to render the switching element conductive, there is no need to increase the size in order to produce a sufficient current. Therefore, the switching element and control circuit can be reduced in size, and the size of the entirety of the semiconductor IC device can be reduced. As a result, it is possible to provide a semiconductor integrated circuit device with an ESD protection circuit that can reduce on-state resistance and can reduce the chip size. Additional advantages and modifications will readily occur to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the invention in its broader aspects is not limited to the specific details and representative embodiments shown and described herein. Accordingly, various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the general inventive concept as defined by the appended claims and their equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to a semiconductor integrated circuit device such as an IC (Integrated Circuit) and an LSI (Large Scale Integrated Circuit), and more particularly to a semiconductor integrated circuit device having an ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) protection circuit for protecting an internal circuit from ESD. 2. Description of the Related Art If ESD occurs, for example, while a semiconductor integrated circuit device is being conveyed by a machine, a high voltage of, e.g. about several-hundred V to several-thousand V is applied to the semiconductor integrated circuit device in a very short time. This may lead to destruction of an internal circuit (semiconductor integrated circuit). In order to protect the semiconductor integrated circuit device such as an IC or an LSI from ESD, a variety of ESD protection circuits have been proposed (see, for instance, Jpn. Pat. Appln. KOKAI Publication No. 7-240510, U.S. Pat. No. 6,249,414, and EOS/ESD SYMPOSIUM 2001, 1A.3 “GGSCRs: GGNMOS Triggered Silicon Controlled Rectifiers for ESD Protection in Deep Sub-Micron CMOS Processes”). An ESD protection circuit is provided in the semiconductor integrated circuit device, thereby to release a high voltage, which is applied to the internal circuit due to ESD, and to protect the internal circuit from destruction. Referring to FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 , a prior-art ESD protection circuit is described. FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram depicting the prior-art ESD protection circuit. As is shown in FIG. 1 , a pad 11 and a pad 12 are connected to an internal circuit 10 that is to be protected. The ESD protection circuit comprises a thyristor (SCR) circuit 13 for releasing an excessive ESD current, and a control circuit 15 that controls the on/off of the thyristor circuit 13 . The thyristor circuit 13 has an anode connected to the pad 11 and a cathode connected to the pad 12 . The thyristor circuit 13 comprises a PNP bipolar transistor 16 , an NPN bipolar transistor 17 and a resistor element 18 . The PNP bipolar transistor 16 has an emitter connected to the pad 11 , a base connected to a collector of the NPN bipolar transistor 17 , and a collector connected to the control circuit 15 . The NPN bipolar transistor 17 has a base connected to the control circuit 15 , and an emitter connected to the pad 12 . The resistor element 18 has one end connected to the control circuit 15 , and the other end connected to the pad 12 . The control circuit 15 comprises a GG (Gate Grounded) NMOS transistor 19 and a resistor element 20 . The GGNMOS transistor 19 has a drain connected to the pad 11 , and a gate and a source both connected to the thyristor circuit 13 . The resistor element 20 has one end connected to the gate and source of the NMOS transistor 19 , and the other end connected to the pad 12 . The operation of the prior-art ESD protection circuit will now be described referring to FIG. 2 . FIG. 2 is a graph showing voltage/current characteristics of the GGNMOS transistor 19 shown in FIG. 1 . The abscissa in FIG. 2 indicates a voltage V 1 that is applied between the drain of the GGNMOS transistor 19 , on the one hand, and the source and gate of the GGNMOS transistor 19 , on the other hand. The ordinate indicates a current I 1 that flows between the drain and the source and gate of the GGNMOS transistor 19 and flows through the thyristor circuit 13 . If a high voltage due to ESD is applied between the pad 11 and pad 12 , the high voltage due to ESD is applied to the drain of the GGNMOS 19 . Then, as shown in FIG. 2 , after the voltage reaches a trigger voltage Vt 1 , it drops to a hold voltage Vh due to a snap-back characteristic. Thereafter, breakdown occurs between the drain of the GGNMOS transistor 19 and the substrate, and a parasitic NPN bipolar transistor of the GGNMOS transistor 19 operates and a current flows with a sharp increase. Consequently, a base current flows to the base of the NPN bipolar transistor 17 of thyristor circuit 13 , thereby turning on the thyristor circuit 13 and a large current due to ESD flows between the anode and cathode of the thyristor circuit 13 . By this operation, the ESD voltage applied between the pad 11 and pad 12 is released through the thyristor circuit 13 . Therefore, the ESD voltage is not applied to the internal circuit 10 , and the internal circuit 10 is protected. As is shown in FIG. 2 , in order to cause a large current to flow through the thyristor current 13 , a sufficiently large current needs to be made to flow before the voltage V 1 exceeds a gate breakdown voltage Vg of the internal circuit. However, with present-day miniaturization of an LSI, etc., which constitutes the internal circuit 10 , the thickness of the gate oxide film of the MOS transistor in the LSI has decreased more and more. Consequently, the gate breakdown voltage Vg has decreased more and more. Since the thyristor 13 comprises the PNP bipolar transistor 16 and NPN bipolar transistor 17 , the value of on-state resistance is high. As a result, before a large current is let to flow, the voltage V 1 exceeds the gate breakdown voltage Vg. Moreover, in order to cause a sufficient current to flow before the voltage V 1 exceeds the gate breakdown voltage Vg, it is necessary to increase the size of each bipolar transistor 16 , 17 and to decrease the on-state resistance. This, however, leads to an increase in chip size and a rise in manufacturing cost. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A semiconductor integrated circuit device according to an aspect of the invention comprises a semiconductor integrated circuit formed in a semiconductor chip; a switching element that is formed in the semiconductor chip and has a current path whose one end and the other end are both connected to the semiconductor integrated circuit, the switching element receiving a control signal and causing a current to flow from the one end to the other end of the current path by a bipolar operation; and a control circuit that is formed in the semiconductor chip and configured to control a conductive/non-conductive state of the current path of the switching element, the control circuit producing, when a voltage across both ends of the current path exceeds a predetermined voltage value, the control signal that renders the current path of the switching element conductive, and rendering the current path of the switching element non-conductive when the voltage across both ends of the current path does not exceed the predetermined voltage value. | 20040615 | 20061017 | 20050303 | 97340.0 | 0 | CRAWFORD, JASON | SEMICONDUCTOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT DEVICE HAVING AN ESD PROTECTION UNIT | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,334 | ACCEPTED | Methods and systems for providing information network access to a host agent via a guardian agent | Methods, systems, and articles of manufacture consistent with the present invention provide a first data processing system access to a network via a second data processing system. An object is sent to the second data processing system, which object when instantiated on the second data processing system implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network. Subscribed to information is received from the second data processing system. | 1. A method in a data processing system having a program for providing access to a network via a second data processing system, the method comprising the steps of: sending to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network; and receiving subscribed to information from the second data processing system. 2. A method of claim 1 further comprising the step of: sending information to the network by sending information to the second data processing system for publication to the network by the network access program. 3. A method of claim 1 wherein the first data processing system and the second data processing system communicate via a wireless connection. 4. A method of claim 1 wherein the network access program determines whether to send subscribed to information received from the network to the first data processing system. 5. A method of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first data processing system and the second data processing system is located on a mobile device. 6. A computer-readable medium containing instructions that cause a data processing system having a program to perform a method for providing access to a network via a second data processing system, the method comprising the steps of: sending to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network; and receiving subscribed to information from the second data processing system. 7. A computer-readable medium of claim 6 further comprising the step of: sending information to the network by sending information to the second data processing system for publication to the network by the network access program. 8. A computer-readable medium of claim 6 wherein the first data processing system and the second data processing system communicate via a wireless connection. 9. A computer-readable medium of claim 6 wherein the network access program determines whether to send subscribed to information received from the network to the first data processing system. 10. A computer-readable medium of claim 6 wherein at least one of the first data processing system and the second data processing system is located on a mobile device. 11. A data processing system for providing access to a network via a second data processing system, the data processing system comprising: a memory having a program that sends to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network, and receives subscribed to information from the second data processing system; and a processing unit that runs the program. 12. A data processing system of claim 11 wherein the program sends information to the network by sending information to the second data processing system for publication to the network by the network access program. 13. A data processing system of claim 11 wherein the first data processing system and the second data processing system communicate via a wireless connection. 14. A data processing system of claim 11 wherein the network access program determines whether to send subscribed to information received from the network to the first data processing system. 15. A data processing system of claim 11 wherein at least one of the first data processing system and the second data processing system is located on a mobile device. 16. A data processing system for providing access to a network via a second data processing system, the data processing system comprising: means for sending to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network; and means for receiving subscribed to information from the second data processing system. | STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH The present invention was made with government support under contract number F33615-97-D-1155 awarded by the United States Air Force. Accordingly, the United States Government has certain rights in the present invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to the field of network communication and, more particularly, to methods and systems for providing information network access to a remote device. Global information networks such as the Internet, the world wide web, and the United States military's global information grid (GIG) can provide information to a variety of users. The global information grid consists of nodes linked by high-capacity networks. To take advantage of the global information grid's capability to supply information, it is desirable to connect mobile and stationary nodes, such as manned and unmanned systems, to the global information grid. The mobile nodes can be, but are not limited to, military or commercial vehicles, such as spacecraft, aircraft, surface ships, submersible ships, land vehicles, and individuals. Global information, such as weather, news, and other data, will be available to the mobile nodes. However, due to current limitations of nodes, such as limited communication bandwidth, the nodes cannot take advantage of the global information grid's information. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Methods, systems, and articles of manufacture consistent with the present invention provide information network access to a host agent via a guardian agent. The host agent and guardian agent can be located at different locations and communicate via a communication link. The guardian agent is coupled to an information network, such as the global information grid or the Internet, and provides the host agent access to the information network although the host agent does not directly access the information network. Therefore, the host agent can access information from the information network, such as weather, news, and other data, that it would typically not be able to access due to limitations in the host agent's platform, such as limited bandwidth capability of the host agent platform. In accordance with methods consistent with the present invention, a method in a data processing system having a program for providing access to a network via a second data processing system is provided. The method comprises the steps of: sending to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network; and receiving subscribed to information from the second data processing system. In accordance with articles of manufacture consistent with the present invention, a computer-readable medium containing instructions that cause a first data processing system having a program to perform a method for providing access to a network via a second data processing system is provided. The method comprises the steps of: sending to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network; and receiving subscribed to information from the second data processing system. In accordance with systems consistent with the present invention, a data processing system for providing access to a network via a second data processing system is provided. The data processing system comprises a memory having a program that: sends to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network; and receives subscribed to information from the second data processing system. A processing unit runs the program. In accordance with systems consistent with the present invention, a data processing system for providing access to a network via a second data processing system is provided. The data processing system comprises: means for sending to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network; and means for receiving subscribed to information from the second data processing system. Other features of the invention will become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the invention, and be protected by the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate an implementation of the invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the advantages and principles of the invention. In the drawings, FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a system providing information network access to a host agent via a guardian agent consistent with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a host data processing system consistent with the present invention; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a guardian data processing system consistent with the present invention; FIG. 4 is a flow diagram of the exemplary steps performed by the host agent consistent with the present invention; FIG. 5 is a block diagram of the guardian agent modules consistent with the present invention; FIG. 6 is a flow diagram of the exemplary steps performed by the guardian agent consistent with the present invention; and FIG. 7 is a flow diagram of the exemplary steps performed by the guardian agent for processing subscribed to information. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Reference will now be made in detail to an implementation in accordance with methods, systems, and articles of manufacture consistent with the present invention as illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings and the following description to refer to the same or like parts. Methods, systems, and articles of manufacture consistent with the present invention provide a host agent with access to an information network, such as the global information grid, via a guardian agent, which is coupled to the information network. The host agent and guardian agent are preferably located at different locations and communicate via a communication link, however, the host agent and guardian agent can be at the same location. For example, the host agent and guardian agent can be located on the same or different stationary or mobile platforms, such as spacecraft, aircraft, surface ships, submersible ships, land vehicles, individuals, or buildings. Further, the host agent platform and guarded platform (on which the guardian agent is located) can be a military or commercial platforms. The guardian agent is coupled to an information network, such as the global information grid or the Internet, and provides the host agent access to the information network although the host agent does not directly access the information network. Therefore, the host agent can access information from the information network, such as weather, news, and other data, that it would typically not be able to access due to limitations in the host agent platform, such as limited bandwidth capability of the host agent platform. In an illustrative example, the host agent platform is a military fighter aircraft, such as the F-15 fighter, and the guarded platform is a command and control (C2) platform, such as an airborne warning and control (AWAC) aircraft. The guardian agent is coupled to the global information grid. Alternatively, the host agent and guarded platforms can be other types of platforms. For example, the host agent platform can be a truck and the guarded platform can be in a building. The guardian agent obtains and filters information available in the global information grid and provides the host agent platform with useful information. The guardian agent also can act as an intelligent proxy for the represented platform in that it can make assessments of global-information-grid-available information for effects on the host agent platform's mission. The guardian agent also provides the ability to enable fielded systems to become homogenous, intelligent command-able resources from the command/control platform's perspective. The guardian agent does this by enabling a generalized bidding process whereby guardian agents can bid on missions (based on capabilities of the host agent platforms) for dynamic mission requests from a command/control platform or other guarded platforms. Further, the guardian agent can send information received from the host agent to the global information grid. Therefore, the host agent and guardian agent provide information that was previously not available to the fighter aircraft platform. And they further provide the command and control platform operators with real-time awareness of dynamic changes to the battlefield. From the fighter aircraft's perspective, the host agent and guardian agent enable the platform to gain access to information that can magnify its survivability and effectiveness. From the command and control platform's perspective, the host agent and guardian agent can enable the fighter aircraft platform to become a smart resource for the command and control platform's operators. Through the information network, the fighter aircraft can receive sensor data on “over the horizon” threats to the fighter aircraft. These are threats that lie along its mission route and which would not typically be detectable by the fighter aircraft's sensors until late into a mission. Using the information network, the fighter aircraft can gain access to sensor reports from other platforms providing coverage along its route. The information network allows each sensor in the battlefield to become virtual sensor for the fighter aircraft. The information network can also provide timely information (such as intelligence images) that can affect its mission. From the command and control platform's viewpoint, it is desirable in a dynamic battlefield to have access to “smart resources” that can have their missions dynamically changed or provide dynamic information. The information network provides the infrastructure for implementing this capability. Further, as the guardian agent filters information prior to sending the information to the host agent, the host agent's platform and its operator are not overloaded with information. FIG. 1 depicts a block diagram of a system 100 for providing information network access to a host agent via a guardian agent consistent with the present invention. As illustrated, the system 100 generally comprises host agent platforms 102, 104 and 106. Each host agent platform includes a host data processing system having a host agent thereon. As shown, host agent platform 102 includes a host data processing system host agent 108, host agent platform 104 includes a host data processing system 110, and host agent platform 106 includes a host data processing system 112. As will be described in more detail below, each host agent provides an interface between an associated guardian agent and the host agent's platform. In the illustrative example, the host agent platform is a fighter aircraft. Accordingly, the host agent provides an interface between the guardian agent on the command/control platform and the fighter aircraft's pilot. FIG. 2 depicts a host data processing system, such as host data processing system 108, in more detail. Host data processing system 108 comprises a central processing unit (CPU) or processor 202, a display device 204, an input/output (I/O) unit 206, a secondary storage device 208, and a memory 210. The host data processing system may further comprise standard input devices such as a keyboard, a mouse or a speech processing means (each not illustrated). Memory 210 comprises a wrapper 216, which includes a host agent 212 and a platform template 216, a host communication program 218, a pilot vehicle interface 220, and an operational flight program 222. Host agent 212 provides an information interface between a corresponding guardian agent and the host agent platform. That is, the host agent can read and write information to the information network for the host agent platform via the guardian interface. In the illustrative example, the host agent defines tactical system information requirements, sets priorities and deadlines for quality of service logic, and transmits information to and receives information from the guardian agent to update the host agent platform's weapons system. Platform template 216 includes a definition of the host agent platform for instantiation of the guardian agent. The platform template also provides mobile code that can contain platform-specific behavior for the instantiated guardian agent. Host communication program 218 manages communication between the host agent and the guardian agent. Pilot vehicle interface 220 provides an interface between the host agent and the host agent platform, including for example functionality to receive information from the host agent and to display the information to the pilot on the display device. Operational flight program 222 controls the host agent platform. Each of these programs will be described in more detail below. Referring back to FIG. 1, the host agents communicate with corresponding guardian agents, which are located on guarded platforms 114 and 116. As shown, host agent 108 communicates via communication links 118, 120 and 122 to guardian agents 124, 126 and 128, respectively. Host agent 110 communicates via a communication link 130 to a guardian agent 132. Host agent 112 communicates via a communication link 134 to guardian agent 136. In the illustrative example, the communication links are radio frequency signals implemented in the Link 16 protocol. One having skill in the art will appreciate that alternative communication links and protocols can be used. Each guardian agent performs services for its guarded platform using information that it obtains from the information network 138. As will be described in more detail below, in the illustrative example, the guardian agent can subscribe to information network services that provide relevant information to the host agent platform; conduct analyses of potential threats using information network provided information; provide reports to the host agent platform on entities that threaten the host agent platform; provide the host agent platform with virtual target folders containing information on time critical targets; publish to the information network information from the host agent platform; support an intelligent bidding process for new or dynamic changes to missions, and provides platform-specific, run-time customizable behavior via use of a module design and mobile code that can be transmitted in a platform template from the host agent platform to the guardian agent data processing system via a communication link. Each guardian agent is implemented on a corresponding guardian data processing system 114 or 116. FIG. 3 depicts a schematic block diagram of a guardian data processing system, such as guardian data processing system 114, in more detail. Guardian data processing system 114 comprises a central processing unit (CPU) or processor 302, a display device 304, an input/output (I/O) unit 306, a secondary storage device 808, and a memory 310. The guardian data processing system may further comprise standard input devices such as a keyboard, a mouse or a speech processing means (each not illustrated). Memory 310 comprises a guardian agent 312, a guardian communication program 316, and an information network communication program 318. Guardian communication program 316 is similar to host communication program 218 and manages communication between the host agent and the guardian agent from the guardian agent side of a communication link. Information network communication program 318 manages interfacing to the information network. Each of these programs will be described in more detail below. In the illustrative example, the various programs described herein are implemented in Unified Modeling Language (UML), however, the programs can be implemented in one or more different programming languages. One having skill in the art will appreciate that the host agent and guardian agent can reside in memory on a system other than the depicted data processing system. The host and guardian agents may comprise or may be included in one or more code sections containing instructions for performing their respective operations. While the host and guardian agents are described as being implemented as software, the present implementation may be implemented as a combination of hardware and software or hardware alone. Also, one having skill in the art will appreciate that the host and guardian agents may comprise or may be included in a data processing device, which may be a client or a server, communicating with the respective host or guardian data processing system. Although aspects of methods, systems, and articles of manufacture consistent with the present invention are depicted as being stored in memory, one having skill in the art will appreciate that these aspects may be stored on or read from other computer-readable media, such as secondary storage devices, like hard disks, floppy disks, and CD-ROM; a carrier wave received from a network such as the Internet; or other forms of ROM or RAM either currently known or later developed. Further, although specific components of data processing systems have been described, one having skill in the art will appreciate that a data processing system suitable for use with methods, systems, and articles of manufacture consistent with the present invention may contain additional or different components. The host and guardian data processing systems can also be implemented as client-server data processing systems. In that case, the host agent or guardian agent can be stored on the respective data processing system as a client, while some or all of the steps of the processing described below can be carried out on a remote server, which is accessed by the client over a network. The remote server can comprise components similar to those described above with respect to the data processing system, such as a CPU, an I/O, a memory, a secondary storage, and a display device. FIG. 4 depicts a flow diagram illustrating exemplary steps performed by the host agent. As shown, the host agent determines whether it has received a request to instantiate a guardian agent (step 402). The request can be received, for example, as an input from a user or as a software input. In the illustrative example, the host agent can receive the request from a pilot of the fighter aircraft. When the request is received as a software input, the request can be received from the host agent itself or another program on the host agent platform. For example, if the host agent determines that it cannot communicate with a particular guardian agent, the host agent can itself request instantiation of a new guardian agent. To create the guardian agent, the host agent obtains a platform template, which instantiates the guardian agent (step 404). The platform template is an object that defines the information generation capabilities and information needs of the host agent platform. The platform template includes, for example, an identifier of the host agent platform, a description of the host agent platform, a security key, the host agent platform's information subscription requirements, and the host agent platform's information publication requirements. The information subscription requirements include, for example, the name of an information object, the time period of interest, the minimum rate of updates, and the maximum rate of updates. The information publications requirements include, for example, the name of an information object, the time period the information object will be published, and the publishing rate. The platform template further comprises a platform characteristics code section 224 and a mobile code section 226. The platform characteristic code section is, for example, text or object data, that defines the host agent characteristics. In the illustrative example, the characteristics include information on the fighter aircraft's weapon system such as the weapon load, available fuel, location, operational capabilities, crew experience, current route and interface requirements. The mobile code section includes plug-in modules for the guardian agent. As will be described below, the guardian agent subscribes to information available in the information network and provides timely information tailored to the needs of the host agent. In the illustrative example, the guardian agent also provides the capability for the host agent platform to respond to dynamic changes in mission such as re-targeting or servicing intelligence acquisition requests. The guardian agent does this by acquiring information from the information network and preparing new mission plans for the host agent platform. The guardian agent can also include a module that can provide “bids” for new missions based on requests from the command and control platform or other platforms connected to the information network. The guardian agent consists of a central core and modules that “plug into” the core. The modular design of the guardian agent allows the host agent platform itself to provide platform-specific implementation of guardian agent functionality. These modules are provided within the mobile code section of the platform template. Therefore, the guardian agent has mobile code capability that allows the data processing system on which the guardian agent runs not to require prior knowledge or implementation of the platform-specific behavior for the guardian agent. Then, the host agent sends the platform template via the communication link to the guardian data processing system, where it is received and executed by a guardian server program 320 (step 406). The guardian server program extracts platform characteristics code section 224 and a mobile code section 226 from the platform template and instantiates the guardian agent using the extract information. The platform characteristic code section is used by the guardian server program to configure the instantiated guardian agent. Once a guardian agent is instantiated for a particular host agent, the host agent can use the guardian agent to send information to and receive information from the information network via the communication link to the guardian agent. The guardian agent subscribes to information available on the information network and provides the subscribed-to information to the host agent. Therefore, the guardian agent adds capability to the host agent platform to access the information network, without straining the available resources of the host agent platform. In FIG. 4, if the host agent determines that it has received information from the guardian agent in step 408, then the host agent disseminates the received information to the host agent platform (step 410). For example, the host agent can display the received information on the display device for display to a user or transfer the information to another program. If the host agent determines that information is to be transferred to the guarded platform in step 412, then the host agent sends the information to the guardian agent via the communication link (step 414). In the illustrative example, for example, if the fighter aircraft uses one or more of its weapons, the host agent can send an updated weapons status to the guardian agent. The host agent can create multiple guardian agents and continues to send or receive information until the host agent determines that it should terminate execution (step 416). As briefly described above, the guardian agent has a modular architecture. Therefore, when the guardian agent is required to perform new or alternative tasks, these tasks can be implemented into an existing core module using different plug-in modules. Tasks can include, for example, threat analysis or interfacing to a specific platform type. FIG. 5 depicts a schematic block diagram of an illustrative guardian agent. One having skill in the art will appreciate that the exemplary modules in FIG. 5 are merely illustrative and alternative modules can be implemented. In the illustrative example, the modules are implemented in Java® programming language, however, the modules can be alternatively implemented in an alternative programming language. Java is a trademark or registered trademark of Sun Microsystems, Inc., Palo Alto, Calif., in the United States and other countries. All other product names used herein may be trademarks of their respective owners. In the illustrative example, the guardian agent core module 502 includes an object called the GACore 504. This object controls the operation of the guardian agent. The guardian agent core module also includes of a series of abstract interfaces that can be accessed by the GACore object. These interfaces include a common approach for the core module to interact with different plug-in modules, such as a subscription manager interface 514, a publish manager interface 516, a platform interface 520, a threat analysis interface 522, and a threat filter interface 528. The core module also includes an implementation for the common data types that it needs to manipulate. These data classes include representations of such things as sensor reports 506, track reports 508, and other data. The core module also has a generic representation of the host agent platform's mission (via a mission proxy class 510) and platform physical properties (via a platform proxy class 512). As depicted in FIG. 5, plug-in modules interface with the core module. The illustrative plug-in modules include an information network module 530, a platform module 534, a threat analysis module 536, and a threat filter module 540. The information network module 530 includes a subscription manager 542 for managing subscription information, a publish manager 544 for managing publishing information to the information network, and a communication application programming interface (API) 546 for interfacing to the information network. The communication API includes functionality to send and receive information via the information network. Platform module 534 includes a communication manager 550 for interfacing to the communication link with the host agent platform. Threat analysis module 536 includes functionality for analyzing potential threats to the host agent or guarded platforms or to another platform. Threat filter module 540 compares information received from the information network to information about known threats to determine the need for a full and detailed threat analysis. The threat analysis module provides an implementation of a threat analyzer. The actual implementation can vary due to the type of host agent platform or level of analysis sophistication desired by the military service using the guardian agent. With this approach, different implementations of a threat analyzer can be seamlessly supported by the same guardian agent core module. In the illustrative example, the fighter aircraft uses a threat analysis module that takes into account a detailed three-dimensional signature analysis. On the other hand, a lower cost unmanned platform may require the use of a simpler one-dimensional signature analysis. The guardian agent can accommodate both threat analysis implementations through the use of the modular design and interfaces. The differences in the implementations are isolated to the threat analysis module. The guardian agent core module code remains unchanged. This principle of design applies to the other implementations for the other plug-in modules. The core module collaborates with the plug-in modules to implement tasks. For example, when the information network module receives information to which it has subscribed, the information network module transfers the information to the core module, which in turn transfers the information to the platform module to send to the host agent via the communication link. Similarly, when the host agent wants to send information to the information network, the host agent sends information via the communication link to the guarded platform, where it is received by the platform module. The platform module in turn transfers the information to the core module, which transfers the information to the information network module for publishing to the information network. FIG. 6 depicts a flow diagram of exemplary steps performed by the core module. In step 602, the core module determines whether it has received subscribed-to information from the information network. This is performed, for example, by information network module 530 receiving information from the information network that corresponds to a subscription criteria in subscription manager 542. The information network module transfers the information to the core module via subscription manager interface 514. The information can be, for example, a weather report, a sensor report, or image data for the host agent platform. Further, the information can be received from another guardian agent that publishes the information to the information network. Therefore, guardian modules can communicate with each other when the guardian modules have information to contribute to the respective host agent platform. However, as the guardian modules use a publish-subscribe scenario, the guardian agents are not dependent upon each other or another information source. Then, the core module processes the received information (step 604). FIG. 7 is a flow diagram illustrating step 604 in more detail. In step 702, the core module determines whether the received information is non-threat related information. This is done, for example, by determining whether the received information is a sensor report that contains information about a potential threat. If the received information is not threat-related information, then the core module sends the received information to an appropriate destination (step 704). For example, if the received information is a sensor report, then the received information can be maintained in memory with the core module. However, if the received information is route data for the host agent platform, then the received information is transferred to the host agent platform via the communication link. If the core module determines in step 702 that the received information is threat-related information, then the core module passes the received information through the threat filter module (step 706). The threat filter module compares the received information to known threats in a threat database, which is stored in the guardian data processing system memory or secondary storage. For example, the threat filter compares the received information to known enemy aircraft or vehicles. The core module receives the results of the threat filter module's analysis. If the threat filter determines in step 712 that no further analysis is required, processing is complete. If the threat filter determines in step 712 that the report is for a potential threat, the information is sent to the threat analysis module (step 708). The threat analysis module determines whether the threat-related information is a threat to the fighter aircraft. This is done, for example, by determining whether the threat is within a sensitive range or is moving toward the fighter aircraft or guarded platform. The core module receives the results of the threat analysis module. If the threat analysis module in step 714 determines that there is no threat, processing is complete. If the threat analysis module in step 714 determines that there is a threat, the core module sends the results of the threat analysis to the host agent platform (step 710). The results include, for example, the identity and position of the threat. Further, the results may include updated mission information or route information responsive to the threat. Referring back to FIG. 6, after the information is processed in step 604 or if the core module determines that subscribed to information has not been received in step 602, then the core module determines whether it has received information from the host agent platform (step 606). Information from the host agent platform is received via the communication link by platform interface 520. The information can be, for example, the host agent platform's current route, weapons status, or information to be published to the information network. After the information is received from the host agent platform in step 606, the core module determines whether the information is to be published to the information network (step 608). This determination is made, for example, by determining whether the received information is of a particular class. For example, if the received information is of a video file class, which are known to the core module to be published to the information network, then the core module determines that the received information should be published. If the core module determines in step 608 that the received information should be published, then the core module effects publication of the information (step 610). This is done by transferring the received information to the information network module via publish manager interface 516. Publish manager 544 in the information network module then publishes the received information to the information network. If the core module determines in step 608 that the received information should not be published, the core module transfers the received information to its appropriate destination (step 612). The received information is transferred to an appropriate destination, for example, by identifying a destination associated with the received information's class from a lookup table in memory. For example, the core module can send the received information to the sensor report. If the core module determines in step 606 that information has not been received from the host agent platform, or after the received information is processed in step 610 or step 612, then the core module determines whether it should continue execution (step 614). If the core module should continue execution, then the program flow returns to step 602. Therefore, the guardian agent provides the host agent platform with the capability to access information from the information network without straining onboard resources at the host agent platform. In the illustrative example, the guardian agent resides off-board the fighter aircraft, thus freeing resources for the fighter aircraft. The guardian agent filters information received from the information network prior to sending the information to the host agent to further reduce the strain on resources at the host agent platform. Accordingly, methods, systems and articles of manufacture consistent with the present invention provide a platform, which may not have the capability to directly access an information network, with access to the information network using the host agent and guardian agent. The foregoing description of an implementation of the invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not exhaustive and does not limit the invention to the precise form disclosed. Modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teachings or may be acquired from practicing the invention. For example, the described implementation includes software but the present implementation may be implemented as a combination of hardware and software or hardware alone. Further, the illustrative processing steps performed by the program can be executed in an different order than described above, and additional processing steps can be incorporated. The invention may be implemented with both object-oriented and non-object-oriented programming systems. The scope of the invention is defined by the claims and their equivalents. When introducing elements of the present invention or the preferred embodiment(s) thereof, the articles “a”, “an”, “the” and “said” are intended to mean that there are one or more of the elements. The terms “comprising”, “including” and “having” are intended to be inclusive and mean that there may be additional elements other than the listed elements. As various changes could be made in the above constructions without departing from the scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter contained in the above description or shown in the accompanying drawings shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention generally relates to the field of network communication and, more particularly, to methods and systems for providing information network access to a remote device. Global information networks such as the Internet, the world wide web, and the United States military's global information grid (GIG) can provide information to a variety of users. The global information grid consists of nodes linked by high-capacity networks. To take advantage of the global information grid's capability to supply information, it is desirable to connect mobile and stationary nodes, such as manned and unmanned systems, to the global information grid. The mobile nodes can be, but are not limited to, military or commercial vehicles, such as spacecraft, aircraft, surface ships, submersible ships, land vehicles, and individuals. Global information, such as weather, news, and other data, will be available to the mobile nodes. However, due to current limitations of nodes, such as limited communication bandwidth, the nodes cannot take advantage of the global information grid's information. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Methods, systems, and articles of manufacture consistent with the present invention provide information network access to a host agent via a guardian agent. The host agent and guardian agent can be located at different locations and communicate via a communication link. The guardian agent is coupled to an information network, such as the global information grid or the Internet, and provides the host agent access to the information network although the host agent does not directly access the information network. Therefore, the host agent can access information from the information network, such as weather, news, and other data, that it would typically not be able to access due to limitations in the host agent's platform, such as limited bandwidth capability of the host agent platform. In accordance with methods consistent with the present invention, a method in a data processing system having a program for providing access to a network via a second data processing system is provided. The method comprises the steps of: sending to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network; and receiving subscribed to information from the second data processing system. In accordance with articles of manufacture consistent with the present invention, a computer-readable medium containing instructions that cause a first data processing system having a program to perform a method for providing access to a network via a second data processing system is provided. The method comprises the steps of: sending to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network; and receiving subscribed to information from the second data processing system. In accordance with systems consistent with the present invention, a data processing system for providing access to a network via a second data processing system is provided. The data processing system comprises a memory having a program that: sends to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network; and receives subscribed to information from the second data processing system. A processing unit runs the program. In accordance with systems consistent with the present invention, a data processing system for providing access to a network via a second data processing system is provided. The data processing system comprises: means for sending to the second data processing system an object which, when instantiated on the second data processing system, implements a network access program that can subscribe to information from the network and publish information to the network; and means for receiving subscribed to information from the second data processing system. Other features of the invention will become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the invention, and be protected by the accompanying drawings. | 20040616 | 20070911 | 20051222 | 69140.0 | 0 | KIM, WESLEY LEO | METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR PROVIDING INFORMATION NETWORK ACCESS TO A HOST AGENT VIA A GUARDIAN AGENT | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,391 | ACCEPTED | Apparatuses and methods for incorporating a border within an image by defining a portion of the border | A hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region is provided. In this method, a portion of the border region is stored in memory. Thereafter, a determination is made as to a relative position of a pixel within the image region. An image pixel or each pixel of the portion of the border region is then fetched from the memory dependent upon the relative position of the pixel. An apparatus and display controller for incorporating a border region within an image region are also described. | 1. A hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region, comprising the method operations of: computing a relative position of a pixel within the image region; determining whether the pixel is located in the border region based on the relative position of the pixel; if the relative position of the pixel is in the border region, calculating an order to fetch a border pixel from a border memory block, the order defining a rotation of a portion of the border region, fetching the border pixel from the border memory according to the calculated order; and if the relative position of the pixel is in the image region, fetching an image pixel from a main memory block. 2. The hardware implemented method of claim 1, wherein the method operation of fetching the border pixel from the border memory region includes, if the pixel is in a corner portion of the border region, fetching a corner pixel from a first memory block according to the calculated order; and if the pixel is in a side portion of the border region, fetching a side pixel from a second memory block according to the calculated order. 3. The hardware implemented method of claim 2, wherein the corner portion of the border region is defined by one of an upper left corner portion, an upper right corner portion, a lower left corner portion, or a lower right corner portion. 4. The hardware implemented method of claim 2, wherein the side portion of the border region is defined by one of a left side portion, a right side portion, a top side portion, or a bottom side portion. 5. The hardware implemented method of claim 1, wherein the method operation of determining whether the pixel is located in the border region includes, comparing the relative position of the pixel with a border region width. 6. The hardware implemented method of claim 1, wherein the rotation is defined by one of a 0 degrees rotation, a 90 degrees rotation, an 180 degrees rotation, or a 270 degrees rotation. 7. The hardware implemented method of claim 1, further comprising: repeating each of the method operations for a next pixel. 8. The hardware implemented method of claim 1, wherein the method operation of fetching the border pixel from the border memory includes, fetching the image pixel from the main memory block if the border pixel is transparent. 9. The hardware implemented method of claim 1, wherein the method operation of fetching the border pixel from the border memory block includes, fetching the image pixel from the main memory block; selecting the border pixel for display if the border pixel is not transparent; and selecting the image pixel for display if the border pixel is transparent. 10. The hardware implemented method of claim 5, wherein the method operation of computing the relative position of the pixel within the image region includes, tracking the pixel along a horizontal position and along a vertical position. 11. The hardware implemented method of claim 10, wherein the method operation of determining whether the pixel is located in the border region includes, comparing the horizontal position with a horizontal border width; and comparing the vertical position with a vertical border width. 12. A hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region, comprising the method operations of: computing a relative position of a pixel within the image region; comparing the relative position of the pixel with a border region width to determine whether the pixel is located in the border region; if the relative position of the pixel is in the border region, fetching a corner pixel from a corner memory block if the pixel is located in a corner portion of the border region, fetching a side pixel from a side memory block if the pixel is located in a side portion of the border region; and if the relative position of the pixel is in the image region, fetching an image pixel from a main memory block. 13. The hardware implemented method of claim 12, wherein the method operation of fetching the corner pixel from the corner memory block includes, calculating an order to fetch the corner pixel from the corner memory block, the order defining a rotation of the corner portion; and fetching the corner pixel from the corner memory block according to the calculated order. 14. The hardware implemented method of claim 12, wherein the method operation of fetching the side pixel from the side memory block includes, calculating an order to fetch the side pixel from the side memory block, the order defining a rotation of the side portion; and fetching the side pixel from the side memory block according to the calculated order. 15. The hardware implemented method of claim 12, wherein the corner portion of the border region is defined by one of an upper left corner portion, an upper right corner portion, a lower left corner portion, or a lower right corner portion. 16. The hardware implemented method of claim 15, further comprising: fetching an upper left corner pixel from an upper left corner memory block if the pixel is located in the upper left corner portion of the border region; fetching an upper right corner pixel from an upper right corner memory block if the pixel is located in the upper right corner portion of the border region; fetching a lower left corner pixel from a lower left corner memory block if the pixel is located in the lower left corner portion of the border region; and fetching an lower right corner pixel from a lower right corner memory block if the pixel is located in the lower right corner portion of the border region. 17. The hardware implemented method of claim 12, wherein the side portion of the border region is defined by one of a left side portion, a right side portion, a top side portion, or a bottom side portion. 18. The hardware implemented method of claim 17, further comprising: fetching a left side pixel from a left side memory block if the pixel is located in the left side portion of the border region; fetching a right side pixel from a right side memory block if the pixel is located in the right side portion of the border region; fetching a top side pixel from a top side memory block if the pixel is located in the top side portion of the border region; and fetching a bottom side pixel from a bottom side memory block if the pixel is located in the bottom side portion of the border region. 19. A hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region, comprising the method operations of: storing a portion of the border region in memory; determining a relative position of a pixel within the image region; and fetching an image pixel or each pixel of the portion of the border region from the memory dependent upon the relative position of the pixel. 20. The hardware implemented method of claim 19, further comprising: calculating an order to fetch the each pixel of the portion of the border region, the order defining a rotation of the portion of the border region; and fetching the each pixel of the portion of the border region according to the calculated order. 21. A display controller for incorporating a border region within an image region, comprising: a memory including, a first memory block configured to store an image pixel, a second memory block configured to store a corner pixel, a third memory block configured to store a side pixel; a memory controller configured to fetch one of the image pixel, the corner pixel, or the side pixel; and a main image fetching circuit in communication with the memory controller, the main image fetching circuit including, logic for comparing a relative position of a pixel with a border region width to determine whether the pixel is located in the border region, logic for fetching the corner pixel from the second memory block, logic for fetching the side pixel from the third memory block, logic for fetching the image pixel from the first memory block. 22. The display controller of claim 24, wherein the main image fetching circuit includes, logic for calculating a first order to fetch the corner pixel from the second memory block, the first order defining a rotation of a corner portion of the border region; and logic for calculating a second order to fetch the side pixel from the third memory block, the second order defining a rotation of a side portion of the border region. 23. The display controller of claim 24, wherein the logic for fetching the corner pixel from the second memory block includes, logic for fetching the image pixel from the first memory block; selecting the corner pixel for display if the corner pixel is not transparent; and selecting the image pixel for display if the corner pixel is transparent. 24. An apparatus for incorporating a border region within an image region, comprising: a display controller including, circuitry for computing a relative position of a pixel within the image region, circuitry for fetching a border pixel from a border memory block, circuitry for rotating the border pixel, circuitry for fetching an image pixel from a main memory block; a central processing unit (CPU) in communication with the display controller; and a display in communication with the display controller, the display enabling the display of the image region. 25. The apparatus of claim 24, further comprising: a memory in communication with the CPU. 26. The apparatus of claim 24, wherein the display is selected from the group consisting of a liquid crystal display (LCD), a thin-film transistor (TFT) display, a cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor, and a television. 27. The apparatus of claim 24, wherein the circuitry for fetching the border pixel from the border memory block includes, circuitry for fetching a corner pixel from a corner memory block if the pixel is in a corner portion of the border region; and circuitry for fetching a side pixel from a side memory block if the pixel is in a side portion of the border region. 28. The apparatus of claim 27, wherein the circuitry for rotating the border pixel includes, circuitry for rotating the corner pixel about a reference point, the reference point being defined relative a portion of the border region; and circuitry for rotating the side pixel about the reference point. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/859,654 (Attorney Docket No. VP100), filed on Jun. 3, 2004, and entitled “Apparatuses and Methods for Incorporating a Border Within an Image.” The disclosure of this application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to computer graphics and, more particularly, to methods and apparatuses for incorporating a border within an image. 2. Description of the Related Art In computer graphics, a border is commonly placed around an image being displayed. FIG. 1 is an illustration of a conventional method to implement the border around the image. Currently, to place border 102 around image 106, a graphics controller must use an overlay 108 that is equal in size to the image. Overlay 108 includes border 102 and center area 104 that is programmed to be transparent. Thus, even though border 102 comprises only a portion of an area of image 106, the number of overlay pixels being stored equals the number of image pixels. In addition, extra circuitry is needed to process the transparent pixels in center area 104 within overlay 108, which consumes additional power and bandwidth. As a result, many small, portable devices have problems processing a border overlay because these devices typically have limited power, memory, and computing capability. Since these devices are limited in their memory and computing power, processing the overlays may exceed the memory limitations and dominate the CPU cycles of these devices and, as a result, dramatically slow down the executed applications. In view of the foregoing, there is a need to provide apparatuses and methods for reducing the memory requirements and CPU processing power required to implement a border. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Broadly speaking, the present invention fills these needs by providing hardware implemented methods and an apparatus for incorporating a border region within an image region. It should be appreciated that the present invention can be implemented in numerous ways, including as a method, a system, or a device. Several inventive embodiments of the present invention are described below. In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, a hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region is provided. In this method, a relative position of a pixel within the image region is first computed. Subsequently, a determination is made as to whether the pixel is located in the border region based on the relative position of the pixel. If the relative position of the pixel is in the border region, then an order to fetch a border pixel from a border memory block is calculated. The order defines a rotation of a portion of the border region. The border pixel is then fetched from the border memory according to the calculated order. However, if the relative position of the pixel is in the image region, then an image pixel is fetched from a main memory block. In accordance with a second aspect of the present invention, a hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region is provided. In this method, a relative position of a pixel within the image region is first computed. Thereafter, the relative position of the pixel is compared with a border region width to determine whether the pixel is located in the border region. If the relative position of the pixel is in the border region, then a corner pixel is fetched from a corner memory block if the pixel is located in a corner portion of the border region. Otherwise, a side pixel is fetched from a side memory block if the pixel is located in a side portion of the border region. However, if the relative position of the pixel is in the image region, then an image pixel is fetched from a main memory block. In accordance with a third aspect of the present invention, a hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region is provided. In this method, a portion of the border region is stored in memory. Thereafter, a determination is made as to a relative position of a pixel within the image region. An image pixel or each pixel of the portion of the border region is then fetched from the memory dependent upon the relative position of the pixel. In accordance with a fourth aspect of the present invention, a display controller for incorporating a border region within an image region is provided. The display controller includes a memory. The memory includes a first memory block configured to store an image pixel, a second memory block configured to store a corner pixel, and a third memory block configured to store a side pixel. The display controller also includes a memory controller configured to fetch one of the image pixel, the corner pixel, or the side pixel. Further, a main image fetching circuit in communication with the memory controller is included in the display controller. The main image fetching circuit includes logic for comparing a relative position of a pixel with a border region width to determine whether the pixel is located in the border region, logic for fetching the corner pixel from the second memory block, logic for fetching the side pixel from the third memory block, and logic for fetching the image pixel from the first memory block. In accordance with a fifth aspect of the present invention, an apparatus for incorporating a border region within an image region is provided. The apparatus includes a display controller. The display controller includes circuitry for computing a relative position of a pixel within the image region, circuitry for fetching a border pixel from a border memory block, circuitry for rotating the border pixel, and circuitry for fetching an image pixel from a main memory block. Furthermore, the apparatus includes a central processing unit (CPU) in communication with the display controller and a display in communication with the display controller, whereby the display enables the display of the image region. Other aspects and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, illustrating by way of example the principles of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will be readily understood by the following detailed description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, and like reference numerals designate like structural elements. FIG. 1 is an illustration of a conventional method to implement a border around an image. FIG. 2 illustrates a border region with a corner portion and a side portion, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a flowchart diagram of a high level overview of a hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a simplified schematic diagram of an apparatus for incorporating a border region within an image region, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a more detailed schematic diagram of the display controller shown in FIG. 4, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a more detailed block diagram of the main image fetching circuit shown in FIG. 5, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 7A, 7B, 7C, and 7D are simplified diagrams illustrating the order of memory addresses being fetched when corner portion is rotated, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 8A, 8B, 8C, and 8D are simplified diagrams illustrating the order of memory addresses being fetched when side portion is rotated, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 illustrates a border region comprised of the corner portions shown in FIGS. 7A-7D and side portions shown in FIGS. 8A-8D, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10 illustrates the border region with distinct corner portions and side portions, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a detailed schematic diagram of a display controller that can incorporate non-linear border edges, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS An invention is described for hardware implemented methods and an apparatus for incorporating a border region within an image region. It will be obvious, however, to one skilled in the art, that the present invention may be practiced without some or all of these specific details. In other instances, well known process operations have not been described in detail in order not to unnecessarily obscure the present invention. The embodiments described herein provide an apparatus, display controllers, and hardware implemented methods for incorporating a border region within an image region. Essentially, instead of storing an entire overlay, a portion of the overlay that comprises the border region is stored in memory. In one embodiment, as will be explained in more detail below, a main image fetching circuit is first accessed to determine a relative position of a pixel within an image region. Depending on the relative position of the pixel, either an image pixel or a pixel of the portion of the border region is fetched from memory, and the portion may be rotated to maintain symmetry of the border region. FIG. 2 illustrates the border region with a corner portion and a side portion, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. In a symmetrical border with repetitive patterns, the border may be reduced to two basic portions from which the entire border region 200 may be constructed. As shown in FIG. 2, border region 200 includes corner portion 204 and side portion 202. The first portion (i.e., corner portion 204) defines the four corners of border region 200. The second portion (i.e., side portion 202) defines the rest of border region 200. In one embodiment, depending on the position of corner portion 204 and side portion 202 within border region 200, the corner portion and the side portion may be rotated to maintain symmetry. In effect, border region 200 may be constructed from multiple, rotated copies of corner portion 204 and side portion 202. Additionally, the geometry of corner portion 204 and side portion 202 may not necessarily be a “square” shape as shown in FIG. 2, but may be any suitable shape and size, for example, rectangles, triangles, parallelograms, etc. FIG. 3 is a flowchart diagram of a high level overview of a hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 3, starting at operation 302, the relative position of the pixel is computed within the image region. As will be explained in more detail below, the relative position of the pixel is then compared with a border region width in operation 304 to determine whether the pixel is located in the border region. As shown in operation 306, in one embodiment, dependent upon the relative position of the pixel, an image pixel, a corner pixel, or a side pixel is fetched. In this embodiment, it should be appreciated that the border region can be derived from two distinct portions—a corner portion and a side portion. The corner pixels and the side pixels comprise the corner portion and the side portions, respectively. If the relative position of the pixel is in the image region, then the image pixel is fetched from the main memory in operation 308. However, if the relative position of the pixel is in the border region, then another check is conducted in operation 310 to determine whether the pixel is located in a corner portion of the border region. If the pixel is located in a corner portion, then a corner pixel is fetched from a corner memory block in operation 312. If the pixel is not located in the corner portion, then the pixel is located in a side portion and a side pixel is fetched from a side memory block in operation 314. In one embodiment, the corner portions and the side portions are rotated to maintain symmetry of the border. That is, dependent on the exact side or corner of the border, the retrieved order of the pixels from the side or corner portion is adjusted. As will be explained in more detail below, one exemplary method to rotate the corner portions and the side portions is to calculate an order to fetch the pixels from the corner memory block and the side memory block. The calculated order defines a rotation of the corner portions and the side portions. In other words, the corner portions and the side portions can be rotated by varying the memory address order from which the pixels are fetched from memory. FIG. 4 is a simplified schematic diagram of an apparatus for incorporating a border region within an image region, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Apparatus 602 includes any suitable type of computing device. For example, apparatus 602 may be a personal digital assistant, a cell phone, a web tablet, a pocket personal computer, etc. As shown in FIG. 4, apparatus 602 includes central processing unit (CPU) 604, memory 606, display controller 608, and display 610. Display 610 may include liquid crystal (LCD) displays, thin-film transistor (TFT) displays, cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors, televisions, etc. Examples of memory 606 include static access memory (SRAM), dynamic random access memory (DRAM), etc. Display controller 608 is in communication with CPU 604, memory 606, and display 610. In one embodiment, pixels are stored in a memory included within display controller 608. In another embodiment, memory 606, which is in communication with CPU 604, may also be configured to store the pixels. One skilled in the art will appreciate that while CPU 604, memory 606, and display controller 608 are illustrated as being interconnected, each of these components may be in communication through a common bus. The functionality described above for incorporating a border region within an image region is incorporated into display controller 608. In one embodiment, display controller 608 contains the circuitry for computing a relative position of a pixel with the image region, circuitry for fetching the corner pixel from a corner memory block, circuitry for fetching a side pixel from a side memory block, and circuitry for fetching an image pixel from a main memory block. Display 610, which is coupled to display controller 608, then displays the corresponding image pixels or border pixels. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art that the functionality described herein may be synthesized into firmware through a suitable hardware description language (HDL). For example, the HDL (e.g., VERILOG) may be employed to synthesize the firmware and the layout of the logic gates for providing the necessary functionality described herein to provide a hardware implementation of the border region incorporation techniques and associated functionalities. Thus, the embodiments described herein may be captured in any suitable form or format that accomplishes the functionality described herein and is not limited to a particular form or format. FIG. 5 is a more detailed schematic diagram of the display controller shown in FIG. 4, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 5, display controller 608 includes memory 402, memory controller 408, main image fetching circuit 410, and display interface 412. Memory 402 includes any suitable type of memory such as SRAM, DRAM, etc. In one embodiment, memory 402 is divided into separate main memory 404, corner memory 405, and side memory 407 blocks. Main memory block 404 stores image pixels, corner memory block 405 stores corner pixels, and side memory block 407 stores side pixels. Alternatively, in another embodiment, the pixels may be stored in a memory region located outside display controller 608. Display interface 412, which is in communication with main image fetching circuit 410, provides an interface to a display. In one embodiment, main image fetching circuit 410 includes logic for fetching an image pixel, a corner pixel, or a side pixel dependent upon the relative position of the pixel. For example, main image fetching circuit 410 includes logic for fetching the corner pixel from corner memory block 405 if the relative position of the pixel is in a border region and the pixel is located within the corner portion of the border region. However, if the relative position of the pixel is in an image region, then main image fetching circuit 410 includes logic for fetching the image pixel from main memory block 404. As will be explained in more detail below, main image fetching circuit 410 also includes the logic for computing the relative position of the pixel within the image region, the logic for comparing the relative position of the pixel with a border region width to determine whether the pixel is located in the border region, and logic for calculating an order to fetch the pixel, whereby the order defines a rotation of a portion of the border region. FIG. 6 is a more detailed block diagram of the main image fetching circuit shown in FIG. 5, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 6, main image fetching circuit 410 includes horizontal counter 502, vertical counter 504, comparison circuitry 506, rotation circuitry 512, and register 510. As discussed above, main image fetching circuit 410 is accessed to compute a relative position of a pixel within an image region as the pixel is being output for display. To compute the relative position of the pixel, the pixel is tracked by one or more counters. In one embodiment, main image fetching circuit 410 includes horizontal counter 502 to track the pixel position along a horizontal direction and vertical counter 504 to track the pixel position along a vertical direction. It should be appreciated that an image is refreshed on a display from left to right in the horizontal direction and from top to bottom in the vertical direction. To track the pixels, horizontal counter 502 and vertical counter 504 are incremented by one when transitioning to a next pixel for display. For example, as a first pixel is being output along a horizontal line from left to right, horizontal counter 502, which initially has a zero count value, increments by one. Thus, the relative position of the first pixel along the horizontal direction is identified by a count value of one. When transitioning to an adjacent pixel column for display along the same horizontal line, horizontal counter 502 increments from a count value of one to a count value of two. As such, the relative position of the adjacent pixel along the same horizontal line is identified by a count value of two. In this way, horizontal counter 502 keeps track of each pixel along the horizontal direction. Similarly, vertical counter 504 keeps track of each pixel using the same method described above when transitioning to a next pixel row within an image region. Vertical counter 504 increments based on horizontal counter 502 reaching a count corresponding to the end of a row. Thus, vertical counter 504 captures transitions to successive rows. In effect, incrementing horizontal counter 502 and vertical counter 504 computes the relative position or X and Y coordinates of the pixels within the image region. Additionally, the counters may not necessarily increment by a value of one, but may increment by any suitable values (e.g., two, three, four, etc.). In another embodiment, main image fetching circuit 410 may include one counter to track the pixels. Here, as each pixel is being displayed, the counter increments by one. As such, each pixel is identified by a unique count value. As is known to those skilled in the art, a separate calculation is then applied to convert the unique count values to X and Y coordinates of the pixels within the image region. In addition, main image fetching circuit 410 includes comparison circuitry 506 and register 510 to determine whether the pixels are located within a border region. In one embodiment, comparison circuitry 506 includes logic for comparing the relative position of the pixels with border region width 508 (e.g., comparators). Border region width 508 is a value that specifies a thickness of the border region and, in one embodiment, is stored in register 510. Alternatively, in another embodiment, border region width 508 may be stored in a central register located outside of main image fetching circuit 410. It should be appreciated that the border region may not be uniform. For example, the border region may have separate different vertical border width and horizontal border width that specify the thickness of border region along the vertical direction and along the horizontal direction, respectively. In this embodiment, register 510 stores two values that specify the vertical border width and the horizontal border width. As shown in FIG. 6, main image fetching circuit 410 also includes rotation circuitry 512. In one embodiment, rotation circuitry 512 includes logic for calculating an order to fetch the pixels from a corner memory block and a side memory block. The calculated order defines a rotation of the corner portions and the side portions. In other words, the order is a calculated association of a pixel position within the image with a memory address of an image pixel stored in memory. For example, FIGS. 7A-7D are simplified diagrams illustrating the order of memory addresses being fetched when corner portion 702 is rotated, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 7A-7D illustrate an upper left corner portion, an upper right corner portion, a lower left corner portion, and a lower right corner portion. For illustrative purposes, each square within corner portion 702 represents a pixel. Each number (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) within the square represents a memory address associated with the pixel. The memory address is a number assigned to each pixel that is used to track where each pixel is stored in memory. The memory address can be any suitable bit-width. For example, in one embodiment, the memory address is eight bits in length. In another embodiment, the memory address is sixteen bits in length and so on. As shown in FIGS. 7A-7D, twenty five squares (i.e., 5×5 array of pixels) comprise corner portion 702. Each pixel is associated with a memory address number. For instance, as shown in FIG. 7A, at zero degrees rotation, a pixel positioned at the top left hand corner of corner portion 402 has an exemplary memory address of zero and another pixel positioned at the top right hand corner of the same corner portion has a memory address of four. In this case, the particular order in which the pixels are fetched from memory defines the rotation of corner portion 702. In other words, corner portion 702 is rotated by associating a pixel position with different memory addresses. For instance, FIG. 7B shows corner portion 702 rotated ninety degrees clockwise to define an upper right corner portion, FIG. 7D shows the corner portion rotated 180 degrees clockwise to define a lower right corner portion, and FIG. 7C shows the corner portion rotated 270 degrees clockwise to define a lower left corner portion. For example, at zero degree rotation, the pixel positioned at the top left hand corner of corner portion 702 shown in FIG. 7A is associated with the memory address of zero. After a ninety degrees clockwise rotation, the same pixel positioned at the top left hand corner of corner portion 702 shown in FIG. 7B is associated with a different memory address of twenty. Consequently, at zero degree rotation, the pixels that comprise a top, horizontal line of corner portion 702 shown in FIG. 7A are fetched from left to right in order from memory addresses 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. To rotate corner portion 702 ninety degrees clockwise to define the upper right corner portion, pixels that comprise the top, horizontal line of corner portion 702 shown in FIG. 7B are fetched from left to right in order from memory addresses 20, 15, 10, 5, and 0. It should be appreciated that the data in memory does not change, but the fetch order of the data from memory changes. For reference purposes, the rotations shown in FIGS. 7A-7D are about a reference point located at the center of corner portion 702, however, it should be appreciated that the reference point may be located anywhere outside or inside the corner portion. FIG. 8A-8D are simplified diagrams illustrating the order of memory addresses being fetched when side portion 802 is rotated, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Side portion 802 defines portions of the border region that are not the corner portions. FIGS. 8A-8D illustrate a top side portion, a right side portion, a bottom side portion, and a left side portion. Side portion 802 is not required to have the same shape and dimension as the corner portion. In this example, five squares (i.e., 1×5 array of pixels) comprise side portion 802. FIG. 8C shows side portion 802 rotated ninety degrees clockwise to define a right side portion, FIG. 8D shows the side portion rotated 180 degrees clockwise to define a bottom side portion, and FIG. 8B shows the side portion rotated 270 degrees clockwise to define a left side portion. Again, for reference purposes, the rotations are about a reference point located at the center of side portion 802. Similarly, the particular order in which the pixels are fetched from memory defines the rotation of side portion 802. For example, at zero degree rotation, the pixel positioned at the top of side portion 802 shown in FIG. 8A is associated with the memory address of zero. After a 180 degrees clockwise rotation, the same pixel positioned at the top of side portion 802 shown in FIG. 8D is associated with a different memory address of four. FIG. 9 illustrates a border region comprised of the corner portions shown in FIGS. 7A-7D and side portions shown in FIGS. 8A-8D, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 9, border region 200 is a 20×20 pixel image made up of the corner portions and side portions shown in FIGS. 7A-7D and 8A-8D, respectively. In other words, border region is a composite of copies of corner portion and side portion. To maintain symmetry of border region, the corner portions and side portions are rotated accordingly. As discussed above, in one embodiment, the main image fetching circuit includes the logic to generate a memory address order to fetch the pixels from memory. In this example, the main image fetching circuit would generate the following memory address order for a first line of the 20×20 pixel image shown in FIG. 9: {0,1,2,3,4,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,20,15,10,5,0}. The above memory address order is comprised of twelve portions, namely two corner portions and ten side portions. The first five memory addresses of {0,1,2,3,4} are associated with the top line of an upper left corner portion shown in FIG. 7A. The next ten memory address of {0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0} are associated with ten copies of a top pixel of the top side portion shown in FIG. 8A. The last five memory addresses of {20,15,10,5,0} are associated with the top line of an upper right corner portion shown in FIG. 7B. In like manner, the memory image fetching circuit generates the order to fetch pixels for each line of the 20×20 image to produce border region 200. FIG. 10 illustrates the border region with distinct corner portions and side portions, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 10, instead of two distinct portions as discussed above, border region 200 includes four distinct corner portions 903, 904, 907, and 909, and four side portions 902, 905, 906, and 908. Each portion is stored in separate memory blocks and fetched accordingly. FIG. 2 and FIG. 10 show border region 200 being derived from two portions and eight portions, respectively. However, it should be appreciated that border region 200 may be derived or divided into any suitable portions. For example, in one embodiment, border region 200 may comprise only one repeated portion. Furthermore, rotation of each portion is optional. For example, the portions of FIG. 10 may not need to be rotated as the image associated with each portion may already be rotated. However, the portions shown in FIG. 9 need to be rotated to maintain symmetry. As a result, border region 200 may be divided into any suitable portions and any suitable number of portions may be rotated if necessary. The embodiments described herein are also capable of supporting border regions that have non-linear edges. Essentially, non-linear edges are made possible by the inclusion of transparent pixels. With non-linear edges, border region is defined by a border region width that includes visible parts and transparent parts of the border region. Transparent parts are comprised of pixels that are transparent. By mixing transparent pixels with visible pixels, non-linear edges may be defined. As is known to those skilled in the art, each pixel is defined by a number of bits (e.g., eight, sixteen bits, etc.) and the bits define whether the pixel is transparent. For example, a transparency register has a particular eight bit value. If an eight bit value of a pixel matches the transparency register, then the pixel is transparent. This may also be referred to as a key color. FIG. 11 is a detailed schematic diagram of a display controller that can incorporate non-linear border edges, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Similar to the display controller of FIG. 5, display controller 801 includes memory 402, memory controller 408, main image fetching circuit 410, and display interface 412. However, display controller 801 of FIG. 11 also includes overlay image fetching circuit 808 and overlay function module 810. As shown in FIG. 11, memory 402 included within display controller 802 has main memory block 404 to store image pixels and additional blocks to store border region pixels. Each block stores pixels that comprise a portion of the border region, and it should be appreciated that memory 402 may be divided into any suitable number of blocks to correspond with the number of portions that comprise the border region. Main image fetching circuit 410 also includes the logic for fetching an image pixel, a corner pixel, or a side pixel dependent upon the relative position of a pixel as discussed above. However, in this embodiment, when the pixel is located in the border region, main image fetching circuit 410 and overlay image fetching circuit 808 simultaneously fetch the image pixel and the border pixel (e.g., corner pixel, side pixel, etc.), respectively. Thereafter, the border pixel is analyzed to determine whether the border pixel is transparent. The value of the border pixel determines transparency as described above. If the border pixel is not transparent, then the border pixel is selected for display within the border region. If the border pixel is transparent, then the image pixel is selected instead for display within the border region. For example, a relative position of a pixel within an image region is first computed, and the relative position is then compared with a border region width to determine whether the pixel is located in the border region. If the relative position of the pixel is in the image region, then main image fetching circuit 410 fetches an image pixel from main memory block 404 for display. However, if the relative position of the pixel is in the border region, then main image fetching circuit 410 fetches the image pixel from main memory block 404. At the same time, overlay image fetching circuit 808 fetches the border pixel from an appropriate block. Subsequently, overlay function module 810 analyzes the border pixel to determine whether the border pixel is transparent. If the border pixel is not transparent, overlay function module 810 selects the border pixel for display within the border region. If the border pixel is transparent, overlay function module 810 selects the image pixel instead for display within the border region. Alternatively, the display controller of FIG. 5 may also be configured to incorporate non-linear border edges, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Returning to FIG. 5, a relative position of a pixel is first computed, and the relative position is compared with a border region width to determine whether the pixel is located in the border region. If the relative position of the pixel is in an image region, then main image fetching circuit 410 fetches an image pixel from main memory block 404 for display. However, if the relative position of the pixel is in the border region, then main image fetching circuit 410 first fetches a border pixel from either corner memory block 405 or side memory block 407, respectively. Main image fetching circuit 410 then analyzes the border pixel, i.e., the value associated with each border pixel, to determine whether the border pixel is transparent. If the border pixel is not transparent, then main image fetching circuit 410 sends the border pixel to display interface 412 for display. However, if the border pixel is transparent, main image fetching circuit 410 then fetches image pixel from main memory block 404 for display. In summary, the above described invention provides an apparatus, display controllers, and hardware implemented methods to incorporate a border region within an image region. When compared to the conventional method of storing an entire overlay, storing a portion of the overlay that comprises the border region and fetching the pixels accordingly significantly reduce memory space. For example, under the conventional method, the 20×20 image as shown in FIG. 9 requires 400 pixels to be stored in memory. The present invention requires merely 30 pixels to be stored in memory, which is a 92.5% saving in memory space. For a 100×100 image, the savings would be 99.7%. As such, the larger the image, the greater the savings in memory space. Extra circuitry to process transparent pixels may also be eliminated. Thus, the reduction of memory space and the elimination of extra circuitry require less processing power and bandwidth. As a result, small, portable devices with limited power, memory, and computing capability incorporating the above described invention can adequately process and incorporate borders. With the above embodiments in mind, it should be understood that the invention may employ various computer-implemented operations involving data stored in computer systems. These operations are those requiring physical manipulation of physical quantities. Usually, though not necessarily, these quantities take the form of electrical or magnetic signals capable of being stored, transferred, combined, compared, and otherwise manipulated. Further, the manipulations performed are often referred to in terms, such as producing, identifying, determining, or comparing. Any of the operations described herein that form part of the invention are useful machine operations. The invention also relates to a device or an apparatus for performing these operations. The apparatus may be specially constructed for the required purposes, or it may be a general purpose computer selectively activated or configured by a computer program stored in the computer. In particular, various general purpose machines may be used with computer programs written in accordance with the teachings herein, or it may be more convenient to construct a more specialized apparatus to perform the required operations. The above described invention may be practiced with other computer system configurations including hand-held devices, microprocessor systems, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, minicomputers, mainframe computers and the like. Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be apparent that certain changes and modifications may be practiced within the scope of the appended claims. Accordingly, the present embodiments are to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive, and the invention is not to be limited to the details given herein, but may be modified within the scope and equivalents of the appended claims. In the claims, elements and/or steps do not imply any particular order of operation, unless explicitly stated in the claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to computer graphics and, more particularly, to methods and apparatuses for incorporating a border within an image. 2. Description of the Related Art In computer graphics, a border is commonly placed around an image being displayed. FIG. 1 is an illustration of a conventional method to implement the border around the image. Currently, to place border 102 around image 106 , a graphics controller must use an overlay 108 that is equal in size to the image. Overlay 108 includes border 102 and center area 104 that is programmed to be transparent. Thus, even though border 102 comprises only a portion of an area of image 106 , the number of overlay pixels being stored equals the number of image pixels. In addition, extra circuitry is needed to process the transparent pixels in center area 104 within overlay 108 , which consumes additional power and bandwidth. As a result, many small, portable devices have problems processing a border overlay because these devices typically have limited power, memory, and computing capability. Since these devices are limited in their memory and computing power, processing the overlays may exceed the memory limitations and dominate the CPU cycles of these devices and, as a result, dramatically slow down the executed applications. In view of the foregoing, there is a need to provide apparatuses and methods for reducing the memory requirements and CPU processing power required to implement a border. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Broadly speaking, the present invention fills these needs by providing hardware implemented methods and an apparatus for incorporating a border region within an image region. It should be appreciated that the present invention can be implemented in numerous ways, including as a method, a system, or a device. Several inventive embodiments of the present invention are described below. In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, a hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region is provided. In this method, a relative position of a pixel within the image region is first computed. Subsequently, a determination is made as to whether the pixel is located in the border region based on the relative position of the pixel. If the relative position of the pixel is in the border region, then an order to fetch a border pixel from a border memory block is calculated. The order defines a rotation of a portion of the border region. The border pixel is then fetched from the border memory according to the calculated order. However, if the relative position of the pixel is in the image region, then an image pixel is fetched from a main memory block. In accordance with a second aspect of the present invention, a hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region is provided. In this method, a relative position of a pixel within the image region is first computed. Thereafter, the relative position of the pixel is compared with a border region width to determine whether the pixel is located in the border region. If the relative position of the pixel is in the border region, then a corner pixel is fetched from a corner memory block if the pixel is located in a corner portion of the border region. Otherwise, a side pixel is fetched from a side memory block if the pixel is located in a side portion of the border region. However, if the relative position of the pixel is in the image region, then an image pixel is fetched from a main memory block. In accordance with a third aspect of the present invention, a hardware implemented method for incorporating a border region within an image region is provided. In this method, a portion of the border region is stored in memory. Thereafter, a determination is made as to a relative position of a pixel within the image region. An image pixel or each pixel of the portion of the border region is then fetched from the memory dependent upon the relative position of the pixel. In accordance with a fourth aspect of the present invention, a display controller for incorporating a border region within an image region is provided. The display controller includes a memory. The memory includes a first memory block configured to store an image pixel, a second memory block configured to store a corner pixel, and a third memory block configured to store a side pixel. The display controller also includes a memory controller configured to fetch one of the image pixel, the corner pixel, or the side pixel. Further, a main image fetching circuit in communication with the memory controller is included in the display controller. The main image fetching circuit includes logic for comparing a relative position of a pixel with a border region width to determine whether the pixel is located in the border region, logic for fetching the corner pixel from the second memory block, logic for fetching the side pixel from the third memory block, and logic for fetching the image pixel from the first memory block. In accordance with a fifth aspect of the present invention, an apparatus for incorporating a border region within an image region is provided. The apparatus includes a display controller. The display controller includes circuitry for computing a relative position of a pixel within the image region, circuitry for fetching a border pixel from a border memory block, circuitry for rotating the border pixel, and circuitry for fetching an image pixel from a main memory block. Furthermore, the apparatus includes a central processing unit (CPU) in communication with the display controller and a display in communication with the display controller, whereby the display enables the display of the image region. Other aspects and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, illustrating by way of example the principles of the invention. | 20040616 | 20080805 | 20051222 | 58639.0 | 0 | ALAVI, AMIR | APPARATUSES AND METHODS FOR INCORPORATING A BORDER WITHIN AN IMAGE BY DEFINING A PORTION OF THE BORDER | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,466 | ACCEPTED | Steerable hydrofoil | The present invention provides a steerable hydrofoil. The apparatus includes at least one steerable hydrofoil panel, at least one body part coupled to the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to allow the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to rotate about an axis, and at least one actuator for rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel by a selected angle about the axis. | 1. An apparatus, comprising: at least one steerable hydrofoil panel; at least one body part coupled to the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to allow the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to rotate about an axis; and at least one actuator for rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel by a selected angle about the axis. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the one or more steerable hydrofoil panels have a combined height between about 1.5 meters and about 4 meters and the steerable hydrofoil panels have a chord, length ranging from about 40 centimeters to about 100 centimeters. 3. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein the one or more steerable hydrofoil panels have a combined height of about 2 meters. 4. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel has a chord length of about 60 centimeters. 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises two steerable hydrofoil panels coupled to at least one body part configured to be coupled to a streamer. 6. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising at least one bulb couple to the tip of the hydrofoil. 7. The apparatus of claim 6, wherein the at least one bulb comprises a bulb of heavy material. 8. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the at least one bulb comprises a bulb of buoyant material. 9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the bulb of heavy material and the bulb of buoyant material are coupled to opposite ends of the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel. 10. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the bulb of heavy material and the bulb of buoyant material are selected such that the steerable hydrofoil panels, the at least one body part, and the bulbs are together neutrally buoyant. 11. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the actuator is at least one of an electrical, a hydraulic, and a pneumatic actuator. 12. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a controller unit, a battery, and at least one position sensor configured to determine an angle o the steerable hydrofoil panel. 13. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a cable and a connector configured to transmit signals between the steerable hydrofoil panel and a streamer. 14. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the steerable hydrofoil panel is configured to be deployed in a marine seismic survey, and wherein the actuator is configured to rotate the steerable hydrofoil panel the selected angle when the steerable hydrofoil panel is in operation in the marine seismic survey. 15. A method, comprising: deploying at least one steerable hydrofoil panel such that the steerable hydrofoil panel is rotatable about an axis during a marine seismic survey; and rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel about the axis by a selected angle during operation of the marine seismic survey. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein deploying the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises deploying at least one steerable hydrofoil panel such that the combined height of the one or more steerable hydrofoil panels ranges from about 1.5 meters to about 4 meters and a chord length of the one or more steerable hydrofoil panels ranges from about 40 centimeters to about 100 centimeters. 17. The method of claim 15, wherein deploying the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises coupling the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to a seismic streamer. 18. The method of claim 15, wherein rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel by the selected angles comprises rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to position at least one of a seismic array and a seismic streamer. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to position at least one of a seismic array and a seismic streamer comprises rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to vary the position of at least one of the seismic array and the seismic streamer within a range of about ±20 meter. 20. The method of claim 18, wherein rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to position at least one of a seismic array and a seismic streamer comprises rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to vary the position of at least one of the seismic array and the seismic streamer within a range of about ±1 meter. 21. A system, comprising: a survey vessel; at least one seismic streamer coupled to the survey vessel; at least one hydrofoil coupled to the at least one seismic streamer; at least one steerable hydrofoil panel coupled to the at least one seismic streamer; at least one body part coupled to the at least on steerable hydrofoil panel to allow the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to rotate about an axis; and at least one actuator for rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel by a selected angle about the axis. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the least one steerable hydrofoil panel is coupled to the at least one seismic streamer behind the at least one hydrofoil, relative to the survey vessel. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel is coupled to the at least one seismic streamer such that the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel is capable of positioning the at least one seismic streamer substantially out of a wake of the hydrofoil. 24. An apparatus, comprising: means for deploying at least one steerable hydrofoil panel such that the steerable hydrofoil is rotatable about an axis during a marine seismic survey; and means for rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel about the axis by a selected angle during operation of the marine seismic survey. 25. A method, comprising: deploying at least one steerable hydrofoil panel such that the steerable hydrofoil is rotatable about an axis during a marine seismic survey; and orienting the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel about the axis to provide a selected angle of attack. 26. The method of claim 25 wherein the orienting the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel about the axis to provide a selected angle of attack comprises selecting an angle of attack from one of a predetermined plurality of angles of attack. 27. The method of claim 25 wherein the orienting the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel about the axis to provide a selected angle of attack comprises selecting an angle of attack that is within a predetermined range of angles of attack. 28. The method of claim 25 wherein the deploying at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises deploying a plurality of steerable hydrofoil panels, and the selected angle of attack is the same for each steerable hydrofoil panel. 29. The method of claim 25 wherein the deploying at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises deploying a plurality of steerable hydrofoil panels, and the selected angle of attack is different for each steerable hydrofoil. 30. The method of claim 25 wherein the deploying at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises deploying a plurality of steerable hydrofoil panels, and the selected angle of attack for each hydrofoil is within a predetermined range of angles of attack. 31. The method of claim 30 wherein the deploying a plurality of steerable hydrofoil panels comprises deploying two or more steerable hydrofoil panels independently within the predetermined range of angles of attack. 32. A method, comprising: deploying a survey vessel, at least one seismic streamer coupled to the survey vessel, at least one hydrofoil coupled to the at least one seismic streamer, the hydrofoil producing a wake, and at least one steerable hydrofoil panel coupled to the at least one seismic streamer; and steering the at least one streamer using the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel so that at least a portion of the streamer is steered out of the wake. 33. The method of claim 32 wherein the steering the at least one streamer using the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises monitoring noise in seismic data. 34. The method of claim 32 wherein the steering the at least one streamer using at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises horizontally leveraging the at least one streamer a distance ranging from about 15 to about 20 meters. 35. The method of claim 32 wherein the steering the at least one streamer using at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises varying an amount of the at least one streamer in the wake. 36. The method of claim 32 wherein the steering the at least one streamer using at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises compensating for current variability. 37. The method of claim 32 wherein the steering the at least one streamer using at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises positioning the at least one streamer on a track that may or may not be straight. 38. The method of claim 32 wherein the steering of the at least one streamer using the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises reducing a need for steering, reducing power requirement, and/or operating the at least one hydrofoil near its maximum lift capacity. 39. The method of claim 32 wherein the steering of the at least one streamer using the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises reducing steering of any steerable birds of the streamer. 40. The method of claim 32 wherein the steering of the at least one streamer using the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel comprises actively steering the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel during a marine seismic survey. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to marine seismic exploration, and, more particularly, to a steerable hydrofoil for use in marine seismic exploration. 2. Description of the Related Art Marine seismic exploration is widely used to locate and/or survey subterranean geological formations for hydrocarbon deposits because many hydrocarbon deposits are found beneath bodies of water. FIG. 1 conceptually illustrates a first embodiment of a conventional system 100 for carrying out a marine seismic survey. In the illustrated embodiment, one half of the conventional system 100 is shown, but it should be understood that the conventional system includes a second half above the symmetry line 102. The conventional system 100 includes a survey vessel 105 coupled to a seismic array 110, which typically includes one or more streamers 115. The streamers 115 include passive streamer sections 117, sometimes referred to as stretches, which may be used to dampen vibrations. The passive streamer sections 117 may have a length that ranges from about 50 to 150 meters. For example, the passive streamer sections 117 may have a length between 75 and 100 meters. Typically, the streamers 115 and, if present, the passive streamer sections 117, are coupled to the survey vessel 110 by lead-in cables 120. Separation ropes 123 may also be provided to spread out the streamers 115 and, if present, the passive streamer sections 117. One or more seismic sensors 125, such as hydrophones, may be distributed along the length of the seismic streamer 115. Although not shown in FIG. 1, one or more seismic sources may also be included within the conventional system 100. In operation, the survey vessel 105 attempts to tow the seismic array 110 along a predetermined path. As the seismic array 110 passes over a selected portion of the sea floor beneath the predetermined path, the seismic sources may be used to drive an acoustic wave, commonly referred to as a “shot,” through the overlying water and into the ground. The acoustic wave is reflected by subterranean geologic formations and propagates back to the seismic sensors 125. The seismic sensors 125 receive the reflected waves, which are then processed to generate seismic data. Analysis of the seismic data may indicate probable locations of geological formations, such as hydrocarbon deposits, that may exist beneath the sea floor along the predetermined path. The accuracy of the seismic survey is determined, in part, by how accurately the seismic array 110 is towed along the predetermined path. Thus, in addition to guiding the seismic array 110 by steering the survey vessel 105, the marine seismic surveying system 100 includes hydrofoils 130 coupled to the seismic array 110. For example, Western Geco Monowings® may be coupled to one or more of the lead-in cables 120 and/or the passive streamer sections 117 of the seismic array 110. Although two hydrofoils 130 are shown in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1, persons of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that more or fewer hydrofoils 130 may be coupled to the seismic array 110. Moreover, in some alternative embodiments, the hydrofoils 130 are towed by a separate rope or wire, and are coupled to the seismic array 110 by strong separation ropes that are usually called lever arms (not shown). In these cases, hydrofoils 130 of a type usually referred to as a door, paravane, or Barovane, are typically used. To provide sufficient lift to steer the front end of the seismic array 110 and/or to maintain a spread of the seismic cables 115 and/or the passive streamer sections 117, a typical hydrofoil 130 used in a marine seismic survey is approximately 7-10 meters tall and has a 1-2 meter chord length. In accordance with common usage in the art, the chord length of the hydrofoil 130 is defined herein as the distance from the nose to the tail of the hydrofoil 130. A hydrofoil 130 of this size may have a lift of about 10 tons. Conventional hydrofoils 130 are typically steered passively to a desired mean position along the predetermined path, at least in part because the power required for active continuous steering of the large hydrofoils 130 is relatively large and not generally available. Passive steering of the hydrofoils 130 is typically capable of steering the seismic array 110 through a range of about 500-600 meters in the cross-line and/or in-line directions. However, variable water currents and the like along the predetermined path may cause the hydrofoil 130 to deviate from its desired mean position. Consequently, the front end of the seismic array 110 and/or the location of one or more of the streamers 115 may also deviate from their desired positions. For example, the seismic array 110 and/or the streamers 115 may deviate from their desired positions by a positioning error of about ±5-10 meters. The deviations of the seismic array 110 and/or the streamers 115 may be in either the cross-line or the in-line direction. Alternatively, when the seismic array 110 is steered to repeat the path of a previous seismic survey, then the desired path of travel may not be a straight line. Deviations from this line may cause cross-line position errors. The positioning errors caused by the deviations of the seismic array 110 and/or the streamers 115 introduce noise into the seismic data. For example, the positioning errors may degrade the time-lapse signal-to-noise ratio of the seismic data. The positioning errors may also propagate from a front end to a back end of the seismic array 110 and/or the streamers 115 and, depending on factors such as the water currents, the positioning errors may increase from the front end to the back end of the seismic array 110 and/or the streamers 115. Furthermore, the positioning errors may propagate from one survey to another when seismic data is collected in multiple surveys that are repeated over a period of time and then combined, or stacked, to form a combined seismic data set. Conventional hydrofoils 130, such as doors, paravanes, Barovanes, and the like are not typically used to correct for path deviations, such as those caused by current variations. For example, conventional hydrofoils 130 are typically used near their maximum lift capacity in a standard efficient tow configuration, such as shown in FIG. 1, which may limit the ability of the hydrofoil 130 to compensate for path deviations. Although the towing configuration of the one or more hydrofoils 130 may be changed so that the hydrofoils 130 operate at lower lift powers, e.g. approximately 65% of their maximum lift power, this approach would provide a less efficient configuration with longer lead-in cables 120, reduced efficiency in terms of reduced maximum spread, longer lay backs resulting in difficulties in re-positioning by vessel steering, deep cables, and other undesirable consequences. Moreover, cross-line steering of the hydrofoil 130 may introduce undesirable changes in the in-line position of the streamers 120. FIG. 2 conceptually illustrates movement of the hydrofoil 130 described above, such as a door, a paravane, a Barovane, and the like. As an angular deviation 205 of the hydrofoil 130 increases in the direction indicated by the arrow, a drag 210 of the hydrofoil 130 and a lead-in tension 215 increase correspondingly. Consequently, a lift 220 needed to oppose the drag 210 and the lead-in tension 215 increases significantly. Achieving the required lift 220 may require increasing an angle of attack of the hydrofoil 130 into a range in which the hydrofoil 130 may stall and/or become unstable. These disadvantages may also limit the ability of the hydrofoil 130 to compensate for path deviations. Referring back to FIG. 1, the hydrofoil 130 also creates a wake 135 of highly rotational fluid. Since the seismic array 110, the streamers 115, and the sensors 125 are towed approximately behind the hydrofoil 130, the wake 135 often disturbs the seismic array 110, the streamers 115 and/or the seismic sensors 125. Wake disturbances add noise to the seismic data. Moreover, the wake noise introduced by wake 135 of the hydrofoil 130 may be increased if the hydrofoil 130 is steered. A non-steerable, fixed angle-of-attack hydrofoil (not shown), such as Western Geco's non-steerable Miniwing® may be coupled to the front of one or more of the streamers 115 to pull the streamer 115 about 15-20 meter out of the wake 135. However, the angle-of-attack of the non-steerable, fixed angle-of-attack hydrofoil may not be changed during a survey to account for changing conditions. One or more birds 140 may also be attached to the streamers 120. A typical bird 140 has a combined wing span of about 1 meter and has a chord length of approximately 20 centimeters. The birds 140 provide force cross-line to the streamers 115 and are typically used for depth keeping and to compensate for variable current conditions. Conventional birds are only capable of providing forces in the vertical plane for depth keeping purposes. However WesternGeco birds, called Q-fins®, are capable of providing cross line forces in both the vertical plane, for depth keeping, and in the horizontal plane. The latter is used for keeping a straight streamer in spite of varying currents, keeping constant streamer separation and to steer sideways in order to achieve a given demanded feather. The birds 140 may also be steerable. However, due at least in part to high tension in the streamers 115, the passive streamer sections 117, the stretches 123, and the lead-in cables 120, the steerable birds 140 are typically not powerful enough, i.e. they do not provide sufficient lift, to help position the front end of the streamers 115 and/or the array 110. For example, several hundred meters and several steerable birds 140 may be required to achieve a desired position for the streamers 115 and/or the array 110. Moreover, such hard steering of the steerable birds 140 may also increase noise in the seismic data and limit the steerable birds 140 ability to compensate for varying current conditions and/or to steer the seismic array 110 out of the wake 135 of the hydrofoil 130. In summary, due in part to constraints such as cost, power consumption, noise levels, and desired function of existing elements, the conventional marine seismic survey system 100 lacks a mechanism for maneuvering the front end of the seismic array 110 and/or streamers 115 within a relatively small range of ±20 meters in the cross-line direction. The conventional marine seismic survey system 100 also lacks a mechanism for reliably positioning the front end of the seismic array 110 and/or streamers 120 with an error of less than or about ±1 meter. Consequently, undesirable noise, e.g. noise from excess steering of the hydrofoils 135 and/or the steerable birds 140, noise from positioning errors, and/or noise from the wake 135 of the hydrofoil 130, may be introduced into seismic data collected by the conventional marine seismic survey system 100. The present invention is intended to address one or more of the problems discussed above. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one embodiment of the instant invention, a steerable hydrofoil is provided. The apparatus includes at least one steerable hydrofoil panel, at least one body part coupled to the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to allow the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to rotate about an axis, and at least one actuator for rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel by a selected angle about the axis. In another embodiment of the instant invention, a method is provided. The method includes deploying at least one steerable hydrofoil panel such that the steerable hydrofoil is rotatable about an axis during a marine seismic survey and rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel about the axis by a selected angle during operation of the marine seismic survey. In another embodiment of the instant invention, a system is provided. The system includes a survey vessel, at least one seismic streamer coupled to the survey vessel, and at least one hydrofoil coupled to the at least one seismic streamer. The system also includes at least one steerable hydrofoil panel coupled to the at least one seismic streamer, at least one body part coupled to the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to allow the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to rotate about an axis, and at least one actuator for rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel by a selected angle about the axis. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention may be understood by reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals identify like elements, and in which: FIG. 1 conceptually illustrates a first embodiment of a prior art system for carrying out a marine seismic survey; FIG. 2 conceptually illustrates motion of a hydrofoil that may be used in the system shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 conceptually illustrates one embodiment of a marine seismic surveying system; FIG. 4A conceptually illustrates one exemplary embodiment of a steerable hydrofoil that may be used in the marine seismic surveying system shown in FIG. 3A; FIG. 4B conceptually illustrates a plan view of the steerable hydrofoil shown in FIG. 4A; FIG. 4C conceptually illustrates a top-down view of one embodiment of the steerable hydrofoil shown in FIG. 4A; FIG. 4D conceptually illustrates a top-down view of one alternative embodiment of the steerable hydrofoil shown in FIG. 4A; and FIG. 5 conceptually illustrates motion of a steerable hydrofoil shown in FIGS. 4A-4D, which may be used in the system shown in FIG. 3. While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof have been shown by way of example in the drawings and are herein described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the description herein of specific embodiments is not intended to limit the invention to the particular forms disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS Illustrative embodiments of the invention are described below. In the interest of clarity, not all features of an actual implementation are described in this specification. It will of course be appreciated that in the development of any such actual embodiment, numerous implementation-specific decisions must be made to achieve the developers' specific goals, such as compliance with system-related and business-related constraints, which will vary from one implementation to another. Moreover, it will be appreciated that such a development effort might be complex and time-consuming, but would nevertheless be a routine undertaking for those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure. FIG. 3 conceptually illustrates one embodiment of a marine seismic surveying system 300. The marine seismic surveying system 300 may be employed in systems intended for use in aquatic environments, i.e., fresh, salt, or brackish water. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, such surveys are frequently referred to as “marine surveys” even if performed in fresh or brackish waters. The term is so used herein. The marine seismic survey system 300 includes a survey vessel 305 coupled to a seismic array 310, which typically include one or more streamers 315 (only one indicated by the reference number). As discussed in detail above, the seismic array 310 may also include one or more passive streamer sections 317 (only one indicated by the reference number), one or more separation ropes 320 (only one indicated by the reference number), and one or more lead-in cables 323 (only one indicated by the reference number). One or more seismic sensors 325 (only one indicated by the reference number), such as hydrophones, may be distributed along the length of the seismic streamer 315. One or more hydrofoils 330, such as Western Geco's Monowing®, may be coupled to a front end of the seismic array 310 and one or more birds 335 may be coupled to the streamers 315. Persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that one or more of the passive streamer sections 317 may, in alternative embodiments, be replaced by active streamers 315. These aspects of the marine seismic survey are implemented and operated in well-known, conventional fashion. Thus, in the interest of clarity, the operation of these known devices will not be discussed further herein. One or more steerable hydrofoils 340 (not all indicated) are coupled to the seismic array 310 between the seismic array 310 and the hydrofoil 330. The steerable hydrofoils 340 have a predetermined height between about 1.5 meters and about 4 meters, and a predetermined chord length between about 40 centimeters and about 100 centimeters. In the illustrated embodiment, the steerable hydrofoils 340 are coupled to the passive streamer section 317. However, the present invention is not limited to steerable hydrofoils 340 that are coupled to the passive streamer section 317. In one alternative embodiment, which may be implemented in addition to or instead of the aforementioned embodiment, one or more of the steerable hydrofoils 340 may be coupled to one or more of the separation ropes 320 at the front of the seismic array 310. In another alternative embodiment, which may be implemented in addition to or instead of the aforementioned alternative embodiments, each of a plurality of steerable hydrofoils 340 may be coupled to a front end of one of the plurality of seismic streamers 315. However, the present invention is not limited to having the steerable hydrofoils 340 coupled to one or more of the separation ropes 320 and/or the plurality of seismic streamers 315. Nor is the number of steerable hydrofoils 340 material to the practice of the present invention. In alternative embodiments, more or fewer steerable hydrofoils 340 may be coupled to the seismic array 110 at any desirable location. For example, a plurality of steerable hydrofoils may be coupled to each seismic streamer 315 at locations distributed along the seismic streamer 315. In operation, the steerable hydrofoils 340 may be oriented to provide a selected angle of attack. For example, the steerable hydrofoils 340 may be oriented at one of a predetermined plurality of angles of attack. For another example, the steerable hydrofoils 340 may be oriented at an angle of attack within a predetermined range of angles of attack. In one embodiment, the steerable hydrofoils 340 may all be oriented at the same angle of attack. However, the present invention is not limited to steerable hydrofoils 340 that are all oriented at the same angle of attack. In alternative embodiments, one or more of the steerable hydrofoils 340 may be independently oriented at different angles of attack. The lift provided by the steerable hydrofoil 340 is approximately proportional to the angle of attack. The steerable hydrofoil 340 may be able to steer at least a portion of the streamers 315 and/or the seismic array 310 through a range of approximately ±20 meters in a cross-line direction. However, persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that the precise steering range of the steerable hydrofoils 340 is a matter of design choice and may also depend on environmental conditions such as water currents and knowledge thereof, the speed of the survey vessel 305, the size of the seismic array 310, the software controlling the steering elements, and the like. In one embodiment, the steerable hydrofoil 340 deployed proximate a front end of the seismic streamer 315 may be able to position the front end of the seismic streamer 315 within an error of ±1 meter. In one embodiment, the steerable hydrofoil 340 may be operated in a zero-lift configuration, as will be discussed in detail below. By providing the one or more steerable hydrofoils 340, the streamers 315 and/or seismic sensors 325 may be steered such that the influence of a wake 345 formed by the hydrofoil 330 on the streamers 315 and/or the seismic sensors 325 may be reduced, which may reduce the amount of noise in the seismic data. In one embodiment, to steerable hydrofoils 340 may provide horizontal leverage of about 15-20 meters and therefore may be steered such that the streamers 315 and/or the seismic sensors 325 are not in the wake 345. However, persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that the wake noise may be reduced even if a portion of the streamers 315 and/or the seismic sensors 325 remain in the wake 345. Moreover, persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that the boundaries of the wake 345 may vary, and consequently the portion of the streamers 315 and/or the seismic sensors 325 that are inside the wake 345 may vary, in response to changes in the velocity of the survey vessel 305, water currents, and the like. The steerable hydrofoils 340 may also be steered to compensate for current variability, and/or for the purpose of positioning the array 310 on a track that may or may not be straight. Consequently, it may not be necessary to steer the hydrofoil 330, which may reduce the steering noise produced by the hydrofoil 330, reduce the power requirements on the hydrofoil 330, and/or allow the hydrofoil 330 to be operated near its maximum lift capacity. Furthermore, the amount of hard steering of the steerable birds 335 may be reduced, which may reduce noise in the seismic data. Moreover, the steerable hydrofoil 340 may be actively positioned during the marine seismic survey, which may allow more accurate positioning of the seismic array 310, the seismic streamers 315, and/or the seismic sensors 325. FIG. 4A conceptually illustrates one exemplary embodiment of a steerable hydrofoil 400. In operation, the steerable hydrofoil 400 is towed in a direction indicated by the arrow 402. In the illustrated embodiment, the steerable hydrofoil 400 has a height 405 of about 2 meters and a chord length 410 of about 60 centimeters. As discussed above, in alternative embodiments, the steerable hydrofoil 400 may have a height 400 ranging between about 1.5 meters and about 4 meters and a chord length 410 ranging between about 40 centimeters and about 100 centimeters. In the illustrated embodiment, the steerable hydrofoil 400 includes an upper panel 415(1) and a lower panel 415(2). However, in alternative embodiments, the steerable hydrofoil 400 may include more or fewer panels. For example, the steerable hydrofoil 400 may be formed of a single panel. The upper panel 415(1) and the lower panel 415(2) of the steerable hydrofoil 400 are mounted onto an upper and a lower body part 417(1-2), respectively. In one embodiment, the upper and lower panels 415(1-2) are mounted in a manner that allows the upper panel 415(1) and the lower panel 415(2) to rotate about an axis 420. For example, the upper and lower panels 415(1-2) may be rigidly coupled so that they rotate together about the axis 420. For another example, the upper and lower panels 415(1-2) may rotate independently about the axis 420. However, in alternative embodiments, the upper and lower panels 415(1-2) are rigidly connected to the upper and lower body parts 417(1-2) and the upper and lower body parts 417(1-2) may be rotated about a virtual axis 420. The upper and lower body parts 417(1-2) are coupled to a streamer 425. In alternative embodiments, the upper and lower body parts 417(1-2) may be hinged, bolted, or coupled to the streamer 425 in any other desirable manner. FIG. 4B conceptually illustrates a plan view of the steerable hydrofoil 400 as seen from the direction indicated by the arrow 402. An actuator 430 is deployed in the body 417(1-2) and provides a motive force to rotate the upper and/or lower panels 415(1-2) about the axis 420. In various alternative embodiments, the actuator 430 may be an electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic actuator 430 that provides the motive force. In one embodiment, a position sensor 435 is provided to determine the position angle. In one embodiment, the actuator 430 may receive one or more signals indicative of the selected rotation angle 435 and may use the received signal to rotate the upper and/or lower panels 415(1-2) to the selected rotation angle 435. For example, the actuator 430 and/or the position sensor 435 may receive and/or transmit signals through the streamer 425 (and associated electronics) using a connector 440 and a cable 445, such as shown in FIG. 4A. The steerable hydrofoil 400 may also include a controller unit 446. In one embodiment, the controller unit 446 controls the actuator 430 and reads position information from the position sensor 435. The controller unit 446 may also provide data to, and receive data and/or instructions from, a computer onboard the vessel through the cable 445. A battery unit 447 may be used to supply power to the actuator 430 the position sensor 435, the controller unit 446, and any other element of the steerable hydrofoil 400 that may require power. FIG. 4C conceptually illustrates a top-down view of one embodiment of the steerable hydrofoil 400. In the illustrated embodiment, the upper and/or lower panels 415(1-2) are rotated about the axis 420 by a rotation angle 450. The rotation of the upper and/or lower panels 415(1-2) in FIG. 4C is relative to the streamer 420 and the upper and lower body parts 417(1-2). FIG. 4D conceptually illustrates a top-down view of one alternative embodiment of the steerable hydrofoil 400 in which the upper and lower body parts 417(1-2) also rotate relative to the streamer 420. In the illustrated embodiment, the upper and/or lower panels 415(1-2) are rotated about the axis 420 by the rotation angle 450. The rotation of the upper and/or lower panels 415(1-2) in FIG. 4D is relative to the streamer 420. In one embodiment, the panels 415(1-2) are fixed to the upper and lower body parts 417(1-2) and the angle of attack may be varied by rotating the upper and lower body parts 417(1-2), and consequently the wing panels 415(1-2), relative to the streamer 420. However, the present invention is not so limited. In alternative embodiments, the wing panels 415(1-2) and/or the upper and lower body parts 417(1-2) may be able to rotate relative to the streamer 420. By selecting the appropriate rotation angle 450, the upper and/or lower panels 415(1-2) may be oriented to provide a desired angle of attack. In one embodiment, the rotation angle 450 may be selected and/or varied to vary the angle of attack during the operation of a marine seismic survey. Consequently, the steerable hydrofoil 400 may be used as part of an active positioning system that may be employed during a marine seismic survey. Referring back to FIG. 4A, one or more bulbs 455(1-2) may also be provided at ends of the upper and/or lower panels 415(1-2). In one embodiment, the bulbs 455(1-2) may be rotational bodies, torpedo bodies, and the like. The bulb 455(1) may be formed of a buoyant material and the bulb 455(2) may be formed of a heavy material so that the steerable hydrofoil 400 stands approximately upright during operation and is approximately neutrally buoyant. For example, the bulb 455(2) may include a weight 460 formed of a heavy material such as lead. FIG. 5 conceptually illustrates motion of a steerable hydrofoil 500 that may be used in the system 300 shown in FIG. 3. The steerable hydrofoil 500 is coupled to the streamer 510 and may be operated in a zero-lift configuration indicated by the dashed line 515. The steerable hydrofoil 500 is designed with a symmetrical profile shape and therefore may provide a lift 520 equally well in both directions. Moreover, the lift 520 opposes approximately the same tension 525 and drag 530 in both directions. The steerable hydrofoil 500 may therefore move through a relatively large cross-line distance 540 using a relatively small range of lifts 520. For example, the lift 520 required to maneuver the steerable hydrofoil 500 through the cross-line distance 540 may be significantly smaller than the lift that would be required to maneuver the hydrofoil 330 shown in FIG. 3 through the cross-line distance 540, particularly if the hydrofoil 330 is operated in a maximum lift configuration. This concludes the detailed description. The particular embodiments disclosed above are illustrative only, as the invention may be modified and practiced in different but equivalent manners apparent to those skilled in the art having the benefit of the teachings herein. Furthermore, no limitations are intended to the details of construction or design herein shown, other than as described in the claims below. It is therefore evident that the particular embodiments disclosed above may be altered or modified and all such variations are considered within the scope and spirit of the invention. Accordingly, the protection sought herein is as set forth in the claims below. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to marine seismic exploration, and, more particularly, to a steerable hydrofoil for use in marine seismic exploration. 2. Description of the Related Art Marine seismic exploration is widely used to locate and/or survey subterranean geological formations for hydrocarbon deposits because many hydrocarbon deposits are found beneath bodies of water. FIG. 1 conceptually illustrates a first embodiment of a conventional system 100 for carrying out a marine seismic survey. In the illustrated embodiment, one half of the conventional system 100 is shown, but it should be understood that the conventional system includes a second half above the symmetry line 102 . The conventional system 100 includes a survey vessel 105 coupled to a seismic array 110 , which typically includes one or more streamers 115 . The streamers 115 include passive streamer sections 117 , sometimes referred to as stretches, which may be used to dampen vibrations. The passive streamer sections 117 may have a length that ranges from about 50 to 150 meters. For example, the passive streamer sections 117 may have a length between 75 and 100 meters. Typically, the streamers 115 and, if present, the passive streamer sections 117 , are coupled to the survey vessel 110 by lead-in cables 120 . Separation ropes 123 may also be provided to spread out the streamers 115 and, if present, the passive streamer sections 117 . One or more seismic sensors 125 , such as hydrophones, may be distributed along the length of the seismic streamer 115 . Although not shown in FIG. 1 , one or more seismic sources may also be included within the conventional system 100 . In operation, the survey vessel 105 attempts to tow the seismic array 110 along a predetermined path. As the seismic array 110 passes over a selected portion of the sea floor beneath the predetermined path, the seismic sources may be used to drive an acoustic wave, commonly referred to as a “shot,” through the overlying water and into the ground. The acoustic wave is reflected by subterranean geologic formations and propagates back to the seismic sensors 125 . The seismic sensors 125 receive the reflected waves, which are then processed to generate seismic data. Analysis of the seismic data may indicate probable locations of geological formations, such as hydrocarbon deposits, that may exist beneath the sea floor along the predetermined path. The accuracy of the seismic survey is determined, in part, by how accurately the seismic array 110 is towed along the predetermined path. Thus, in addition to guiding the seismic array 110 by steering the survey vessel 105 , the marine seismic surveying system 100 includes hydrofoils 130 coupled to the seismic array 110 . For example, Western Geco Monowings® may be coupled to one or more of the lead-in cables 120 and/or the passive streamer sections 117 of the seismic array 110 . Although two hydrofoils 130 are shown in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1 , persons of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that more or fewer hydrofoils 130 may be coupled to the seismic array 110 . Moreover, in some alternative embodiments, the hydrofoils 130 are towed by a separate rope or wire, and are coupled to the seismic array 110 by strong separation ropes that are usually called lever arms (not shown). In these cases, hydrofoils 130 of a type usually referred to as a door, paravane, or Barovane, are typically used. To provide sufficient lift to steer the front end of the seismic array 110 and/or to maintain a spread of the seismic cables 115 and/or the passive streamer sections 117 , a typical hydrofoil 130 used in a marine seismic survey is approximately 7-10 meters tall and has a 1-2 meter chord length. In accordance with common usage in the art, the chord length of the hydrofoil 130 is defined herein as the distance from the nose to the tail of the hydrofoil 130 . A hydrofoil 130 of this size may have a lift of about 10 tons. Conventional hydrofoils 130 are typically steered passively to a desired mean position along the predetermined path, at least in part because the power required for active continuous steering of the large hydrofoils 130 is relatively large and not generally available. Passive steering of the hydrofoils 130 is typically capable of steering the seismic array 110 through a range of about 500-600 meters in the cross-line and/or in-line directions. However, variable water currents and the like along the predetermined path may cause the hydrofoil 130 to deviate from its desired mean position. Consequently, the front end of the seismic array 110 and/or the location of one or more of the streamers 115 may also deviate from their desired positions. For example, the seismic array 110 and/or the streamers 115 may deviate from their desired positions by a positioning error of about ±5-10 meters. The deviations of the seismic array 110 and/or the streamers 115 may be in either the cross-line or the in-line direction. Alternatively, when the seismic array 110 is steered to repeat the path of a previous seismic survey, then the desired path of travel may not be a straight line. Deviations from this line may cause cross-line position errors. The positioning errors caused by the deviations of the seismic array 110 and/or the streamers 115 introduce noise into the seismic data. For example, the positioning errors may degrade the time-lapse signal-to-noise ratio of the seismic data. The positioning errors may also propagate from a front end to a back end of the seismic array 110 and/or the streamers 115 and, depending on factors such as the water currents, the positioning errors may increase from the front end to the back end of the seismic array 110 and/or the streamers 115 . Furthermore, the positioning errors may propagate from one survey to another when seismic data is collected in multiple surveys that are repeated over a period of time and then combined, or stacked, to form a combined seismic data set. Conventional hydrofoils 130 , such as doors, paravanes, Barovanes, and the like are not typically used to correct for path deviations, such as those caused by current variations. For example, conventional hydrofoils 130 are typically used near their maximum lift capacity in a standard efficient tow configuration, such as shown in FIG. 1 , which may limit the ability of the hydrofoil 130 to compensate for path deviations. Although the towing configuration of the one or more hydrofoils 130 may be changed so that the hydrofoils 130 operate at lower lift powers, e.g. approximately 65% of their maximum lift power, this approach would provide a less efficient configuration with longer lead-in cables 120 , reduced efficiency in terms of reduced maximum spread, longer lay backs resulting in difficulties in re-positioning by vessel steering, deep cables, and other undesirable consequences. Moreover, cross-line steering of the hydrofoil 130 may introduce undesirable changes in the in-line position of the streamers 120 . FIG. 2 conceptually illustrates movement of the hydrofoil 130 described above, such as a door, a paravane, a Barovane, and the like. As an angular deviation 205 of the hydrofoil 130 increases in the direction indicated by the arrow, a drag 210 of the hydrofoil 130 and a lead-in tension 215 increase correspondingly. Consequently, a lift 220 needed to oppose the drag 210 and the lead-in tension 215 increases significantly. Achieving the required lift 220 may require increasing an angle of attack of the hydrofoil 130 into a range in which the hydrofoil 130 may stall and/or become unstable. These disadvantages may also limit the ability of the hydrofoil 130 to compensate for path deviations. Referring back to FIG. 1 , the hydrofoil 130 also creates a wake 135 of highly rotational fluid. Since the seismic array 110 , the streamers 115 , and the sensors 125 are towed approximately behind the hydrofoil 130 , the wake 135 often disturbs the seismic array 110 , the streamers 115 and/or the seismic sensors 125 . Wake disturbances add noise to the seismic data. Moreover, the wake noise introduced by wake 135 of the hydrofoil 130 may be increased if the hydrofoil 130 is steered. A non-steerable, fixed angle-of-attack hydrofoil (not shown), such as Western Geco's non-steerable Miniwing® may be coupled to the front of one or more of the streamers 115 to pull the streamer 115 about 15-20 meter out of the wake 135 . However, the angle-of-attack of the non-steerable, fixed angle-of-attack hydrofoil may not be changed during a survey to account for changing conditions. One or more birds 140 may also be attached to the streamers 120 . A typical bird 140 has a combined wing span of about 1 meter and has a chord length of approximately 20 centimeters. The birds 140 provide force cross-line to the streamers 115 and are typically used for depth keeping and to compensate for variable current conditions. Conventional birds are only capable of providing forces in the vertical plane for depth keeping purposes. However WesternGeco birds, called Q-fins®, are capable of providing cross line forces in both the vertical plane, for depth keeping, and in the horizontal plane. The latter is used for keeping a straight streamer in spite of varying currents, keeping constant streamer separation and to steer sideways in order to achieve a given demanded feather. The birds 140 may also be steerable. However, due at least in part to high tension in the streamers 115 , the passive streamer sections 117 , the stretches 123 , and the lead-in cables 120 , the steerable birds 140 are typically not powerful enough, i.e. they do not provide sufficient lift, to help position the front end of the streamers 115 and/or the array 110 . For example, several hundred meters and several steerable birds 140 may be required to achieve a desired position for the streamers 115 and/or the array 110 . Moreover, such hard steering of the steerable birds 140 may also increase noise in the seismic data and limit the steerable birds 140 ability to compensate for varying current conditions and/or to steer the seismic array 110 out of the wake 135 of the hydrofoil 130 . In summary, due in part to constraints such as cost, power consumption, noise levels, and desired function of existing elements, the conventional marine seismic survey system 100 lacks a mechanism for maneuvering the front end of the seismic array 110 and/or streamers 115 within a relatively small range of ±20 meters in the cross-line direction. The conventional marine seismic survey system 100 also lacks a mechanism for reliably positioning the front end of the seismic array 110 and/or streamers 120 with an error of less than or about ±1 meter. Consequently, undesirable noise, e.g. noise from excess steering of the hydrofoils 135 and/or the steerable birds 140 , noise from positioning errors, and/or noise from the wake 135 of the hydrofoil 130 , may be introduced into seismic data collected by the conventional marine seismic survey system 100 . The present invention is intended to address one or more of the problems discussed above. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one embodiment of the instant invention, a steerable hydrofoil is provided. The apparatus includes at least one steerable hydrofoil panel, at least one body part coupled to the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to allow the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to rotate about an axis, and at least one actuator for rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel by a selected angle about the axis. In another embodiment of the instant invention, a method is provided. The method includes deploying at least one steerable hydrofoil panel such that the steerable hydrofoil is rotatable about an axis during a marine seismic survey and rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel about the axis by a selected angle during operation of the marine seismic survey. In another embodiment of the instant invention, a system is provided. The system includes a survey vessel, at least one seismic streamer coupled to the survey vessel, and at least one hydrofoil coupled to the at least one seismic streamer. The system also includes at least one steerable hydrofoil panel coupled to the at least one seismic streamer, at least one body part coupled to the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to allow the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel to rotate about an axis, and at least one actuator for rotating the at least one steerable hydrofoil panel by a selected angle about the axis. | 20040616 | 20120124 | 20051222 | 96021.0 | 0 | SWINEHART, EDWIN L | STEERABLE HYDROFOIL | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,539 | ACCEPTED | Micromirror array assembly with in-array pillars | The present invention provides a microstructure device comprising multiple substrates with the components of the device formed on the substrates. In order to maintain uniformity of the gap between the substrates, a plurality of pillars is provided and distributed in the gap so as to prevent decrease of the gap size. The increase of the gap size can be prevented by bonding the pillars to the components of the microstructure. Alternatively, the increase of the gap size can be prevented by maintaining the pressure inside the gap below the pressure under which the microstructure will be in operation. Electrical contact of the substrates on which the micromirrors and electrodes are formed can be made through many ways, such as electrical contact areas, electrical contact pads and electrical contact springs. | 1. A microelectromechanical (MEMS) device, comprising: a first substrate and a second substrate; a plurality of MEMS elements formed on the first substrates; and a plurality of pillars disposed between the second substrate and the MEMS elements. 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the pillars are positioned within the MEMS elements. 3. The device of claim 1, wherein the pillars are positioned within an area covered by the MEMS elements. 4. The device of claim 1, wherein the pillars don't connect the MEMS elements electrically to circuitry for addressing the MEMS elements. 5. The device of claim 1, wherein each of the plurality of pillars comprises an insulating portion that insulates the MEMS elements from circuitry provided for addressing the MEMS elements. 6. The device of claim 1, further comprising: a sealing material disposed between the substrates for bonding the substrates. 7. The device of claim 6, wherein the bonded substrate and the sealing material therebetween form a hermetically sealed space. 8. The device of claim 3, wherein the hermetically sealed space has a pressure lower than 1 atmosphere. 9. The device of claim 1, wherein the functional components comprise: an array of micromirrors on the first or the second substrate; and an array of electrodes and circuitry on the first or the second substrate for deforming the micromirrors. 10. The device of claim 9, wherein the micromirror further comprising: a post on the substrate; a hinge held by the post on the substrate; and a reflective mirror plate attached to the hinge such that the mirror plate is operable to rotate on the substrate. 11. The device of claim 10, wherein the pillar is connected to the post of the micromirror. 12. The device of claim 10, wherein each micromirror has two adjacent posts on the substrate, each post being connected to a pillar. 13. The device of claim 1, wherein the pillars is distributed within an area between the substrates according to a distribution of deformation in the deformable substrate under the pressure. 14. The device of claim 11, wherein the contact point of the pillar to the post is substantially in the middle of the substrates. 15. The device of claim 11, wherein the contact point of the pillar to the post is in the same plane as the hinge. 16. The device of claim 11, wherein the contact point of the pillar to the post is not in the same plane as the hinge. 17. The device of claim 11, wherein the mirror plate, the hinge and the contact point of the pillar to the hinge are on the same plane. 18. The device of claim 11, wherein the pillar has a first component that is connected to the post of the micromirror and a second component that is connected to the first component of the pillar and the substrate on which the electrodes are disposed. 19. The device of claim 18, wherein the first component of the pillar has a smaller dimension than the second component of the pillar. 20. The device of claim 11, wherein the pillar has a smaller area at the contact point of the pillar to the post than the area of the post at the contact point. 21. The device of claim 1, wherein the pillar comprises a material that has a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) matches that of the material of the post. 22. The device of claim 1, wherein the pillar comprises a material that has a thermal conductivity equal to or less than that of the post. 23. The device of claim 1, further comprising: an optical coating film on a surface of the substrate on which the micromirrors are disposed. 24. The device of claim 1, further comprising: a getter material disposed on one of the two substrates for absorbing contaminants. 25. The device of claim 24, wherein the getter is disposed within a trench on the substrate having the micromirrors disposed thereon. 26. The device of claim 6, wherein the sealing material further comprises: a first metallization material disposed on a sacrificial material that is disposed on the substrate on which the micromirrors are formed. 27. The device of claim 26, wherein the sealing material further comprises: a second metallization material disposed on a layer composed of the material of the pillar, wherein said layer and the second metallization material are disposed on the substrate on which the electrodes are disposed. 28. The device of claim 6, wherein the sealing material has a height that is substantially equal to a summation of the heights of the micromirror and the pillar. 29. The device of claim 6, wherein the substrate having the electrodes and circuitry thereon further comprises: a passivation layer on a surface of the said substrate. 30. The device of claim 6, further comprising: a package substrate, wherein the substrate having the electrodes and circuitry is attached to the package substrate; and a package lid on the package substrate for covering the micromirror device. 31. The device of claim 30, further comprising: a shim that is placed between the package substrate and the substrate having the micromirrors. 32. The device of claim 31, further comprising: a substrate insert between the package substrate and the substrate having the electrodes and circuitry. 33. A spatial light modulator for use in a projection system, comprising: a micromirror array device, comprising: a first substrate having thereon an array of micromirrors; a second substrate having an array of electrodes for deforming the micromirrors; and a plurality of pillars disposed between the substrates such that the first substrate is connected to the second substrate via the micromirror and the pillar for maintaining a uniform gap between the substrates. 34. The spatial light modulator of claim 33, further comprising: a sealing material disposed between the substrates for bonding the substrates. 35. The spatial light modulator of claim 34, wherein the bonded substrate and the sealing material therebetween form a hermetically sealed space. 36. The spatial light modulator of claim 35, wherein the hermetically sealed space has a pressure lower than 1 atmosphere. 37. The spatial light modulator of claim 33, wherein the micromirror further comprising: a post on the first substrate; a hinge held by the post on the first substrate; and a reflective mirror plate attached to the hinge such that the mirror plate is operable to rotate on the first substrate. 38. The spatial light modulator of claim 37, wherein the pillar is connected to the post of the micromirror. 39. The spatial light modulator of claim 38, wherein each micromirror has two posts on the substrate, each post being connected to a pillar. 40. The spatial light modulator of claim 33, wherein the pillars is distributed within an area between the substrates according to a distribution of deformation in the first substrate under a pressure. 41. The spatial light modulator of claim 38, wherein the contact point of the pillar to the post is in the same plane as the hinge. 42. The spatial light modulator of claim 38, wherein the contact point of the pillar to the post is not in the same plane as the hinge. 43. The spatial light modulator of claim 38, wherein the mirror plate, the hinge and the contact point of the pillar to the hinge are on the same plane. 44. The spatial light modulator of claim 38, wherein the pillar has a first component that is connected to the post of the micromirror and a second component that is connected to the first component of the pillar and the substrate on which the electrodes are disposed. 45. The spatial light modulator of claim 33, wherein the pillar comprises a material that has a coefficient of thermal expansion matches that of the material of the post. 46. The spatial light modulator of claim 33, wherein the pillar comprises a material that has a thermal conductivity equal to or less than that of the post. 47. The spatial light modulator of claim 33, further comprising: an optical coating film on a surface of the substrate on which the micromirrors are disposed. 48. The spatial light modulator of claim 33, further comprising: a getter material disposed on one of the two substrates for absorbing contaminants. 49. The spatial light modulator of claim 33, wherein the sealing material further comprises: a first metallization material disposed on a sacrificial material that is disposed on the substrate on which the micromirrors are formed. 50. The spatial light modulator of claim 34, wherein the sealing material further comprises: a second metallization material disposed on a layer composed of the material of the pillar, wherein said layer and the second metallization material are disposed on the substrate on which the electrodes are disposed. 51. A micromirror device, comprising: a first substrate; a post on the substrate; a mirror plate attached to a hinge that is held by the post on the substrate such that the mirror plate rotates on the substrate; a pillar on the mirror plate and in connection with the post; and a second substrate having an electrode and circuitry disposed thereon for rotating the mirror plate, wherein the second substrate is disposed on the pillar and connected to the pillar such that the distance between the first and second substrate is maintained at a substantially constant value. 52. The micromirror device of claim 51, wherein the pillar is connected to the post of the micromirror. 53. The micromirror device of claim 52, wherein the connect point of the pillar to the post is in the same plane as the hinge. 54. The micromirror device of claim 52, wherein the connect point of the pillar to the post is not in the same plane as the hinge. 55. The micromirror device of claim 53, wherein the connect point of the pillar to the post is substantially in the middle between the substrates. 56. The micromirror of claim 51, further comprising another post on the first substrate for holding the hinge. 57. The micromirror of claim 55, wherein said another post is connected to another pillar that is placed between the substrates and connected to the second substrate. 58. The micromirror of claim 56, wherein said another pillar has a different dimension as the pillar. 59. The micromirror of claim 51, wherein the pillar has a first component that connects the post of the micromirror and a second component that is connected to the first component of the pillar and the second substrate. 60. The micromirror of claim 51, wherein the pillar has a material having a coefficient-of-thermal-expansion that matches that of the post. 61. The micromirror of claim 51, wherein the pillar has a material having a thermal conductivity that is equal to or higher than that of the post. 62. A method of making a spatial light modulator, the method comprising: forming an array of micromirrors on first substrate; forming an array of electrodes and circuitry on second substrate; forming a plurality of pillars on the second substrate; aligning each pillar with one of the micromirrors; and bonding the substrates. 63. The method of claim 62, wherein the step of forming the array of micromirrors further comprises: depositing a first sacrificial layer on a first substrate; forming an array of mirror plates on the first sacrificial layer; depositing a second sacrificial layer on the mirror plates; and forming an array of posts and hinges on the substrate such that the mirror plate is attached to the hinge, and the hinge is held on the first substrate by the post. 64. The method of claim 63, wherein the step of forming the plurality of pillars further comprises: depositing a pillar material on the second substrate; and patterning the deposited pillar material so as to form the pillars. 65. The method of claim 64, wherein the step of aligning the pillar with the micromirror further comprising: aligning the pillar with the post of the micromirror such that the pillar is connected to the post. 66. A micromirror array device, comprising a substrate having thereon an array of micromirrors, further comprising: at least two electrical contact pads, each of which is electrically connected to the micromirrors such that am electrical resistance of the micromirrors of the array can be measured through the electrical contact pads; and an array of electrodes associated with the micromirrors for deflecting the micromirrors. 67. The device of claim 66, wherein the electrodes are disposed on another substrate other than the substrate having the micromirrors. 68. The device of claim 67, wherein the two substrates are bonded together through a sealing material. 69. The device of claim 68, further comprising: a shim that electrically connects the electrical contact pads and a package substrate to which the bonded substrates are attached such that the electrical contact pads are extended to the package substrate. 70. The device of claim 68, wherein the substrate having the electrodes further comprises: a multiplicity of electrical contact areas at a plurality of locations corresponding to the locations of the electrical contact pads on the substrate having the micromirrors such that, when the two substrates are bonded together, the electrical contact pads are overlapped with the electrical contact areas. 71. A spatial light modulator, comprising: an array of micromirrors on a first substrate; an array of electrodes and circuitry on a second substrate; a first sealing material that hermetically bonds the first and second substrates; and a second sealing material other than the first seal material contracting the first and second substrate for enhancing the hermetic seal with the first sealing material. 72. The spatial light modulator of claim 71, wherein the first substrate is glass that is transmissive to visible light. 73. The spatial light modulator of claim 71, wherein the first sealing material is metal. 74. The spatial light modulator of claim 71, wherein the second sealing material is epoxy. 75. The spatial light modulator of claim 71, wherein the first sealing material forms a sealing ring between the first and second substrates. 76. The spatial light modulator of claim 75, wherein the second sealing material is disposed within the sealing ring. 77. The spatial light modulator of claim 75, wherein the second sealing material is disposed outside the sealing ring. 78. The spatial light modulator of claim 71, wherein the second sealing material is operable to hermetically seal the first and second substrates. 79. A microelectromechanical device, comprising: a first and second substrate bonded together; an array of MEMS elements formed on the first substrate and disposed between the substrates; an array of electrodes and circuitry disposed between the bonded substrates but spaced apart from the array of MEMS elements; and a plurality of pillars disposed between the second substrate and the MEMS elements. 80. The device of claim 79, wherein the pillars are positioned within the MEMS elements. 81. The device of claim 79, wherein the pillars positioned within an area covered by the MEMS elements. 82. The device of claim 79, wherein the pillars don't connect the MEMS elements electrically. 83. The device of claim 79, wherein each of the plurality of pillars comprises an insulating portion. 84. The device of claim 79, wherein first substrate is light transmissive. 85. The device of claim 84, wherein the light transmissive substrate is glass. 86. The device of claim 79, wherein the first and second substrate is hermetically bonded. 87. The device of claim 79, wherein the pillar is positioned proximate to a reflective deflectable element of the MEMS but does not directly connected thereto. 88. A method of forming a spatial light modulator for use in a display system, the method comprising: forming a plurality of micromirrors on a light transmissive substrate, wherein each micromirror has a fixed portion and a movable portion; forming a plurality of electrodes and circuitry on a semiconductor substrate; and forming a pillar on the fixed portion of the micromirror and/or on the semiconductor substrate. 89. The method of claim 88, wherein the pillar is formed only on the semiconductor substrate. 90. The method of claim 88, wherein the pillar is formed only on the fixed portion of the micromirror. 91. The method of claim 88, wherein the pillar is formed on both of the fixed portion and the semiconductor substrate. 92. The method of claim 88, wherein the pillar is formed within an area covered by the micromirrors. 93. The method of claim 88, wherein the pillar comprises an insulating portion. 94. The method of claim 88, further comprising: bonding the light transmissive substrate and the semiconductor substrate together to form an assembly such that the micromirrors, the electrodes and circuitry are positioned between the substrates. 95. The method of claim 94, wherein the step of bonding the light transmissive substrate and the semiconductor substrate further comprising: hermetically bonding the light transmissive substrate and the semiconductor substrate. 96. The method of claim 95, wherein the step of hermetically bonding the light transmissive substrate and the semiconductor substrate further comprising: hermetically bonding the semiconductor substrate and the light transmissive substrate such that a space between the hermetically bonded substrate has a pressure lower than 1 atmosphere. 97. The method of claim 94, wherein the step of hermetically bonding the light transmissive substrate and the semiconductor substrate further comprising: bonding the semiconductor substrate and the light transmissive substrate while the micromirrors are not fully surrounded. 98. The method of claim 88, wherein the step of forming the micromirrors further comprising: forming a plurality of mirror plates on the light transmissive substrate; and forming a plurality of hinges on the light transmissive substrate such that the mirror plates and hinges are located on different planes parallel to the light transmissive substrate. | TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is related generally to the art of microelectromechanical systems, and, more particularly, to spatial light modulators having array of micromirrors and methods of making the same. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Microstructures such as microelectromechanical systems are often fabricated on one or more substrates. These substrates may deform during fabrication or operation, causing degradation of the device performance or even device failure when the deformation exceeds a tolerable amount. Moreover, in those microstructures having multiple substrates, a uniform gap between two substrates is often required for ensuring desired functions or performance of the microstructure. As an example, FIG. 1 illustrates a portion of a micromirror array device which is a type of microelectromechanical device. An array of mirror plates such as mirror plate 120 is formed on glass substrate 116. The mirrors are operable to rotate relative to the glass substrate for reflecting light into different directions. The micromirrors are individually addressable and the addressing can be accomplished through an array of electrodes (e.g. electrode 122) and circuitry on semiconductor substrate 114. Specifically, an electrostatic field is established between each mirror plate and the electrode associated with the mirror plate. The strength of such electrostatic field complies with the voltage (often referred to as data bit) stored in the circuitry connected to the electrode. By setting the voltage through writing the data bit in the circuitry, the strength of the electrostatic field and thus the rotation position of the mirror plate can be adjusted. Because the rotation of the mirror plate is determined by the strength of the electrostatic field that further depends upon the distance between the mirror plate and the associated electrode, it is desired that such distance is uniform for all micromirrors. However, a uniform distance throughout the micromirror array may not be guaranteed in fabrication or in operation or in both due to deformation of the substrates on which the micromirrors and electrodes are formed. The deformation may arise from many factors, such as temperature change, variation of the pressure applied to the substrates and other factors, such as attractive or expellant electrostatic forces between the substrates when the substrates are electrically charged. The deformation changes the gap size, which in turn changes the effective strength of the electrostatic field. As a consequence, desired operation or performance of the device is not achievable. In addition to the substrate deformation, other factors, such as operation environment (e.g. contamination and viscosity) may also degrade the operation and performance of the micromirror array device. Contamination is often solved by packaging the device, such as hermetically packaging the device. Viscosity problems arise from the viscosity resistance to the rotation of the mirror plate in a medium, such as air or the gas (e.g. an inert gas). The viscosity resistance to the movement of the mirror plate reduces the response time of the mirror plate and limits the application of the micromirror array device. Therefore, what is needed is a micromirror array device that is mechanically robust and has improved performance. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In an embodiment of the invention, a microelectromechanical (MEMS) device is disclosed. The device comprises: a first substrate and a second substrate; a plurality of MEMS elements formed on the first substrates; and a plurality of pillars disposed between the second substrate and the MEMS elements. In another embodiment of the invention, a spatial light modulator for use in a projection system is disclosed. The spatial light modulator comprises: a micromirror array device, comprising: a first substrate having thereon an array of micromirrors; a second substrate having an array of electrodes for deforming the micromirrors; and a plurality of pillars disposed between the substrates such that the first substrate is connected to the second substrate via the micromirror and the pillar for maintaining a uniform gap between the substrates. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a micromirror device is disclosed. The device comprises: a first substrate; a post on the substrate; a mirror plate attached to a hinge that is held by the post on the substrate such that the mirror plate rotates on the substrate; a pillar on the mirror plate and in connection with the post; and a second substrate having an electrode and circuitry disposed thereon for rotating the mirror plate, wherein the second substrate is disposed on the pillar and connected to the pillar such that the distance between the first and second substrate is maintained at a substantially constant value. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a method of making a spatial light modulator is disclosed. The method comprises: forming an array of micromirrors on first substrate; forming an array of electrodes and circuitry on second substrate; forming a plurality of pillars on the second substrate; aligning each pillar with one of the micromirrors; and bonding the substrates. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a micromirror array device is disclosed, which comprises: a substrate having thereon an array of micromirrors, further comprising: at least two electrical contact pads, each of which is electrically connected to the micromirrors such that am electrical resistance of the micromirrors of the array can be measured through the electrical contact pads; and an array of electrodes associated with the micromirrors for deflecting the micromirrors. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a spatial light modulator is provided, which comprises: an array of micromirrors on a first substrate; an array of electrodes and circuitry on a second substrate; a first sealing material that hermetically bonds the first and second substrates; and a second sealing material other than the first seal material contracting the first and second substrate for enhancing the hermetic seal with the first sealing material. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a microelectromechanical device is provided. The device comprises: a first and second substrate bonded together; an array of MEMS elements formed on the first substrate and disposed between the substrates; an array of electrodes and circuitry disposed between the bonded substrates but spaced apart from the array of MEMS elements; and a plurality of pillars disposed between the second substrate and the MEMS elements. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a method of forming a spatial light modulator for use in a display system is disclosed. The method comprises: forming a plurality of micromirrors on a light transmissive substrate, wherein each micromirror has a fixed portion and a movable portion; forming a plurality of electrodes and circuitry on a semiconductor substrate; and forming a pillar on the fixed portion of the micromirror and/or on the semiconductor substrate. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS While the appended claims set forth the features of the present invention with particularity, the invention, together with its objects and advantages, may be best understood from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings of which: FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the spatial light modulator in prior art; FIG. 2 illustrates a display system having a spatial light modulator in which embodiments of the invention can be implemented; FIG. 3 is a perspective view of a portion of a spatial light modulator having an array of micromirrors according to the invention; FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a portion of a micromirror of the micromirror array in FIG. 3; FIG. 5 through FIG. 10 are cross-sectional views of micromirror devices according to different embodiments of the invention; FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view of a spatial light modulator in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of a spatial light modulator in accordance with another embodiment of the invention; FIG. 13 is a top view of a micromirror array device formed on a die; FIG. 14 plots a distribution of the pillars density and distribution of substrate distortion of the micromirror array deice on the die in FIG. 13; FIG. 15 through FIG. 18 illustrate an exemplary fabrication process of micromirror array device in FIG. 13; FIG. 19 is a cross-sectional view of the micromirror device on a package substrate according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 20 is a another cross-sectional view of the micromirror device of FIG. 19; FIG. 21 is a top view of the micromirror array device assembly of FIG. 19; FIG. 22 is a top view of another the micromirror array device assembly; FIG. 23 is a cross-sectional view of a micromirror array device assembly according to another embodiment of the invention; FIG. 24 is a perspective view of a micromirror device during a fabrication according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 25 is a cross-sectional view of a plurality of micromirror devices during an exemplary fabrication according to the invention; and FIGS. 26A and 26B are cross-sectional views of a micromirror device in FIG. 25 before and after removal of a substrate provided during the fabrication for protecting the surface of the micromirror device. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS The present invention provides a microstructure device comprising multiple substrates with the functional components of the device formed on the substrates. In order to maintain a uniform gap between the substrates, a plurality of pillars is provided and distributed within the gap. The gap uniformity can further be enhanced by maintaining the pressure inside the gap below the pressure under which the microstructure device will be in operation. In the following, the present invention will be discussed with reference to examples in which a microelectromechanical device comprises an array of micromirrors formed on two substrates. It is understood by those skilled in the art that the following discussion is for demonstration purposes only and will not be interpreted as a limitation. Though the invention will be discussed with reference to the following example, it is not intended to exclude other variations within the scope of the present invention. For example, the present invention can be implemented in other microstructures having functional components formed on single or multiple substrates. Turning to the drawings, FIG. 2 illustrates an exemplary display system in which embodiment of the invention may be implemented. In its basic configuration, display system 100 comprises light source 102, optical elements (e.g. light pipe 104, collection lens 106 and projection lens 108), display target 112 and spatial light modulator 110 that often comprises an array of thousands or millions of micromirrors that are individually addressable. In operation, light from the light source (e.g. an arc lamp) travels through the light pipe and collection lens and shines on the micromirrors of the spatial light modulator. The micromirrors individually reflect the incident light from the light source either onto (when in their “ON” position) or away from (when in their “OFF” state) the projection lens, resulting in an image on display target 112. FIG. 3 shows a portion of an exemplary spatial light modulator in FIG. 2. The spatial light modulator comprises an array of mirror plates 124 formed on glass substrate 116, which is transmissive to visible light. The mirror plates are individually addressable and operable to rotate for reflecting incident light from the light source into different spatial directions. The rotation of the mirror plates is driven by an array of electrodes (e.g. electrode array 126) formed on substrate 114, which is a semiconductor substrate further having an array of circuitry (not show in the figure). The gap between the glass and semiconductor substrates is defined and maintained by one or more pillars, such as 128, which is better illustrated in FIG. 4. The distribution of the pillars in the micromirrors can be random or in accordance with a particular pattern, which will be discussed afterwards with reference to FIG. 15 through FIG. 18. Referring to FIG. 4, two posts 134 are formed on the glass substrate 116. The posts can be placed at any desired position relative to the mirror plate. For example, the posts can be placed at the ends of a predominant diagonal of the mirror plate such that a line connecting the posts is parallel to the diagonal. For another example, the posts can be placed around the ends of a predominant diagonal. For yet another example, the posts can be placed on the sides of the mirror plate. Other arrangements of the posts are also applicable. Hinge 136 is held by the posts on the substrate. The mirror plate is attached to the hinge such that the mirror plate can rotate above the glass substrate. As being illustrated in the figure, the mirror plate is attached to the hinge such the mirror plate can rotate asymmetrically. That is, the mirror plate can rotate to a larger angle in one direction than in the opposite direction. The hinge is parallel to but offset from a diagonal of the mirror plate when viewed from the top, and the attachment point of the mirror plate to the hinge is neither at the center of the mirror plate nor along a virtual line connecting posts 130A and 130B. In other examples, the mirror plate and the hinge can be formed such that the mirror plate can rotate symmetrically. Moreover, the hinge may not necessarily be a torsion hinge as shown in the figure. Instead, the hinge can be another type of non-torsion hinges (e.g. flexure hinge). The mirror plate rotates in response to an electrostatic field established between the mirror plate and the electrode that is formed on the semiconductor substrate, which is not shown in this figure. In order to keep a uniform gap between the substrates, pillars 128 are provided and the pillars are located on top of the posts and between the posts and the semiconductor substrate (not shown). The pillars may take any desired form, such as polyhedron or cylinder. In this particular example, the pillars are tapered polyhedron with the butt ends contacting against the semiconductor substrate and the tail ends contacting against the posts (this shape due to being formed on the semiconductor substrate). The figure shows the micromirror has two posts and two pillars contacting the posts, this is not an absolute requirement. The micromirror may comprise two posts while only one pillar is provided for the micromirror. As another example, the micromirror may have only one post with one pillar connected to the post of the micromirror. In a micromirror array device such as that shown in FIG. 3, a pillar may not be provided for all micromirrors of the array, which will be discussed further afterwards with reference to FIG. 13 and FIG. 14. The relative position of the posts, the pillars, and the substrates is better illustrated in FIG. 5, which is a cross-sectional view of the micromirror in FIG. 4 along line AA. Posts 134A and 134B are formed on glass substrate 116. Hinge 133 is held on the glass substrate by the posts. Mirror plate 132 is attached to the hinge such that the mirror plate can rotate relative to the substrate. Pillars 130A and 130B are formed on semiconductor substrate 114 that further comprises an electrode and circuitry for rotating the mirror plate (not shown). Each pillar is connected to a post such that the size of the gap between the substrates is defined as the summation of the heights of the post and the pillar and maintained at this constant value during operation. The pillar can be of any desired height. In this example, the height of the pillar is substantially equal to or greater than the height of the post. The contact point of the post to the pillar is substantially in the middle of the gap. In another example, the pillar is shorter than the post. As a result, the contact point of the pillar to the post is closer to substrate 114 than to substrate 116. In yet another example, the pillar has a larger height than the post. In this situation, the contact area of the post to the pillar is closer to substrate 116 than to substrate 114. Instead of providing pillars for both posts of the micromirror device, the micromirror may have only one pillar as shown in FIG. 6. The pillar is connected to one of the posts of the micromirror device. The pillar may comprise any suitable materials, such as polyimide or SU-8. SU-8 is a negative, epoxy-type, near-UV photoresist based on EPON SU-8 epoxy resin that has been originally developed, and patented (U.S. Pat. No. 4,882,245). As another example, the pillar comprises a material that has a coefficient of thermal expansion (CET) matching the CTE of the post. The pillar may alternatively comprise a material with a high thermal conductivity for improving heat dissipation. The material of the pillar can be electric conducting or insulating. FIG. 7 shows another exemplary micromirror device with pillars provided. Instead of being connected to the posts, the pillars are connected to the protrusions of the posts. Specifically, pillar 130A is formed on substrate 114 and connected to protrusion 135A that is formed on post 134A, and pillar 130B is likewise formed on substrate 114 and connected to protrusion of 135B that is formed on post 134B. The protrusions may or may not be the same. The pillars of the microstructure also may or may not be the same. FIG. 8 shows the micromirror of FIG. 7 with only one pillar provided. Referring to FIG. 9, a cross-sectional view of a micromirror device according to yet another embodiment of the invention is illustrated therein. In this particular example, pillars 135A and 135B are formed on the posts of the micromirror device and connected to substrate 114 when the two substrates are bonded together. Specifically, pillar 135A is formed on post 134A and connects post 134A to substrate 114. Likewise, pillar 135B is formed on post 134B and connects post 134B to substrate 114. The lengths of a post and the pillar formed on the post determine the gap between the two bonded substrates. The pillars and the posts in combination resist variation of the gap between the two substrates. As an alternative, not all posts of the micromirror device are provided with pillars. As an example shown in FIG. 10, one of the posts of the micromirror device is not provided with a pillar, however, at least one post of the micromirror device is provided with a pillar. In other alternatives wherein the micromirror device is part of a micromirror array device, a particular micromirror device of the array may not have a pillar, which will be discussed in the following with reference to FIGS. 13 and 14. In a device having an array of micromirrors, pillars may be provided for selected micromirrors. Referring to FIG. 11, a cross-sectional view of a row of the micromirror array from a different view angle from FIGS. 5 to 10 is illustrated therein. For simplicity purposes only, only three micromirrors are shown. The cross-section is taken along the line connecting the posts of the micromirror. In this particular example, micromirror 148 is provided with pillars (e.g. pillars 140A and 140B), while micromirrors 150 and 152 in the row of the array have no pillars. The pillars of micromirror 148 can be the pillars as discussed with reference to FIGS. 5 through 10, or any desired pillars that are not discussed herein but are variations of the pillars as discussed above. FIG. 12 illustrates another exemplary micromirror array device. In this example, pillars are provided for micromirrors 154, 156 and 158. The micromirrors (with the number of n, wherein n is an integer and zero) between micromirrors 154 and 156 are not provided with pillars. And the micromirrors (with the number of m, wherein m is an integer and zero and may or may not be the same as n) between micromirrors 156 and 158 are not provided with pillars. FIG. 13 illustrates a top view of the micromirror array device, such as the device in FIG. 1. The solid circles represent micromirrors each having at least one pillar. The open circles represent micromirrors having no pillar. In this example, pillars are provided for those micromirrors around the center of the device. This arrangement is in compliance with an observation that the substrate (e.g. substrate 116 in FIG. 1) has more deformation around the center and less near the edge. An exemplary distribution of the substrate deformation is illustrated as the dotted line in FIG. 14. Rather than providing the pillars only for the micromirrors near the center, the provided pillars may be distributed in the micromirrors as desired. For example, in addition to providing the pillars to the micromirrors around the center of the micromirror array device, pillars are also provided for selected micromirrors not around the center of the micromirror array device. The dashed line in FIG. 14 plots the density (defined as the number of pillars per unit area) of the pillars distributed in the micromirrors of an exemplary micromirror array device. The micromirrors in a region (having number of P micromirrors) around the center of the array are provided with at least one pillar. For the remaining micromirrors, the pillars are provided according to the distance from the edge of the device, wherein the distance is measured by the number of micromirrors. Specifically, the density of the pillars in those micromirrors can be linear. In an example, a plurality of pillars is provided for the micromirror array device and is randomly distributed in the micromirrors of the array. The micromirror array and the micromirror having a pillar can be fabricated in many ways. In the following, an exemplary fabrication method will be discussed with reference to FIG. 15 through FIG. 18. It is understood by those skilled in the art that the method is applicable to other micromirror array devices having different pillar distributions or other type of microstructures having pillars between substrates. Referring to FIG. 15, an array of mirror plates is formed on glass substrate 116. Specifically, first sacrificial layer 164 is deposited on the glass substrate followed by deposition of the mirror plate layer 160. The glass substrate may have other films deposited thereon. For example, optical coating films, such as anti-reflection films 160 and 162 can be deposited on each surface of the glass substrate. Other coating films may also be deposited on the surfaces of the glass substrate or on the deposited optical films before depositing the first sacrificial layer. The mirror plate layer is then patterned into desired shapes. Second sacrificial layer 166 is deposited on the patterned mirror plates for forming the hinge (not shown) and posts (e.g. posts 142A and 142B). After the hinge and the posts are formed, the sacrificial layers are removed using selected etchant, such as a vapor phase interhalogen (e.g. bromine fluorides) and noble has halide (e.g. xenon fluorides). The micromirror array device after removing of the sacrificial layers is illustrated in FIG. 16. The method as discussed above is applied to fabricate a micromirror with the hinge and the mirror plate on separate planes. This method is also applicable to fabricate a micromirror as shown in FIG. 7 or alike, in which post protrusions are provided. To obtain such a micromirror, a third sacrificial layer may be deposited on the second sacrificial layer. The posts protrusions are then formed on the third sacrificial layer. After removal of the sacrificial layers, other structures can be formed. For example, a getter (e.g. a non-evaporate getter or dispensable getter) can be provided in trench 174A for absorbing containments, such as moisture or particles. The trench can be formed at any desired location of the substrate, such as a location near the edge of the substrate as shown in the figure. In another example, light absorbing layer 170 can be formed on layer 164 that is deposited on substrate 116. Layer 164 can be the first or the second sacrificial layer. The light absorbing layer 170 can be a metallic layer that absorbs light from the light source so as to reduce light scattering and absorb scattered light by the components of the micromirrors or incoming light. On the metallic layer 170, a metallization bonding layer 172A can be deposited for bonding the glass substrate to the semiconductor substrate 114 in FIG. 1. In this example, the layers 164, 170 and 172 surround the circumference of the substrate 116. The fabrication of the pillars on the semiconductor substrate is illustrated in FIG. 17. Referring to FIG. 17, the semiconductor substrate 114 comprises an array of circuitry (e.g. DRAM or other type of memories) that is not shown. Layer 176 is deposited on the surface of the substrate for passivating the surface. The pillars 140A and 140B can be formed on the electrode by many ways, such as spinning the pillar material, curing the spun pillar material and patterning the cured pillar material on the electrode into desired shapes. As an example, the pillar is a tapered polyhedron. In addition to the pillars, other structures may be formed on substrate 114. For example, layer 180 comprising the pillar material can be formed and patterned followed by deposition and patterning of metallization layer 172B. Layers 180 and 172 fully surround the circumference of the substrate 114. layer 180 and pillars 140A and 140B may have the same material, though not required. Trench 174B can be formed for holding a getter (e.g. a non-evaporate getter or dispensable getter) material so as to absorb containments, such as moisture or particles. The trench can be formed at any desired location of the substrate, such as a location near the edge of the substrate. The glass (or quartz) substrate 116 with micromirrors formed thereon as shown in FIG. 17 and the semiconductor (e.g. silicon) substrate 114 with the electrodes and pillars formed thereon as shown in FIG. 16 are then bonded together as shown in FIG. 18. Referring to FIG. 18, substrates 114 and 116 are first aligned such that the pillars are aligned with the corresponding posts. Meanwhile, sealing ring 182 comprising layers 164, 170 and 172 on substrate 116 are aligned with the sealing ring comprising layers 180 and 172 on substrate 114. The aligned substrates and the sealing rings on the substrates are cured. As an example, the substrates and the sealing rings are cured at a temperature of from 100° C. to 200° C., or around 120° C. As another example, the substrates can be cured at the melting temperature or higher of the metallization layers 172. The metallization layers 172 on the substrates 114 and 116 are then melted to bond the substrates and form a hermetic seal to the substrates. The bonded and hermetically sealed substrates are then cooled down to a temperature below 100° C., such as 70° C. As a result, the pressure inside the hermetically sealed space between the substrates is below the atmosphere, such as 500 Torr or lower, or 200 Torr or lower, or 100 Torr or lower. The reduced pressure between the bonded and hermetically sealed substrates is of great importance when the micromirror array device is operated in a typical operation environment of room temperature and at 1 atmosphere. Specifically, the reduced pressure between the substrates can prevent increase of the gap between the substrates due to outwards expansion of the substrates in the presence of temperature variation. For this reason, the pressure inside the hermetically sealed package can be of any pressure below one atmosphere, such as 250 Torr or less, or 50 Torr or less, or 10 Torr or less, or 1 Torr or less, or 100 mTorr or less. The low pressure inside the hermetically sealed package can also be obtained through many other ways, such as sealing the package within a low pressure chamber. As another example, before aligning the substrates, a ultra-violet light (UV) or UV/infra-radiation light curable material, such as epoxy 183 or alike can be deposited around the perimeter of one or both substrates outside or inside seal ring 182. The substrates are then aligned; and a hermetical seal is formed to bond the substrates. The hermetically sealed substrates may be cooled down to a temperature below 100° C. to obtain a reduced pressure between the substrates. Epoxy 183 is then cured to add bonding strength to the hermetic seal. Getter materials (e.g. non-evaporate or dispensable getter materials) can be provided in trenches 174A and 174B on the substrates for absorbing containments, such as moisture or particles. The getter materials in the trenches may or may not be the same. The trench can be formed at any desired location of the substrate, such as a location near the edge of the substrate. Lubricant materials for lubricating the surfaces of the micromirror device can also be disposed in the trenches. In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the bonding and sealing of the substrate can be performed in a pressured chamber. During the bonding and sealing, the volume between the two substrates decreases, resulting in increase of pressure between the substrates. This pressure variation may burst the sealing material between the substrates. For this and other reasons, the bonding and sealing of the substrates are performed within a chamber that has a pressure proximate to the internal pressure of the seal gap between the substrates. In this way, the pressure between the substrates during the bonding and sealing is in equilibrium with the environment pressure. The bonded and hermetically sealed substrates, referred to as an assembly, are packaged, which is shown in FIG. 19. As an example, the assembly comprising bonded substrates 114 and 116 is attached to package substrate 188. Sealing ring 182 is deposited around the perimeter of the substrates. A substrate insert 186 can be disposed between substrate 188 and substrate 114 for many advantages, such as preventing deformation of substrate 188 and providing efficient heat conductor for dissipating heat in the assembly. Electric contact between the micromirrors in substrate 116 and electrodes on substrate 114 can be made in a variety of ways. As a way of example, multiple electric contact pads can be provided for the micromirrors in substrate 116, such as two electric contact pads 190A and 190B in FIG. 21. Referring to FIG. 21, sealing ring comprises multiple segments, such as 183A and 183B so as to form gaps between the segments for allowing the electrical contact pads to pass through. The electrical contact pads are connected to the micromirrors of micromirror array 124. The multiple electrical contact pads also enable the resistance measurement of the micromirrors of the array. The measured resistance can be used to determine the quality of the electrical inter-connection of the micromirrors in the array. The electrical contact pads are then connected to multiple shims 184A and 184B as shown in FIG. 19. Referring back to FIG. 19, shims 184A and 184B extend the electrical contact pads 190A and 190B onto package substrate 188. Electrical contact wires 196A and 196B are respectively connected to the shims, which is better illustrated in FIG. 20. Referring to FIG. 20, shim 184A electrically contacts electrical contact pad 190A on substrate 116 and wire 196A on package substrate 188. And shim 184B electrically contacts electrical contact pad 190B on substrate 116 and wire 196B on package substrate 188. External power supplies can thus be connected to the wires so as to provide electrical power to the micromirrors. Referring back to FIG. 19, electrical contact of the electrodes (and circuitry) on substrate 114 can be made through electrical wires 198. The external power supplies can be connected to wire 198 and provide electrical power to the electrodes. In the above example, two electrical contact pads are provided for the substrate on which the micromirrors are formed. In fact, other number (e.g. one, or more than two) of electrical contact pads may be formed on substrate 116. Accordingly, the number of shims connected to the electrical contact pads changes with the number of electrical contact pads. As another example of the invention, electrical contact between the two substrates is made through multiple contact areas, such as that shown in FIG. 22. Referring to FIG. 22, multiple contact areas, such as 192A and 192B that are connected to the micromirrors of the micromirror array are formed on substrate 116. The contact areas can be of any desired shapes and areas. The areas may also be in different configuration. For example, one contact area is rectangular and the other one is circle. The areas can be disposed at any desired locations on the substrate as long as they are electrically connected to the micromirrors. Corresponding to contact areas 192A and 192B on substrate 116, contact areas 194A and 194B are formed on substrate 114. When the two substrates are joined together, the electrical contact areas 192A and 194A, and 192B and 194B are overlapped so as to form electrical connection. The electric contacts, such as the electrical contact pads 190A and 190B, and electrical contact areas 192A, 912B, 194A, and 194B may comprise any suitable material, such as electrical conductor (e.g. electrical conducting epoxy) or electrical insulator (e.g. non-electrical-conducting epoxy). When an electrical insulator is used, an electrical conducting spacer (not shown) is provided between the substrates (e.g. substrates 114 and 166). In yet another example of the invention, electrical contact of the two substrates are made through a contact spring or alike, as shown in FIG. 23. Electrical springs 200 are formed on substrate 188. When the two substrates are jointed together, the electrical springs are pressed against the electrical contact pads on substrate 116 so as to form electrical contact. Alternatively, an electrical contacting cantilever 202 can be made on substrate 188 for electrically contacting substrate 116. During the assembling and packaging processes, surfaces of the micromirror device may be contaminated. Contamination of the interior surfaces of the assembly (e.g. the bottom surface of substrate 116 and the surfaces of the micromirrors and the top surface of substrate 114) can be prevented by hermetically sealing of substrates 114 and 116 with sealing material 182. However, the exterior surface of the assembly, such as the top surface of the glass substrate 116 is exposed to contamination. To solve this problem, a sacrificial substrate is provided and sealed with substrate 116 such that the top surface of substrate 116 can be encapsulated between the sacrificial substrate and substrate 116 during the assembly and packaging process, as illustrated in FIG. 24. Referring to FIG. 24, substrate 114 having the electrode array formed thereon can be hermetically sealed with substrate 116 on which the micromirror array is formed. The hermetical seal is made through sealing material 182. The top surface of substrate 114 and the bottom surface of substrate 116 can thus be prevented from contamination. To protect the top surface of substrate 116, sacrificial substrate 206 is provided and bonded to substrate 116 with sealing material 208. The sealing of substrates 206 and 116 can be performed before or after the hermetically sealing of substrates 114 and 116, or during the fabrication process, which will be discussed in detail in the following. Referring to FIG. 25, a cross-sectional view of a plurality of micromirror array devices during fabrication is illustrated therein. For simplicity and demonstration purposes only, only four micromirror array devices are shown. In an exemplary fabrication process, fabrication of the electrode arrays on the standard semiconductor substrate 114 and the fabrication of the micromirror arrays on substrate 116 are performed separately. For example, the electrode arrays, as well as the associated circuitries (e.g. random-access-memories), are formed on substrate 114 using standard integrated circuit fabrication techniques. Separate from the fabrication of the electrodes, the micromirrors are formed on substrate 116. The micromirrors can be fabricated on substrate 116 in a verity of ways, such as the methods set forth in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/366,296 to Patel et al, filed on Feb. 12, 2003, Ser. No. 10/366,297 to Patel et al, filed on Feb. 12, 2003, Ser. No. 10/402,789 to Patel, filed on Mar. 28, 2003, Ser. No. 10/402,889 to Patel, filed on Mar. 28, 2003, Ser. No. 10/627,105, filed on Jul. 24, 2003, Ser. No. 10/613,379, filed on Jul. 3, 2003, Ser. No. 10/437,776, field on May 13, 2003, Ser. No. 10/698,513, filed on Oct. 30, 2003, the subject matter of each being incorporated herein by reference. During the fabrication of the micromirrors on substrate 116, sealing rings, such as sealing ring 208 is deposited on the top surface of substrate 116. An exemplary sealing ring 208 is illustrated in FIG. 24. Sacrificial substrate 206, which can be glass, is bonded to substrate 116 with the sealing rings 208. The sealing rings 208 can also be deposited on sacrificial substrate 206. The sealing of the sacrificial substrate 206 and substrate 116 can be performed before the fabrication of the micromirrors, for example before depositing a sacrificial layer on substrate 116. Alternatively, the sealing of the sacrificial substrate and substrate 116 is made after the formation of the functional components of the micromirrors but before removing the sacrificial material through etching. In another example, the sealing of the sacrificial substrate and substrate 116 can be made after the removal of the sacrificial material but before assembling substrates 114 and 116. When the micromirror arrays on substrate 116 and the electrode arrays on substrate 114 are formed, substrates 114 and 116 are sealed using sealing material 182. Then the assembly is cut into dies, each die comprising a micromirror array device, such as the micromirror array device shown in FIG. 3. As an exemplary cutting method of the invention, the sacrificial substrate 206 and substrate 116 are cut along cutting lines 212A, 212B and 212C as shown in the figure. These cutting lines stop before the bottom surface of substrate 116. Substrate 114 is cut into segments along cutting lines 210A, 210B and 210C, each of which is offset from the corresponding cutting lines for substrates 206 and 116. For example, cutting line 210A stops before the top surface of substrate 114 and has an offset from cutting line 212A. Cutting line 210B stops before the top surface of substrate 114 and has an offset from cutting line 212B. After such cutting, micromirror array devices are singulated, such as micromirror array device 218 in FIG. 26A. After the singulation, the sacrificial substrate 206 on each micromirror array device is removed. The micromirror device 218 in FIG. 26A after removal of the sacrificial substrate 206 is illustrated in FIG. 26B. Sealing material 208 on the top surface of substrate 116 may or may not be removed. Instead of removing the sacrificial substrate (206) after singulation, the sacrificial substrate can be removed at other stages during the fabrication. For example, the sacrificial substrate can be removed before or during or even after the device testing in which the product quality and performances are evaluated. The removal of the sacrificial substrate can also be carried out before or during packaging the micromirror array device but before encapsulating the device with the attachment of the a package cover lid. It will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that a new and useful micromirror array device having a plurality of in-array pillars has been described herein. In view of many possible embodiments to which the principles of this invention may be applied, however, it should be recognized that the embodiments described herein with respect to the drawing figures are meant to be illustrative only and should not be taken as limiting the scope of invention. For example, those of skill in the art will recognize that the illustrated embodiments can be modified in arrangement and detail without departing from the spirit of the invention. Therefore, the invention as described herein contemplates all such embodiments as may come within the scope of the following claims and equivalents thereof. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Microstructures such as microelectromechanical systems are often fabricated on one or more substrates. These substrates may deform during fabrication or operation, causing degradation of the device performance or even device failure when the deformation exceeds a tolerable amount. Moreover, in those microstructures having multiple substrates, a uniform gap between two substrates is often required for ensuring desired functions or performance of the microstructure. As an example, FIG. 1 illustrates a portion of a micromirror array device which is a type of microelectromechanical device. An array of mirror plates such as mirror plate 120 is formed on glass substrate 116 . The mirrors are operable to rotate relative to the glass substrate for reflecting light into different directions. The micromirrors are individually addressable and the addressing can be accomplished through an array of electrodes (e.g. electrode 122 ) and circuitry on semiconductor substrate 114 . Specifically, an electrostatic field is established between each mirror plate and the electrode associated with the mirror plate. The strength of such electrostatic field complies with the voltage (often referred to as data bit) stored in the circuitry connected to the electrode. By setting the voltage through writing the data bit in the circuitry, the strength of the electrostatic field and thus the rotation position of the mirror plate can be adjusted. Because the rotation of the mirror plate is determined by the strength of the electrostatic field that further depends upon the distance between the mirror plate and the associated electrode, it is desired that such distance is uniform for all micromirrors. However, a uniform distance throughout the micromirror array may not be guaranteed in fabrication or in operation or in both due to deformation of the substrates on which the micromirrors and electrodes are formed. The deformation may arise from many factors, such as temperature change, variation of the pressure applied to the substrates and other factors, such as attractive or expellant electrostatic forces between the substrates when the substrates are electrically charged. The deformation changes the gap size, which in turn changes the effective strength of the electrostatic field. As a consequence, desired operation or performance of the device is not achievable. In addition to the substrate deformation, other factors, such as operation environment (e.g. contamination and viscosity) may also degrade the operation and performance of the micromirror array device. Contamination is often solved by packaging the device, such as hermetically packaging the device. Viscosity problems arise from the viscosity resistance to the rotation of the mirror plate in a medium, such as air or the gas (e.g. an inert gas). The viscosity resistance to the movement of the mirror plate reduces the response time of the mirror plate and limits the application of the micromirror array device. Therefore, what is needed is a micromirror array device that is mechanically robust and has improved performance. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In an embodiment of the invention, a microelectromechanical (MEMS) device is disclosed. The device comprises: a first substrate and a second substrate; a plurality of MEMS elements formed on the first substrates; and a plurality of pillars disposed between the second substrate and the MEMS elements. In another embodiment of the invention, a spatial light modulator for use in a projection system is disclosed. The spatial light modulator comprises: a micromirror array device, comprising: a first substrate having thereon an array of micromirrors; a second substrate having an array of electrodes for deforming the micromirrors; and a plurality of pillars disposed between the substrates such that the first substrate is connected to the second substrate via the micromirror and the pillar for maintaining a uniform gap between the substrates. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a micromirror device is disclosed. The device comprises: a first substrate; a post on the substrate; a mirror plate attached to a hinge that is held by the post on the substrate such that the mirror plate rotates on the substrate; a pillar on the mirror plate and in connection with the post; and a second substrate having an electrode and circuitry disposed thereon for rotating the mirror plate, wherein the second substrate is disposed on the pillar and connected to the pillar such that the distance between the first and second substrate is maintained at a substantially constant value. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a method of making a spatial light modulator is disclosed. The method comprises: forming an array of micromirrors on first substrate; forming an array of electrodes and circuitry on second substrate; forming a plurality of pillars on the second substrate; aligning each pillar with one of the micromirrors; and bonding the substrates. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a micromirror array device is disclosed, which comprises: a substrate having thereon an array of micromirrors, further comprising: at least two electrical contact pads, each of which is electrically connected to the micromirrors such that am electrical resistance of the micromirrors of the array can be measured through the electrical contact pads; and an array of electrodes associated with the micromirrors for deflecting the micromirrors. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a spatial light modulator is provided, which comprises: an array of micromirrors on a first substrate; an array of electrodes and circuitry on a second substrate; a first sealing material that hermetically bonds the first and second substrates; and a second sealing material other than the first seal material contracting the first and second substrate for enhancing the hermetic seal with the first sealing material. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a microelectromechanical device is provided. The device comprises: a first and second substrate bonded together; an array of MEMS elements formed on the first substrate and disposed between the substrates; an array of electrodes and circuitry disposed between the bonded substrates but spaced apart from the array of MEMS elements; and a plurality of pillars disposed between the second substrate and the MEMS elements. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a method of forming a spatial light modulator for use in a display system is disclosed. The method comprises: forming a plurality of micromirrors on a light transmissive substrate, wherein each micromirror has a fixed portion and a movable portion; forming a plurality of electrodes and circuitry on a semiconductor substrate; and forming a pillar on the fixed portion of the micromirror and/or on the semiconductor substrate. | 20040615 | 20100831 | 20051215 | 75591.0 | 0 | DINH, JACK | MICROMIRROR ARRAY ASSEMBLY WITH IN-ARRAY PILLARS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,542 | ACCEPTED | Pocketbook with interchangeable covers | An interchangeable foundation bag, foundation bag system a method of using the foundation bag system is described. In one embodiment, an interchangeable carrying bag system, is provided which includes a discrete inner foundation bag having an inner surface and an outer surface; at least one outer bag having a top periphery, an inner surface, and an outer surface; a first zipper portion connected to the foundation bag; and a second zipper portion connected to the top periphery of a slipcover. The foundation bag, foundation bag system, and method in various embodiments, may preferably use a reversible/non-reversible liner and a reversible/non-reversible handle. | 1. An interchangeable carrying bag system, comprising: a discrete foundation bag having an inner surface and an outer surface; a reversible outer slipcover having a top periphery, an inner surface and an outer surface; a first zipper portion connected to said foundation bag; and a second zipper portion connected to said top periphery of said reversible outer slipcover. 2. The system according to claim 1, wherein said first zipper portion is a slide and pull portion of a separating zipper and said second zipper portion is a dual post zipper portion. 3. The system according to claim 1, wherein said outer slipcover is stackable. 4. The system according to claim 1, wherein said inner surface of said outer slipcover is different than the outer surface of said outer slipcover. 5. The system according to claim 1, wherein at least one other outer slipcover is stacked between said foundation bag and said outer slipcover. 6. The system according to claim 1, further comprising at least one other zipper portion on said outer surface of said foundation bag. 7. The system according to claim 6, further comprising another outer slipcover, interlockable with said at least one other zipper portion wherein said another outer slipcover has an outer surface, an inner surface, and a top periphery wherein said top periphery has a zipper portion attached thereto. 8. The system according to claim 7, wherein said another outer slipcover is reversible. 9. The system according to claim 8, said zipper portion on said top periphery of said another outer slipcover is a dual post zipper. 10. The system according to claim 7, further comprising at least one other outer slipcover stacked between said foundation bag and said another outer slipcover. 11. The system according to claim 1 further comprising a removable liner coupled to the foundation bag. 12. The system according to claim 11 wherein said removable liner is reversible. 13. The system according to claim 1 further comprising at least one reversible handle. 14. The system according to claim 1 further comprising at least one attached handle. 15. A method for interchanging carrying bags, comprising the steps of: providing a discrete foundation bag having a top periphery, a zipper portion, an inner surface and an outer surface; providing an outer slipcover having a top periphery, an inner surface and an outer surface; providing a first zipper portion attached to said outer surface of said foundation bag and a second zipper portion attached to said top periphery of said outer slipcover; sliding said outer slipcover over said foundation bag; and interconnecting said foundation bag to said outer slipcover using a single post zipper. 16. The method according to claim 15, wherein said outer slipcover is reversible and uses a dual post zipper. 17. The method according to claim 15, further comprising nesting at least one other outer slipcover between said foundation bag and said outer slipcover. 18. The method according to claim 15, further comprising providing at least one other zipper portion attached to said foundation bag. 19. The method according to claim 15, further comprising providing at least one other outer slipcover interconnectable with said at least one other zipper portion. 20. An interchangeable carrying bag system, comprising: a discrete foundation bag having an inner surface and an outer surface; an outer slipcover having a top periphery, an inner surface, and an outer surface; a first zipper portion connected to said foundation bag; and a second zipper portion connected to a slipcover. 21. The system according to claim 20, wherein said first zipper portion is a slide and pull portion of a separating zipper and said second zipper portion is a single post zipper portion. 22. The system according to claim 20, wherein said outer slipcover is stackable. 23. The system according to claim 20, wherein said inner surface of said outer slipcover is different than the outer surface of said outer slipcover. 24. The system according to claim 20, wherein at least one other outer slipcover is stacked between said foundation bag and said outer slipcover. 25. The system according to claim 20, further comprising at least one other zipper portion on said outer surface of said foundation bag. 26. The system according to claim 25, further comprising another outer slipcover, interlockable with said at least one other zipper portion wherein said another outer slipcover has an outer surface, an inner surface, and a top periphery wherein said top periphery has a zipper portion attached thereto. 27. The system according to claim 26, wherein said another outer slipcover is reversible. 28. The system according to claim 26, wherein said at least one other zipper portion is a slide and pull zipper portion and said zipper portion on said top periphery of outer slipcover is a dual post zipper. 29. The system according to claim 28, further comprising at least one other outer slipcover stacked between said foundation bag and said another outer slipcover. 30. The system according to claim 18 further comprising a removable liner coupled to said foundation bag. 31. The system according to claim 28 wherein said removable liner is reversible. 32. The system according to claim 20 further comprising at least one reversible handle. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention Embodiments of the present invention generally relate to handbags and handbag systems. More particularly, the invention relates to a handbag, handbag system and method for using the handbag or handbag system that has one or more interchangeable outer slipcovers. In addition, each of the outer slipcovers, lining and handbag straps can optionally be reversible and/or stackable with each other. The inside of the handbag can also have an optional lining which is removable and reversible and which contains compartments for the storage and safety of various personal items. 2. Description of the Related Art The roles of women have changed dramatically over the past few decades. The modern woman today is fitness and health conscious; career and goal oriented; a dedicated mother, wife and friend; a homemaker; an individual who travels extensively for work and recreation; or a woman whose role encompasses one or more of the aforementioned. In addition, throughout history, women have also been known to be extremely fashion and accessory conscious. Not only do they purchase clothing to support the roles they have attained in life but have purchased and changed their handbags to enhance each outfit or event. Women also play multiple roles in any given day (e.g., a morning at the gym, a day at the office, a lunch with friends or colleagues, a late afternoon at the soccer field and an evening out to dinner). Women purchase a multitude of handbags in every color, texture and pattern to match the clothing they wear for each of these events resulting in many problems. For example, one obvious problem is the cost of purchasing so many handbags. In addition, changing handbags daily or multiple times per day to meet the needs of women is not only time consuming but often results in leaving an essential item such as a cell-phone, house key or store return receipt in the prior bag when switched. Other commonly related handbag problems include the inability to clean soil from the handbag's lining and exterior; the handbag that is otherwise good but must be discarded because the bottom is scraped, worn or torn; when traveling, not being able to utilize precious luggage space for clothes because multiple handbags are packed in their place to match the day, evening and casual attire necessary for the trip. In prior years, various attempts have been made to solve some of these problems but the cited prior patents have not come close to solving them all. The present invention solves them all and more. For example, known prior art includes “Lenora Raye” handbags with interchangeable handbag covers, as noted in the website www.lenoraraye.com where an inner liner of a handbag has a zipper near a top peripheral edge thereof. The zipper mates with a corresponding zipper located at a top peripheral edge of an interchangeable handbag cover, which can be unzipped and replaced by another handbag cover of a different design. However, the Lenora Raye outer bag covers teach only interchangeable outer bag covers, not multiple reversible covers or, optionally, multiple reversible covers which are plurally stackable within each other. Additionally Lenora Raye handbags of this design are not based on a fully functional handbag with optional attached covers; instead, a cover must be attached to the inner liner to complete the Lenora Raye handbag. These handbags also do not appear to have reversible straps or liners. Known patents include U.S. Pat. No. 6,543,499 of McCreery and U.S. Pat. No. 6,186,201 of Salz for interchangeable carrying bag systems, which include a respective inner foundation bag insertable within a respective outer cover of the same shape as the inner foundation bag. However, in McCreery '499 and Salz '201, the inner bag has an annular band of VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners, which mates with an outer annular band of VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners, or linear segments thereof; on a corresponding outer upper edge of the inner foundation bag. The disadvantage is that when the inner foundation bag is used by itself, the outer annular ring of VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners must be covered with a secondary annular fabric ring, or else the wearer's wrist and arm will be irritated by being exposed to and rubbing against the exposed VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners, not zippers. Hence, the outer side surfaces of McCreery's and Salz's inner foundation bags are encumbered by either exposed VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners, or by an annular decorative fabric ring covering the VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners. U.S. Pat. No. 1,978,971 of Thornhill describes a hand bag and handbag cover which includes an inner bag insertable within an outer cover bag. The inner and outer bags are connected by buttons and button slots, which can be construed as “fasteners.” U.S. Pat. No. 3,234,985 of Gilbert also describes a handbag with changeable covers. In Gilbert '985, the outer cover is attached at a top edge to the inside foundation bag. However, the fastener in Gilbert '985 comprises a linearly extending resilient insert, which is inserted within a linearly extending channel extending along a top edge of the inner bag. In addition, U.S. Pat. No. 5,628,093 of Goodale and U.S. Pat. No. 6,047,404 of Blanks both describe dual post zippers which include posts at both ends of a zipper tape. These dual post zippers are described for the application of mattress covers and reversible clothing. Thus there is still a need for a handbag which addresses the problems discussed above. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally includes a pocketbook, handbag or purse, but is not limited to and can include a diaper bag, backpack, tote, beach bag, fanny pack, briefcase and or any other carry bag. In various embodiments, the carrying bag system includes a fully functional foundation bag preferably having a removable inner liner which is optionally reversible. The inner liner features several compartments for storage of personal items such as wallet, cell phone, keys, tissues, etc. and the inner liner can also be turned inside out to view different configurations of compartments depending on the users wants and needs. For specialized bags, such as diaper bags, the component compartments can be oriented toward the bag's use, with compartments for wipes, diapers, change of clothes, etc. This allows for more versatility. Embodiments of the invention can also preferably include interchangeable straps which can be reversible or removed to change the look and function of the handbag; and double sided reversible slipcovers which can be interchangeable with other double sided reversible slipcovers. An optional embodiment of the invention allows other slipcovers to be stacked within each other, so that a plurality of slipcovers may be nested between the foundation bag and the outermost slipcover. Thus, the other slipcovers are held by the connection between the foundation bag and the outermost slipcover. The outermost slipcovers are attached by either a conventional single post zipper or a dual post zipper. A conventional zipper, with one engagement post at its proximal end and a stop at its opposite distal end, is used on non-reversible slipcovers. However, a dual post zipper is always used on the top peripheral edge of reversible slipcovers, to facilitate proper engagement with the mating zipper slide and pull portion attached to the outer surface of the foundation bag. In this manner, a properly facing engagement zipper post is available to mate with the foundation bag regardless of the outer surface or orientation of the outer slipcover selected. A different separating-type zipper is used to attach the removable liner to the inside of the foundation bag. The zipper can be located along the upper, middle or lower regions of the foundation bag or a combination of one or more of these regions. The zipper mates with, and is fed into, a slide and pull portion of a corresponding zipper extended along various outside surfaces of the foundation bag. As a result, the outermost slipcover is suspended from the annular peripheral edge extending along the outside surface of the inner foundation bag. The zipper attaching the slipcover to the foundation bag can be optionally covered by a flap. The position of the zipper on the foundation bag can vary, depending upon how much, if any, of the foundation bag is to be exposed above the outer slipcover. For example, if the zipper is at the top periphery of the foundation bag, then its outer surface will be completely hidden by the slipcover. On the other hand, if the outer slipcover is shorter than the foundation bag, then a portion of the foundation bag will be exposed above the top periphery of the outer slipcover. In that case, the zipper on the foundation bag is located lower than at the top periphery of the foundation bag and mates with the zipper at the top periphery of the outer slipcover, exposing a portion of the foundation bag to view. Additionally, each outer slipcover is also optionally reversible with a different design pattern, material, color, texture and/or embellishment on either side of the outer slipcover so that when turned inside out, the outer surface design is changed to meet the user's needs in order to change the look and function of the handbag. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS So that the manner in which the above recited features of the present invention can be understood in detail, a more particular description of the invention, briefly summarized above, may be had by reference to embodiments, some of which are illustrated in the appended drawings. It is to be noted, however, that the appended drawings illustrate only typical embodiments of this invention and are therefore not to be considered limiting of its scope, for the invention may admit to other equally effective embodiments. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of an interchangeable carry bag system, showing one handle in perspective and a cutaway view of the connecting end of a further handle wherein the arrow indicates the sliding direction of the slipcover over the foundation bag. FIG. 1A is a perspective view of the carry bag as in FIG. 1, showing sliding assembly of the decorative outer cover over the inner foundation bag, wherein the arrow indicates the sliding direction of the slipcover over the foundation bag. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an embodiment of an interchangeable carry bag system showing a foundation bag and an outer slipcover which is reversible, showing one handle in perspective and a cutaway view of the connecting end of a further handle wherein the arrow indicates the sliding direction of the slipcover over the foundation bag. FIG. 2A is a close-up perspective view of a portion of the dual post zipper shown in FIG. 2, taken along the dashed line ellipse “2A” of FIG. 2. FIG. 2B is a close-up perspective view of connectors for optionally interchangeable reversible handles. FIG. 2C is a perspective view of an alternate embodiment for a handbag system having a decorative pendant suspended from the zipper handle clasp, and showing a further embodiment for a permanently attached handle. FIG. 2D is a close-up perspective view of an optional permanently attached handle joint for non-reversible straps taken along the dashed line ellipse “2D” of FIG. 2C. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a foundation bag with an interchangeable reversible lining. FIG. 3A is a perspective view of the inside walls of the lining as in FIG. 3, showing pockets for items of personal use. FIG. 3B is a perspective view of the lining as in FIG. 3, shown in a reversed inverted inside-out position. FIG. 3E is a close up detailed top plan view of a portion of the foundation bag of FIG. 3, shown closed by a pair of fasteners. FIG. 4 is a perspective view of the interchangeable carry bag system of FIGS. 1 and 2, showing a foundation bag and multiple stackable and reversible outer slipcovers. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of another embodiment of an interchangeable carry bag system showing a foundation bag and a different sized partial outer slipcover wherein the arrow indicates the sliding direction of the partial slipcover over the foundation bag. To facilitate understanding, identical reference numerals have been used, wherever possible, to designate identical elements that are common to the figures. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT So that the manner in which the above recited features of the invention are attained and can be understood in detail, a more particular description of the invention, briefly summarized above, may be had by reference to the embodiments thereof which are illustrated in the appended drawings. It is to be noted, however, that the appended drawings illustrate only typical embodiments of this invention and are therefore not to be considered limiting of its scope, for the invention may admit to other equally effective embodiments. Specifically, FIG. 1 depicts an interchangeable carry bag system 10. The system 10 includes a discrete foundation bag 12 and a non-reversible outer slipcover 13. The outer slipcover 13 has a first outer surface 14 and a second inner surface 15. The first outer surface 14 is illustratively a decorative surface and can be made of material including but not limited to leather, suede, cotton, silk, etc. and can have a variety of decorative textures, patterns and embellishments. The second inner surface 15 is a lining of the outer slipcover 13 made of various materials including but not limited to cotton, polyester or other natural or manmade materials. The outer slipcover 13 contains a first fastening structure 24, which is located along the top periphery of the outer slipcover 13. The first fastening zipper structure 24 is one side of a standard zipper containing a single post 26. A user may slip the outer slipcover 13 over the foundation bag 12 and position the post 26 from the first fastening zipper structure 24 of the slipcover 13 into the slide and pull portion of the second fastening zipper structure 19 of the foundation bag 12, in order to interlock the outer slipcover 13 to the foundation bag 12 and create a different look for the handbag system 10. The process of zipping the outer slipcover 13 on and off is easy, simple and quick and is a preferred method of fastening the outer slipcover 13 to the foundation bag 12. Zipper slide and pull portion 19, located on an outer surface of foundation bag 12, is operated via zipper handle clasp 27. In addition, FIG. 1 also depicts an optional handle 30. Illustratively, handle 30 is shown as a reversible handle, but it is known that non-reversible handles, such as handle 23 of FIG. 2C, may also be used, as well as no handle, in a clutch bag configuration. The handle 30 is coupled to the foundation bag 12 via connectors which may be oriented in different directions, such as, for example, swiveled loops 32 on the ends of the handles 30 which are looped through grommets 28 near the top periphery of the foundation bag 12. The swiveled loops 32 allow a user to rotate the handle 30 so that the opposing (i.e., previously unseen) side of the handle is now viewable to further alter the look of the foundation bag 12. Although FIG. 1 depicts the handbag system 10 using handles 30 it is appreciated that the invention may be practiced without the use of handles 30 or with non reversible sewn-in or otherwise permanently attached handles 23 shown in FIG. 2C. Further, other embodiments of this invention can include other types of handles, fastening structures and other shapes, sizes and embellishments of the foundation bag 12 and outer slipcovers 13. FIG. 1A is a perspective view of the handbag system 10 as described above and depicted in FIG. 1. Specifically, FIG. 1A-shows non-reversible outer slipcover 13 partially slipped over foundation bag 12. A portion of the foundation bag 12 is lifted to show the zipper slide and pull portion 19 of foundation bag 12 ready for interlocking with the single post zipper portion 24 of outer slipcover 13. The elements in FIG. 1A have been already described with respect to FIG. 1. For brevity, a description of those elements is not repeated. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of another embodiment of an interchangeable carry bag system 21. Specifically, FIG. 2 depicts a handbag system 21 having a foundation bag 12 and an outer slipcover 17 which is reversible. Many of the elements of the handbag system 21 depicted in FIG. 2 have been previously depicted and described with respect the handbag system depicted in FIG. 1. As such, and for the purpose of brevity, a description of those elements is not repeated. The outer slipcover 17 has a first decorative outer surface 20 and a second decorative inner surface 22. The outer surface 20 and inner surface 22 are both decorative surfaces made from a wide variety of materials. Each surface (20 and 22) has its own distinctive decorative color, pattern, texture and/or embellishments. The outer reversible slipcover 17 also contains a dual post fastening zipper structure 29 which is located along the top periphery of the outer reversible slipcover 17. The dual post fastening structure is one side of a zipper. The zipper post portion 29 contains axially oriented dual posts 29a at opposite ends thereof, which are also shown in a close-up detail view in FIG. 2A. The user may turn the outer reversible slipcover 17 inside out to reveal the second surface 22. The user may slip the outer reversible slipcover 17 over the foundation bag 12 and position one post 29a from the dual post fastening structure 29 of the outer reversible slipcover 17 into the slide and pull portion of the second fastening structure 19 of the foundation bag 12, in order to interlock the outer reversible slipcover 17 to the foundation bag 12 and create another different look. The reversible slipcover 17 of FIG. 2 offers more options to the user than the nonreversible slipcover 13 of FIG. 1. Thus, when utilizing the interchangeable carry bag system according to this embodiment, the user can obtain four different appearances for the handbag system by using the foundation bag 12 by itself, without an outer slipcover; using the foundation bag 12 with the non-reversible outer slipcover 13; or using the foundation bag 12 with reversible outer slipcover 17 in either orientation, with either its outer side or inner side exposed. It is appreciated that other embodiments of the invention can include other types of fastening structures and other shapes, sizes and embellishments of foundation bags and slipcovers. FIG. 2 also shows closure member 35 to close the top of foundation bag 12 with closure member 36 of FIG. 3C. FIG. 2A is a close-up perspective view of a portion of the dual post zipper portion 29 shown in FIG. 2. Specifically, FIG. 2A depicts a first side portion 29 of a zipper which interlocks with a mating second slide and pull portion 19 of the zipper, located under the optional flap shown in FIG. 2, on an outer surface of the foundation bag 12. The first side of the zipper post portion 29 has dual posts 29a located at each end of the first side of the zipper 29. The dual post 29a allows a user to interlock the first and second portions (29 and 19) of the zipper regardless of the outer or inner side (20 and 22) of the outer slipcover 17 being exposed outwardly. FIG. 2B is a close-up perspective view of optionally interchangeable reversible handles 30. The handles 30 shown in FIG. 2 operate as described above with respect to FIGS. 1 and 3. FIG. 2C is a perspective view of an alternate embodiment for a carry bag system 21 having an optional decorative pendant 70 suspended from a zipper handle pull clasp 27. As opposed to the normal engaged (zipped) position of zipper handle pull clasp 27 shown in FIGS. 1-3 at the left side of foundation bag 12, if a decorative pendant 70 is used, this zipped position of pull clasp 27 on zipper side portion 19 is relocated to the outer side center of foundation bag 12, as shown in FIG. 2C. Preferably, to maintain the pendant 70 in the center of foundation bag 12, zipper slide and pull portion 19 would require a post, to stop the zipper slide and pull portion 19 at the center of foundation bag 12. It is appreciated that the decorative pendant 70 can be made from any type of material, be of any color, and any shape; and be used in accordance with the invention. Furthermore, it is noted that the zipper post 26 or 29a can be located anywhere along the outer side surface of foundation bag 12, so that the zipper handle pull clasp 27 can be conveniently positioned to allow for minimal pulling effort and torque to slide the handle clasp 27 along zipper portions 19 and 29 of the reversible bag or 19 and 24 of the non-reversible bag. In addition, FIG. 2D depicts a handle 23 permanently attached to the foundation bag 12 and not having a swivel portion. It is also further noted that non-reversible, permanently attached handles 23 can be used in other embodiments, instead of the reversible handle 30 coupled to the foundation bag 12 via multi-directionally oriented connectors, such as, for example, swiveled loops 32 and garments 28. However, if reversibility is not required, then non-reversible handles 23 can be used. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a handbag system with an interchangeable lining 37. Specifically, FIG. 3 depicts a foundation bag 12 which can be made of various flexible materials including but not limited to leather, suede, silk, etc. The foundation bag 12 can be worn and used without the use of an outer slipcover 13 or 17 or without liner 37. The foundation bag 12 preferably has a first fastening closure structures 35, 36 (shown in FIG. 3C), attached to the foundation bag 12 for closing the foundation bag 12. The first fastening closure structures 35 and 36 may be opposite magnetic closures but is not limited to such, and can include a zipper, drawstring, snap, buckle, hook and loop or other closing mechanism capable of joining the opposing sides of foundation bag 12 together. For example, the first fastening structures 35 and 36 can be magnetic snap type fasteners of opposite polarity. Optionally the foundation bag 12 has a second fastening structure 19 (e.g., a zipper slide and pull portion) located on the outer surface of the foundation bag near the top periphery thereof as depicted in FIGS. 1 and 2. The second fastening structure 19 mates with the single post zipper portion 24 of a full sized non-reversible slipcover 13 or mates with a dual post zipper portion 29 of a reversible slipcover 17. Zipper slide and pull portion 50 may be located on the lower region of the foundation bag 12 as depicted in FIG. 5 to mate with a dual post zipper portion 52 of a partial sized slipcover 44. The location and number of second fastening structures, such as zipper slide and pull portions 19 or 50, located upon foundation bag 12, may vary depending on the size of outer slipcover 13, 17 or 44 being applied and the amount of versatility demanded by the consumer of the foundation bag 12. For example, a foundation bag 12 that contains three second fastening structures, such as zipper slide and pull portions 19, located at the top, middle and bottom regions respectively of foundation bag 12, can receive a variety of different sized slipcovers (full, mid region and lower region slipcovers respectively). However, the foundation bag 12 that contains only one second fastening zipper slide and pull portion structure 19 or 50 can receive one sized non-reversible outer slipcover 13,—reversible outer slipcover 17 or partial outer slipcover 44. The foundation bag 12 with a liner 37 is also depicted in FIG. 3 with a pair of straps 30 which together form a handle for holding the foundation bag 12. Straps 30 can be made of rigid or flexible material, including but not limited to leather, belting, cording, plastic, beading etc. Similar to straps 30 of FIGS. 1 and 2, the straps 30 may be interchangeable and may be fastened to the foundation bag 12 by a third multi-directionally oriented fastening structure such as swivelable loops 32 and grommet 28, as described before in FIG. 1. In addition to the advantages of the interchangeable straps 30 described above, the interchangeable straps 30 also allow the user to disconnect the straps 30 for a variety of other reasons e.g., to replace damaged, frayed straps; to change the original straps for another pair of straps 30 of a different length or style; and for aesthetic purposes of reversing the straps 30 to wear on the opposite side revealing a different color, or pattern, or to remove the straps 30 for a strapless clutch hand bag. The third fastening structure 28 and 32 is for illustrative purposes and is not intended in any way to limit the scope of the hardware or fastener used to connect the strap 30 to the foundation bag 12. It can also be appreciated that other embodiments of the invention can include other types of straps, such as non-reversible sewn-in straps 23 of FIG. 2D, the quantity of straps 30 or 23, or no strap at all. FIGS. 3, 3A and 3B depict the preferably reversible lining 37 which can be made of various flexible materials including but not limited to cotton, polyester, silk, satin etc. FIG. 3A shows two inner side walls of the lining 37 in a first position of use with pockets for items of personal use such as a cell phone, glasses, tissues, keys, credit cards, as well as a large zipped compartment for miscellaneous items wherein the large compartment may have small subcompartments. For specialized bags, such as diaper bags, the compartments may include wet wipes, moist towelettes, diapers and/or change of clothes, etc. FIG. 3B shows lining 37 in a reverse, inverted, inside-out position. While lining 37 is preferably reversible so it can be used inside out, it can be provided also as a non-reversible lining. The lining 37 may be interchangeable and may be fastened to the foundation bag 12 by a fourth fastening structure 39, such as a zipper post portion, located along the top peripheral edge of the liner 37 and the corresponding zipper slide and pull portion 43 located along the top inside periphery of the foundation bag 12, so that when the post side 41 of the fourth fastening structure 39 is fed into the slide and pull side of the zipper portion 43 located on the inner upper surface of the foundation bag 12, the lining 37 and foundation bag 12 interlock in position. The optionally interchangeable liner 37 allows the user to remove the existing lining 37 for a variety of reasons e.g., for cleaning purposes, to discard and replace an irreparably damaged liner (e.g., ripped, soiled etc.) or for the aesthetic purpose of choosing another color, texture or pattern lining. Optionally lining 37 may be provided with dual post zipper portion 41 to facilitate the proper engagement with the zipper side and pull portion 43 on foundation bag 12. When turned inside out, the lining 37 may have inner compartments such as at least one zipper compartment 45 to keep items secure and one or more pockets 47 to hold various personal items such as keys, tissues, cell phone etc. The lining inner compartments 45 and/or 47 are for illustrative purposes and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. As such, other embodiments of the invention can include other types and amounts of compartments with different closures. It is appreciated that the liner 37 may include more or less compartments than depicted in FIG. 3 or no compartments at all. FIG. 3C is a top plan view of the foundation bag 12 of FIG. 3, shown closed by a fastener 35 attached to another fastener 36. Elements such as handles 30, loops 32, grommets 28 and foundation bag 12 have already been described with respect to FIGS. 1, 2, 2B, and 3. For brevity, those elements are not further described with respect to 3C. In addition to those elements already described, illustratively, fasteners 35 and 36 are depicted as magnetic type fasteners having two magnetic portions of opposite magnetic polarity. The magnetic attraction between magnetic portions 35, 36 and a snap feature is sufficient to hold the foundation bag 12 is a closed position when desired. Although FIG. 3C depicts the fasteners 35 and 36 as magnetic closures it is appreciated that any type of fastener can be used in accordance with the invention (e.g., snap, magnetic snaps, hook and loop VELCRO® fasteners or a zipper). FIG. 4 is a perspective view of the interchangeable carry bag system 21 of FIG. 2 showing foundation bag 12 and multiple stackable outer reversible slipcovers 17, 67 and 78. Specifically, FIG. 4 shows the stackability aspect of multiple outer reversible slipcovers 17, 67 and 78. In addition to outer slipcover 17 described with respect to the embodiments of FIG. 2, FIG. 4 depicts two additional outer slipcovers (67 and 78). Each additional slipcover 67 and 78, as illustrated, is also reversible, however nonreversible slipcovers such as outer slipcovers 13 of FIG. 1 may be used, or a combination of reversible and nonreversible slipcovers may be used. Outer slipcover 67 includes a first inner surface 66 and second outer surface 68, and a dual post zipper portion 29. Outer slipcover 78 includes a first inner surface 74, a second outer surface 76, and a dual post zipper portion 29. The embodiment depicted in FIG. 4 operates similarly to that described with respect to FIGS. 1-3. However, the outer slipcover 17 is not interlocked with foundation bag 12. Rather, the outer slipcover 17 is merely slipped over the foundation bag 12. Thereafter, outer slipcover 67 is slipped over outer slipcover 17 without interlocking the outer slipcover 67 to the foundation bag 12. Afterwards, outer slipcover 78 is slipped over outer slipcover 67 and interlocked to foundation bag 12 via the dual posted zipper 29 being inserted into the second fastening structure 19 of the foundation bag 12. The outer slipcovers 17 and 67 are nested between the foundation bag 12 and outermost slipcover 78 and therefore held in place by the interlocking of the foundation bag 12 with the outermost slipcover 78. Since the outer slipcovers 17, 67 and 78 are flexible, each can have the same size as each other slipcover. Inner placed slipcovers 17 and 67 are not fastened by zippers, but rather are loosely nested within each other. In this illustration of FIG. 4, each of the outer slipcovers 17, 67 and 78 allow the user two different appearances for the handbag system. Thus, the three outer slipcovers (17, 67 and 78) allow the user six different appearances for the foundation bag 12. In addition, the user has at their disposal a seventh appearance for the foundation bag 12 itself, if the user decides to use none of the outer slipcovers 17, 67 and/or 78, since the foundation bag 12 is a completely functioning handbag on its own. It is appreciated that the number of outer slipcovers 17, 67 or 78 can vary, depending on the needs of a particular user and that more or fewer reversible outer slipcovers 17, 67 or 78 and/or nonreversible outer slipcovers 13 may be used in accordance with the invention. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of an embodiment of an interchangeable carry bag system showing a foundation bag and a different sized outer slipcover. FIG. 5 depicts some of the elements previously described with respect to FIGS. 1-4. For the purpose of brevity, the function and description of those elements is not repeated. In addition to those features previously described, FIG. 5 also depicts a second zipper post portion 52 located on a top peripheral edge of an outer partial slipcover 44. The outer reversible slipcover 44 includes a dual post zipper side portion 52, a first inner surface 42 and a second outer surface 46. The partial outer slipcover 44 can optionally be nonreversible and would therein include a standard single post zipper portion for purposes of interlocking itself to zipper slide and pull portion 50 located on the outer surface of the foundation bag 12. In FIG. 5 the partial slipcover 44 may be slipped over the lower portion of the foundation bag 12 and interlocked using the zipper slide and pull portion 50 and dual post zipper portion 52. Although FIG. 5 depicts a single partial outer slipcover 44 it is appreciated that other partial slipcovers of the same size may be nested between foundation bag 12 and outer partial slipcover 44 as similarly described with respect to FIG. 4. It is appreciated that many different types (i.e. sizes and styles) and the amount of zippers place on the outside of the foundation bag 12 will vary and can also be used in accordance with the invention. It is also noted that the zipper slide and pull portions (19 and/or 50) located on the outside of the foundation bag 12 may be hidden via a flap of material on the foundation bag itself or it may be in full view and its function is also and aspect of its design. While the foregoing is directed to embodiments of the present invention, other and further embodiments of the invention may be devised without departing from the basic scope thereof, and the scope thereof is determined by the claims that follow. Illustratively, the invention has been described as having a pull and slide zipper portion on the foundation bag, and either a single post or dual post zipper portion on the slipcover. However, those illustrations are not intended to limit the scope of the invention in any way. For example, the pull and slide zipper portion can be located on the slipcover and either the single post or dual post zipper portion can be located on the foundation bag. It is appreciated that many different types (e.g., sizes and styles) of foundation bag and covers can be used in accordance with the invention. While the foregoing is directed to embodiments of the present invention, other and further embodiments of the invention may be devised without departing from the basic scope thereof, and the scope thereof is determined by the claims that follow. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention Embodiments of the present invention generally relate to handbags and handbag systems. More particularly, the invention relates to a handbag, handbag system and method for using the handbag or handbag system that has one or more interchangeable outer slipcovers. In addition, each of the outer slipcovers, lining and handbag straps can optionally be reversible and/or stackable with each other. The inside of the handbag can also have an optional lining which is removable and reversible and which contains compartments for the storage and safety of various personal items. 2. Description of the Related Art The roles of women have changed dramatically over the past few decades. The modern woman today is fitness and health conscious; career and goal oriented; a dedicated mother, wife and friend; a homemaker; an individual who travels extensively for work and recreation; or a woman whose role encompasses one or more of the aforementioned. In addition, throughout history, women have also been known to be extremely fashion and accessory conscious. Not only do they purchase clothing to support the roles they have attained in life but have purchased and changed their handbags to enhance each outfit or event. Women also play multiple roles in any given day (e.g., a morning at the gym, a day at the office, a lunch with friends or colleagues, a late afternoon at the soccer field and an evening out to dinner). Women purchase a multitude of handbags in every color, texture and pattern to match the clothing they wear for each of these events resulting in many problems. For example, one obvious problem is the cost of purchasing so many handbags. In addition, changing handbags daily or multiple times per day to meet the needs of women is not only time consuming but often results in leaving an essential item such as a cell-phone, house key or store return receipt in the prior bag when switched. Other commonly related handbag problems include the inability to clean soil from the handbag's lining and exterior; the handbag that is otherwise good but must be discarded because the bottom is scraped, worn or torn; when traveling, not being able to utilize precious luggage space for clothes because multiple handbags are packed in their place to match the day, evening and casual attire necessary for the trip. In prior years, various attempts have been made to solve some of these problems but the cited prior patents have not come close to solving them all. The present invention solves them all and more. For example, known prior art includes “Lenora Raye” handbags with interchangeable handbag covers, as noted in the website www.lenoraraye.com where an inner liner of a handbag has a zipper near a top peripheral edge thereof. The zipper mates with a corresponding zipper located at a top peripheral edge of an interchangeable handbag cover, which can be unzipped and replaced by another handbag cover of a different design. However, the Lenora Raye outer bag covers teach only interchangeable outer bag covers, not multiple reversible covers or, optionally, multiple reversible covers which are plurally stackable within each other. Additionally Lenora Raye handbags of this design are not based on a fully functional handbag with optional attached covers; instead, a cover must be attached to the inner liner to complete the Lenora Raye handbag. These handbags also do not appear to have reversible straps or liners. Known patents include U.S. Pat. No. 6,543,499 of McCreery and U.S. Pat. No. 6,186,201 of Salz for interchangeable carrying bag systems, which include a respective inner foundation bag insertable within a respective outer cover of the same shape as the inner foundation bag. However, in McCreery '499 and Salz '201, the inner bag has an annular band of VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners, which mates with an outer annular band of VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners, or linear segments thereof; on a corresponding outer upper edge of the inner foundation bag. The disadvantage is that when the inner foundation bag is used by itself, the outer annular ring of VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners must be covered with a secondary annular fabric ring, or else the wearer's wrist and arm will be irritated by being exposed to and rubbing against the exposed VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners, not zippers. Hence, the outer side surfaces of McCreery's and Salz's inner foundation bags are encumbered by either exposed VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners, or by an annular decorative fabric ring covering the VELCRO® hook and loop fasteners. U.S. Pat. No. 1,978,971 of Thornhill describes a hand bag and handbag cover which includes an inner bag insertable within an outer cover bag. The inner and outer bags are connected by buttons and button slots, which can be construed as “fasteners.” U.S. Pat. No. 3,234,985 of Gilbert also describes a handbag with changeable covers. In Gilbert '985, the outer cover is attached at a top edge to the inside foundation bag. However, the fastener in Gilbert '985 comprises a linearly extending resilient insert, which is inserted within a linearly extending channel extending along a top edge of the inner bag. In addition, U.S. Pat. No. 5,628,093 of Goodale and U.S. Pat. No. 6,047,404 of Blanks both describe dual post zippers which include posts at both ends of a zipper tape. These dual post zippers are described for the application of mattress covers and reversible clothing. Thus there is still a need for a handbag which addresses the problems discussed above. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention generally includes a pocketbook, handbag or purse, but is not limited to and can include a diaper bag, backpack, tote, beach bag, fanny pack, briefcase and or any other carry bag. In various embodiments, the carrying bag system includes a fully functional foundation bag preferably having a removable inner liner which is optionally reversible. The inner liner features several compartments for storage of personal items such as wallet, cell phone, keys, tissues, etc. and the inner liner can also be turned inside out to view different configurations of compartments depending on the users wants and needs. For specialized bags, such as diaper bags, the component compartments can be oriented toward the bag's use, with compartments for wipes, diapers, change of clothes, etc. This allows for more versatility. Embodiments of the invention can also preferably include interchangeable straps which can be reversible or removed to change the look and function of the handbag; and double sided reversible slipcovers which can be interchangeable with other double sided reversible slipcovers. An optional embodiment of the invention allows other slipcovers to be stacked within each other, so that a plurality of slipcovers may be nested between the foundation bag and the outermost slipcover. Thus, the other slipcovers are held by the connection between the foundation bag and the outermost slipcover. The outermost slipcovers are attached by either a conventional single post zipper or a dual post zipper. A conventional zipper, with one engagement post at its proximal end and a stop at its opposite distal end, is used on non-reversible slipcovers. However, a dual post zipper is always used on the top peripheral edge of reversible slipcovers, to facilitate proper engagement with the mating zipper slide and pull portion attached to the outer surface of the foundation bag. In this manner, a properly facing engagement zipper post is available to mate with the foundation bag regardless of the outer surface or orientation of the outer slipcover selected. A different separating-type zipper is used to attach the removable liner to the inside of the foundation bag. The zipper can be located along the upper, middle or lower regions of the foundation bag or a combination of one or more of these regions. The zipper mates with, and is fed into, a slide and pull portion of a corresponding zipper extended along various outside surfaces of the foundation bag. As a result, the outermost slipcover is suspended from the annular peripheral edge extending along the outside surface of the inner foundation bag. The zipper attaching the slipcover to the foundation bag can be optionally covered by a flap. The position of the zipper on the foundation bag can vary, depending upon how much, if any, of the foundation bag is to be exposed above the outer slipcover. For example, if the zipper is at the top periphery of the foundation bag, then its outer surface will be completely hidden by the slipcover. On the other hand, if the outer slipcover is shorter than the foundation bag, then a portion of the foundation bag will be exposed above the top periphery of the outer slipcover. In that case, the zipper on the foundation bag is located lower than at the top periphery of the foundation bag and mates with the zipper at the top periphery of the outer slipcover, exposing a portion of the foundation bag to view. Additionally, each outer slipcover is also optionally reversible with a different design pattern, material, color, texture and/or embellishment on either side of the outer slipcover so that when turned inside out, the outer surface design is changed to meet the user's needs in order to change the look and function of the handbag. | 20040615 | 20060418 | 20051215 | 75358.0 | 0 | WEAVER, SUE A | POCKETBOOK WITH INTERCHANGEABLE COVERS | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,593 | ACCEPTED | Two phase injector for fluidized bed reactor | A fluidized-bed reactor for producing hydrogen from methane by steam reforming includes a flow splitter that splits a dense-phase flow of a gas having entrained calcium oxide particles into a plurality of equal flow streams. The reactor also incorporates an orifice plate having at least one high-velocity, rocket-style impinging injector for injecting reactants into the reactor bed. The injector includes a central orifice extending perpendicularly through the plate, and one or more adjacent peripheral orifices that extend through the plate at such an angle that respective streams of reactants injected into the reactor bed through the peripheral orifices impinge on a stream of reactants injected vertically into the reactor bed through the central orifice. The injector cooperates with adjacent base-bleed orifices in the plate to provide a uniform distribution and rapid mixing of the calcium oxide particles with a steam/methane gas mixture across the entire bottom of the reactor bed. | 1. A dense-phase flow splitter for splitting a flow of a stream of a gas having particles of a solid entrained therein at or near the static-bed bulk density of the particles into equal constituent dense-phase flows, said flow splitter comprising: an elongated, annular inlet tube having an inlet end, an outlet end, and an internal cross-sectional area; and, a plurality of elongated, annular outlet tubes having: respective internal cross-sectional areas that are substantially equal to each other, and the sum of which is substantially equal to that of the inlet tube; respective diameters of not less than about 0.25 inches; and, respective inlet ends coupled to the outlet end of the inlet tube such that the flow of the stream through the inlet tube is substantially equally divided among the outlet tubes; and, wherein: any change in the axial direction of the flow of the stream through the flow splitter does not exceed about 10 degrees; the gas comprises steam, methane, or a mixture thereof; and, the solid comprises calcium oxide. 2. The flow splitter of claim 1, wherein: the stream of gas and entrained particles has an axial velocity of between about 10 to about 30 ft./sec.; and, the calcium oxide particles have a static-bed bulk density of about 30 lbm/ft.3 3. A high-velocity, rocket-style impinging injector for injecting reactants into the bed of a two-particle, fluidized-bed reactor of a type used for the production of hydrogen from methane by a steam reforming process, said injector comprising: a plate disposed horizontally within the reactor and below the fluidized bed thereof, the plate having: a central orifice extending substantially perpendicularly through the plate; and, a peripheral orifice disposed adjacent to the central orifice and extending through the plate at such an angle that a stream of reactants injected into the reactor bed through the peripheral orifice impinges on a stream of reactants injected into the reactor bed through the central orifice. 4. The injector of claim 3, further comprising a plurality of the peripheral orifices arranged in the plate such that the streams of reactants respectively injected therethrough impinge on the stream of reactants injected through the central orifice at a common, acute angle. 5. The injector of claim 4, wherein the respective streams of reactants injected through the peripheral orifices impinge on the stream of reactants injected through the central orifice at a common point. 6. The injector of claim 3, wherein the plate further includes a plurality of base-bleed orifices disposed around the injector and extending substantially perpendicularly therethrough for injecting respective streams of reactants into the reactor bed. 7. The injector of claim 6, wherein: the stream of reactants injected through the central orifice comprises a gas having particles of a solid entrained therein at about the static-bed bulk density of the particles; and, the stream of reactants injected through the peripheral and the base-bleed orifices comprises a mixture of gases. 8. The injector of claim 7, wherein: the stream of gas and entrained particles has an axial velocity of between about 10 to about 30 ft./sec.; the solid comprises calcium oxide particles have a static-bed bulk density of about 30 lbm/ft.3; and, the mixture of gases comprises steam and methane. 9. The injector of claim 8, wherein: the injector comprises four peripheral orifices; the pressure in the fluidized bed of the reactor is about 7.8 atm absolute; the ratio of the mass of the calcium oxide injected through the central orifice to the mass of the steam and methane mixture injected through the peripheral orifices is about 10 to 1; the steam and methane mixture is injected into the reactor bed through the peripheral orifices at a velocity of about 650 ft./sec; the percentage of the total flow of the steam and methane mixture injected into the reactor bed through the peripheral orifices is about 10 per cent; the percentage of the total flow of the steam and methane mixture injected into the reactor bed through the base-bleed orifices is about 90 per cent; and, the total differential pressure drop across the plate is about 13 psi. 10. A one-step fluidized-bed reactor for the production of hydrogen from methane by a steam reforming process, said reactor comprising: an elongated vertical chamber; and, a plate disposed horizontally within a lower portion of the reactor, the plate defining an upper, fluidized-bed chamber, a lower, gas-manifold chamber, at least one high-velocity, rocket-style impinging injector for injecting reactants into the fluidized-bed chamber, and a plurality of base-bleed orifices disposed around the impinging injector and extending substantially perpendicularly therethrough for injecting respective streams of reactants from the lower, gas-manifold chamber into the upper, fluidized-bed chamber. 11. The reactor of claim 10, further comprising a bed of particles disposed in the fluidized-bed chamber above the plate. 12. The reactor of claim 11, wherein the particles comprise nickel-plated alumina particles. 13. The reactor of claim 10, wherein the at least one high-velocity, rocket-style impinging injector comprises the plate having: a central orifice extending substantially perpendicularly through the plate; and, a peripheral orifice disposed adjacent to the central orifice and extending through the plate at such an angle that a stream of reactants injected from the gas-manifold chamber into the fluidized-bed chamber through the peripheral orifice impinges on a stream of reactants injected into the fluidized-bed chamber through the central orifice. 14. The reactor of claim 13, further comprising the plate having a plurality of the peripheral orifices arranged therein such that the streams of reactants respectively injected therethrough impinge on the stream of reactants injected through the central orifice at a common point and at a common, acute angle. 15. The reactor of claim 13, further comprising: an outlet end of an outlet tube of a dense-phase flow splitter in accordance with claim 1 coupled to the central orifice of the injector. 16. The reactor of claim 15, wherein: the stream of gas and entrained particles has an axial velocity of between about 10 to about 30 ft./sec.; and, the calcium oxide particles have a static-bed bulk density of about 30 lbm/ft.3 17. The reactor of claim 16, wherein: the injector comprises four peripheral orifices; the pressure in the fluidized bed of the reactor is about 7.8 atm., absolute; the ratio of the mass of the calcium oxide injected through the central orifice to the mass of the steam and methane mixture injected through the peripheral orifices is about 10 to 1; the steam and methane mixture is injected into the reactor bed through the peripheral orifices at a velocity of about 650 ft./sec; the percentage of the total flow of the steam and methane mixture injected into the reactor bed through the peripheral orifices is about 10 per cent; the percentage of the total flow of the steam and methane mixture injected into the reactor bed through the base-bleed orifices is about 90 per cent; and, the total differential pressure drop across the plate is about 13 psi. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to U.S. Ser. No. 10/271,406, filed Oct. 15, 2002; Ser. No. 10/610,469, filed Jun. 30, 2003; Ser. No. 10/609,940, filed Jun. 30, 2003; and docket number 03-1207, entitled “DRY, LOW NITROUS OXIDE CALCINER INJECTOR”, docket number 03-1208, entitled “HOT ROTARY SCREW PUMP”, docket number 03-1209, entitled “SOLIDS MULTI-CLONE SEPARATOR”, AND docket number 03-1210, entitled “HYDROGEN GENERATION SYSTEM WITH METHANATION UNIT” filed herewith, the respective disclosures of which are incorporated herein by this reference. REFERENCE TO APPENDIX (Not Applicable) BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to the large-scale production of commercially pure hydrogen gas in general, and in particular, to a dense-phase flow splitter and high-velocity, two-phase injector for use in a one-step, two-particle, fluidized-bed, steam-and-methane reactor used for such production. 2. Related Art Hydrogen is one of the more common elements found in nature, and is present in many fuels, often combined with carbon, and in a large number of other organic and inorganic compounds. Hydrogen is widely used for upgrading petroleum “feed stocks” to more useful products. Hydrogen is also used in many chemical reactions, such as in the reduction or synthesizing of compounds, and as a primary chemical reactant in the production of many useful commercial products, such as cyclohexane, ammonia, and methanol. In addition to the above uses, hydrogen is also quickly gaining a reputation as an “environmentally friendly” fuel because it reduces so-called “greenhouse emissions.” In particular, hydrogen can drive a fuel cell to produce electricity, or can be used to produce a substantially “clean” source of electricity for powering industrial machines, automobiles, and other internal combustion-driven devices. Hydrogen production systems include the recovery of hydrogen as a byproduct from various industrial processes, and the electrical decomposition of water. Presently, however, the most economical means is the removal of hydrogen from an existing organic compound. Several methods are known for removing or generating hydrogen from carbonaceous or hydrocarbon materials. And, although many hydrocarbon molecules can be “reformed” to liberate hydrogen atoms therefrom, the most commonly used is methane, or natural gas. The use of hydrocarbons as hydrogen sources, or “feedstock” materials, has many inherent advantages. Hydrocarbon fuels are relatively common and sufficiently inexpensive to make large-scale hydrogen production from them economically feasible. Also, safe handling methods and transport mechanisms are sufficiently well-developed to enable safe and expeditious transport of the hydrocarbons for use in the different hydrogen reforming and other generation techniques. Currently, the majority of commercial hydrogen production uses methane as a feedstock. Generally, steam-and-methane reformers, or “reactors,” are used on the methane in large-scale industrial processes to liberate a stream of hydrogen gas. The generation of hydrogen from natural gas via steam reforming is a well-established commercial process. However, these commercial units tend to be extremely large and subject to significant amounts of “methane slip,” i.e., methane feedstock that passes through the reformer unreacted. The presence of such methane (and other reactants or byproducts) serves to pollute the hydrogen, thereby rendering it unsuitable for most uses without further purification. The disclosures in the above-referenced Related Applications detail the development by the Boeing Company of the “Boeing One Step Hydrogen” (“BOSH2”) process, which uses calcium oxide particles for the economical, large-scale production of hydrogen with yields that are both larger and purer than prior art processes. The BOSH2 process comprises a “two-particle,” fluidized-bed, steam reforming process that uses two types of solid particles: 1) Relatively large, porous particles of alumina (Al2O3) having a nickel (Ni) catalyst deposited on both their interior and exterior surfaces, for converting methane (CH4) to hydrogen (H2) via the reaction: CH4+H2O→3H2+CO2, and (2) relatively small calcium oxide (CaO) particles for converting the gaseous carbon di-oxide (CO2) “byproduct” to solid calcium carbonate (CaCO3) via the reaction: CO2+CaO→CaCO3. The fluidized bed reactor is operated so that the large alumina/nickel-catalyst partides remain within the fluidized bed at all times, while the smaller calcium oxide/carbonate particles are entrained with the gas and flow continuously through and out of the bed for subsequent separation and re-use of the calcium oxide CO2-adsorbent. Significant economic advantages have been shown in the size, throughput, and single-pass conversion efficiencies when using the BOSH2 two-particle fluidized bed process in methane/steam reformer reactors described above. However, as this process has matured over time, certain technical issues have arisen that require resolution. One of these relates to the need for obtaining a very uniform distribution and rapid mixing of both the solid calcium oxide particles and the steam/methane gas mixture across the bottom of the fluidized catalyst bed of the reactor. Uniform splitting of entrained calcium-oxide-particle streams into multiple (i.e., on the order of 6 to 36) feed streams is problematic in dilute, two-phase pneumatic gas flows. The subsequent rapid mixing of these streams with the recirculating fluidized bed material is also important to prevent excessive hot spots within the bed, which could cause over-heating issues. This is because the reaction of the CO2 with the calcium oxide is highly exothermic, and can potentially lead to local, destructive “hot zones” if not accurately counterbalanced by the highly endothermic methane/steam reaction. Therefore, good, uniform dispersions of the methane, steam, and calcium oxide reactants with the contents of the bulk fluidized bed at or near the bed's injectors is necessary and important to ensure reliable reactor operation. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the present invention, apparatus is provided for uniformly and reliably splitting a stream of entrained calcium oxide particles into multiple feed streams, and then injecting those streams, together with the steam/methane gas mixture reactants, into the fluidized bed of a steam/methane reactor such that a very uniform distribution and rapid mixing of both the solid calcium oxide particles and the steam/methane gas mixture is achieved across the entire bottom of the fluidized bed of the reactor. In one aspect of the invention, the apparatus comprises a very accurate, dense-phase (or “slurry”) flow splitter for the entrained calcium oxide particle feed lines, and in another aspect, comprises a high velocity, “rocket-style” impinging injector with adjacent base-bleed nozzles, or orifices, for an effective reactant dispersion into the reactor's bed. In one exemplary embodiment thereof, the dense-phase flow splitter comprises an elongated inlet tube having opposite inlet and outlet ends, and a plurality of elongated outlet tubes having opposite inlet and outlet ends. The inlet ends of the outlet tubes are coupled to the outlet end of the inlet tube such that a stream of a gas having particles of a solid entrained therein at or just below the static-bed bulk density of the particles and entering through the inlet tube of the splitter is equally divided among the outlet tubes into substantially equal, constituent dense-phase flows. The respective internal cross-sectional areas of the inlet tubes of the splitter are adjusted such that they are equal to each other and their sum is substantially equal to the internal cross-sectional area of the inlet tube. The interior surfaces of the tubes are made very smooth, and the tubes are configured such that any change in the axial direction of the flow of the stream through the splitter does not exceed about 10 degrees. Advantageously, the outlet tubes are round, or annular, and have a nominal diameter of not less than about 0.25 inches. An exemplary high-velocity, rocket-style impinging injector for injecting reactants into the bed of the reactor comprises an orifice plate disposed horizontally within the reactor below the fluidized bed thereof. The plate includes a “primary,” or central, orifice that extends substantially perpendicularly through the plate, and one or more “secondary,” or peripheral, orifices disposed adjacent to the central orifice, which extend through the plate at such an angle that streams of reactants respectively injected into the reactor bed through the peripheral orifices impinge on a stream of reactants injected vertically into the reactor bed through the central orifice. For embodiments of the injector that comprise a plurality of the peripheral orifices, the latter are preferably arranged in the plate such that the streams of reactants respectively injected therethrough impinge on the stream of reactants injected through the central orifice at a common point, and at a common, acute angle. An exemplary embodiment of an advantageous one-step, two-particle, fluidized-bed reactor for the production of hydrogen from methane by a steam reforming process comprises an elongated, vertical closed chamber. The chamber is divided into an upper, fluidized-bed chamber for containing a bed of catalyst particles, and a lower, gas-manifold chamber, by an orifice plate disposed horizontally within a lower portion of the chamber. The plate incorporates at least one of the above high-velocity, rocket-style impinging injectors in it for injecting reactants into the bed of the upper chamber, together with a plurality of “base-bleed” orifices disposed around the injector and extending substantially perpendicularly through the plate for injecting respective streams of reactants from the gas-manifold chamber into the fluidized-bed chamber. The outlet end of one of the outlet tubes of one of the above dense-phase flow splitters is coupled to the central orifice of the injector for injecting a gas, e.g., steam, methane, or a mixture thereof, having particles of calcium oxide entrained therein at or just below the static-bed bulk density of the particles, into the bed of the reactor, and the lower, gas-manifold chamber is pressurized with a mixture of steam and methane for injection thereof into the bed through the peripheral and the base-bleed orifices of the plate. A better understanding of the above and many other features and advantages of the apparatus of the invention may be obtained from a consideration of the detailed description thereof below, particularly if such consideration is made in conjunction with the several views of the appended drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic, cross-sectional elevation view of an exemplary embodiment of a one-step, two-particle, fluidized-bed reactor for the production of hydrogen from methane by a steam reforming process in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an exemplary embodiment of a dense-phase flow splitter in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 3 is a partial cross-sectional elevation view of a prior art, tuyere-type of an injector for injecting reactants into the bed of a reactor; FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a reactor orifice plate incorporating an exemplary embodiment of a high-velocity, rocket-style impinging injector for injecting reactants into the bed of a reactor in accordance with the present invention, showing a “pentad,” or 4-on-1 injector; FIG. 5 is a partial cross-sectional view of the impinging injector of FIG. 4, as taken along the lines 5-5 in FIG. 4; and, FIG. 6 is a graph showing the relationships between selected operational parameters of an exemplary one-step, two-particle, fluidized-bed steam and methane reactor for the production of hydrogen. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION A schematic, cross-sectional elevation view of an exemplary embodiment of a one-step, two-particle, fluidized-bed reactor 10 for the production of hydrogen from methane by a steam reforming process in accordance with the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 1. The reactor comprises an elongated, closed, vertical chamber 12. An orifice plate 14 is disposed horizontally within a lower portion of the reactor to define an upper, fluidized-bed reaction chamber 16 and a lower, pressurized-gas-manifold chamber 18, as shown. As described in more detail below, the orifice plate 14 also serves to define at least one high-velocity, “rocket-style” impinging injector 20 for injecting reactants into the fluidized-bed reaction chamber, together with a plurality of base-bleed orifices 22 disposed around the injector and extending substantially perpendicularly through the plate for injecting respective streams of reactants from the gas-manifold chamber into the fluidized-bed chamber, as described below. The reactor 10 is referred to as a “two-particle” reactor because it uses two types of solid particles, viz., relatively large, porous particles 24 of alumina (Al2O3), which are plated with a nickel (Ni) catalyst, for converting a methane (CH4) feedstock with steam (H2O) in the presence of the nickel catalyst to hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) gases via the endothermic reaction, CH4+H2O→3H2+CO2, and relatively small calcium oxide (CaO) particles 26 for converting (i.e., adsorbing) the gaseous carbon dioxide “byproduct” generated by the first reaction to a calcium carbonate (CaCO3) solid via the exothermic reaction, CO2+CaO→CaCO3. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the larger nickel-plated alumina particles 24 are disposed 30 in a loose “bed” 28 in the upper reaction chamber 16 such that, when gases are forcefully injected into the bottom of the bed through nozzles in the orifice plate 14, the particles rise up and are suspended above the plate in a looser, spaced-apart arrangement that enables the injected gases and smaller particles entrained therein to flow around and over the larger particles, as shown, thereby giving rise to the term “fluidized bed.” The reactor is operated such that the large alumina/nickel catalyst particles remain within the bed at all times, while the smaller calcium oxide and calcium carbonate particles 26 and 30, which are entrained in the gaseous reactants described below, continuously flow through and out of the bed for subsequent gas/solid separation and reuse in the process. The gaseous reactants employed in the process, viz., methane 32 and steam 34, are supplied to the reactor 10 from respective pressurized sources 36 and 38 thereof, while the calcium oxide particles 26 are supplied from a suitable dispenser/hopper 40 thereof. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the pressurized steam and methane are supplied to the lower, gas-manifold chamber 18 of the reactor as a mixture 35 thereof for injection into the base of the bed 28, as described in more detail below. The steam is also used to entrain a stream of calcium oxide particles in a two-phase “slurry,” or “dense-phase,” flow of the reactants in which the bulk density of the entrained calcium carbonate particles is at, or just below, the calcium oxide's static-bed bulk density of about 30 lbm/ft3. This dense-phase flow 42 of steam and calcium oxide particles is then injected into the base of the bed 28 through the high-velocity injector 20 in the manner described below. Additionally, it should be understood that, while steam is illustrated and described as the carrier gas for the entrained calcium oxide particles, in some applications, the carrier medium for the solids may be either steam, methane or a mixture 35 of the two gases. The solid and gaseous reactants enter the base of the bed 28 through the orifice plate 14, as above, and react with each other in the presence of the nickel catalyst particles 24 in accordance with the reactions described above to produce a stream of the desired product, hydrogen gas 44, together with entrained particles 30 of the first byproduct, calcium carbonate. This two-phase flow is then processed in an apparatus 46, such as the high-speed “calciners” described in the above-referenced Related Applications, docket number 03-1207, entitled “DRY, LOW NITROUS OXIDE CALCINER INJECTOR”, docket number 03-1208, entitled “HOT ROTARY SCREW PUMP”, and docket number 03-1209, in which the hydrogen is first separated from the calcium carbonate, and the calcium carbonate then processed into a second, carbon dioxide gas 48 byproduct and calcium oxide particles 26, the latter being re-circulated through the reactor for reuse in the process. While significant economic advantages have been demonstrated in the size, throughput, and single pass conversion efficiencies of the two-particle, fluidized-bed methane/steam reformer reactor 10 and process described above, certain technical problems have emerged that require resolution. One of these relates to the need to achieve a very uniform distribution and a rapid mixing of both the solid calcium oxide particles 26 and the steam/methane gas reactant mixture 35 across the bottom of the fluidized catalyst bed 28 of the reactor. In prior art reactors, all of the steam and methane reactants are mixed with the calcium oxide prior to their injection into the fluidized bed of the reactor by means of “tuyere”-type of injectors 300, such as the one illustrated in FIG. 3. A tuyere injector typically comprises a jet nozzle 302 that injects the reactants through a base plate 304 and into the bed 306 of the reactor such that the jet of reactants impinges on a diverter plate 308 that diverts and distributes the jet laterally for mixing with the particles of the bed, as shown by the arrows in FIG. 3. However, as will be understood by those of skill in this art, the volumetric flow rate of the gaseous steam/methane stream is much greater than the volumetric flow rate of the solids-entrained calcium oxide particle stream. This disparity in volumetric flow rates requires that much smaller volumetric amounts of steam or methane be used to transport the calcium oxide particles to ensure uniform “flow splitting” whenever multiple injectors are required, which is typically the case. As is known, a uniform splitting of entrained calcium oxide particle streams into multiple (i.e., on the order of 6 to 36) feed streams is problematic in dilute, two-phase pneumatic gas flows. Additionally, conventional tuyere-type injectors have been shown to be incapable of achieving a very uniform distribution and a rapid mixing of both the solid calcium oxide particles 26 and the steam/methane gas reactant mixture 35 across the entire bottom of the fluidized catalyst bed 28 of the reactor 10. However, it has been discovered that efficient, highly accurate flow splitting characteristics can be achieved whenever the solids are transported in lines at or near their static-bed bulk densities (sometimes referred to as “dense-phase” or “slurry feeding”—see, e.g., Sprouse and Schuman, AIChE Journal, 29, 1000 [1983]). Such a flow splitting device 200 for achieving uniform flow splits with these kinds of slurries, or dense-phase flows, is illustrated in the perspective view of FIG. 2. In the particular embodiment illustrated, the flow splitter 200 comprises a “6-to-1” splitter, i.e., one that divides a single, dense-phase flow into six equal constituent dense-phase flows. However, other embodiments having greater or fewer numbers of constituent flows can also be confected. The dense-phase flow splitter 200 comprises an elongated inlet tube 202 having an inlet end 204 and an outlet end 206, and a plurality of elongated outlet tubes 208 having respective inlet ends 210 coupled to the outlet end of the inlet tube, e.g., by soldering, welding, brazing, or epoxy encapsulation, such that the flow of a dense-phase stream entering the inlet end of the inlet tube is substantially equally diverted into, or divided among, the outlet tubes. To effect such a flow division without particle bridging and subsequent plugging, it is preferable that the following conditions be met: The internal cross-sectional areas of the respective outlet tubes should be approximately the same, and their total area should be about the same as that of the larger single inlet tube; any change in the axial direction of the flow of the stream through the splitter should be held to 10 degrees or less; there should be no upstanding discontinuities on any of the internal surfaces of the splitter, i.e., all surfaces should be kept as smooth as possible within reasonable manufacturing tolerances; and, of importance for the types of dense-phase flows contemplated by the present invention, the outlet tubes should be round, or annular in shape, and have a nominal diameter of not less than about 0.25 inches. As illustrated in FIG. 1, in the apparatus and method of the present invention, an output end 212 of one of the smaller outlet tubes 208 of the flow splitter 200 is coupled to the high-velocity, rocket-style injector 20 of the reactor 10, while other ones of the splitter's outlet tubes may be connected to other injectors located in either the same or adjacent reactors. As discussed above, the dense-phase flow of reactants 42 supplied by the flow splitter to the injector comprises a gas, viz., steam, methane, or a mixture thereof, having calcium oxide particles 26 entrained therein at or just below the static-bed bulk density of the calcium oxide, viz., at about 30 lbm/ft.3. While the flow splitter 200 of the invention overcomes some of the problems associated with obtaining accurate, uniform splitting of dense-phase calcium oxide particle streams 42 into the reactor 10, it alone is not capable of overcoming the problem associated with the conventional tuyere injectors 300 described above, viz., an inability to achieve a uniform distribution and a rapid mixing of both the solid calcium oxide particle stream 42 and the steam/methane gas reactant mixture streams 35 across the entire bottom of the reactor bed 28. Subsequent rapid mixing of these streams with the circulating fluidized bed partides 24 is essential to prevent excessive hot spots within the bed, which could cause overheating of the reactor. This can result because the CO2 reaction with calcium oxide is highly exothermic, and can potentially lead to local hot zones if not carefully counterbalanced by the highly endothermic methane/steam reaction. Good mixing and uniform dispersion of the methane, steam, and calcium oxide reactants with the particles of the fluidized bed at or near the bed's injectors is therefore important and necessary to ensure reliable reactor operation. The present invention overcomes the rapid, uniform, fluidized-bed mixing problem of the prior art injectors 300 by the incorporation of one or more high-velocity, rocket-style, impinging injectors 20, along with adjacent base-bleed orifices 22, which are located in the orifice plate 14 of the reactor 10, as illustrated in FIG. 1, for an effective reactant dispersion into the reactor bed 28. As illustrated in the enlarged perspective view of the orifice plate 14 in FIG. 4, and in the enlarged cross-sectional view therethrough of FIG. 5, the novel injector 20 comprises a plurality of orifices contained in the plate and arranged in a particular pattern therein. Specifically, the injector comprises a primary, or central, orifice 60 that extends substantially perpendicularly through the plate, and one or more secondary, or peripheral, orifices 62 disposed adjacent to the central orifice and extending through the plate at such an angle that respective streams of reactants injected into the reactor bed through the one or more peripheral orifices impinge on a stream of reactants injected into the reactor bed through the central orifice, as indicated by the dashed line paths shown in FIG. 5. In the particular embodiment of the injector illustrated in FIG. 5, the peripheral orifices 62 are advantageously arranged in the orifice plate 14 such that the streams of reactants respectively injected therethrough will impinge on the stream of reactants injected through the central orifice 60 at a common point 64, and at a common, acute angle θ, for a uniform, rapid mixing of the reactants. Of importance, the plate 14 further includes a plurality of “base-bleed” orifices 66 disposed around the injector 20 and extending substantially perpendicularly through the plate for injecting additional streams of reactants into the reactor bed 28, as indicated by the dashed line paths of FIG. 5. As described above in connection with FIG. 1, the stream of reactants 42 injected through the central orifice through a conduit 68 leading from an outlet tube 208 of the flow splitter 200 illustrated in FIG. 2 comprises a gas, i.e., steam, methane, or a mixture thereof, having calcium oxide particles 26 entrained therein at about the static-bed bulk density of the particles, and the streams of reactants injected through the peripheral and the base bed orifices comprise a mixture 35 of steam and methane. The particular exemplary embodiment of a high-velocity, rocket-style impinging injector 20 illustrated in FIGS. 4 and 5 is a “pentad,” i.e., a 4-on-1 injector. However, other impinging injector configurations can be configured, such as “triplets” (2-on-1) and “doublets” (1-on-1), and so on. However, in all cases, the intent is the same, viz., the use of entrained calcium oxide stream flow splitters 200 for multiple solids injection operation, and high-velocity impinging injectors 20 acting on those streams to rapidly mix and spread the calcium oxide stream throughout the fluidized bed 28. Typically, these elements work best together when each solids injector 20 is flowing at a rate of approximately 0.14 to 2.5 lbm/sec and at velocities of about 30 ft./sec. For larger injector orifice sizes, a screen 70 (see FIG. 1) of an appropriate mesh size may be required over the injection orifices 60, 62 and 66 to prevent solids, which are normally suspended above the orifice plate 14 by reactant flows, from dropping into the lower, pressurized-gas-manifold chamber 18 during shutdown of the fluidized bed reactor 10. In operation, the pentad injector 20 illustrated feeds the entrained calcium oxide particles 26 stream from the outlet end 212 of one of the outlet tubes 208 of the flow splitter 200 through the central orifice 60 of the injector and into the bed 28 of the reactor 10. The solids bulk density within this stream should be at or just below the calcium oxide's static-bed bulk density of 30 lbm/ft3. The solids velocity exiting the central pentad passage should be between approximately 10 to 30 ft./sec. to prevent mechanical erosion of the line. Additionally, the minimum calcium oxide solids flow rate through the central orifice should be not less than approximately 0.05 lbm/sec. To ensure good mixing with the calcium oxide stream 42 through the central orifice 60, momentum and momentum-flux considerations require that the methane/steam-to-calcium oxide mass ratio be maintained at approximately 0.1, and that the gaseous methane/steam jet velocity be set at approximately 650 ft./sec through the peripheral orifices 62. For the overall fluidized bed operating conditions graphed in FIG. 6, this means that about 10 percent of the total steam/methane flow will be fed through the pentad's outer four impinging orifices, while the remaining 90 percent will be injected as a base-bleed flow through the base-bleed apertures 66 in the fluidized bed's orifice plate 14, as illustrated in FIG. 4. The total differential gaseous pressure drop across the orifice plate, i.e., between the lower, pressurized-gas-manifold chamber 18 and the upper, fluidized-bed reaction chamber 16, is approximately 13 psi for a fluidized bed operating at 7.8 atmospheres (“atm.”) of pressure (absolute). The general operational parameters for an exemplary BOSH2 fluidized bed reformer 10 in accordance with the present invention have been mathematically modeled and are depicted graphically in FIG. 6. The molar steam-to-methane ratio of the injected reactants is approximately 4-to-1, while the molar calcium oxide-to-methane ratio is about 1.64-to-1. With catalyst particles 24 diameters on the order of 1.4 mm and calcium oxide adsorbent particle diameters on the order of 50 microns, the superficial gas velocity above the bed 28 is desirably set to approximately 2 m/s when the fluidized bed pressure is set at approximately 7.82 atm. of pressure. By now, those of skill in the art will appreciate that the apparatus and processes of the present invention are highly “scalable” in terms of throughput and resulting hydrogen yields, and that indeed, many modifications, substitutions and variations can be made in and to their materials, configurations and implementation without departing from its spirit and scope. Accordingly, the scope of the present invention should not be limited to the particular embodiments illustrated and described herein, as they are intended to be merely exemplary in nature, but rather, should be fully commensurate with that of the claims appended hereafter and their functional equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to the large-scale production of commercially pure hydrogen gas in general, and in particular, to a dense-phase flow splitter and high-velocity, two-phase injector for use in a one-step, two-particle, fluidized-bed, steam-and-methane reactor used for such production. 2. Related Art Hydrogen is one of the more common elements found in nature, and is present in many fuels, often combined with carbon, and in a large number of other organic and inorganic compounds. Hydrogen is widely used for upgrading petroleum “feed stocks” to more useful products. Hydrogen is also used in many chemical reactions, such as in the reduction or synthesizing of compounds, and as a primary chemical reactant in the production of many useful commercial products, such as cyclohexane, ammonia, and methanol. In addition to the above uses, hydrogen is also quickly gaining a reputation as an “environmentally friendly” fuel because it reduces so-called “greenhouse emissions.” In particular, hydrogen can drive a fuel cell to produce electricity, or can be used to produce a substantially “clean” source of electricity for powering industrial machines, automobiles, and other internal combustion-driven devices. Hydrogen production systems include the recovery of hydrogen as a byproduct from various industrial processes, and the electrical decomposition of water. Presently, however, the most economical means is the removal of hydrogen from an existing organic compound. Several methods are known for removing or generating hydrogen from carbonaceous or hydrocarbon materials. And, although many hydrocarbon molecules can be “reformed” to liberate hydrogen atoms therefrom, the most commonly used is methane, or natural gas. The use of hydrocarbons as hydrogen sources, or “feedstock” materials, has many inherent advantages. Hydrocarbon fuels are relatively common and sufficiently inexpensive to make large-scale hydrogen production from them economically feasible. Also, safe handling methods and transport mechanisms are sufficiently well-developed to enable safe and expeditious transport of the hydrocarbons for use in the different hydrogen reforming and other generation techniques. Currently, the majority of commercial hydrogen production uses methane as a feedstock. Generally, steam-and-methane reformers, or “reactors,” are used on the methane in large-scale industrial processes to liberate a stream of hydrogen gas. The generation of hydrogen from natural gas via steam reforming is a well-established commercial process. However, these commercial units tend to be extremely large and subject to significant amounts of “methane slip,” i.e., methane feedstock that passes through the reformer unreacted. The presence of such methane (and other reactants or byproducts) serves to pollute the hydrogen, thereby rendering it unsuitable for most uses without further purification. The disclosures in the above-referenced Related Applications detail the development by the Boeing Company of the “Boeing One Step Hydrogen” (“BOSH 2 ”) process, which uses calcium oxide particles for the economical, large-scale production of hydrogen with yields that are both larger and purer than prior art processes. The BOSH 2 process comprises a “two-particle,” fluidized-bed, steam reforming process that uses two types of solid particles: 1) Relatively large, porous particles of alumina (Al 2 O 3 ) having a nickel (Ni) catalyst deposited on both their interior and exterior surfaces, for converting methane (CH 4 ) to hydrogen (H 2 ) via the reaction: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? CH 4 +H 2 O→3H 2 +CO 2 , in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? and (2) relatively small calcium oxide (CaO) particles for converting the gaseous carbon di-oxide (CO 2 ) “byproduct” to solid calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) via the reaction: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? CO 2 +CaO→CaCO 3 . in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? The fluidized bed reactor is operated so that the large alumina/nickel-catalyst partides remain within the fluidized bed at all times, while the smaller calcium oxide/carbonate particles are entrained with the gas and flow continuously through and out of the bed for subsequent separation and re-use of the calcium oxide CO 2 -adsorbent. Significant economic advantages have been shown in the size, throughput, and single-pass conversion efficiencies when using the BOSH 2 two-particle fluidized bed process in methane/steam reformer reactors described above. However, as this process has matured over time, certain technical issues have arisen that require resolution. One of these relates to the need for obtaining a very uniform distribution and rapid mixing of both the solid calcium oxide particles and the steam/methane gas mixture across the bottom of the fluidized catalyst bed of the reactor. Uniform splitting of entrained calcium-oxide-particle streams into multiple (i.e., on the order of 6 to 36) feed streams is problematic in dilute, two-phase pneumatic gas flows. The subsequent rapid mixing of these streams with the recirculating fluidized bed material is also important to prevent excessive hot spots within the bed, which could cause over-heating issues. This is because the reaction of the CO 2 with the calcium oxide is highly exothermic, and can potentially lead to local, destructive “hot zones” if not accurately counterbalanced by the highly endothermic methane/steam reaction. Therefore, good, uniform dispersions of the methane, steam, and calcium oxide reactants with the contents of the bulk fluidized bed at or near the bed's injectors is necessary and important to ensure reliable reactor operation. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with the present invention, apparatus is provided for uniformly and reliably splitting a stream of entrained calcium oxide particles into multiple feed streams, and then injecting those streams, together with the steam/methane gas mixture reactants, into the fluidized bed of a steam/methane reactor such that a very uniform distribution and rapid mixing of both the solid calcium oxide particles and the steam/methane gas mixture is achieved across the entire bottom of the fluidized bed of the reactor. In one aspect of the invention, the apparatus comprises a very accurate, dense-phase (or “slurry”) flow splitter for the entrained calcium oxide particle feed lines, and in another aspect, comprises a high velocity, “rocket-style” impinging injector with adjacent base-bleed nozzles, or orifices, for an effective reactant dispersion into the reactor's bed. In one exemplary embodiment thereof, the dense-phase flow splitter comprises an elongated inlet tube having opposite inlet and outlet ends, and a plurality of elongated outlet tubes having opposite inlet and outlet ends. The inlet ends of the outlet tubes are coupled to the outlet end of the inlet tube such that a stream of a gas having particles of a solid entrained therein at or just below the static-bed bulk density of the particles and entering through the inlet tube of the splitter is equally divided among the outlet tubes into substantially equal, constituent dense-phase flows. The respective internal cross-sectional areas of the inlet tubes of the splitter are adjusted such that they are equal to each other and their sum is substantially equal to the internal cross-sectional area of the inlet tube. The interior surfaces of the tubes are made very smooth, and the tubes are configured such that any change in the axial direction of the flow of the stream through the splitter does not exceed about 10 degrees. Advantageously, the outlet tubes are round, or annular, and have a nominal diameter of not less than about 0.25 inches. An exemplary high-velocity, rocket-style impinging injector for injecting reactants into the bed of the reactor comprises an orifice plate disposed horizontally within the reactor below the fluidized bed thereof. The plate includes a “primary,” or central, orifice that extends substantially perpendicularly through the plate, and one or more “secondary,” or peripheral, orifices disposed adjacent to the central orifice, which extend through the plate at such an angle that streams of reactants respectively injected into the reactor bed through the peripheral orifices impinge on a stream of reactants injected vertically into the reactor bed through the central orifice. For embodiments of the injector that comprise a plurality of the peripheral orifices, the latter are preferably arranged in the plate such that the streams of reactants respectively injected therethrough impinge on the stream of reactants injected through the central orifice at a common point, and at a common, acute angle. An exemplary embodiment of an advantageous one-step, two-particle, fluidized-bed reactor for the production of hydrogen from methane by a steam reforming process comprises an elongated, vertical closed chamber. The chamber is divided into an upper, fluidized-bed chamber for containing a bed of catalyst particles, and a lower, gas-manifold chamber, by an orifice plate disposed horizontally within a lower portion of the chamber. The plate incorporates at least one of the above high-velocity, rocket-style impinging injectors in it for injecting reactants into the bed of the upper chamber, together with a plurality of “base-bleed” orifices disposed around the injector and extending substantially perpendicularly through the plate for injecting respective streams of reactants from the gas-manifold chamber into the fluidized-bed chamber. The outlet end of one of the outlet tubes of one of the above dense-phase flow splitters is coupled to the central orifice of the injector for injecting a gas, e.g., steam, methane, or a mixture thereof, having particles of calcium oxide entrained therein at or just below the static-bed bulk density of the particles, into the bed of the reactor, and the lower, gas-manifold chamber is pressurized with a mixture of steam and methane for injection thereof into the bed through the peripheral and the base-bleed orifices of the plate. A better understanding of the above and many other features and advantages of the apparatus of the invention may be obtained from a consideration of the detailed description thereof below, particularly if such consideration is made in conjunction with the several views of the appended drawings. | 20040616 | 20090616 | 20051222 | 72856.0 | 0 | MERKLING, MATTHEW J | TWO PHASE INJECTOR FOR FLUIDIZED BED REACTOR | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,609 | ACCEPTED | Memory card connector with switch terminals having improved contacts | A memory card connector includes an insulative housing having a rear terminal-mounting section and at least one side wall section extending forwardly from one end of the rear section defining a card-receiving space therebetween. A first conductive terminal is mounted on the housing and has a first contact portion with a first protrusion thereon. A second conductive terminal is mounted on the housing and has a second contact portion with a second protrusion thereon. The contact portions of the terminals are normally spaced from each other but are juxtaposed so that the contact portions and the protrusions are mutually engaged in response to a memory card inserted into the card-receiving space. The protrusions are offset from each other, whereby the first protrusion of the first terminal engages the second contact portion of the second terminal, and the second protrusion of the second terminal engages the first contact portion of the first terminal. | 1. A memory card connector, comprising: an insulative housing having a rear terminal-mounting section and at least one side wall section extending forwardly from one end of the rear section defining a card-receiving space therewith; a first conductive terminal mounted on the housing and having a first contact portion with a first protrusion thereon; a second conductive terminal mounted on the housing and having a second contact portion with a second protrusion thereon; the contact portions of said terminals being normally spaced from each other but juxtaposed so that the contact portions and the protrusions are mutually engaged in response to a memory card inserted into said card-receiving space; and said protrusions being offset from each other whereby the first protrusion of the first terminal engages the second contact portion of the second terminal, and the second protrusion of the second terminal engages the first contact portion of the first terminal. 2. The memory card connector of claim 1 wherein the contact portions of the terminals are generally planar. 3. The memory card connector of claim 1 wherein the protrusions of the terminals are convex to present rounded contact points directed toward the contact portions of the respective other terminal. 4. The memory card connector of claim 3 wherein said terminals are stamped and formed of sheet metal material, and said protrusions are stamped into convex configurations out of the contact portions of the terminals. 5. The memory card connector of claim 1 wherein at least one of said terminals includes a body portion fixed to the housing, and a contact spring arm cantilevered from the body portion, with the contact portion of the terminal being at a free end of the contact spring arm. 6. The memory card connector of claim 1, including a third conductive terminal mounted on the housing and having a third contact portion with a protrusion thereon, said second conductive terminal having a pair of said second contact portions and a corresponding pair of said second protrusions, the second terminal comprising a common terminal whereby the pair of second contact portions and second protrusions are operatively associated respectively with the first and third contact portions and protrusions of the first and third terminals, respectively. 7. The memory card connector of claim 1 wherein said first and second terminals are mounted on said one side wall section of the housing. 8. A memory card connector, comprising: an insulative housing having a rear terminal-mounting section and at least one side wall section extending forwardly from one end of the rear section defining a card-receiving space therewith; a first conductive terminal mounted on the one side wall section of the housing and having a first, generally planar contact portion with a first protrusion thereon, the protrusion being convex to present a rounded contact point; a second conductive terminal mounted on the side wall section of the housing and having a second, generally planar contact portion with a second protrusion thereon, the protrusion being convex to present a rounded contact point; the contact portions of said terminals being normally spaced from each other but juxtaposed so that the contact portions and the protrusions are mutually engaged in response to a memory card inserted into said card-receiving space; and said protrusions being offset from each other whereby the first protrusion of the first terminal engages the second contact portion of the second terminal, and the second protrusion of the second terminal engages the first contact portion of the first terminal. 9. The memory card connector of claim 8 wherein said terminals are stamped and formed of sheet metal material, and said protrusions are stamped into convex configurations out of the contact portions of the terminals. 10. The memory card connector of claim 8 wherein at least one of said terminals includes a body portion fixed to the housing, and a contact spring arm cantilevered from the body portion, with the contact portion of the terminal being at a free end of the contact spring arm. 11. The memory card connector of claim 8, including a third conductive terminal mounted on the side wall section of the housing and having a third contact portion with a protrusion thereon, said second conductive terminal having a pair of said second contact portions and a corresponding pair of said second protrusions, the second terminal comprising a common terminal whereby the pair of second contact portions and second protrusions are operatively associated respectively with the first and third contact portions and protrusions of the first and third terminals, respectively. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention generally relates to the art of electrical connectors and, particularly, to a memory card connector with switch terminals having improved contact interengagement. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Memory cards are known in the art and contain intelligence in the form of a memory circuit or other electronic program. Some form of card reader reads the information or memory stored on the card. Such cards are used in many applications in today's electronic society, including video cameras, digital still cameras, smartphones, PDA's, music players, ATMs, cable television decoders, toys, games, PC adapters, multi-media cards and other electronic applications. Typically, a memory card includes a contact or terminal array for connection through a card connector to a card reader system and then to external equipment. The connector readily accommodates insertion and removal of the card to provide quick access to the information and program on the card. The card connector includes terminals for yieldingly engaging the contact array of the memory card. The memory card connector often is mounted on a printed circuit board. The memory card, itself, writes or reads via the connector and can transmit between electrical appliances, such as a word processor, personal computer, personal data assistant or the like. Some memory card connectors are provided with a write-protection function by means of a pair of elastic conductive terminals forming a controlling switch. The two switch terminals are mounted at a side of the connector and have respective elastic arms arranged in close proximity to each other and may be moved into mutual engagement by the memory card to close the controlling switch. Some memory card connectors also are provided with a card detector function by means of a third switch terminal which may be moved into engagement with one of the other switch terminals by a memory card, such as by a leading edge of the card. This indicates or detects that the card is fully inserted into the connector. One of the problems with memory card connectors of the character described above is in maintaining a good positive engagement between the contact portions of the respective switch terminals. Typically, the contact portions are generally planar and establish a good positive contact engagement only if the entire mutually opposing planar surfaces of the contact portions are engaged. Unfortunately, the switch terminals have a tendency to twist and deform, which results in lessening the contact area between the contact portions which causes a higher resistance ratio. In other words, the actual contact area of the opposing contact portions is impaired and, thereby, impairs the conductivity between the two switch terminals. The present invention is directed to solving these problems. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object, therefore, of the invention is to provide a memory card connector with improved switch terminals. In the exemplary embodiment of the invention, the memory card connector includes an insulative housing having a rear terminal-mounting section and at least one side wall section extending forwardly from one end of the rear section defining a card-receiving space therebetween. A first conductive terminal is mounted on the housing and has a first contact portion with a first protrusion thereon. A second conductive terminal is mounted on the housing and has a second contact portion with a second protrusion thereon. The contact portions of the terminals are normally spaced from each other but are juxtaposed so that the contact portions and the protrusions are mutually engaged in response to a memory card inserted into the card-receiving space. The protrusions are offset from each other, whereby the first protrusion of the first terminal engages the second contact portion of the second terminal, and the second protrusion of the second terminal engages the first contact portion of the first terminal. According to one aspect of the invention, the first and second terminals are mounted on the one side wall section of the housing. The contact portions of the terminals are generally planar. The protrusions of the terminals are convex to present rounded contact points toward the contact portions of the other terminals. As disclosed herein, the terminals are stamped and formed of sheet metal material, and the protrusions are stamped into convex configurations out of the contact portions of the terminals. Each terminal includes a body portion fixed to the housing, and a contact spring arm cantilevered from the body portion, with the contact portion of the terminal being at a free end of the contact spring arm. According to another aspect of the invention, a third conductive terminal is mounted on the housing and has a third contact portion with a protrusion thereon. The second conductive terminal has a pair of the second contact portions and a corresponding pair of the second protrusions. The second terminal comprises a common terminal, whereby the pair of second contact portions and second protrusions are respectively operatively associated with the first and third contact portions and protrusions of the first and third terminals, respectively. Other objects, features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description taken in connection with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The features of this invention which are believed to be novel are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. The invention, together with its objects and the advantages thereof, may be best understood by reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals identify like elements in the FIGS. and in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a memory card connector according to the invention, with the switch terminals lifted out of the housing; FIG. 2 is an enlarged perspective view of the area encircled at “A” in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a top perspective view of the connector in assembled condition; FIG. 3A is an enlarged, fragmented perspective view of the area encircled at “A” in FIG. 3; FIG. 3B is an enlarged, fragmented perspective view of the area encircled at “B” in FIG. 3; FIG. 4 is a view similar to that of FIG. 3A, but with the terminals in their interengaged state; FIG. 4A is an enlarged depiction of the contact point at “A” in FIG. 4; and FIG. 5 is a graph showing the contact area versus resistance characteristic between the terminals of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring to the drawings in greater detail, and first to FIG. 1, the invention is embodied in a memory card connector, generally designated 10, which includes an insulative housing, generally designated 12, which has a generally U-shaped configuration. The housing includes a rear terminal-mounting section 14 and at least one side wall section 16 extending forwardly from one end of the rear section. With the U-shaped configuration, a second side wall section 18 extends forwardly from the opposite end of the rear section. However, some memory card connectors have generally L-shaped configurations, wherein a single side wall section 16 projects forwardly of the rear section. A plurality of connector terminals, generally designated 20, are mounted through rear section 14 of the housing. The connector is adapted for mounting on a printed circuit board, and terminals 20 have tail portions 20a for connection, as by soldering, to appropriate circuit traces on the printed circuit board. The terminals have contact portions 20b projecting forwardly of rear section 14 into a card-receiving space 22 defined between side wall sections 16 and 18 and in front of rear section 14. A memory card (not shown) is inserted into the card-receiving space in the direction of arrow “A”. The memory card has a contact array for engaging contact portions 20b of terminals 20. As stated in the Background, above, some memory card connectors are provided with a write-protection function by means of a pair of switch terminals. Some memory card connectors are provided with a card detector function also by means of a pair of switch terminals. Connector 10 is provided with a plurality of switch terminals which effect both the write-protection function as well as the card detector function. Specifically, and referring to FIG. 2 in conjunction with FIG. 1, a first switch terminal, generally designated 24, and a second switch terminal, generally designated 26, are operatively associated with a third or “common” switch terminal, generally designated 28. First switch terminal 24 has a contact spring arm 24a with a flat or generally planar contact portion 24b at a distal end of the arm, and with a rounded or convex protrusion 24c projecting from the contact portion. Second switch terminal 26 has a contact spring arm 26a with a flat or generally planar contact portion 26b at a distal end of the arm, and with a rounded or convex protrusion 26c projecting from the contact portion. As will be understood hereinafter, first switch terminal 24 effects the write-protection function of the connector, and second switch terminal 26 effects the card detector function of the connector. The third or common switch terminal 28 is operatively associated with both the first and second switch terminals 24 and 26, respectively. The first and second switch terminals 24 and 26 have body portions 24d and 26d, respectively, for fixing the terminals in side wall section 16 of housing 12, along with feet portions 24e and 26e for connection, as by soldering, to appropriate circuit traces on the printed circuit board. The third or common switch terminal 28 has a body portion 28a fixed to side wall section 16 of housing 12. A pair of contact spring arms 28b and 28c are cantilevered from the body portion in the same direction. Generally flat or planar contact portions 28d and 28e are formed as enlarged contact pads at the free ends of contact spring arms 28b and 28c, respectively. The contact portions 28d and 28e have protrusions 28f and 28g thereon. The protrusions face the contact portions of first and second switch terminals 24 and 26 as seen in FIG. 2. All of the switch terminals 24, 26 and 28 may be stamped and formed of conductive sheet metal material. Protrusions 24c, 26c, 28f and 28g are formed by stamping the protrusions from planar contact portions 24b, 26b, 28d and 28e of the respective terminals. Therefore, it is contemplated that the protrusions are convex to present rounded contact points directed toward the contact portions of the respective other terminals. FIG. 3 shows switch terminals 24, 26 and 28 mounted in appropriate slots in side wall section 16 of housing 12, and FIGS. 3A and 3B show the area of contact between the respective terminals. Specifically, FIG. 3A shows contact portion 24b of first switch terminal 24 normally spaced from but juxtaposed with contact portion 28b of common switch terminal 28. Protrusions 24c and 28f of the respective terminals also are normally spaced apart. Similarly, FIG. 3B shows contact portion 26b of second switch terminal 26 normally spaced from but juxtaposed with contact portion 28e of common switch terminal 28. Protrusions 26c and 28g also are spaced apart. Referring to FIG. 4 in conjunction with both FIGS. 3A and 3B, the invention contemplates that the protrusions are offset from each other at each connection interface between the respective terminals so that the protrusion of one terminal engages the contact portion of the other terminal, rather than the protrusions engaging each other. In other words, in FIG. 4, protrusion 24c of first switch terminal 24 is offset from protrusion 28f of common terminal 28, whereby protrusion 24c of the first terminal engages contact portion 28b of the common terminal, and protrusion 28f of the common terminal engages contact portion 24b of the first terminal 24. Similarly, in FIG. 3B, protrusion 26c of second switch terminal 26 will engage contact portion 28e of common switch terminal 28, and protrusion 28g of the common terminal will engage contact portion 26b of the second terminal. When a memory card is inserted into card-receiving space 22 in the direction of arrow “A” (FIG. 1), a side edge of the card sequentially engages contact portion 24b of first switch terminal 24 (FIG. 3A) and then contact portion 26b of second switch terminal 26 (FIG. 3B). This sequentially biases contact spring arms 24a and 26a of the first and second switch terminals, respectively, outwardly toward common switch terminal 28. In turn, the protrusions of the first and second switch terminals and the protrusions of the common switch terminal interengage as described in detail above in relation to FIG. 4. The movement of the memory card effectively actuates the write-protection function of the connector afforded by first switch terminal 24 engaging third switch terminal 28, and then effectively actuates the card detector function of the connector afforded by second switch terminal 26 engaging third switch terminal 28 as the memory card reaches its fully inserted position. The above-described connection interengagements between the respective terminals has various advantages. First, the convex protrusions establish very positive contact points between the respective terminals. The offset protrusions provide redundant contact points to ensure that there is a good positive contact engagement between the terminals. It has been found that this engagement reduces the resistance between the terminals, and the electrical conductivity between the terminals is considerably enhanced. As a result, the memory card connector has an electrical reliability not present in the prior art. FIG. 4A shows that there are many minute points 32 of engagement between the protrusions of the terminals and the contact portions of the terminals. This lowers the electrical resistance between the terminals. Finally, FIG. 5 shows a graph of the contact area versus resistance characteristics between switch terminals of a memory card connector, in which the Y-coordinate represents resistance, and the X-coordinate represents contact area. It can be seen that the larger contact area produces lower resistance and, thereby, the electrical conductivity is higher. FIG. 5 also shows three sets of minute contact points 32, to emphasize that the more contact points corresponds to a larger contact area to produce lower resistance and, thereby, higher electrical conductivity. It will be understood that the invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or central characteristics thereof. The present examples and embodiments, therefore, are to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive, and the invention is not to be limited to the details given herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Memory cards are known in the art and contain intelligence in the form of a memory circuit or other electronic program. Some form of card reader reads the information or memory stored on the card. Such cards are used in many applications in today's electronic society, including video cameras, digital still cameras, smartphones, PDA's, music players, ATMs, cable television decoders, toys, games, PC adapters, multi-media cards and other electronic applications. Typically, a memory card includes a contact or terminal array for connection through a card connector to a card reader system and then to external equipment. The connector readily accommodates insertion and removal of the card to provide quick access to the information and program on the card. The card connector includes terminals for yieldingly engaging the contact array of the memory card. The memory card connector often is mounted on a printed circuit board. The memory card, itself, writes or reads via the connector and can transmit between electrical appliances, such as a word processor, personal computer, personal data assistant or the like. Some memory card connectors are provided with a write-protection function by means of a pair of elastic conductive terminals forming a controlling switch. The two switch terminals are mounted at a side of the connector and have respective elastic arms arranged in close proximity to each other and may be moved into mutual engagement by the memory card to close the controlling switch. Some memory card connectors also are provided with a card detector function by means of a third switch terminal which may be moved into engagement with one of the other switch terminals by a memory card, such as by a leading edge of the card. This indicates or detects that the card is fully inserted into the connector. One of the problems with memory card connectors of the character described above is in maintaining a good positive engagement between the contact portions of the respective switch terminals. Typically, the contact portions are generally planar and establish a good positive contact engagement only if the entire mutually opposing planar surfaces of the contact portions are engaged. Unfortunately, the switch terminals have a tendency to twist and deform, which results in lessening the contact area between the contact portions which causes a higher resistance ratio. In other words, the actual contact area of the opposing contact portions is impaired and, thereby, impairs the conductivity between the two switch terminals. The present invention is directed to solving these problems. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An object, therefore, of the invention is to provide a memory card connector with improved switch terminals. In the exemplary embodiment of the invention, the memory card connector includes an insulative housing having a rear terminal-mounting section and at least one side wall section extending forwardly from one end of the rear section defining a card-receiving space therebetween. A first conductive terminal is mounted on the housing and has a first contact portion with a first protrusion thereon. A second conductive terminal is mounted on the housing and has a second contact portion with a second protrusion thereon. The contact portions of the terminals are normally spaced from each other but are juxtaposed so that the contact portions and the protrusions are mutually engaged in response to a memory card inserted into the card-receiving space. The protrusions are offset from each other, whereby the first protrusion of the first terminal engages the second contact portion of the second terminal, and the second protrusion of the second terminal engages the first contact portion of the first terminal. According to one aspect of the invention, the first and second terminals are mounted on the one side wall section of the housing. The contact portions of the terminals are generally planar. The protrusions of the terminals are convex to present rounded contact points toward the contact portions of the other terminals. As disclosed herein, the terminals are stamped and formed of sheet metal material, and the protrusions are stamped into convex configurations out of the contact portions of the terminals. Each terminal includes a body portion fixed to the housing, and a contact spring arm cantilevered from the body portion, with the contact portion of the terminal being at a free end of the contact spring arm. According to another aspect of the invention, a third conductive terminal is mounted on the housing and has a third contact portion with a protrusion thereon. The second conductive terminal has a pair of the second contact portions and a corresponding pair of the second protrusions. The second terminal comprises a common terminal, whereby the pair of second contact portions and second protrusions are respectively operatively associated with the first and third contact portions and protrusions of the first and third terminals, respectively. Other objects, features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description taken in connection with the accompanying drawings. | 20040616 | 20060905 | 20050106 | 67451.0 | 0 | NGUYEN, KHIEM M | MEMORY CARD CONNECTOR WITH SWITCH TERMINALS HAVING IMPROVED CONTACTS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,733 | ACCEPTED | Multipurpose navigation keys for an electronic imaging device | A method and apparatus for a portable electronic imaging device, comprising a display screen for displaying objects including any combination of digital still images, video clips, menu items, and icons; and a navigation controller comprising navigation keys for allowing a user to navigate between the displayed objects, wherein the user may select a currently displayed object without moving a finger from a navigation key last pressed, thereby implementing navigation and select functions on a single controller. | 1. A portable electronic imaging device, comprising: a display screen for displaying objects including any combination of digital still images, video clips, menu items, and icons; and a navigation controller comprising navigation keys for allowing a user to navigate between the displayed objects, wherein the user may select a currently displayed object without moving a finger from a navigation key last pressed, thereby implementing navigation and select functions on a single controller. 2. The device of claim 1 wherein the device is configured to detect a double-press on any one of the navigation keys, and interprets the double-press as a user selection event that invokes a default operation on the currently selected object. 3. The device of claim 2 wherein the device is configured to detect a press-and-hold on any one of the navigation keys, and interprets the press-and hold as a user selection event that invokes a default operation on the currently selected object. 4. The device of claim 3 wherein the device is configured to detect both double-presses and press-and-holds on any navigation key, wherein a detected double-press indicates a user selection, while a detected press-and-hold invokes an action on the currently selected object. 5. The device of claim 3 wherein the detected press-and-hold indicates a user selection, while the detected double-presses invokes the action on the currently selected object. 6. The device of claim 2 wherein in response to detecting that one of the navigation keys has been pressed, interpreting the current key press as a navigation event if the time between previous presses of the same key and the current key press is greater than the predetermined double-press time. 7. The device of claim 6 wherein in response to detecting that one of the navigation keys has been pressed, interpreting the current key press as a select event if the time between previous presses of the same key and the current key press is less than the double-press time. 8. The device of claim 7 wherein the device distinguishes between fast scrolling during navigation and a double-press by determining if the time between previous presses of the same key and the current key press is greater than the predetermined double-press time, and if so, by examining whether a last plurality of presses were performed on the same navigation key, and if so, then determining that the user is fast-scrolling through displayed objects during navigation. 9. The device of claim 8 wherein if the time between the previous press of the same key and the current press is less than the double-press time, but the last plurality of presses were not performed on the same navigation key, then the current key press is interpreted as a selection event. 10. The device of claim 3 wherein the device comprises at least one of a digital camera, camera-enabled cell phone, MP3 player, and a personal digital assistant. 11. A portable electronic imaging device, comprising: a display screen for displaying objects including any combination of digital still images, video clips, menu items, and icons; and a navigation controller comprising navigation keys for allowing a user to navigate between the displayed objects, wherein the device is configured to detect a double-press on any one of the navigation keys, and interprets the double-press as a user selection event that invokes a default operation on the currently selected object. 12. A portable electronic imaging device, comprising: a display screen for displaying objects including any combination of digital still images, video clips, menu items, and icons; and a navigation controller comprising navigation keys for allowing a user to navigate between the displayed objects, wherein the device is configured to detect a press-and-hold on any one of the navigation keys, and interprets the press-and hold as a user selection event that invokes a default operation on the currently selected object. 13. A method for providing a portable electronic imaging device with a multipurpose navigation controller, comprising: displaying objects on a display screen, wherein the objects include any combination of digital still images, video clips, menu items, and icons; and providing the device with a navigation controller comprising navigation keys for allowing a user to navigate between the displayed objects, wherein the user may select a currently displayed object without moving a finger from a navigation key last pressed, thereby implementing navigation and select functions on a single controller. 14. The method of claim 13 further including: configuring the device to detect a double-press on any one of the navigation keys, and interpreting the double-press as a user selection event that invokes a default operation on the currently selected object. 15. The method of claim 14 further including: configuring the device to detect a press-and-hold on any one of the navigation keys, and interpreting the press-and hold as a user selection event that invokes a default operation on the currently selected object. 16. The method of claim 15 further including: configuring the device to detect both double-presses and press-and-holds on any navigation key, wherein a detected double-press indicates a user selection, while a detected press-and-hold invokes an action on the currently selected object. 17. The method of claim 15 further including: configuring the device to detect press-and-holds and double-presses on any navigation key, wherein the detected press-and-hold indicates a user selection, while the detected double-presses invokes an action on the currently selected object. 18. The method of claim 14 further including: in response to detecting that one of the navigation keys has been pressed, interpreting the current key press as a navigation event if the time between previous presses of the same key and the current key press is greater than the predetermined double-press time. 19. The method of claim 18 further including: in response to detecting that one of the navigation keys has been pressed, interpreting the current key press as a select event if the time between previous presses of the same key and the current key press is less than the predetermined double-press time. 20. The method of claim 19 further including: distinguishing between fast scrolling during navigation and a double-press by determining if the time between a previous presses of the same key and the current key press is greater than the predetermined double-press time, and if so, by examining whether a last plurality of presses were performed on the same navigation key, and if so, then determining that the user is fast-scrolling through displayed objects during navigation. 21. The method of claim 20 further including: if the time between the previous press of the same key and the current press is less than the stored double-press time, but the last plurality of presses were not performed on the same navigation key, then interpreting the current key press as a selection event. 22. The method of claim 15 further including: providing the device at least one of a digital camera, camera-enabled cell phone, MP3 player, and a personal digital assistant. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to portable electronic imaging devices, including digital cameras and cell phones, and more particularly to a method and apparatus for implementing navigation and select functions using a multipurpose navigation key. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Portable electronic imaging devices capable of displaying digital images and video are commonplace today. Examples of such devices include digital cameras, camera-enabled cell phones, MP3 players, and personal digital assistants (PDAs), for instance. FIGS. 1A and 1B are diagrams illustrating example portions of the hardware interface included on conventional imaging devices. Referring to FIG. 1A, a conventional imaging device 10 is equipped with a liquid-crystal display (LCD) or other type of display screen 12 for displaying objects 14. Objects that may be displayed on the display screen may include digital still images, video clips, menu items, and icons. In play mode, the display screen 12 is used as a playback screen for allowing the user to view objects individually or multiple objects at a time. Besides the display screen 12, the hardware user interface also includes a number of keys, buttons or switches for operating the device 10 and for navigating between displayed objects 14. Examples keys include zoom keys (not shown) for zooming a displayed image, a navigation controller 18, and a select key 20. A four-way navigation controller 18 is shown in FIG. 1A, which includes four keys; left/right keys 18a and 18b, having a horizontal orientation, and up/down keys 18c and 18d, having a vertical orientation. FIG. 1B is a diagram similar to FIG. 1A, where like components have like reference numerals, but shows the conventional imaging device 10 with a two-way navigation controller that only includes two keys 18a and 18b, rather than four. In both embodiments shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, a user navigates to a desired object 14 by pressing the navigation controller 18. In the case where a single object 14 is displayed on the screen 12, the displayed object 14 is considered the current selection. In the case where multiple objects 14 are displayed, a highlight or other indication is moved from object 14 to object 14 as the user navigates to indicate the currently selected object 14. Once the user navigates to a desired object 14, the user may initiate the default action associated with the current selection by pressing the select key 20. Examples of actions that can be performed by pressing the select key 20 include edit, open/execute, and delete. The select key 20 is shown in the center of the navigation controller 18 in FIG. 1A, but the select key 20 may also be located outside of the navigation controller, as shown in FIG. 1B. In yet other embodiments, the 2-way/4-way navigation controller 18 may be implemented as an integrated 2-way/4-way key. Although the current solution for allowing a user to navigate among objects and to initiate an action associated with the object 14 using a combination of the navigation controller 18 and the select key 20 works for its intended purposes, this implementation has several disadvantages. First, space for keys is limited on portable imaging devices. Having separate navigation and selection keys 18 and 20 occupies valuable space on the device 10. The user must find and press the right key in the correct sequence, which given the small keys on many portable devices due to miniaturization, is not always an easy task. In addition, the user must find the right portion of the navigation controller 18 for the direction of navigation desired. Users of devices with navigation controller keys often get unexpected results from pressing an undesired portion of the navigation controller key 18. The most typical error is when the user presses a navigation key when intending to press the selection key 20 to initiate the selection function. Accordingly, what is needed is an improved method and apparatus for implementing the navigation and select functions on the portable electronic imaging device. The present invention addresses such a need. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a portable electronic imaging device that includes a display screen for displaying objects including any combination of digital still images, video clips, menu items, and icons; and a navigation controller comprising navigation keys for allowing a user to navigate between the displayed objects, wherein the user may select a currently displayed object without moving a finger from a navigation key last pressed, thereby implementing navigation and select functions on a single controller. In the preferred embodiment, the portable imaging device is configured to detect double-presses and press-and-holds on any navigation key, and either or both of these events may be interpreted as a user selection event that invokes the default operation on the currently selected object(s). According to the method and apparatus disclosed herein, the present invention eliminates the need for a user to use a select key, thus reducing user error. In addition, the select key may be eliminated from the device altogether, thereby saving space on navigation controller-equipped devices. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A and 1B are diagrams illustrating example portions of the hardware interface included on conventional imaging devices. FIGS. 2A and 2B are diagrams illustrating hardware user interface embodiments for a portable electronic imaging device having a multipurpose navigation controller in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 3 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for implementing navigation and select functions on a portable electronic imaging device by providing a multipurpose navigation controller in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to implementing of navigation and select functions on a portable electronic device. The following description is presented to enable one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the invention and is provided in the context of a patent application and its requirements. Various modifications to the preferred embodiments and the generic principles and features described herein will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art. Thus, the present invention is not intended to be limited to the embodiments shown, but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with the principles and features described herein. The present inventions provides an improved method and apparatus for implementing navigation and select functions on a portable electronic imaging device by providing a multipurpose navigation controller that performs both navigation and select functions. In a preferred embodiment, the portable electronic device is any device capable of displaying images, such as a digital camera, camera-cell phone, music player, or a PDA. However, in an alternative embodiment, the portable electronic device encompasses devices that control imaging devices, such as a remote control, for example. FIGS. 2A and 2B are diagrams illustrating hardware user interface embodiments for a portable electronic imaging device having a multipurpose navigation controller in accordance with the present invention, where like components have like reference numerals. The imaging device 50 equipped with the multipurpose navigation controller 56 of the present invention allows a user to select an object 54 displayed on screen 52 without moving his/her finger from the last navigation key 56 pressed. In the preferred embodiment, the portable imaging device 50 is configured to detect double-presses and press-and-holds on any navigation key 56. Either or both of these events may be interpreted as a user selection event, which when detected invokes the default operation on the currently selected object(s). Thus, when a user navigates to a displayed object 54, he/she can simply double-click the last navigation key 56 pressed (or any navigation key) or press-and-hold the last navigation key 56 pressed to select the current object(s) 54. In a further embodiment, the device 50 may be configured to detect double-presses and press-and-holds on any navigation key 56, such that a detected double-press indicates a user selection, while a detected press-and-hold invokes an action on the currently selected object, and vice versa. With the multipurpose navigation controller 56 of the present invention, no separate selection key is required to indicate a selection event, thus eliminating the need for a separate select key, which potentially saves space on the device and reduces user error. In a preferred embodiment, the multi-purpose navigation controller 56 may be implemented as either a 4-way or 2-way navigation controller, as shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B, respectively, and the navigation controller 56 may be implemented with separate navigation keys or as an integrated 4-way/2-way key. Also, in the preferred embodiment, a separate select key is eliminated from the device 50 in order to save space. However, an alternative embodiment, the device 50 may include a separate select key (not shown) for user convenience, whether located in the center of the navigation control or apart therefrom. FIG. 3 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for implementing navigation and select functions on a portable electronic imaging device by providing a multipurpose navigation controller 56 in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. The process begins when the device 50 detects that one of the navigation keys 56 has been pressed and released in step 100. If so, the device 50 determines if the time between the previous press of the same key and the current presses is less than a stored double-press time in step 102. Referring again to FIGS. 2A and 2B, the double-press time 58 is preferably stored in a non-volatile memory 60 in the device 50 along with a release time 60. In a preferred embodiment, both are configurable. Referring to FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 3, if the time between presses is greater than the double-press time 58, in step 102, then the device 50 interprets the key press as a navigation event and displays the next object in step 104 (or moves a highlight to the next object, depending on the current operating mode). According to one aspect of the present invention, the device 50 is further configured to distinguish between fast scrolling during navigation and a double-press as follows. If the time between the previous press of the same key and the current press is less than the stored double-press time 58 in step 102, then the device 50 examines whether the last couple of presses (e.g., three) were performed on the same navigation key 56 in step 106. If the last couple for presses were performed on the same key in step 106, then the device 50 determines that the user is fast-scrolling through displayed objects during navigation in step 108. Accordingly, the current key press is interpreted as a navigation event and the next object is displayed, as described in step 104. If the time between the previous press of the same key and the current press is less than the stored double-press time 58 in step 102, but the last couple of presses were not performed on the same navigation key in step 106, then the current key press is interpreted as a selection event in step 110. In step 112, the device 50 executes the action associated with the currently selected object. Also, according to the present invention, if the device 50 detects that one of the navigation keys is pressed, but not released for a time greater than the release time 62 in step 14, then this “press-and-hold” is interpreted as a selection event in step 110, and the device 50 executes the action as described in step 112. A method and apparatus for implementing the navigation and select functions on the portable electronic imaging device using a multipurpose navigation key has been disclosed. The present invention has been described in accordance with the embodiments shown, and one of ordinary skill in the art will readily recognize that there could be variations to the embodiments, and any variations would be within the spirit and scope of the present invention. Accordingly, many modifications may be made by one of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Portable electronic imaging devices capable of displaying digital images and video are commonplace today. Examples of such devices include digital cameras, camera-enabled cell phones, MP3 players, and personal digital assistants (PDAs), for instance. FIGS. 1A and 1B are diagrams illustrating example portions of the hardware interface included on conventional imaging devices. Referring to FIG. 1A , a conventional imaging device 10 is equipped with a liquid-crystal display (LCD) or other type of display screen 12 for displaying objects 14 . Objects that may be displayed on the display screen may include digital still images, video clips, menu items, and icons. In play mode, the display screen 12 is used as a playback screen for allowing the user to view objects individually or multiple objects at a time. Besides the display screen 12 , the hardware user interface also includes a number of keys, buttons or switches for operating the device 10 and for navigating between displayed objects 14 . Examples keys include zoom keys (not shown) for zooming a displayed image, a navigation controller 18 , and a select key 20 . A four-way navigation controller 18 is shown in FIG. 1A , which includes four keys; left/right keys 18 a and 18 b, having a horizontal orientation, and up/down keys 18 c and 18 d, having a vertical orientation. FIG. 1B is a diagram similar to FIG. 1A , where like components have like reference numerals, but shows the conventional imaging device 10 with a two-way navigation controller that only includes two keys 18 a and 18 b, rather than four. In both embodiments shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B , a user navigates to a desired object 14 by pressing the navigation controller 18 . In the case where a single object 14 is displayed on the screen 12 , the displayed object 14 is considered the current selection. In the case where multiple objects 14 are displayed, a highlight or other indication is moved from object 14 to object 14 as the user navigates to indicate the currently selected object 14 . Once the user navigates to a desired object 14 , the user may initiate the default action associated with the current selection by pressing the select key 20 . Examples of actions that can be performed by pressing the select key 20 include edit, open/execute, and delete. The select key 20 is shown in the center of the navigation controller 18 in FIG. 1A , but the select key 20 may also be located outside of the navigation controller, as shown in FIG. 1B . In yet other embodiments, the 2-way/4-way navigation controller 18 may be implemented as an integrated 2-way/4-way key. Although the current solution for allowing a user to navigate among objects and to initiate an action associated with the object 14 using a combination of the navigation controller 18 and the select key 20 works for its intended purposes, this implementation has several disadvantages. First, space for keys is limited on portable imaging devices. Having separate navigation and selection keys 18 and 20 occupies valuable space on the device 10 . The user must find and press the right key in the correct sequence, which given the small keys on many portable devices due to miniaturization, is not always an easy task. In addition, the user must find the right portion of the navigation controller 18 for the direction of navigation desired. Users of devices with navigation controller keys often get unexpected results from pressing an undesired portion of the navigation controller key 18 . The most typical error is when the user presses a navigation key when intending to press the selection key 20 to initiate the selection function. Accordingly, what is needed is an improved method and apparatus for implementing the navigation and select functions on the portable electronic imaging device. The present invention addresses such a need. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a portable electronic imaging device that includes a display screen for displaying objects including any combination of digital still images, video clips, menu items, and icons; and a navigation controller comprising navigation keys for allowing a user to navigate between the displayed objects, wherein the user may select a currently displayed object without moving a finger from a navigation key last pressed, thereby implementing navigation and select functions on a single controller. In the preferred embodiment, the portable imaging device is configured to detect double-presses and press-and-holds on any navigation key, and either or both of these events may be interpreted as a user selection event that invokes the default operation on the currently selected object(s). According to the method and apparatus disclosed herein, the present invention eliminates the need for a user to use a select key, thus reducing user error. In addition, the select key may be eliminated from the device altogether, thereby saving space on navigation controller-equipped devices. | 20040616 | 20070522 | 20051222 | 65722.0 | 0 | PILLAI, NAMITHA | MULTIPURPOSE NAVIGATION KEYS FOR AN ELECTRONIC IMAGING DEVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,869,829 | ACCEPTED | Pneumatic paintball gun | A pneumatic paintball gun preferably includes a body and a grip. The body preferably holds a pneumatic housing that contains the primary operating components of the paintball gun. The pneumatic housing preferably includes a pneumatic piston and cylinder assembly. The pneumatic piston is preferably coupled to a bolt for controlling movement of the bolt based on the supply and venting of compressed gas from the cylinder. Most preferably, a normally-open three way solenoid valve supplies compressed gas to a forward surface area of the piston to hold the bolt in an open position. In the open position, a paintball is permitted to load into a breech area of the paintball gun. In response to a trigger pull, the three-way solenoid valve is preferably configured to vent compressed gas away from the forward piston surface area. Pressure supplied to a rearward piston surface area preferably causes the bolt to close, moving the paintball into a barrel. The bolt is also preferably configured to operate as part of the firing valve, such that closing the bolt causes compressed gas to be released into contact with the paintball arranged in the barrel to launch it from the paintball gun. A paintball detection system can also be provided having a circuit board configured to fit in a recess formed in a breech section of the pneumatic housing. | 1. A pneumatic paintball gun, comprising: a pneumatic piston slidably mounted in a cylinder, the cylinder configured to receive compressed gas and to supply the compressed gas to the pneumatic piston to control movement of the pneumatic piston; a bolt coupled to the pneumatic piston, said bolt comprising a port configured to communicate compressed gas from a chamber to a forward end of the bolt for launching a paintball; a sealing member arranged in communication with the bolt, wherein the sealing member is configured to prevent compressed gas from the compressed gas storage area from entering the bolt port when the bolt is in a first position and to permit compressed gas to be released into the bolt port when the bolt is in a second position; a supply port for supplying compressed gas to the compressed gas storage area; a solenoid valve configured to supply compressed gas to a forward surface area of the bolt piston to hold the bolt in an open position; wherein the solenoid valve is configured to vent compressed gas from the forward surface area of the bolt piston to allow the bolt to move to a closed position and to allow the release of compressed gas from the compressed gas storage chamber through the bolt port to fire the paintball gun. 2. A paintball gun according to claim 1, wherein the solenoid valve is a three-way solenoid valve. 3. A paintball gun according to claim 2, wherein the three-way solenoid valve is normally-opened to direct compressed gas from a compressed gas source to the forward surface area of the bolt piston when the solenoid is deactuated. 4. A paintball gun according to claim 3, wherein the three-way solenoid valve is configured to vent compressed gas away from the forward surface area of the bolt piston when the solenoid is actuated in response to a firing signal. 5. A paintball gun according to claim 1, further comprising a second sealing member arranged in proximity with the supply port and configured to permit compressed gas to enter the compressed gas storage area when the bolt is in a first position and to prevent compressed gas from entering the compressed gas storage area from the supply port when the bolt is in a second position. 6. A paintball gun according to claim 1, further comprising a vent port arranged through the bolt to vent compressed gas from a rearward end of the bolt through the forward end of the bolt, to prevent back pressure on the bolt. 7. A paintball gun according to claim 1, wherein a sealing member is configured to prevent compressed gas from entering a compressed gas storage chamber when the bolt is in a closed position. 8. A paintball gun according to claim 1, wherein the pneumatic piston comprises a second surface area arranged in communication with the compressed gas storage area. 9. A paintball gun according to claim 8, wherein compressed gas from the compressed gas storage area acts on the second piston surface area to cause the bolt to move to a closed position when compressed gas is vented away from the forward surface area of the bolt piston. 10. A paintball gun according to claim 1, further comprising a paintball detection system, said paintball detection system comprising a circuit board arranged in a groove formed in a breech portion of the pneumatic housing. 11. A paintball gun according to claim 1, further comprising a second pneumatic piston configured to shut off or restrict the supply of compressed gas to compressed gas storage chamber during firing operation. 12. A paintball gun according to claim 1, further comprising a clamp for pinching supply tube to shut off or restrict supply of compressed gas to compressed gas storage chamber during firing operation. 13. A piston rod assembly for a paintball gun, comprising: a plurality of vent channels disposed longitudinally along a piston rod to communicate compressed gas from a compressed gas storage chamber to a compressed gas releasing chamber during a firing operation of a paintball gun. 14. A piston rod assembly according to claim 11, wherein the plurality of vent channels are arranged along an external surface of the piston rod. 15. A pneumatic paintball gun, comprising: a pneumatic housing having a breech section arranged to receive a paintball into the paintball gun; a groove formed in the breech section for receiving a circuit board; a cutout region formed through the breech section for receiving a sensor communicating with the circuit board; and wherein the sensor is configured to detect the presence or the absence of a paintball in the breech section. 16. A pneumatic paintball gun according to claim 15, wherein the sensor comprises a break-beam sensor arrangement having a transmitter arranged on one side of the breech section and a receiver arranged on an opposite side of the breech area. 17. A pneumatic paintball gun according to claim 15, wherein the sensor is mounted on the circuit board. 18. A pneumatic paintball gun according to claim 15, wherein the circuit board comprises a connector port arranged in proximity with a lower surface of the breech section to communicate with a circuit board for controlling operation of the paintball gun. 19. A pneumatic paintball gun according to claim 18, wherein the circuit board for controlling operation of the paintball gun is configured to permit a firing operation when the sensor detects a paintball in the breech section and to disable a firing operation when the sensor detects the absence of a paintball in the breech section. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to pneumatic paintball guns (“markers”) and their operating components. More particularly, this invention relates to a pneumatic paintball gun and the pneumatic components used to load a paintball into and fire it from the paintball gun. 2. Related Art In the sport of paintball, it is generally desirable to have a marker that is as small and light as possible. Smaller and lighter markers increase a players' mobility. Players benefit from increased mobility by being able to move more quickly from bunker to bunker, making it easier to avoid being hit. Further, in the sport of paintball, the marker is treated as an extension of the body such that a hit to the marker counts as a hit to the player. It is desirable, therefore, to have a paintball gun with as small a profile as possible while substantially maintaining or improving performance characteristics of the marker, such as firing rate, accuracy, and gas efficiency. The size of the paintball gun is generally related to the size and number of operating components that must be housed within the paintball gun body. It is further desirable to have a paintball marker that includes fewer, less complex, and less expensive, operating components and that can be more easily manufactured. The cost savings can then be passed on to the consumer. The industry is in need of a small, light, and inexpensive paintball marker that provides reliable and efficient operation. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one embodiment of the present invention, a pneumatic paintball gun can include a body and a grip frame. The body and the grip frame can be formed separately or integrally, and are preferably formed from a molded plastic, rubber, or other rugged but relatively inexpensive material. The body preferably includes a chamber configured to receive a pneumatic assembly. The pneumatic assembly preferably provides several of the operating components of the paintball gun including a bolt, a compressed gas storage area, and a firing mechanism. A pneumatic assembly housing can be formed of metal, plastic, or a combination of materials and, in addition to housing the pneumatic components, can be configured to receive a barrel and a feed tube. A pneumatic regulator can also be provided and can, for example, be a vertical, in-line regulator or a bottom-mount regulator. The bolt preferably includes a forward and a rearward piston surface area. A quantity of compressed gas is preferably selectively supplied and vented from a forward piston surface area through a mechanical or electro-pneumatic valving mechanism. The firing mechanism preferably consists of a sealing member arranged in selective communication with an outer surface of the bolt. One or more firing ports are preferably arranged in the bolt to communicate compressed gas through the bolt to launch a paintball. Compressed gas from the regulator can be supplied to the compressed gas storage area through a supply port. The flow of compressed gas into the compressed gas storage area can be restricted or prevented during a firing operation to increase gas efficiency of the paintball gun. In operation, compressed gas is preferably supplied to the paintball gun from a compressed gas container through a pressure regulator. The compressed gas is preferably directed from the pressure regulator to the valving mechanism and to a supply port for feeding the compressed gas storage area. Compressed gas supplied to the valving mechanism is preferably transferred through the valving mechanism to the forward surface area of the bolt piston when the valving mechanism is in a neutral (non-actuated) position. This compressed gas acts on the forward bolt piston surface area to force the bolt into a rearward position. While the bolt is in a rearward position, a paintball is allowed to load into a breech of the paintball gun from the feed tube. In addition, while the bolt is rearward, the gas supply port is preferably allowed to rapidly transmit compressed gas into the compressed gas storage area. A trigger mechanism is preferably configured to operate the valving mechanism. When the trigger is depressed, the valving mechanism is preferably actuated to vent compressed gas away from the forward piston surface area of the bolt. Compressed gas is preferably applied to a rearward surface area of the bolt piston. The rearward surface area of the bolt piston can be arranged, for example, in the compressed gas storage area or at a rearward end of the bolt. The compressed gas applied to the rearward surface area of the bolt piston can therefore be supplied from the compressed gas storage area or from a separate supply port. When the compressed gas is vented from the forward bolt piston surface area, the pressure applied to the rearward bolt piston surface area preferably causes the bolt to move to a forward position. When the bolt transitions to its forward position, a sealing member of the firing mechanism preferably disengages from the bolt surface area, permitting compressed gas from the compressed gas storage area to enter the bolt firing ports and launch a paintball from the marker. In addition, with the bolt in the firing position, the flow of compressed gas into the compressed gas storage area can be restricted. This can be accomplished, for instance, by configuring a rearward portion of the bolt to reduce the area through which compressed gas travels from the supply port to the compressed gas storage area. Alternatively, the supply of compressed gas to the compressed gas storage chamber can be cut off completely to prevent compressed gas from entering the storage chamber during the firing operation. This can be accomplished, for instance, by closing off the gas supply port using sealing members on a rearward end of the bolt, using sealing members on a separate, independent piston, by pinching a gas supply tube, or using a separate valving mechanism. The valving mechanism can be a solenoid valve (such as a three-way solenoid valve), a mechanical valve, or other valving mechanism. In the case of a solenoid valve, an electronic circuit is preferably provided to control the operation of the solenoid valve based on actuation of a trigger mechanism. A switch, such as a microswitch or other switching device, is preferably arranged in communication with the trigger to send an actuation signal to the electronic circuit in response to a pull of the trigger. A power source is also preferably provided to supply power to the electronic circuit and solenoid valve. The valving mechanism preferably vents compressed gas away from a forward bolt piston surface area in response to a firing signal from the circuit board. In the case of a mechanical valve, the mechanical valve preferably communicates with the trigger to vent the compressed gas away from the forward bolt piston surface area in response to a trigger pull. In one embodiment, the bolt is preferably a free-floating bolt with balanced pressure applied to opposite ends of the bolt piston rod. This can be accomplished, for instance, by providing a vent channel from a rearward end of the bolt piston rod through to the forward end of the bolt. Alternatively, the chamber in communication with the rearward end of the bolt piston can be vented to atmosphere through a vent port arranged through the gun body. Various other aspects, embodiments, and configurations of this invention are also possible without departing from the principles disclosed herein. This invention is therefore not limited to any of the particular aspects, embodiments, or configurations described herein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing and additional objects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become more readily apparent from the following detailed description of preferred embodiments, made with reference to the accompanying figures, in which: FIG. 1 is a somewhat schematic cross-sectional side view of a paintball gun, shown with a bolt thereof in an rearward (e.g., open) position, according to certain principles of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a somewhat schematic cross-sectional side view of the paintball gun of FIG. 1, shown with the bolt is disposed in a forward (e.g., closed) position; FIG. 3 is a somewhat schematic cross-sectional perspective view of the pneumatic paintball gun illustrated in FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is a somewhat schematic cross-sectional side view of a paintball gun constructed according to an alternative embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a somewhat schematic cross-sectional side view of a paintball gun constructed according to yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 6, 7, and 8 are a somewhat schematic perspective, cross-sectional side, and bottom plan view, respectively, illustrating a paintball detection system arrangement in a breech section of a paintball gun according to yet another embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 9 is a somewhat schematic perspective view of a circuit board and sensor system for the paintball detection system configured for arrangement in the breech section of the paintball gun illustrated in FIGS. 6, 7, and 8. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The accompanying drawings show the construction of various preferred embodiments incorporating principles of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 1, a pneumatic paintball gun 100 can be constructed having a body 110 and a grip 120. A foregrip 130 can also be provided. The body 110 and the grip 120 can be formed integrally or separately and can be formed of the same or different materials. The body 110 and the grip 120 are preferably formed of a molded plastic or rubber material, such as ABS plastic, that is durable and shock resistant yet relatively inexpensive. A pneumatic housing 115 is preferably arranged in the body 110 to house some or all of the pneumatic components, to receive a barrel (not shown), and to receive a feed tube 140. The pneumatic housing 115 is preferably a block or tube formed from a metal such as aluminum, but can be formed of any other metal, plastic, or other material that is sufficiently durable to perform its required functions. The grip 120 and foregrip 130 are preferably secured to the body 110 and the pneumatic housing 115 using screws or other fastening means. A plate 125 is also preferably provided and formed of a rigid material, such as metal, can also be arranged in the grip 120 to permit secure attachment of a tank receptacle (not shown) for connecting to a compressed gas tank. The foregrip 130 preferably provides a regulator 132 for regulating a supply of compressed gas down to a desired operating pressure. In this embodiment, the desired operating pressure is between about 90 to 350 psi. A battery 122 can be arranged in the grip 120 along with a circuit board 150 and a solenoid valve 250. The solenoid valve 250 of this embodiment is preferably a normally-open, three-way solenoid valve. A pneumatic assembly 200 is preferably arranged in the body 110 and can be connected to and/or include some or all of the pneumatic housing 115. The pneumatic assembly 200 preferably includes a compressed gas storage area 212, a pneumatic cylinder 220, and a guide chamber 214. A bolt 222 is preferably slidably arranged having a first piston surface area 226a located within a pneumatic cylinder 220 in a piston and cylinder assembly. The bolt 222 may further include a guide rod 221 that extends through substantially the entire pneumatic assembly 200. The guide rod 221 can include a firing valve section 221a that communicates with a sealing member 232 to prevent compressed gas from entering the bolt 222 from the compressed gas storage area 212 when the bolt 222 is rearward. The guide rod 221 further preferably includes a rearward section 221b that slides back and forth within a guide chamber 214 to provide stability for the bolt and also to restrict or prevent the flow of compressed gas into the compressed gas storage area 212 from a supply port 216 when the bolt 222 is forward. A vent channel 228 may be provided through the bolt 222 and guide rod 221 to prevent back pressure from building up on a rearward end 222b of the bolt 222 and provide an essentially free-floating bolt arrangement. This reduces the amount of pressure required to recock the bolt 222. The vent channel also reduces the amount of force applied by a forward end 222a of the bolt 222 on a paintball, improves gas efficiency, and eliminates the need for a secondary pressure regulator. Alternatively, a vent channel (not shown) may be provided through the body 110 of the gun 100 to vent the rearward chamber area 214 to atmosphere. With the bolt 222 in an open position, compressed gas from the regulator 132 is supplied to the compressed gas storage area 212 through the supply port 216. The sealing member 232 preferably communicates between an external surface of the bolt 222 along the firing valve section 221a and an inner wall of the pneumatic assembly 200 to prevent compressed gas from entering the bolt 222. The sealing member 232 can, for example, be arranged in a recess of the inner wall (or protrusion from the inner wall) of the pneumatic assembly 200 near a forward end of the compressed gas storage chamber 212. Alternatively, for example, a bolt port can be arranged through the bolt 222, with an input disposed near a rearward end of the bolt 222, to communicate compressed gas from a rearward end of the compressed gas storage area 212 through the bolt 222 and into communication with a paintball when the bolt transitions to its forward position. In this embodiment, the sealing member 232 could be arranged on the bolt 222 near a rearward end of the compressed gas storage area 212 so as to prevent compressed gas from entering the bolt 222 from the compressed gas storage area 212 when the bolt 222 is open, but to permit compressed gas from the compressed gas storage area 212 to enter the bolt 222 when the bolt is closed. The solenoid valve 250 preferably selectively supplies compressed gas to and vents compressed gas from the cylinder 220 through the port 218 to move the bolt 222. The solenoid valve 250 preferably comprises a normally-open configuration where compressed gas input into the solenoid valve 250 through an input port 254 is supplied via an output port 256 to the forward piston surface area 226a of the bolt 222 to hold the bolt 222 in an open position. In response to a trigger pull, a firing signal is preferably sent from the circuit board 150 to the solenoid valve 250 to initiate a firing operation of the paintball gun 100. In response to the firing signal, the solenoid valve 250 preferably vents compressed gas away from the forward piston area 226a of the bolt 222. Pressure on an opposing surface area 226b of the bolt 222 thereby causes the bolt 222 to transition to a closed position, as shown in FIG. 9. The opposing surface area 226b can, for instance, be arranged in the compressed gas storage area 212 as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. Alternatively, the opposing surface area 226h can be arranged on a rearward end 222b of the bolt 222, with compressed gas supplied to the rearward end 222h of the bolt 222 through a separate supply channel (not shown). In this alternative embodiment, the vent channel 228 would be omitted to maintain pressure in chamber 214 to function as an air spring. The opposing surface area 226h could likewise be positioned anywhere else where it can receive a quantity of compressed gas to force the bolt 222 into a closed position when gas is vented away from the forward surface area 226a. The opposing surface area 226h preferably has a surface area less than that of the forward surface area 226a to prevent the bolt from moving forward until the compressed gas is vented away from the forward surface area 226a. Alternatively, a mechanical spring or other biasing member that provides a desired amount of force (preferably less than the amount of force created by the compressed gas on the forward surface area of the bolt 226a) could be used to force the bolt 222 into a closed position when compressed gas is vented away from the forward surface area 226a of the bolt 222. Referring now to FIG. 2, with the bolt 222 in the closed position, compressed gas from the compressed gas storage area 212 is permitted to flow into the bolt 222 through channels 223 arranged along an external surface of the bolt 222 and ports 224 arranged to communicate compressed gas from a predetermined location along the exterior of the bolt 222 to a forward end of the bolt 222a. While the bolt 222 is in its forward position, entry of compressed gas into the compressed gas storage area 212 from the supply port 216 can be restricted using a glide ring 225a arranged on the rearward section of the guide rod 221b near a rearward end 222h of the bolt 222. A sealing member 225h prevents compressed gas from entering the rearward portion of the guide chamber 214 and the vent channel 228. To prevent (rather than restrict) compressed gas from entering into the chamber during the firing operation, the glide ring 225a could be replaced by a sealing member (not shown). Loading and firing operations of the pneumatic paintball gun 100 will now be described in further detail with reference to FIGS. 1-3. Referring to FIGS. 1, 2, and 3, compressed gas supplied from the regulator 132 to the paintball gun 100 is directed to a manifold 252 arranged in communication with the solenoid valve 250. Compressed gas from the regulator 132 is directed through the manifold to an inlet 254 of the solenoid valve 250. In its normally-open position, the solenoid valve 250 directs compressed gas from the input port 254 to an output port 256 of the manifold 252 to the cylinder 220 and hence the forward bolt piston surface area 226a. Meanwhile, compressed gas from the regulator 132 is also supplied through a second output port 258 of the manifold 252 to a supply port 216, preferably arranged near a rearward end of the compressed gas storage area 212 in a bolt guide cylinder 235. While the bolt 222 is open, compressed gas from the supply port 216 is preferably permitted to rapidly fill the compressed gas storage area 212. A rearward piston surface area 226h of the bolt 222 is preferably arranged in or in communication with the compressed gas storage area 212. The forward bolt piston surface area 226a is preferably larger than the rearward surface area 226h. Thus, in its resting position (e.g., in the absence of a firing signal), the compressed gas supplied to the forward bolt piston surface area 226a holds the bolt 222 in an open position against pressure applied to a rearward bolt piston surface area 226h. With the bolt 222 in its open (e.g., rearward position), a paintball is permitted to drop from a feed tube 140 into a breech area 145 of the paintball gun 100. A firing operation of the paintball gun 100 is preferably initiated in response to actuation of a trigger 102. The trigger 102 is preferably configured to initiate a firing operation of the paintball gun 100 through actuation of a microswitch 152 or other switching mechanism when pulled. Actuation of the switching mechanism 152 preferably causes the circuit board 150 to initiate a firing operation by transmitting one or more firing signals to the solenoid valve 250. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 1, 2, and 3, the firing signal is preferably an actuation signal that energizes the solenoid of the solenoid valve 250 for a predetermined duration of time. The trigger 102 could be configured, however to actuate a firing sequence as long as the trigger 102 is pulled, particularly if a mechanical rather than electronic actuation system is utilized. In response to the firing signal, the solenoid valve 250 preferably vents compressed gas from the forward bolt piston area 226a. Pressure applied from the compressed gas storage area 212 to the rearward bolt piston area 226h thereby causes the bolt 222 to move to its forward position. As the bolt 222 transitions to its forward position, it forces a paintball that has been loaded in the breech area 145 forward into the rearward end of a barrel (not shown). In addition, as the bolt 222 approaches its forward position, the channels 223 arranged along the external surface of the bolt 222 slide past the sealing member 232 and allow the compressed gas from the compressed gas storage area 212 to enter into the rearward portion of the cylinder 220. Compressed gas in the rear of the cylinder 220 flows through bolt ports 224 into contact with the paintball in the barrel to cause it to be launched from the gun 100. Also, as the bolt 222 approaches its forward position, a glide ring or sealing member 225a slides past the gas supply port 216 to respectively restrict or prevent the flow of compressed gas from the regulator 132 into the compressed gas storage area 212. This can improve the gas efficiency of the paintball gun 100. Although the embodiment of FIGS. 1, 2, and 3 illustrates the use of an electro-pneumatic valve 250 to control the loading and firing operations of the paintball gun 100, a mechanical valve could be used in place of the solenoid valve 250. Like the solenoid valve 250, the mechanical valve could be configured to supply compressed gas to the forward piston surface area 226b through port 218 in a resting position. In response to a pull of the trigger 102, the mechanical valve could be configured to vent the compressed gas away from the forward piston surface area 226h to cause the bolt 222 to move forward and perform a firing operation. The trigger 102 could, for example, be directly mechanically coupled to the valve or could communicate with the mechanical valve through one or more intermediate components. Yet other alternative embodiments of the present invention are shown in FIGS. 4 and 5. The paintball gun 100A shown in FIG. 4 is constructed in a manner similar to that shown in FIGS. 1, 2, and 3, except, for instance, the absence of a foregrip 130, compressed gas being supplied to the gun through a tube arranged through the grip 120, and that the solenoid valve 250 is arranged in a different physical relationship with respect to the gun body 110. The primary operating features of this embodiment are essentially the same as that previously described, however, and no additional description of this embodiment will therefore be provided. The paintball gun 100B depicted in FIG. 5 is also similar to that depicted in FIGS. 1-3, except that the rearward end 221b of the guide rod 221 does not contain a glide ring or a sealing ring where the glide ring 225a is arranged in the earlier-described embodiment. As with the glide ring, compressed gas is permitted to enter the compressed gas storage chamber 212 even when the bolt is in its forward position. The tolerance between the guide rod 221 and the guide chamber 214 can be configured, however, such that the rate of flow of compressed gas into the compressed gas storage chamber 212 can be restricted while the bolt 222 is arranged in its forward position. This can result in improved gas efficiency and make the bolt 222 easier to move to its retracted position. Various other alternative embodiments are also contemplated. In particular, rather than use a portion of the bolt 222 to restrict or prevent compressed gas from entering the compressed gas storage area 212, other mechanisms could be used to provide this function. For example, a separate piston could be arranged to slide back and forth in the rearward bolt guide area to block or restrict the supply of compressed gas from the supply port 214 into the compressed gas storage area 212. In yet another potential embodiment, a mechanical, pneumatic, or electro-pneumatic pinching member could be provided to pinch a gas supply tube (e.g., tube 217) to prevent or restrict the flow of compressed gas into the compressed gas storage area 212 while the bolt 222 is in the forward position. Further aspects of the present invention are illustrated in FIGS. 6, 7, and 8. Referring to FIGS. 6-9, a paintball detection system 600 can be arranged in communication with a breech area 145 of the paintball gun 100 (see FIG. 1). Most preferably, the paintball detection system 600 contains a break-beam sensor arrangement on a circuit board 610. A breech portion 142 of the pneumatic housing 115 of the paintball gun 100 is preferably provided with a recess or a cutout area 144 to receive the circuit board and opposing cutout regions 144a, 144h located on opposite sides of the breech area 145 that are configured to receive the break-beam sensors 612. A preferred circuit board 610 and sensor 612 arrangement for the paintball detection system 600 of FIGS. 6, 7, and 8 is shown in FIG. 9. Referring to FIG. 9, the circuit board 610 preferably comprises the circuitry for controlling the break-beam or other sensors 612 and an electronic communications port 614 for communicating with a circuit board 150 of the paintball gun 100 (see FIG. 1) through wiring or wirelessly. The sensors 612 can be mounted directly to the circuit board 610, as illustrated, or can be connected remotely via wires or wirelessly. In a preferred embodiment, the circuit board 610 is configured having a “C” shape with sensors 612 arranged on opposite arms of the circuit board 610. The circuit board 610 is preferably configured to fit within a recess or cutout 144 in the pneumatic housing and locate the sensors 612 within sensor cutout regions 144a, 144h in the pneumatic housing 115 on opposite sides of the breech area 145. In the preferred break-beam sensor embodiment, the sensors 612 are preferably configured such that one transmits a beam (or other optical or radio signal) to the other sensor 612 until that signal is interrupted by the presence of a paintball 101 in the breech area 145. Operation of the paintball detection system 600 according to the foregoing embodiment will now be described in further detail with reference to FIGS. 1 and 6-9. Referring to FIGS. 6-9, with the bolt 222 arranged in a rearward position, a paintball 101 is preferably permitted to drop from the feed tube 140 into the breech area 145 of the paintball gun 100 through the feed tube opening 116. As the paintball 101 enters the breech area 145, it breaks a beam transmitted from one of the sensors 612 to the opposing sensor 612. A signal is then preferably generated by the detection system circuit board 610 to indicate that a paintball 101 has been loaded into the paintball gun 100. Alternatively, the detection system circuit board 610 could be configured to send a signal corresponding to the absence of a paintball 101 from the breech area 145. The detection system circuit board 610 therefore preferably communicates a signal to the paintball gun circuit board 150 to indicate either the presence or the absence of a paintball 101 in the breech area 145 of the paintball gun 100. In response to this signal, the paintball gun circuit board 150 can preferably be configured to either execute or refrain from executing a firing operation in response to a trigger pull. More specifically, if the detection system circuit board 610 indicates the absence of a paintball 101 from the breech area 145 of the paintball gun 100, the paintball gun circuit board 150 is preferably configured to refrain from executing a firing operation in response to a trigger pull. If a paintball 101 is detected in the breech area 145 of the paintball gun 100, however, the paintball gun circuit board 150 is preferably configured to execute the firing operation in response to a trigger pull. Having described and illustrated various principles of the present invention through descriptions of exemplary preferred embodiments thereof, it will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art that these embodiments can be modified in arrangement and detail without departing from the inventive principles made apparent herein. The claims should therefore be interpreted to cover all such variations and modifications. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to pneumatic paintball guns (“markers”) and their operating components. More particularly, this invention relates to a pneumatic paintball gun and the pneumatic components used to load a paintball into and fire it from the paintball gun. 2. Related Art In the sport of paintball, it is generally desirable to have a marker that is as small and light as possible. Smaller and lighter markers increase a players' mobility. Players benefit from increased mobility by being able to move more quickly from bunker to bunker, making it easier to avoid being hit. Further, in the sport of paintball, the marker is treated as an extension of the body such that a hit to the marker counts as a hit to the player. It is desirable, therefore, to have a paintball gun with as small a profile as possible while substantially maintaining or improving performance characteristics of the marker, such as firing rate, accuracy, and gas efficiency. The size of the paintball gun is generally related to the size and number of operating components that must be housed within the paintball gun body. It is further desirable to have a paintball marker that includes fewer, less complex, and less expensive, operating components and that can be more easily manufactured. The cost savings can then be passed on to the consumer. The industry is in need of a small, light, and inexpensive paintball marker that provides reliable and efficient operation. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one embodiment of the present invention, a pneumatic paintball gun can include a body and a grip frame. The body and the grip frame can be formed separately or integrally, and are preferably formed from a molded plastic, rubber, or other rugged but relatively inexpensive material. The body preferably includes a chamber configured to receive a pneumatic assembly. The pneumatic assembly preferably provides several of the operating components of the paintball gun including a bolt, a compressed gas storage area, and a firing mechanism. A pneumatic assembly housing can be formed of metal, plastic, or a combination of materials and, in addition to housing the pneumatic components, can be configured to receive a barrel and a feed tube. A pneumatic regulator can also be provided and can, for example, be a vertical, in-line regulator or a bottom-mount regulator. The bolt preferably includes a forward and a rearward piston surface area. A quantity of compressed gas is preferably selectively supplied and vented from a forward piston surface area through a mechanical or electro-pneumatic valving mechanism. The firing mechanism preferably consists of a sealing member arranged in selective communication with an outer surface of the bolt. One or more firing ports are preferably arranged in the bolt to communicate compressed gas through the bolt to launch a paintball. Compressed gas from the regulator can be supplied to the compressed gas storage area through a supply port. The flow of compressed gas into the compressed gas storage area can be restricted or prevented during a firing operation to increase gas efficiency of the paintball gun. In operation, compressed gas is preferably supplied to the paintball gun from a compressed gas container through a pressure regulator. The compressed gas is preferably directed from the pressure regulator to the valving mechanism and to a supply port for feeding the compressed gas storage area. Compressed gas supplied to the valving mechanism is preferably transferred through the valving mechanism to the forward surface area of the bolt piston when the valving mechanism is in a neutral (non-actuated) position. This compressed gas acts on the forward bolt piston surface area to force the bolt into a rearward position. While the bolt is in a rearward position, a paintball is allowed to load into a breech of the paintball gun from the feed tube. In addition, while the bolt is rearward, the gas supply port is preferably allowed to rapidly transmit compressed gas into the compressed gas storage area. A trigger mechanism is preferably configured to operate the valving mechanism. When the trigger is depressed, the valving mechanism is preferably actuated to vent compressed gas away from the forward piston surface area of the bolt. Compressed gas is preferably applied to a rearward surface area of the bolt piston. The rearward surface area of the bolt piston can be arranged, for example, in the compressed gas storage area or at a rearward end of the bolt. The compressed gas applied to the rearward surface area of the bolt piston can therefore be supplied from the compressed gas storage area or from a separate supply port. When the compressed gas is vented from the forward bolt piston surface area, the pressure applied to the rearward bolt piston surface area preferably causes the bolt to move to a forward position. When the bolt transitions to its forward position, a sealing member of the firing mechanism preferably disengages from the bolt surface area, permitting compressed gas from the compressed gas storage area to enter the bolt firing ports and launch a paintball from the marker. In addition, with the bolt in the firing position, the flow of compressed gas into the compressed gas storage area can be restricted. This can be accomplished, for instance, by configuring a rearward portion of the bolt to reduce the area through which compressed gas travels from the supply port to the compressed gas storage area. Alternatively, the supply of compressed gas to the compressed gas storage chamber can be cut off completely to prevent compressed gas from entering the storage chamber during the firing operation. This can be accomplished, for instance, by closing off the gas supply port using sealing members on a rearward end of the bolt, using sealing members on a separate, independent piston, by pinching a gas supply tube, or using a separate valving mechanism. The valving mechanism can be a solenoid valve (such as a three-way solenoid valve), a mechanical valve, or other valving mechanism. In the case of a solenoid valve, an electronic circuit is preferably provided to control the operation of the solenoid valve based on actuation of a trigger mechanism. A switch, such as a microswitch or other switching device, is preferably arranged in communication with the trigger to send an actuation signal to the electronic circuit in response to a pull of the trigger. A power source is also preferably provided to supply power to the electronic circuit and solenoid valve. The valving mechanism preferably vents compressed gas away from a forward bolt piston surface area in response to a firing signal from the circuit board. In the case of a mechanical valve, the mechanical valve preferably communicates with the trigger to vent the compressed gas away from the forward bolt piston surface area in response to a trigger pull. In one embodiment, the bolt is preferably a free-floating bolt with balanced pressure applied to opposite ends of the bolt piston rod. This can be accomplished, for instance, by providing a vent channel from a rearward end of the bolt piston rod through to the forward end of the bolt. Alternatively, the chamber in communication with the rearward end of the bolt piston can be vented to atmosphere through a vent port arranged through the gun body. Various other aspects, embodiments, and configurations of this invention are also possible without departing from the principles disclosed herein. This invention is therefore not limited to any of the particular aspects, embodiments, or configurations described herein. | 20040615 | 20091117 | 20060119 | 80369.0 | F41B1100 | 2 | CHAMBERS, TROY | PNEUMATIC PAINTBALL GUN | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | F41B | 2,004 |
|
10,869,871 | ACCEPTED | Method and system for authenticating service using integrated circuit card | A system is provided which compensates a low operational performance of a conventional integrated circuit (IC) card by setting a substitute server computer between the IC card and a business server computer in a system using the IC card. Substitute processing using an authentication result is realized by setting an IC card authentication server computer in addition to the business server computer and sending an authentication result of the authentication server computer to the IC card, substitute server computer, and business server computer. Thus, because the substitute server computer does not directly authenticate the IC card, the quantity of authentication information in the substitute server computer is substantially reduced and authentication processing becomes efficient. | 1. A substitute server computer used for a computer system for executing client-server-type business processing, the subsitutesubstitute server computer comprising: an integrated circuit card reader/writer connected to an IC card having business executing information used for execution of a client processing part of the client-server-type business processing and having first mutual authentication key; a hardware security module having a tamper resistance; and a control computer connected to the integrated circuit card, the hardware security module, a business server computer for executing the server processing part of the business processing, and an authentication server computer having a second mutual authentication key, wherein the hardware security module is configured to receive a first session encryption key generated by using the first and second mutual authentication keys and by performing the mutual authentication with the IC card from the authentication server, to establish a first secure channel between the hardware security module and the integrated circuit card by using a second session encryption key generated from the integrated circuit card when performing the mutual authentication and from the received first session encryption key, to receive the business executing data from the IC card, to establish a second secure channel by using the business server receiving the first session encryption key and the first session encryption key, and to perform predetermined business processing with the hardware security module and the business server computer by using the business executing data. 2. The substitute server computer of claim 1, wherein the hardware security module is further configured to return the business executing data updated through the business processing to an integrated circuit card through the first secure channel and to delete the business executing data from the high security module. 3. The substitute server computer of claim 1, wherein the high security module has a third mutual authentication key and is further configured to perform mutual authentication with the authentication server by using the third mutual authentication and a fourth mutual authentication key of the authentication server computer to establish a third secure channel before the mutual authentication between the integrated circuit card and the authentication server computer, and to receive a first session encryption key from the authentication server through the third secure channel. 4. The substitute server computer of claim 1, wherein the business executing data is data having secrecy. 5. The substitute server computer of claim 1, wherein the high security module if further configured to perform retrieval coinciding with a retrieval condition to be input to the substitute server computer by a user in accordance with the retrieval condition and the business executing information having secrecy. 6. The substitute server computer of claim 1, wherein the substitute server computer charges a user in accordance with a using time of the user. 7. The substitute server computer of claim 1, wherein the substitute server computer is connected to the authentication server computer through a network. 8. A method for executing client-server-type business processing, the method comprising: executing via an integrated circuit card client a processing part of business processing and a first mutual authentication key for mutual authentication, wherein the integrated circuit card has business executing information used for the executing; executing via a business server computer a server processing part of the business processing; authenticating via an authentication server computer a first mutual authentication key to authenticate the integrated circuit card; executing via a substitute computer a client processing part using the business executing information, wherein the substitute computer includes a high security module having a tamper resistance; applying mutual authentication to the integrated circuit card and the authentication server with the first and second mutual authentication keys; generating via the integrated circuit card a first session encryption key; generating via the authentication server a second session encryption key corresponding to the first session encryption key when the mutual authentication is successful; sending via the authentication server the second session encryption key to the high security module and the business server computer through the substitute server computer; establishing via the integrated circuit card and at the high security module a safe communication route through the substitute server computer by using the first and second session encryption keys; sending via the integrated circuit card business executing data to the high security module through the communication route; establishing via the high security module and at the business server computer a safe second communication route through a substitute server computer by using a second session encryption key; accessing via the high security module the business server computer to execute a predetermined business service; and returning via the high security module the business executing data updated through the business service to the integrated circuit card through the first communication route to delete the data from the high security module. 9. The method of claim 8, further comprising: returning via the high security module the business executing data updated through the business processing to an integrated circuit card through the first secure channel; and deleting via the high security module the business executing data from the high security module. 10. The method of claim 8, the high security module having a third mutual authentication key, the method further comprising: performing via the high density module mutual authentication with the authentication server by using the third mutual authentication and a fourth mutual authentication key of the authentication server computer to establish a third secure channel before the mutual authentication between the integrated circuit card and the authentication server computer; and receiving via the high security module a first session encryption key from the authentication server through the third secure channel. 11. The method of claim 8, wherein the business executing data is data having secrecy. 12. The method of claim 8, further comprising performing via the high security module retrieval coinciding with a retrieval condition to be input to the substitute server computer by a user in accordance with the retrieval condition and the business executing information having secrecy. 13. The method of claim 8, further comprising charging via the substitute server computer a user in accordance with the using time of the user. 14. The method of claim 8, wherein the substitute server computer is connected to the authentication server computer through a network. | CLAIM OF PRIORITY The present invention claims priority from Japanese application JP 2003-346520 filed on Oct. 6, 2003, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to authenticating a service using an integrated circuit (IC) card and, more particularly, to increasing security in the process of authenticating a service using an IC card. 2. Background of the Invention Because an IC card can record a large quantity of information and has an advanced security, it has become in recent years a substitute information recording medium for a magnetic card. The IC card is expected to be increasingly applied to the financial field, as a credit card and as electronic money, while making better use of advanced security of the IC card. An IC card is a memory card or microprocessor card generally composed of a CPU, memory, and communication processing section. A memory card represented by a card conforming to ISO 7816 or a card conforming to JICSAP is an IC card in which data can be only written and which is used as a file. A microprocessor card represented by a Java (registered trademark) card specification or MULTOS specification is an IC card which mounts a program and can execute it. To execute business processing while considering security in a system using an IC card, a method has been used which executes business processing after executing mutual authentication between an IC card and a host computer and establishing a safe communication path (secure channel) between the IC card and the host computer. Specifically, such a method realizes mutual authentication by sharing the secret information for executing mutual authentication between the IC card and a server computer and confirming the shared secret information. JP-A No. 293867/1998 (Patent Document 1) discloses a technique for using a memory card allowing radio communication, reading data from the memory card through an automatic ticket gate when getting on/off a train, processing the data, and returning the data to the memory card. Moreover, there is a technique referred to as an HSM (hardware security module). The HSM is a device for detecting a change of temperatures or atmospheric pressures and physically protecting the secrecy of a cipher module by a mechanism in which the data in the device disappears when the mechanism is disassembled or impacted. Furthermore, to attack the HSM, the HSM generates and keeps a secret key of the CA (Certificate Authority) and keeps a signature operation and the secret key of a user. When performing these operations in a computer, there are risks such as damage to the computer, and theft or illegal copying of a key due to unfair invasion. Thus, the reliability of a certificate or the like is lost. FIPS PUB (Federal Information Processing Standard Publication) in the United States sets the standard for tamper-resistant criterion. As a technique using an HSM, JP-A No. 203207/2003 (Patent Document 2) discloses that a personal computer in a member's store executes data exchange with a credit card company through a communication section and an external communication line while securing security by using an HSM 20. As a technique for using a kiosk terminal which can be accessed to read or write data from or in a storage medium such as an IC card of a user, JP-A No. 324213/2002 (Patent Document 3) discloses a technique for the kiosk terminal to install an application program into the IC card. As a technique for compensating the numerical ability and communication speed of an IC card, JP-A No. 143695/1998 (Patent Document 4) discloses a technique for an in-vehicle unit to substitute for an IC card for a traffic-charge receiving system of a turnpike. Examples in Patent Document 1 are described below by referring to FIG. 1. A substitute computer (OBU) 101 is set between an IC card (ICC) 100 and a server computer (RSE) 102. The substitute computer 101 and IC card 100 hold authenticating cipher keys Ki 110 and 111, respectively. The IC card 100 holds substitute information 113 as the information necessary for execution of a business-service server program 118 of a server 102. In the traffic-charge receiving system of the prior application, the business processing executed by a server computer is an authentication process. First, the substitute computer 101 authenticates the IC card by using the common authenticating information items Ki 110 and 111 (step 112). When authentication is successful, the IC card 100 transfers the substitute information 113 with the server computer held by the IC card to the substitute computer 101 (step 114). The substitute computer 101 starts a business-service client program (APCL) 115 on the computer 101, exchanges information with a business-service server program 118 on the server computer 102, and executes a business processing conforming to a client-server format (step 117). In this method, when the substitute computer 101 has a performance higher than the IC card 100, it is possible to improve the whole processing performance. In Patent Document 1, keeping the concealment of the data stored in a memory card at an automatic ticket gate is not disclosed. Also in Patent Document 4, preventing individual information from leaking when an unspecified number of persons use the information due is not disclosed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide a high-speed service by substituting IC card functions with an information kiosk terminal used by an unspecified number of persons. It is another object of the present invention to prevent individual information from leaking due to the fact that the individual information is output to an object other than an IC card or used by an unspecified number of persons. It is still another object of the present invention to make it possible to execute the card service same as for a microprocessor card and prevent individual information from leaking. Moreover, it is still another object of the present invention to prevent the speed of authentication processing from lowering due to the fact that the number of data storage areas of an authentication key excessively increases as the number of users increases when authenticating a substitute computer by a common authentication key. It is still another object of the present invention to prevent the speed of authentication processing from lowering due to the fact that the number of data storage areas is excessively increased the same as the above mentioned. This increase is because the number of users of the valid or invalid information showing whether the authentication information in an IC card is valid or invalid increases. A typical invention among inventions disclosed in this application is briefly described below. A substitute server computer in a computer system for executing the client-server-type business processing is used in which an IC card reader/writer connected with an IC card having business executing information used to execute the client processing part of the business processing and a first mutual authentication key, a tamper-resistant HSM, and a control computer connected to the IC card, the HSM, a business server for executing the server processing part of the business processing, and an authentication server computer having a second mutual authentication key are included, the HSM receives a first session encryption key generated from the authentication server by using the IC card and first and second mutual authentication keys and thereby performing mutual authentication, establishes a first secure channel extending to the IC card by using a second session encryption key generated at the time of the mutual authentication from the IC card and the received first session encryption key, receives the business executing data from the IC card, establishes a second secure channel by using the business server receiving the first session encryption key and the first session encryption key, and performs a predetermined business processing by using the HSM, the business server computer, and the business executing data. The above configuration makes it possible to provide a high-seed service by substituting IC card functions with an information kiosk terminal used by an unspecified number of persons and moreover, prevent individual information from leaking due to the fact that the individual information is output to an object other than an IC card or used by an unspecified number of persons. According to the present invention, it is possible to efficiently and securely substitute business processing with a substitute server computer instead of an IC card having a low calculation speed by using an authentication processing result of an authentication server computer. The invention encompasses other embodiments of a method, an apparatus, and a system, which are configured as set forth above and with other features and alternatives. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will be readily understood by the following detailed description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. To facilitate this description, like reference numerals designate like structural elements. FIG. 1 is an illustration showing a substitute execution system of a conventional IC card system; FIG. 2 is an illustration showing a substitute processing method of a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is an illustration showing a substitute processing method of a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is an illustration showing a substitute processing method of a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is an illustration showing a substitute processing of a fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is an illustration showing a configuration of an information retrieval system to which a substitute processing system of the present invention is applied; and FIG. 7 is an illustration showing a configuration of a charging system to which a substitute processing system of the present invention is applied. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS An information service system, according to the present invention, uses a hardware security module (HSM) serving as an operation module having a tamper resistance as a client and being superior in operation processing and input/output processing. Mutual authentication is performed between a server, an IC card, and the HSM. Necessary information is delivered such as individual information necessary from the IC card to the HSM. And a service is started while keeping the secrecy of the IC card using the HSM as a substitute for the IC card. When the service is completed, the information is returned to the IC card from the HSM. The necessary information delivered from an IC card to a HSM may be referred to as business executing data and individual information. This necessary information may include full name, age, sex, weight, taste, individual information, coupon information, value of electronic money, and information requiring secrecy. Numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be understood, however, to one skilled in the art, that the present invention may be practiced with other specific details. First Embodiment FIG. 2 is an illustration showing a substitute processing method of a first embodiment of the present invention. An IC card system of this embodiment is composed of an IC card (ICC) 201, a substitute server computer (TAP) 202, a business server computer (SV) 203, and an authentication server computer (AS) 204. The IC card 201 is a memory card or microprocessor card composed of a CPU, memory, and communication processing section. The substitute server computer 202, business server computer 203, and authentication server computer 204 are normal computers which are mutually connected by a communication route to exchange information. The IC card 201, substitute server computer 202, business server computer 203, and authentication server computer 204 form a computer system for executing a client-server-type business processing. A service such as an electronic money service using the IC card of this invention is realized by a client-server-type computer program. The server part of the program serves as a business server program which is executed by the business server computer 203. The client part of this program serves as a business client program which is executed by the IC card 201 or substitute server computer 202. The substitute server computer 202 has a built-in computer having a tamper resistance referred to as a hardware security module (HSM) 205 and moreover has a control computer for transferring data to and from the IC card, business server computer 203, authentication server computer 204, and HSM 205 separately from the HSM 205. The substitute server computer has the built-in control computer and HSM 205 as described above. However, in the subsequent description, the substitute server computer 202 is described separately from the HSM 205 by assuming that the computer 202 shows a part other than the control computer or the HSM 205 of an IC card reader/writer. The tamper resistance of the HSM of this invention typically denotes one of the physical tamper resistance pointing a mechanism withstanding an attack, the tamper resistance to a side channel attack against an object having a function for preventing the information useful for estimation of internal secret information from leaking to the outside, and the tamper resistance for preventing internal secret information from leaking by forcibly causing a malfunction from the outside. However, the tamper resistance of the HSM is not restricted to the above tamper resistances. The physical tamper resistance is realized by using a mechanism for making the analysis of an object (such as device, circuit board, or semiconductor component) difficult, preventing an object from operating when it is attempted to disassemble the object by detecting disassembly of the object by any method, or positively deleting secret information before the information leaks to the outside. The tamper resistance to a side channel attach denotes a temper characteristic for a technique for, in a device (circuit board or semiconductor integrated circuit), estimating secret information in a device by measuring the dependency of a cipher processing time on data (or secret information) and consumed current change/leakage electromagnetic wave under cipher operation and using a statistical procedure if necessary. The IC card 201 and substitute server computer 202 are connected each other through an IC card reader/writer connected to an input/output channel of the substitute server computer 202 to exchange data. Moreover, the substitute server computer 202 is connected to the business server computer 203 and authentication server computer 204 through a network and leased line. Therefore, the IC card 201 is connected to the business server computer 203, authentication server computer 204, and HSM 205 through the substitute server computer 202. The HSM 205 is also connected to the business server computer 203, authentication server computer 204, and IC card 201 through the substitute server computer 202. The authentication server computer 204 is set to a data center and operated by a businessman for providing authentication services. The business server computer 203 is set to a data center and operated by a businessman for executing the business services. The substitute server computer 202 is set to a street or public space and operated by a businessman for providing business services or a third-party businessman by assuming an information kiosk. Then, operations of this embodiment are described below. The IC card 201 previously holds a mutual authentication key (Kicc) 210 and business executing data (Dapp) 220 serving as the substitute information used for business execution of the client processing part of business processing. The HSM 205 in the substitute server computer 202 holds a business client program (APCL) 221 in order to substitution ally execute the client processing part using the business executing information 220 held by the IC card 201. The business server computer 203 holds a business server program (APSV) 224 in order to execute the server processing part of the business processing. The authentication server computer 204 previously holds a mutual authentication key (Kicc) 211 of the IC card 201 in order to authenticate the IC card 201. First, the IC card 201 accesses the authentication server 204 via the substitute server computer 202. The both execute mutual authentication by using the mutual authentication keys Kicc 210 and 211 (step 212). When the mutual authentication is successful, the IC card 201 authentication server 204 respectively generate a session encryption key serving as a temporary cipher key. Specifically, the IC card 201 generates and holds a session encryption key (Kssn) 213 while the authentication server 204 generates and holds a session encryption key (Kssn) 214. A mutual authentication key and a session encryption key are described below. The mutual authentication key is a common cipher key used to confirm the mutual validity between different computers. The session encryption key is a common cipher key used to satisfy the secrecy or completeness of the information exchanged between different computers. In this embodiment, the session encryption key Kssn is generated by using a key derived algorithm by using random numbers exchanged when the IC card 201 and authentication server 204 execute a mutual authentication 212 and the mutual authentication key Kicc 210 as inputs. Though a mutual authentication key and a session key use a common key cipher for embodiments of this invention, it is also possible to use a public key cipher. The authentication server 204 transfers the session encryption key 214 to the substitute server computer 202 (step 217). The substitute server computer 202 relays the session encryption key 214 through a not-illustrated internal transfer program (step 255) and transfers the key 214 to the HSM 205 (step 265). Moreover, the authentication server 204 sends the session encryption key 214 to the business server computer 203 (step 217). However, secure information transfer is performed through a leased line between the authentication server 204, HSM 205, and business server computer. Thus, the session encryption key Kssn is shared by the ICC 201, HSM 205, and AS 204. The IC card 201 establishes a safe communication route (secure channel) with the HSM 205 through the substitute server computer 202 (steps 259 and 219) using a session encryption key 213. In this case, the secure channel for signing on data and encryption can be established using a session key. In this case, the HSM 205 establishes a secure channel using a session encryption key 216 sent from the authentication server computer 204. The IC card 201 transmits the business executing data (Dapp) 220 to the APCL 221 in the HSM 205 through the established secure channel 219 (step 222). Then, the HSM 205 establishes a secure channel with the business server computer 203 through the substitute server computer 202 (steps 263, 253, and 223). In this case, the business server computer 203 establishes a secure channel by using a session encryption key 218 sent from the authentication server computer 204. The business client program 221 on he HSM 205 accesses a business server program (APSV) 224 in the business server computer 203 by using business executing data 222 through the established secure channel 222 to execute a predetermined business service. The content of predetermined business service execution is described below in detail by using a payment process in an electronic money system as an example. The value of electronic money shown by business executing data 223 is transferred to the business server 203, subtracted in the business server program 224, and returned to the business client program 221 in the HSM 205 as an updated electronic money value (D'app) 227. Thus, business is executed at the server side by using the data in the HSM. When the APCL can execute a subtraction processing instruction as another case, the APSV 224 commands the APCL 221 to execute subtraction processing and subtracts the Dapp 222 in the APCL to set the D'app 227. When the business processing is completed, the HSM 205 in the substitute server computer 202 returns the updated business executing data (D'app) 227 to the IC card 201 through the substitute server computer 202 (steps 275 and 225). Moreover, it is possible to hold the updated business executing data in the HSM 205 or delete the data. The ICC 201 stores the processed substitute information as D'app 226 to prepare for the next-time business execution. When using a memory card having only a function for reading or writing data as an IC card 210, the server business program APSV must be a business server program using only a write/read function correspondingly to the memory card. In other words, a processor-type IC card capable of executing a program is purposed but a business server program for a card program to be executed on the IC card cannot be used. As described for this embodiment, however, when the client program APCL 221 on the HSM 205 works as a substitute for an IC card, by installing a program having the same function as a card program into a processor-type IC card, it is possible to use a business server program corresponding to a processor card because even if the ICC 201 is a memory card, it is executed on a business server. Moreover, because the transfer route of the business data 220 serving as the individual information in the IC card 201 to the substitute server computer is protected by a secure channel. It is thus possible that the HSM serving as a substitute for the IC card in the substitute server computer 202 can execute business together with the business function server 203 because the HSM has a tamper resistance and moreover, and that the HSM 205 can execute business while securing the security of the business executing data 220 because the HSM has a tamper resistance. According to the present invention, it is possible to improve the operation capacity of the HSM 205 compared to that of an IC card because the operation capacity of the HSM is not restricted in size like the case of the IC card. Particularly, it is possible to perform database retrieval and coupon issuing according to the individual information in an IC card which cannot be made by the IC card 201 for which a high-speed operation cannot be expected at a high speed and prevent secrecy from being lost by outputting individual information to an object other than an IC card. Moreover, when retrieving the database, it is possible to use an input to the substitute server computer from a user and the use history of the substitute server computer in addition to the individual information. Moreover, it is possible to store the business executing data values 222 and 227 of an unspecified number of users by sorting memory areas in the HSM. Furthermore, by deleting the updated business executing data 227 from the HSM 205, secrecy is further enhanced because the business executing data values 222 and 227 serving as individual information are not present in the substitute server computer but the data values are present only in an IC card. In the present invention, the authentication between the IC card 201 and authentication server computer 204 is performed and thereafter the authentication between the IC card 201 and HSM 205 is performed by using a session key 215 sent from the authentication server computer. Therefore, also when using common key encryption, a problem does not occur that the HSM 205 must hold authentication keys of all IC cards which may use the HSM 205. If the problem is present, authentication-key data storage areas are excessively increased as the total number of IC cards which may be used increases and the speed of the authentication processing of the HSM 205 is lowered. Moreover, because the card 201 is invalid for theft or loss, it is necessary to make the card unusable even if the electronic operation of the card is normal. Furthermore, it is possible that the authentication server computer 204 controls the valid/invalid information showing whether the authentication information of each IC card 201 is valid or invalid and checks the validity of the card when authenticating the IC card 201. Therefore, it is not necessary to control the information showing that the HSM 205 is valid or invalid. Therefore, a problem does not occur that as the number of IC cards which may be used increases, areas for storing the data for valid or invalid information are excessively increased and the processing speed of the HSM 205 lowers. Second Embodiment A second embodiment of the present invention is described below by referring to FIG. 3. In this embodiment, only portions different from those of the first embodiment are described. An HSM holds a mutual authentication key Khsm 330, an authentication server computer 304 holds a mutual authentication key Khsm 331 corresponding to the mutual authentication key Khsm 330, and mutual authentication is executed between an HSM 205 on a substitute server computer 302 and the authentication server computer 304 before the mutual authentication 312 between an IC card 301 and the authentication server computer 304 (steps 332, 352, and 362). A session encryption key Kssn 214 is sent from an AS 204 to the HSM 205 through secure channels 215, 255, and 265 established through the mutual authentication. Thereby, it is possible to safely transfer the session encryption keys. In the above first embodiment, secure information transfer by a leased line is necessary between the AS 204 and HSM 205. The second embodiment shows that the same advantage as in the first embodiment can also be achieved for an ATP 202 connected to a public network by mutually authenticating the HSM 205 with the AS 204. Thus, the description of the second embodiment is completed. In the second embodiment, it is not necessary to perform secure information transfer using a leased line between an authentication server 204, the HSM 205, and a business server computer. Third Embodiment A third embodiment of the present invention is described below by referring to FIG. 4. An IC card system in this embodiment is composed of an IC card (ICC) 401, a substitute server computer (TAP) 402, a business server computer (SV) 403, and an authentication server computer (AS) 404. Each server is a normal computer and the substitute server computer 402 has a hardware security module (HSM) 405, which conforms to the first embodiment. This embodiment is different from the first embodiment in method for each server to generate a mutual authentication key. Then, operations of this embodiment are described below. The IC card 401 previously holds a mutual authentication key (Kicc) 410 and business executing data (Dapp) 420 used for business execution. The HSM 405 on the substitute server computer 402 holds a business client program 421. The business server computer 403 holds a business server program 424. The authentication server computer 404 previously holds a mutual authentication key (Kicc) 411 of the IC card 401. First, the IC card 401 accesses the authentication server 404 via the substitute server computer 402. The both execute mutual authentication by using the mutual authentication key Kicc 410 and a mutual authentication key Kicc 411 (step 412). When the mutual authentication is successful, the IC card 401 generates and holds a first session encryption key (Kssn1) 413 and a second session encryption key (Kssn2) 430 and the authentication server 404 generates and holds a first session encryption key (Kssn1) 414 and a second session encryption key (Kssn2) 431. The authentication server 404 sends the first session encryption key 414 to the HSM 405 through the substitute server computer 402 (steps 415, 455, and 465). Moreover, the authentication server 404 sends the second session encryption key 431 to the business server computer 403 (step 417). The IC card 201 establishes a safe communication route (secure channel) together with the HSM 405 through the substitute server computer 402 by using the first session encryption key 413 (steps 459 and 419). In this case, the HSM 405 on the substitute server computer 402 uses a first session encryption key 416 sent from the authentication server computer 404. The IC card 401 sends the second session encryption key 430 and business executing data (Dapp) 420 to the business client program 421 on the HSM 405 through an established secure channel 419 and the substitute server computer 402 (step 421). The HSM 405 establishes a safe communication route (secure channel) together with the business server computer 403 by using a second session encryption key 433 (steps 463, 453, and 423). In this case, the business server computer 403 establishes a secure channel by using a second session encryption key 418 sent from the authentication server computer 404. The business client program 421 on the HSM 405 accesses the business server program (APSV) 424 on the business server computer 203 through an established secure channel 422 by using the business executing data 422 to execute a predetermined business service. As described above, In this embodiment, the ICC 401 and AS 404 generate two different session encryption keys Kssn1 and Kssn2. The session encryption key Kssn1 is used for the mutual authentication between the ICC 401 and HSM 405 and the session encryption key Kssn2 is used for the mutual authentication between the SV 403 and HSM 405. Because the first embodiment uses a single session encryption key, the possibility is considered that the HSM 205 can access the business server 203 before receiving the business executing information Dapp 220. However, in this embodiment, the prepared two session encryption keys prevent the HSM 405 from independently accessing the business server 403, and security is thus improved. Fourth Embodiment A fourth embodiment of the present invention is described below by referring to FIG. 5. Only portions different from the first embodiment are described in this embodiment. First, an HSM 405 on a substitute server computer 502 holds a mutual authentication key Khsm 540 and an authentication server computer 404 holds a mutual authentication key Khsm 541. Before starting the mutual authentication 412 between an IC card 401 and the authentication server computer 404, the mutual authentication between the HSM 405 on a substitute server computer 402 and the authentication server computer 404 is executed (steps 507, 557, and 558). A session encryption key Kssn 214 is sent from an AS 204 to an HSM 205 through secure channels 215, 255, and 265. The third embodiment requires secure information transfer using a leased line between the AS 404 and HSM 405. The fourth embodiment, however, shows that the same advantage as the third embodiment is also achieved for a TAP 402 connected to a public network by performing the mutual authentication between the HSM 405 and an AS 404. Fifth Embodiment A fifth embodiment of the present invention is described below by referring to FIG. 6. FIG. 6 shows an information retrieval system to which the substitute processing system described for the embodiments 1 to 4 of the present invention is applied. This system is composed of a card user 701, IC card 702, substitute server computer (information kiosk) 707, network 721, business server computer (business server) 727, and authentication server computer (authentication server) 724. The information kiosk 707 is composed of an information kiosk control computer 710 and hardware security module (HSM) 715 having a tamper resistance. The information kiosk control computer 710 has a function for executing input/output with the card user 701 and network 721, which corresponds to the substitute server computers (TAP) 202 and 402 described for the embodiments 1 to 4 of the present invention. The hardware security module (HSM) 715 having a tamper resistance corresponds to hardware security modules (HSM) 205 and 405 described for the embodiments 1 to 4 of the present invention. The IC card 702 corresponds to the IC cards (ICC) 201 and 401 described for the embodiments 1 to 4 of the present invention. The authentication server (AS) 724 is composed of an authentication server computer 725 and corresponds to the authentication servers (AS) 204 and 404 described for the embodiments 1 to 4 of the present invention. The business server (SV) 727 is composed of a business server computer 729 and corresponds to the business servers (SV) 203 and 403 described for the embodiments 1 to 4 of the present invention. A flow of the first embodiment for the information retrieval processing using the present system is described below. First, the card user 701 uses the IC card 702 to log in the server computer 707. The card user inputs a retrieval condition of a restaurant to be retrieved by the user (such as positional information of the restaurant) to an information search business client program 711 of the information kiosk control computer 710. The information search business client program 711 accesses the business server 727 through the network 721 to send the positional information on the restaurant which is the retrieval condition to an information search primary business program 729 on the business server computer 728. The information search primary business program 729 refers to, for example, a database on the business server computer to obtain retrieval result information 730. The retrieval result information 730 is sent to the information kiosk control computer 710 through the network 721 and stored in an information search secondary business program 731 in the HSM 715 as store information 718. A business substitute consignment program 703 in the IC card 702 executes the mutual authentication with an authentication program 726 in the authentication server computer 725 on the authentication server 724 (steps 212 and 412). As a result, the business substitute consignment program 703 and authentication program 726 generate session encryption key information items (213, 214, 413, 430, 414, and 431). The authentication program 726 sends the generated session encryption key information items to a business substitute acceptance program 716 in the HSM 715 (steps 255, 265, 455, and 465). The business substitute consignment program 703 on the IC card 702 establishes the business substitute acceptance program 716 on the HSM 715 and a secure channel through a business substitute relay program 712 on the information kiosk control computer 710 (steps 259 and 219). Individual information 705 in a search business card program 704 in the IC card 702 is sent to the information search secondary program 731 in the HSM 715 through the secure channel and stored as individual information 717 (steps 222 and 422). The information search secondary program 731 executes the matching between the individual information 717 and store information 718 in accordance with information delivery rule 719 of the program 731. In this example, because the “taste of the individual information 717” coincides with the “field of the store information 718”, matching is effected (steps 263, 253, 223, 463, 453, and 423), and store information is sent to the IC card 702 and stored as store information 706 (steps 225 and 275). Thus, according to the present invention, the individual information 705 stored in the IC card 702 is transferred to only the HSM 715, held and stored as the individual information 717, and matching is executed. That is, because the privacy information 705 does not leak to a system other than the IC card 702 having a tamper resistance and the HSM 715, the privacy of the card user 701 is protected. Moreover, there is an advantage that retrieval processing which is a business service is executed by the HSM having a high throughput compared to the IC card and can be accelerated. Sixth Embodiment A sixth embodiment of the present invention is described below by referring to FIG. 7. This embodiment describes only points different from those of the first embodiment. A charging program APHSMCHRG 611 for charging a user of an IC card in accordance with the utilization time of the substitute processing service of the HSM 205 is prepared on the HSM 205. When the APCL 211 operates, start of charging is designated to the charging program APHSMCHRG 611 through a path 610. When the substitute processing is completed and an APCL 612 returns the D'app 227 to the ICC 201, end of charging is designated to an APHSMCHRG 614 through a path 613. The APHSMCHRG 614 calculates the mount of money in accordance with a not-illustrated charging program. The calculation result is stored in a charging program APCLCHRG 617 of the ICC 201 as charging information (step 614). According to this embodiment, it is possible to charge for utilization in accordance with the time using the substitute server 202, communication frequency, or transferred data quantity and a rental-type business model is realized. The invention made by the present inventor is specifically described above in accordance with embodiments. However, the present invention is not restricted to the above embodiments. It is needless to say that various modifications of the present invention are allowed as long as the modifications are not deviated from the gist of the present invention. For example, it is also possible to provide the same function as that of an IC card of this invention for a mobile terminal such as a cellular phone or PDA to serve as a substitute for the IC card of this invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to authenticating a service using an integrated circuit (IC) card and, more particularly, to increasing security in the process of authenticating a service using an IC card. 2. Background of the Invention Because an IC card can record a large quantity of information and has an advanced security, it has become in recent years a substitute information recording medium for a magnetic card. The IC card is expected to be increasingly applied to the financial field, as a credit card and as electronic money, while making better use of advanced security of the IC card. An IC card is a memory card or microprocessor card generally composed of a CPU, memory, and communication processing section. A memory card represented by a card conforming to ISO 7816 or a card conforming to JICSAP is an IC card in which data can be only written and which is used as a file. A microprocessor card represented by a Java (registered trademark) card specification or MULTOS specification is an IC card which mounts a program and can execute it. To execute business processing while considering security in a system using an IC card, a method has been used which executes business processing after executing mutual authentication between an IC card and a host computer and establishing a safe communication path (secure channel) between the IC card and the host computer. Specifically, such a method realizes mutual authentication by sharing the secret information for executing mutual authentication between the IC card and a server computer and confirming the shared secret information. JP-A No. 293867/1998 (Patent Document 1) discloses a technique for using a memory card allowing radio communication, reading data from the memory card through an automatic ticket gate when getting on/off a train, processing the data, and returning the data to the memory card. Moreover, there is a technique referred to as an HSM (hardware security module). The HSM is a device for detecting a change of temperatures or atmospheric pressures and physically protecting the secrecy of a cipher module by a mechanism in which the data in the device disappears when the mechanism is disassembled or impacted. Furthermore, to attack the HSM, the HSM generates and keeps a secret key of the CA (Certificate Authority) and keeps a signature operation and the secret key of a user. When performing these operations in a computer, there are risks such as damage to the computer, and theft or illegal copying of a key due to unfair invasion. Thus, the reliability of a certificate or the like is lost. FIPS PUB (Federal Information Processing Standard Publication) in the United States sets the standard for tamper-resistant criterion. As a technique using an HSM, JP-A No. 203207/2003 (Patent Document 2) discloses that a personal computer in a member's store executes data exchange with a credit card company through a communication section and an external communication line while securing security by using an HSM 20 . As a technique for using a kiosk terminal which can be accessed to read or write data from or in a storage medium such as an IC card of a user, JP-A No. 324213/2002 (Patent Document 3) discloses a technique for the kiosk terminal to install an application program into the IC card. As a technique for compensating the numerical ability and communication speed of an IC card, JP-A No. 143695/1998 (Patent Document 4) discloses a technique for an in-vehicle unit to substitute for an IC card for a traffic-charge receiving system of a turnpike. Examples in Patent Document 1 are described below by referring to FIG. 1 . A substitute computer (OBU) 101 is set between an IC card (ICC) 100 and a server computer (RSE) 102 . The substitute computer 101 and IC card 100 hold authenticating cipher keys Ki 110 and 111 , respectively. The IC card 100 holds substitute information 113 as the information necessary for execution of a business-service server program 118 of a server 102 . In the traffic-charge receiving system of the prior application, the business processing executed by a server computer is an authentication process. First, the substitute computer 101 authenticates the IC card by using the common authenticating information items Ki 110 and 111 (step 112 ). When authentication is successful, the IC card 100 transfers the substitute information 113 with the server computer held by the IC card to the substitute computer 101 (step 114 ). The substitute computer 101 starts a business-service client program (APCL) 115 on the computer 101 , exchanges information with a business-service server program 118 on the server computer 102 , and executes a business processing conforming to a client-server format (step 117 ). In this method, when the substitute computer 101 has a performance higher than the IC card 100 , it is possible to improve the whole processing performance. In Patent Document 1, keeping the concealment of the data stored in a memory card at an automatic ticket gate is not disclosed. Also in Patent Document 4, preventing individual information from leaking when an unspecified number of persons use the information due is not disclosed. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the present invention to provide a high-speed service by substituting IC card functions with an information kiosk terminal used by an unspecified number of persons. It is another object of the present invention to prevent individual information from leaking due to the fact that the individual information is output to an object other than an IC card or used by an unspecified number of persons. It is still another object of the present invention to make it possible to execute the card service same as for a microprocessor card and prevent individual information from leaking. Moreover, it is still another object of the present invention to prevent the speed of authentication processing from lowering due to the fact that the number of data storage areas of an authentication key excessively increases as the number of users increases when authenticating a substitute computer by a common authentication key. It is still another object of the present invention to prevent the speed of authentication processing from lowering due to the fact that the number of data storage areas is excessively increased the same as the above mentioned. This increase is because the number of users of the valid or invalid information showing whether the authentication information in an IC card is valid or invalid increases. A typical invention among inventions disclosed in this application is briefly described below. A substitute server computer in a computer system for executing the client-server-type business processing is used in which an IC card reader/writer connected with an IC card having business executing information used to execute the client processing part of the business processing and a first mutual authentication key, a tamper-resistant HSM, and a control computer connected to the IC card, the HSM, a business server for executing the server processing part of the business processing, and an authentication server computer having a second mutual authentication key are included, the HSM receives a first session encryption key generated from the authentication server by using the IC card and first and second mutual authentication keys and thereby performing mutual authentication, establishes a first secure channel extending to the IC card by using a second session encryption key generated at the time of the mutual authentication from the IC card and the received first session encryption key, receives the business executing data from the IC card, establishes a second secure channel by using the business server receiving the first session encryption key and the first session encryption key, and performs a predetermined business processing by using the HSM, the business server computer, and the business executing data. The above configuration makes it possible to provide a high-seed service by substituting IC card functions with an information kiosk terminal used by an unspecified number of persons and moreover, prevent individual information from leaking due to the fact that the individual information is output to an object other than an IC card or used by an unspecified number of persons. According to the present invention, it is possible to efficiently and securely substitute business processing with a substitute server computer instead of an IC card having a low calculation speed by using an authentication processing result of an authentication server computer. The invention encompasses other embodiments of a method, an apparatus, and a system, which are configured as set forth above and with other features and alternatives. | 20040618 | 20080415 | 20050407 | 95362.0 | 0 | TO, BAOTRAN N | METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR AUTHENTICATING SERVICE USING INTEGRATED CIRCUIT CARD | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,870,088 | ACCEPTED | Process for the production of carbodiimide modified organic isocyanates | The present invention relates to an improved process for the production of carbodiimide modified organic isocyanate, preferably a polymethylene polyphenylisocyanate, and most preferably diphenylmethane diisocyanate. This process includes (1) neutralizing acidic impurities in an organic isocyanate, (2) partially carbodiimidizing isocyanate groups of the neutralized organic isocyanate, and (3) terminating the carbodiimidization reaction. | 1. A process for the preparation of liquid storable organic isocyanates containing carbodiimide and/or uretoneimine groups, comprising: (1) neutralizing acidic impurities in an organic isocyanate with an acid scavenger, (2) partially carbodiimidizing isocyanate groups of the neutralized organic isocyanate with a catalyst of the phosphorous oxide type, and (3) terminating the carbodiimidization reaction by the addition of an acid. 2. The process of claim 1, wherein said organic isocyanate comprises polymethylene polyphenylisocyanate comprising 80 to 100% by weight of diphenylmethane diisocyanate and 0 to 20% by weight of higher functional polyisocyanates of the diphenylmethane series, wherein the diphenylmethane diisocyanate comprises from 40 to 80% by weight of the 4,4′-isomer, from 0 to 8% by weight of the 2,2′-isomer and from 20 to 60% by weight of the 2,4′-isomer, with the %'s by weight of the 4,4′-isomer, the 2,2′-isomer and the 2,4′-isomer totaling 100% by weight of monomeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate. 3. The process of claim 1, wherein said organic isocyanate comprises polymethylene polyphenylisocyanate comprising 90 to 100% by weight of diphenylmethane diisocyanate and 0 to 10% by weight of higher functional polyisocyanates of the diphenylmethane series, wherein the diphenylmethane diisocyanate comprises from 96 to 100% by weight of the 4,4′-isomer, from 0 to 1% by weight of the 2,2′-isomer and from 0.1 to 4% by weight of the 2,4′-isomer, with the %'s by weight of the 4,4′-isomer, the 2,2′-isomer and the 2,4′-isomer totaling 100% by weight of monomeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate. 4. The process of claim 3, wherein said acid scavenger comprises an epoxide. 5. The process of claim 1, wherein said organic polyisocyanate comprises 100% diphenylmethane diisocyanate wherein the 4,4′-isomer comprises from 96 to 100% by weight, the 2,2′-isomer comprises from 0 to 1% by weight, and the 2,4′-isomer comprises from 0.1 to 4% by weight, with the %'s by weight of the 4,4′-isomer, the 2,2′-isomer and the 2,4′-isomer totaling 100% by weight. 6. The process of claim 5, wherein said acid scavenger comprises an epoxide. 7. The process of claim 1, wherein said catalyst of the phosphorous oxide type comprises a phospholine oxide. 8. The process of claim 7, wherein said phospholine oxide catalyst comprises 1-methyl-3-phospholene oxide. 9. The process of claim 1, wherein the acid in step (3) comprises a silylated acid corresponding to the formula: X—[—Si(CH3)3]n wherein: X: represents the neutral acid residue obtained by removal of the acidic hydrogen atoms from an n-basic acid having a pKa value of at most 3, and n: represents an integer of 1 to 3. 10. The process of claim 9, wherein the silylated acid comprises trimethylsilyl trifluoromethylsulfonate. 11. The process of claim 1, wherein the acid in (3) is hydrochloric acid. 12. The process of claim 1, wherein the acid in (3) comprises the carbamoyl chloride precursors of diphenylmethane diisocyanate, and corresponds to the general formula: wherein n=1-5, and R represents a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group having 1 to 6 carbon atoms, or an aryl group having 6 to 13 carbon atoms. 13. The process of claim 1 wherein the acid in (3) comprises the carbamoyl chloride precursors of 4,4′-diphenylmethane diisocyanate and corresponds to the general formula: wherein R represents a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group having 1 to 6 carbon atoms, or an aryl group having 6 to 13 carbon atoms. 14. The process of claim 12, wherein R represents a hydrogen atom or a methyl group. 15. The process of claim 13, wherein R represents a hydrogen atom or a methyl group. 16. The process of claim 1, wherein the acid in (3) is present in an amount of 1 to 200 ppm, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting component. 17. The process of claim 1, wherein the acid scavenger in (1) comprises a liquid acid scavenger. 18. The process of claim 17, wherein the liquid acid scavenger comprises a liquid epoxy compound. 19. The process of claim 18, wherein the liquid epoxy compound comprises an aliphatic epoxy compound. 20. The process of claim 19, wherein the aliphatic epoxy compound comprises an aliphatic epoxidized oil. 21. The process of claim 1, wherein the acid scavenger is present in an amount of from 10 to 10,000 ppm, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting component. 22. A liquid, storage stable polymethylene polyphenylisocyanate containing carbodiimide groups and/or uretonimine groups, additionally comprising an epoxide, and having a final isocyanate content of from about 23 to about 32%. 23. A liquid, storage stable organic isocyanate containing carbodiimide groups and/or uretonimine groups and having an NCO group content of about 23 to about 32%, and comprising: (1) diphenylmethane diisocyanate, and (2) one or more epoxide. 24. A liquid, storage stable organic isocyanate mixture having an NCO group content of about 23 to about 32%, and comprising: (1) from about 60% to less than 90% by weight of monomeric MDI, (2) from about 10 to about 40% by weight of carbodiimide, uretonimine and higher homologues thereof, and (3) one or more epoxide, wherein the sum of (1), (2) and (3) totals 100% by weight of the isocyanate mixture. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an improved process for the preparation of carbodiimide modified organic isocyanate, preferably polyphenylmethane polyisocyanates, and most preferably diphenylmethane diisocyanates. This process comprises (1) neutralizing acidic impurities in an organic isocyanate, (2) partially carbodiimidizing isocyanate groups of the neutralized organic isocyanate, (3) terminating the carbodiimidization reaction. Carbodiimidization of isocyanates is known and described in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,853,473, 4,937,012, 5,202,358, 5,610,408, 6,120,699, 6,362,247, and 6,489,503, and in EP 193,787. Carbodiimidization of isocyanates is desirable to provide storage stable liquids. Liquids are easier to pump and less expensive to transport than fused solids or slurries. The liquids are homogeneous compositions as supplied without the need to homogenize as with slurries or fused solids. In the production of polyurethanes, a liquid can be added easily by weight or volume and combined with suitable co-reactants at room temperature. This is safer than using the materials at elevated temperature and the corresponding higher vapor pressure of the heated materials. Methods for improving stability and/or reactivity of polyisocyanates are also known and described in the art. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,793,362, 5,342,881, 5,726,240, 5,783,652 and 6,528,609. Most of these patents disclose blending or mixing an organic polyisocyanate with an epoxide or other compound. Many of these methods describe improving the reactivity of polymer MDI or adducts prepared from MDI that initially have adicity values that well exceed 25 ppm as measured using ASTM D 5629. By comparison, the refined starting materials described in the present invention typically have acidity values well under 25 ppm. Due to the extremely low levels of highly efficient catalyst used in the preparation of the carbodiimides described in the present invention and to the sensitivity of these catalysts to acidic impurities, it is necessary to remove even this low amount of acidity. Normally, the acidity of the isocyanate can be lowered to levels below 25 ppm by distillation. Depending on the efficiency of the columns used in the distillation process, these levels can be reduced to a range of 1-10 ppm. Trace levels of hydrogen chloride or hydrolysable chloride can be further removed by heating the isocyanate and passing an inert gas through the materials during distillation as in U.S. Pat. No. 3,516,950. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,814,103, 6,127,463 and 6,166,128 disclose that the color of various organic polyisocyanates can be stabilized and/or reduced by the addition of epoxides alone or in combination with hindered phenols. Copending application Ser. No. ______ (Agent docket number P08223), filed in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office on the same day as the present application, and which is commonly assigned, relates to TDI prepolymers with improved processing characteristics. These TDI prepolymer compositions comprise from about 95 to about 99.99% by weight of a prepolymer of toluene diisocyanate, and from about 0.01 to about 5% by weight of an epoxide having an epoxide equivalent weight of from about 44 to about 400. The prepolymer of TDI comprises the reaction product of toluene diisocyanate containing from about 60 to about 100% by weight of the 2,4-isomer and from about 0 to about 40% by weight of the 2,6-isomer, and an isocyanate-reactive component having a functionality of from about 1.5 to about 8 and an OH number of from about 14 to about 1870. Advantages of the present invention include lower color of the carbodiimide polyisocyanate product due to quicker processing to form the carbodiimide. The resulting products can be produced using lower levels of carbodiimidization catalyst so that the stability of the final product is improved. Also, the lower amount of catalyst requires less catalyst stopper which is advantageous since catalyst stopper can cause yellowing of the final product. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to an improved process for the preparation of carbodiimide modified polymethylene polyphenylisocyanates, including those carbodimiide modified polymethylene polyisocyanates which contain uretonimine groups. This process comprises: (1) neutralizing acidic impurities in an organic isocyanate, preferably a polyisocyanate of the diphenylmethane series, with an acid scavenger, (2) partially carbodiimidizing isocyanate groups of the neutralized organic isocyanate with a catalyst of the phosphorous oxide type, and (3) terminating the carbodimiidization reaction by addition of an acid or other suitable poison. In accordance with the present invention, the process may also comprise (1) partially carbodiimidizing isocyanate groups of an organic isocyanate with a catalyst of the phosphorous oxide type, (2) neutralizing acidic impurities in the partially carbodiimidized isocyanate by addition of an acid scavenger, and (3) terminating the carbodimiidization reaction reaction by addition of an acid stopper or other suitable poison. In a preferred embodiment, the process of the present invention also inherently forms uretonimine groups in the carbodiimidized isocyanate. Almost all of the above prepared carbodiimide modified isocyanate groups form uretonimine groups at room temperature. In the presence of excess isocyanate groups, carbodiimides rapidly form uretonimine groups. The equilibrium favors the uretonimine at room temperature. The uretonimine is less favored at elevated temperatures and regenerates isocyanate and carbodiimide. The present invention also relates to liquid stable organic isocyanates containing carbodiimide groups and/or uretonimine groups. These isocyanates preferably have an NCO group content of from about 23 to about 32%, and preferably comprise (1) one or more diphenylmethane diisocyanates and/or higher homologues of the MDI series (i.e. polymethylene polyphenylisocyanates), and (2) one or more epoxide. The isocyanates of the present invention have an NCO group content of from about 23 to about 32% and comprise (1) from about 60 to less than 90% by weight of MDI, (2) from 10 to 40% by weight of carbodiimide and/or uretonimine, and (3) epoxide. The amount of epoxide present in the composition is relatively small. The sum of the %'s by weight of (1), (2) and (3) totals 100% by weight of the isocyanate. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Any organic isocyanates may be used as starting materials for the process according to the invention. However, the process according to the invention is preferably used for the carbodiimidization of organic diisocyanates of the type used in polyurethane chemistry. Suitable polyisocyanates which may be used in forming the isocyanate compositions in accordance with the present invention include monomeric diisocyanates, and polyisocyanates. Suitable monomeric diisocyanates may be represented by the formula R(NCO)2 in which R represents an organic group obtained by removing the isocyanate groups from an organic diisocyanate having a molecular weight of about 56 to 1,000, preferably about 84 to 400. Diisocyanates preferred for the process according to the invention are those represented by the above formula in which R represents a divalent aliphatic, hydrocarbon group having 4 to 12 carbon atoms, a divalent cycloaliphatic hydrocarbon group having 6 to 13 carbon atoms, a divalent araliphatic hydrocarbon group having 7 to 20 carbon atoms or a divalent aromatic hydrocarbon group having 6 to 18 carbon atoms. Preferred monomeric diisocyanates are those wherein R represents an aromatic hydrocarbon group. Examples of the suitable organic diisocyanates include 1,4-tetramethylene diisocyanate, 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate, 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate, 1,12-dodecamethylene diisocyanate, cyclohexane-1,3- and -1,4-diisocyanate, 1-isocyanato-2-isocyanatomethyl cyclopentane, 1-isocyanato-3-isocyanatomethyl-3,5,5-trimethyl-cyclohexane (isophorone diisocyanate or IPDI), bis(4-isocya-natocyclohexyl) methane, 2,4′-dicyclohexylmethane diisocyanate, 1,3- and 1,4-bis(isocyanatomethyl)cyclohexane, bis(4-isocyanato-3-methyl-cyclohexyl) methane, α,α,α′,α′-tetramethyl-1,3- and/or -1,4-xylylene diisocyanate, 1-isocyanato-1-methyl-4(3)-isocyanatomethyl cyclohexane, 2,4- and/or 2,6-hexahydrotoluene diisocyanate, 1,3- and/or 1,4-phenylene diisocyanate, 2,4- and/or 2,6-toluene diisocyanate, 2,2′-, 2,4′- and/or 4,4′-diphenylmethane diisocyanate, 1,5-diisocyanato naphthalene and mixtures thereof. Aromatic polyisocyanates containing 3 or more isocyanate groups such as 4,4′,4″-triphenylmethane triisocyanate and polymethylene poly(phenylisocyanates) obtained by phosgenating aniline/formaldehyde condensates may also be used. Suitable di- and/or polyisocyanates to be in accordance with the present invention typically have NCO group contents from about 25 to about 50%. These di- and/or polyisocyanates typically have NCO group contents of at least about 25%, preferably at least about 30% and most preferably at least about 33%. The polyisocyanates suitable herein also typically have NCO group contents of less than or equal to 50%, preferably of less than or equal to 40% and most preferably of less than or equal to 34%. The polyisocyanates may have an NCO group content ranging between any combination of these upper and lower values, inclusive, e.g., from 25 to 50%, preferably from 30 to 40% and most preferably from 31 to 34%. The most suitable organic polyisocyanates of the present invention are based on diphenylmethane diisocyanates and polyphenylmethane polyisocyanates which have the above disclosed NCO group contents. It is preferred that the polyisocyanate component comprise 100% by weight of purified diphenylmethane diisocyanate and 0% by weight of polyphenylmethane polyisocyanate, with the sums totaling 100% of the polyisocyanate. These polyisocyanates typically have a monomeric MDI content of at least about 60%, preferably of at least about 75%, more preferably of at least about 90% and most preferably of at least about 98%. The polyisocyanates also typically have a monomeric MDI content of less than or equal to about 100%. These polyisocyanates may have a monomeric MDI content ranging between any combination of these upper and lower values, inclusive, e.g., from 60 to 100%, preferably from 75 to 100%, more preferably from 90 to 100%, and most preferably from 98 to 100%. In addition, these polyisocyanates typically have a polymeric MDI content of at least about 0%. The polyisocyanates also typically have a polymeric MDI content of less than or equal to about 40%, preferably less than or equal to about 25%, more preferably less than or equal to about 10% and most preferably less than or equal to about 2%. These polyisocyanates may have a polymeric MDI content ranging between any combination of these upper and lower values, inclusive, e.g., from 0 to 40%, preferably from 0 to 25%, more preferably from 0 to 10% and most preferably from 0 to 2%. Obviously, when polymeric MDI is present, the sum of the monomeric MDI content and of the polymer MDI content totals 100% by weight of the MDI. Suitable polyisocyanates of the above described monomeric MDI contents, typically have an isomer distribution of 2,2′-, 2,4′- and 4,4′-MDI as follows. The % by weight of (1) the 2,4′-isomer of diphenylmethane diisocyanate is typically at least about 0%. The % by weight of (1) the 2,4′-isomer generally is about 60% or less, preferably about 10% or less, more preferably about 2% or less and most preferably about 1% or less. The diphenylmethane diisocyanate component may have (1) a 2,4′-isomer content ranging between any of these upper and lower values, inclusive, e.g., from 0 to 60%, preferably from 0 to 10%, more preferably from 0 to 2% and most preferably from 0 to 1% by weight. The % by weight of the (2) 2,2′-isomer of diphenylmethane diisocyanate is typically at least about 0%. The % by weight of (2) the 2,2′-isomer generally is about 6% or less, preferably 1% or less, more preferably about 0.2% or less and most preferably about 0.1% or less. The diphenylmethane diisocyanate component may have (2) a 2,2′-isomer content ranging between any of these upper and lower values, inclusive, e.g., from 0 to 6%, preferably from 0 to 1%, preferably from 0 to 0.2%, and most preferably from 0 to 0.1% by weight. The % by weight of (3) the 4,4′-isomer of diphenylmethane diisocyanate is typically at least about 34%, preferably at least about 80%, more preferably at least about 96%, and most preferably at least about 98%. The % by weight of (3) the 4,4′-isomer generally is about 100% or less. The diphenylmethane diisocyanate component may have (3) a 4,4′-isomer content ranging between any of these upper and lower values, inclusive, e.g., from 34 to 100%, preferably from 80 to 100%, more preferably from 96 to 100%, and most preferably from 98 to 100% by weight. It is particularly preferred that the diphenylmethane diisocyanate component comprise 100% by weight of the 4,4′-isomer. The sum of the %'s by weight of the isomers (1), (2) and (3) totals 100% by weight of the monomeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate. A particularly suitable isocyanate component for the present invention comprises 80 to 100% by weight of diphenylmethane diisocyanate and 0 to 20% by weight of higher functional polyisocyanates of the diphenylmethane series, wherein the diphenylmethane diisocyanate comprise from 40 to 80% by weight of the 4,4′-isomer, from 0 to 8% by weight of the 2,2′-isomer and from 20 to 60% by weight of the 2,4′-isomer, with the sum of the %'s by weight of the 4,4′-isomer, the 2,2′-isomer and the 2,4′-isomer totaling 100% by weight of the monomeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate. Another particularly suitable isocyanate for the present invention comprises 90 to 100% by weight of diphenylmethane diisocyanate and 0 to 10% by weight of higher functional polyisocyanates of the diphenylmethane series, wherein the diphenylmethane diisocyanate comprise from 96 to 100% by weight of the 4,4′-isomer, from 0 to 1% by weight of the 2,2′-isomer and from 0.1 to 4% by weight of the 2,4′-isomer, with the sum of the %'s by weight of the 4,4′-isomer, the 2,2′-isomer and the 2,4′-isomer totaling 100% by weight of the monomeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate. Another particularly suitable isocyanate for the present invention comprises 100% by weight of diphenylmethane diisocyanate, with the diphenylmethane diisocyanate comprising from 96 to 100% by weight of the 4,4′-isomer, from 0 to 1% by weight of the 2,2′-isomer and from 0.1 to 4% by weight of the 2,4′-isomer, with the sum of the %'s by weight of the isomers totaling 100% by weight of the monomeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate. Suitable compounds to be used as acid scavengers in the present invention include compounds such as, for example, pure metals, salts and oxides of, for example, zinc, magnesium, sodium, calcium, aluminum, and mixtures thereof; any carboxylic acid salt as described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,272,441, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference; basic solid materials in particulate form including compounds such as, for example, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium oxide, potassium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate; basic materials absorbed onto or grafted onto insoluble resin matrices, for example, amine compounds grafted onto crosslinked polystyrene; epoxides such as liquid epoxides including liquid aliphatic epoxides, epoxidized oils including, for example, epoxidized dimer and trimer fatty acids, epoxidized mono- di- and triglycerides including those of vegetable or animal origin; etc. Among the suitable active metal-containing acid scavengers are included compounds selected from the group consisting of sodium stearate, magnesium stearate, zinc stearate; magnesium or magnesium/zinc hydrotalcites, optionally coated with 5 to 50% of metal stearate; zinc oxide, zinc hydroxide, calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, magnesium oxide and magnesium hydroxide, and compounds such as, for example, L-55 R: hydrotalcite, a magnesium aluminum hydroxide carbonate hydrate, coated with 18% sodium stearate, available from Reheis Inc, Berkeley Heights, N.J., USA, and Hysafe 510: a magnesium hydrotalcite, available from J. M. Huber Corp., Havre de Grace, Md., USA. Other suitable acid scavengers are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,593,485, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference. Suitable acid scavengers for present invention also include solvent soluble salts including cadmium laurate, cobaltic benzoate, ferric naphthanate and the like as described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 3,264,336, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference. Also suitable are the solid hydrotalcites and amorphous basic aluminum magnesium carbonates, such as those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,427,816, 5,106,898, 5,234,981 and 6,225,387, the disclosures of which are herein incorporated by reference. The most preferred materials within the active metal-containing compounds, are the metals, the oxides and the carboxylic acid salts. It should be noted further that the oxides must be utilized at a smaller concentration than the salts. If the oxides are utilized at somewhat above their ranges disclosed below, then what happens is that they inhibit the cure of the composition and the composition based on the carbodiimide and polyol coreactants will cure slowly if at all, depending on how much of the materials has been placed in the composition. It must be noted that preferably there is utilized the foregoing materials of zinc, aluminum and magnesium as acid scavengers in the instant composition. The carboxylic acid salts of zinc and magnesium, operate in the present invention and the oxides of these metals should also operate within the scope of the present invention as acid scavengers. Among the suitable materials of zinc, sodium, calcium, potassium, aluminum and magnesium as acid scavengers in the instant composition are the carboxylic acid salts of zinc and magnesium, and the oxides of these metals. Accordingly, only slightly basic or amphoteric metals would be desirable and/or suitable as acid scavengers in the instant invention. If the material is slightly basic or amphoteric it will absorb the acid that is given off during the hydrolysis to form an innocuous salt without detracting from the final cured properties of the composition. Accordingly, zinc, magnesium and aluminum compounds will function effectively in the instant case even as zinc and magnesium metals. Aluminum and/or sodium metal might also function effectively as acid scavengers. Metal powders can function effectively as acid scavengers, however, they are more difficult to use as acid scavengers due to their pyrophoric nature. Such suitable acid scavengers are known and described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,680,363, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. Acidity can be neutralized from the isocyanate by contacting it with these basic substances that are in the solid state. In a typical embodiment, the process of the present invention may be carried out in both batch and continuous modes. Slurries of the solid materials in the liquid isocyanate starting materials are stirred and the solid is subsequently removed by filtration. In a batch mode operation, the use of agitation may be beneficial in improving base efficiency. Typical means of agitation include the use of mechanical stirrers at speeds ranging from about 400 to about 1200 rpm. Lime or sodium carbonate has been suggested to be used as in U.S. Pat. No. 3,793,362, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. If the neutralizing compound is extremely efficient, the solid material can be loaded into a column and the liquid isocyanate or isocyanate solution is passed through the column. In a continuous mode of operation, a fixed bed of solid material may be used and product to be treated pumped through the bed. These processes may be run over a wide range of temperatures from about 40 to about 200° C. Preferably the temperature range is from about 40 to about 100° C., and most preferably from about 60 to about 90° C. The pressure of the system should be in the range of 20 to 75 psig. Suitable solid materials for these processes are commercially available ion exchange resins that contain basic groups including but not limited to tertiary amines. One such of these materials is available from Rohm and Haas under the product tradename Amberlite IRA900 or from Sybron Chemicals as Lewatit MonoPlus MP 500. Both of these methods are less preferred because it is difficulat to remove the solids efficiently and the solid materials containing residual isocyanate must be treated as hazardous water. Any chemical compound which contains the epoxide (oxirane) functionality is most suitable as the acid scavenger in the present invention. These materials are soluble in the isocyanates and remain in the final carbodiimide product. The term “epoxide” or “epoxy” as used herein refers to any organic compound or resin containing at least one group comprising a three membered oxirane ring. Preferably two or more oxirane groups are present in the epoxide compound or resin in order to obtain the polyisocyanate compositions with consistent reactivity profiles of the instant invention. The epoxide equivalent weight (EEW) range of suitable epoxides is from about 44 to 400, preferably 100 to 350 and most preferably 150 to 300. Both aromatic and aliphatic polyepoxides may be used, and are well known. Suitable epoxides are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,726,240, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. It is somewhat less preferred that the epoxy comprises an aromatic polyepoxide due to the tendency of them to cause yellowing as well as their reduced efficacy. Examples of such aromatic polyepoxides include but are not limited to those selected from the group consisting of the polyglycidyl ethers of polyhydric phenols; glycidyl esters of aromatic carboxylic acids; N-glycidylaminoaromatics such as N-glycidylamino-benzene, N,N,N′,N′-tetraglycidyl-4,4′-bis-aminophenyl methane, and diglycidylaminobenzene; glycidylamino-glycidyloxyaromatics such as glycidyl-aminoglycidyloxybenzene; and mixtures thereof. The aromatic polyepoxide resins, comprised of the polyglycidyl-ethers of polyhydric phenols including bis(phenol A), are also less preferred because they contain hydroxyl groups and thus, react with the polyisocyanate mixtures. Thus, this reduces the isocyanate content. Also, less preferred are aliphatic epoxides containing hydroxyl groups, e.g., glycidol, for the same reason. The preferred epoxides for use according to the invention are the aliphatic epoxides which do not contain hydroxyl groups. Suitable for use are C2-C18 aliphatic epoxides such as, for example, ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, 1,2-butene oxide, 2,3-butene oxide (cis and/or trans), isobutylene oxide, 1,2-pentene oxide, 2,3-pentene oxide, cyclopentene oxide, 1,2-hexene oxide, cyclohexene oxide, and the like and mixtures thereof. Examples of useful aliphatic polyepoxides include but are not limited to those selected from the group consisting of vinyl cyclohexene dioxide; butadiene dioxide, triglycidyl isocyanurate; and those containing ether linkages such as triglycidyl pentaerythritol, tetraglycidyl pentaery-thritol, diglycidylethers of cylcohexane dimethanol and the diglycidylethers of other diols known to those skilled in the art, 1,4-bis(2,3-epoxypropoxy)-benzene; 1,3-bis(2,3-epoxypropoxy)benzene; 4,4′-bis(2,3-epoxypropoxy)-diphenyl ether; 1,8-bis(2,3-epoxypropoxy)octane; 1,4-bis(2,3-epoxypro-poxy)cyclohexane; 4,4′-(2-hydroxy-3,4-epoxybutoxy)-diphenyl dimethyl methane; 1,3-bis(4,5-epoxypentoxy)-5-chlorobenzene; 1,4-bis(3,4-epoxybutoxy)-2-chlorocyclohexane; diglycidyl thioether; diglycidyl ether; 1,2,5,6-diepoxyhexane-3; 1,2,5,6-diepoxyhexane; those containing ester groups such as ERL 4221, a product of Dow Corporation, as illustrated in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,814,103, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference, and mixtures thereof. Other useful epoxides are listed in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 3,298,998, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. These compounds include but are not limited to those selected from the group consisting of bis[p-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)phenyl]cyclohexane; 2,2-bis[p-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)phenyl]norcam phane; 5,5-bis[(2,3-epoxypro-poxy)phenyl]hexahydro-4,6-methanoindane; 2,2-bis[4-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)-3-methylphenyl]hexahydro-4,7-methanoindane; and 2-bis[p-2,3-epoxypro-poxy)phenyl]-methylene-3-methylnorcamphane; and mixtures thereof. Other usable epoxides are found in, for example, Handbook of Epoxy Resin, Lee and Neville, McGraw-Hill, New York (1967) and U.S. Pat. No. 3,018,262, both of which are herein incorporated by reference. Also, suitable epoxides for use in the present invention include the epoxidized dimer and trimer fatty acids, which are formed by epoxidizing the products of the polymerization of C18 unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, elaidic acid and the like. The use of a dimer or trimer fatty acid entity furnishes a higher molecular weight epoxide that is less likely to volatilize from the finished articles that the polyisocyanate compositions of the present invention are used to produce. The dimer fatty acid may have an acyclic, monocyclic, or bicyclic structure or comprise a mixture of compounds having different such structures. Epoxidized mono-, di- and triglycerides prepared by epoxidation of the known unsaturated or partially unsaturated glycerides are preferred. The epoxidized glycerides may be prepared from any of the known fatty acid triglycerides available from natural or synthetic sources. The fatty acid group, which is connected to glycerol by an ester bond is usually a C6-C24 monocarboxylic acid (linear or branched; saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated). Such fatty acids and their equivalents are readily available at low cost from natural sources such as edible triglycerides. Specific illustrative fatty acids suitable for use include, but are not limited to, eicosanoic (arachidic) acid, heneicosanoic acid, docosanoic (behenic) acid, elaidic acid, tricosanoic acid, tetracosanoic (lignoceric) acid, caprylic acid, pelargonic acid, capric acid, caproic acid, lauric acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, cetoleic acid, myristic acid, palmitoleic acid, gadoleic acid, erucic acid, rincinoleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, myristoleic acid, eleostearic acid, arachidonic acid, or mixtures or hydrogenated derivatives of these acids. The fatty acids may be derived synthetically or from natural sources such as triglyceride lipids. Mixtures of fatty acid entities, such as the mixtures of fatty acids typically obtained by hydrolysis (splitting) of a triglyceride are also suitable. These fatty acid triglycerides include, but are not limited to, fats and oils such as tallow, soybean oil, cottonseed oil, coconut oil, palm kernel oil, corn oil, fish oil, lard, butterfat, olive oil, palm oil, peanut oil, safflower seed oil, cocoa butter, sesame seed oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower seed oil, as well as fully or partially hydrogenated derivatives and mixtures of these triglycerides. Epoxidized linseed oil is particularly preferred. The process according to the present invention can be carried out with a number of epoxidized triglycerides of vegetable or animal origin. The only requirement is that a substantial percentage of epoxide groups should be present. Thus, suitable epoxidized triglycerides are, for example, those containing from about 2 to about 10% by weight of epoxide oxygen. Products containing from about 4 to about 8.5% by weight of epoxide oxygen are particularly suitable. They can be produced from the following fats and oils: beef tallow, palm oil, lard, castor oil, peanut oil, rape oil, and, preferably, cottonseed oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil and linseed oil. Preferred starting materials are epoxidized soybean oil, epoxidized sunflower oil, epoxidized linseed oil and epoxidized train oil. The quantity of acid scavenger to be used in accordance with the present invention generally ranges from about 10 to about 10,000 ppm, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting material. Acid scavenger is typically present in an amount of at least about 10 ppm, preferably of at least about 50 ppm, more preferably of at least about 100 ppm, and most preferably of at least about 150 ppm,. The quantity of acid scavenger is generally less than about 10,000 ppm, preferably less than about 5,000 ppm, more preferably less than about 2,000 ppm, and most preferably less than about 1,000 ppm, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting material. The quantity of acid scavenger present may be present in an amount ranging between any combination of these upper and lower ranges, inclusive, e.g. from 10 to 10,000 ppm, preferably from 50 to 5,000 ppm, more preferably from 100 to 2,000 ppm, and most preferably from 150 to 1,000 ppm, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting material. Suitable catalysts for the carbodiimidization reaction of the isocyanate component in accordance with the present invention include but are not limited to catalysts of the phosphorous oxide type series such as, for example, commercially available mixtures of phospholine oxides, phospholene 1-oxides and phospholene 1-sulfides. Suitable phospholine oxides include, for example, those corresponding to the formulas: as are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,202,358, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. Other suitable catalysts which also known to be suitable carbodiimidization catalysts are described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,489,503, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. As described therein, phospholene 1-oxides and phospholene 1-sulfides correspond to the formulas: wherein a, b, c and d are each selected from the group consisting of hydrogen and hydrocarbyl from 1 to 12 carbon atoms inclusive, R is selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl and aryl and X is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur. The above phospholene compounds and methods for their preparation are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,633,737, 2,663,738 and 2,853,473, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference. The 3-phospholenes can be isomerized readily to the corresponding 2-phospholenes by thermal treatment or by refluxing with an aqueous base as disclosed by Quin et al, Journal American Chemical Society, 33, 1024,1968. Representative compounds within the above class are 1-phenyl-2-phospholene-1-oxide; 3-methyl-1-phenyl-2-phospholene-1-oxide; 1-phenyl-2-phospholene-1-sulfide; 1-ethyl-2-phospholene-1-oxide; 1-ethyl-3-methyl-2-phospholene-1-oxide; 1-ethyl-3-methyl-2-phospholene-1-sulfide; and the isomeric phospholenes corresponding to the above named compounds. Also, polymer bound phospholene oxide may be employed specifically those having recurring units, for example, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,105,643 and those of the following structure, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,105,642, the disclosures of which patents are expressly hereby incorporated by reference. These recurring units are represented by the structure: Also suitable are the diaza- and oxaza-phospholenes and -phosphorinanes described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,489,503 which correspond to the general formula: wherein CnH2n represents alkylene from 1 to 12 carbon atoms, inclusive, at least one and not more than three adjacent carbon atoms and said alkylene radical forming a chain, one end of which is attached to Y, the other end of which is attached to N, thereby completing the heterocyclic ring; R′ is selected from the group consisting of hydrocarbyl containing 1 to 12 carbon atoms, inclusive; and halo, nitro, alkoxy, alkyl, mercapto, and cyano substituted hydrocarbyl from 1 to 12 carbon atoms, inclusive; R″ is hydrocarbyl containing from 1 to 12 carbon atoms, inclusive, and Y is selected from the group consisting of —O— and —NR″— wherein R″ has the significance as defined above. The above compounds and methods for their preparation are described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,522,303, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. Representative examples of such compounds are: 2-ethyl-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diazaphospholane-2-oxide; 2-chloromethyl-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diazaphospholane-2-oxide; 2-trichloromethyl-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diazaphospholane-2-oxide; 2-phenyl-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diazaphospholane-2-oxide; 2-phenyl-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diaza-phosphorinane-2-oxide; 2-benzyl-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diazaphospholane-2-oxide; 2-allyl-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diazaphospholane-2-oxide; 2-bromomethyl-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diazaphospholane-2-oxide; 2-cyclohexyl-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diazaphospholane-2-oxide; 2-cyclohexyl-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diaphospholane-2-oxide; 2-(2-ethoxyethyl)-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diazaphospholane-2-oxide; and 2-naphthyl-1,3-dimethyl-1,3,2-diazaphospholane-2-oxide. The quantity of catalyst used herein varies depending on the polyisocyanate starting material. Generally, it varies from about 0.1 to about 20 ppm, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting material. There is typically at least about 0.1 ppm, preferably at least about 0.5 ppm, and most preferably at least about 1 ppm of catalyst present, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting material. Also, there is generally no more than about 20 ppm, preferably no more than about 10 ppm, and most preferably no more than about 5 ppm of catalyst present, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting material. Of course, the quantity of catalyst present may be present in an amount ranging between any combination of these upper and lower ranges, inclusive, e.g. from 0.1 to 20 ppm, preferably from 0.5 to 10 ppm, and most preferably from 1 to 5 ppm, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting material. Suitable catalysts stoppers or poisons to be used in accordance with the present invention include acids such as, for example, hydrohalic acids including, for example hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen fluoride, phosphoric acid and various chlorine-containing compounds including, for example, but not limited to aromatic and aliphatic acid chlorides such as, for example, benzoyl chloride, acetyl chloride and the like, chloroformates such as, for example, methyl chloroformate and the like, carbamoyl chlorides such as, for example, n-butyl carbamoyl chloride, the carbamoyl chloride precursors of MDI (diphenylmethane diisocyanate) and of the higher molecular weight homologues of MDI (i.e. PMDI or polyphenylmethylene polyphenylisocyanate), etc., zinc chloride, phosphoroxy chloride, phosphorous trichloride, sulfuryl chloride, silicon tetrachloride, etc. as described in, for example. U.S. Pat. No. 4,088,665, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. Also suitable are the sulfonyl isocyanates as described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,362,247, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference. Among the sulfonyl isocyanates are, for example, inorganic or organic compounds which contain at least one structural unit corresponding to the following formula —SO2—NCO. Organic sulfonyl isocyanates are preferably used, while those containing aromatically-bound isocyanatosulfonyl residues are particularly preferred. Processes for producing organic sulfonyl isocyanates of the type suitable for use in accordance with the invention and also their chemical behavior are comprehensively described by H. Ulrich in Chem. Rev. 65, pages 369-376,1965. In addition, the production of aryl sulfonyl isocyanates is described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,666,787 and 3,484,466, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference. According to the invention, it is possible to use aliphatic, cycloaliphatic and also aromatic mono- or polysulfonyl isocyanates, of which the following are mentioned by way of example: methyl sulfonyl isocyanate, butyl sulfonyl isocyanate, cyclohexyl sulfonyl isocyanate, chlorosulfone isocyanate, perfluorooctyl sulfonyl isocyanate, phenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, p-toluene sulfonyl isocyanate, benzyl sulfonyl isocyanate, p-chlorophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, m-nitrophenylsulfonyl isocyanate, 2,5-dimethyl phenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, p-fluorophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, 2,5-dichlorophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, 3,4-dichlorophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, p-bromophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, p-methoxyphenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, p-nitrophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate and o-nitrophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate; m-phenylene disulfonyl diisocyanate, p-phenylene disulfonyl diisocyanate, 4-methyl-m-phenylene disulfonyl diisocyanate, 2-chloro-p-phenylene disulfonyl diisocyanate, 5-chloro-m-phenylene disulfonyl diisocyanate, 1,5-naphthylene disulfonyl diisocyanate, 3-nitro-p-phenylene disulfonyl diisocyanate, 4-methoxy-m-phenylene disulfonyl diisocyanate, 2,5-furandiyl-bis-(methylene-sulfonyl)-diisocyanate, 4,4′-bis-phenylene disulfonyl diisocyanate, 2,2′-dichloro-4,4′-biphenylylene-disulfonyl diisocyanate, 3,3′-dimethoxy-4,4′-biphenylylene-disulfonyl diisocyanate, (methylene-di-p-phenylene)-disulfonyl diisocyanate, (methylene-di-3,3′-dimethoxy-p-phenylene)-disulfonyl d iisocyanate, (methylene-di-3,3′-dimethyl-p-phenylene)-disu Ifonyl diisocyanate and 2-methyl-p-phenylene disulfonyl diisocyanate; also sulfonyl isocyanates containing free NCO-groups such as m-isocyanatophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, p-isocyanatophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, 3-isocyanato-p-tolyl sulfonyl isocyanate, 5-isocyanato-o-tolyl sulfonyl isocyanate, 3-isocyanato-4-methoxyphenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, 4-isocyanato-3-chlorophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, 4′-isocyanato-4-biphenylyl sulfonyl isocyanate, 4′-isocyanato-2,2′-dichloro-4-biphenylyl sulfonyl isocyanate, 4-isocyanato-3,3′-dimethoxy-4-biphenylyl sulfonyl isocyanate, α-(p-isocyanatophenyl)-p-tolyl sulfonyl isocyanate, α-(4-isocyanato-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-methoxy-p-tolyl sulfonyl isocyanate, α-(4-isocyanato-m-tolyl)-2,4-xylyl sulfonyl isocyanate and 5-isocyanato-1-naphthyl sulfonyl isocyanate; or containing free isothiocyanate groups such as p-isothiocyanatophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, m-isothio-cyanatophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, 3-isothiocyanate-4-methoxy phenyl sulfonyl isocyanate and 4-isothiocyanato-3-methyl phenyl sulfonyl isocyanate. It is possible to use sulfonyl isocyanates wherein the —SO2—NCO group is directly attached to an aromatic radical. Phenyl sulfonyl isocyanate, p-chlorophenyl sulfonyl isocyanate and p-toluene sulfonyl isocyanate (tosyl isocyanate) are particularly preferred. In addition to the organic sulfonyl isocyanates mentioned by way of example, it is also possible in accordance with the invention to use inorganic sulfonyl isocyanates such as chlorosulfonyl isocyanate or sulfonyl diisocyanate. Oxy-sulfonyl isocyanates such as trimethyl silyloxy-sulfonyl isocyanate are also suitable. Another suitable group of acids for the present invention is the silylated acids which correspond to the general formula: X—[Si(CH3)3]n wherein: X: represents the neutral acid residue obtained by the removal of the acidic hydrogen atoms from an n-basic acid having a pKa value of at most 3, and n: represents an integer of 1 to 3. These silylated acids are indeed the preferred catalyst stopper or poison. In these silylated acids, it is preferred that X is the neutral acid residue of an oxygen-containing acid which bears n acid hydrogen atoms and has a maximum pKa value of 2. Some examples of such suitable acids include compounds such as, but not limited to, the corresponding silylated sulfonic acids such as, for example, trifluoromethanesulfonic acid trimethylsilylester or methanesulfonic acid trimethylsilyl ester, or silylated esters of acids of phosphorus, such as phosphoric acid tris(trimethylsilyl ester) and/or phorphoric acid diethyl ester trimethylsilyl ester. Such compounds are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,202,358 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,362,247, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference. The quantity of acid used herein generally is between about 1 and about 200 ppm, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting material. There is typically at least about 1 ppm, preferably at least about 5 ppm and most preferably at least about 10 ppm of acid present, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting material. Also, there is generally no more than about 200 ppm, preferably no more than about 100 ppm and most preferably no more than about 50 ppm of acid present, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting material. Of course, the quantity of stopper or poison present may be present in an amount ranging between any combination of these upper and lower ranges, inclusive, e.g. from 1 to 200 ppm, preferably from 5 to 100 ppm, and most preferably from 10 to 50 ppm, based on the weight of the polyisocyanate starting material. In accordance with the present invention, neutralization of any acidic impurities in the organic isocyanate is achieved by addition of an acid scavenger as described herein above. This can be accomplished at room temperature; however, it is generally carried out at elevated temperatures between 40 to 100° C. to accelerate the process. Typically, the neutralization takes place within about 5 to about 300 minutes in a well stirred vessel. It may also take place in a column when, for example, the materials are passed through the column which contains the solid basic materials. The carbodiimidization reaction according to the invention is generally carried out at a temperature in the range from about 50° C. to about 150° C. and preferably at a temperature in the range from 60° C. to 100° C. The optimal reaction temperature depends on the starting isocyanates used and may be determined in a simple preliminary test. The carbodiimidization reaction is generally terminated on reaching a degree of carbodiimidization (degree of carbodiimidization is the percentage of carbodiimidized isocyanate groups, based on the total quantity of isocyanate groups present in the starting isocyanate) of about 3 to about 35% (preferably 5 to 30%) by weight. The degree of carbodiimidization is reflected in the quantity of carbon dioxide escaping from the reaction mixture during the process according to the invention. Accordingly, this volumetrically measurable quantity of carbon dioxide provides information on the degree of carbodiimidization reached at any stage during the process according to the invention. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention wherein the polyisocyanate starting materials comprises monomeric MDI (i.e. diphenylmethane diisocyanate) and optionally higher homologues thereof (i.e. polymeric MDI), the isocyanate content of the final product is 23 to 32%, preferably 26.5 to 31% and most preferably 28.5 to 30%. The isocyanate mixtures of the present invention comprise monomeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate, carbodiimide, uretonimine, and higher homologues of carbodiimides and/or uretonimines, and epoxide. The monomeric MDI present in this mixture ranges from about 60% to less than about 90% by weight, based on 100% by weight of the total isocyanate mixture, and the balance, i.e. from more than 10% to about 40% by weight, comprises carbodiimide, uretonimine, and higher molecular weight homologues of carbodiimides and/or uretonimines. In the context of the present invention, these higher molecular weight homologues comprise molecules which contain from two to six incorporated carbodiimide and/or uretonimine groups. Only a very small amount of the total weight of the mixture comprises an epoxide, a catalyst and a catalyst stopper. The mixture preferably comprises from 70% to 80% by weight and most preferably from 72% to 78% by weight of monomeric MDI, based on 100% by weight of the total isocyanate mixture. The balance of the mixture comprises from 20% to 30% by weight and most preferably from 22% to 28% by weight, based on 100% by weight of the total isocyanate mixture. The following examples further illustrate details for the process of this invention. The invention, which is set forth in the foregoing disclosure, is not to be limited either in spirit or scope by these examples. Those skilled in the art will readily understand that known variations of the conditions of the following procedures can be used. Unless otherwise noted, all temperatures are degrees Celsius and all parts and percentages are parts by weight and percentages by weight, respectively. EXAMPLES The following components were used in the working examples of the present application: Isocyanate A: diphenylmethane diisocyanate having an NCO group content of about 33.6% and comprising about 99% of the 4,4′-isomer and about 1% of the 2,4′-isomer; and having an acidity value of 7 as determined by ASTM D-5629. Isocyanate B: diphenylmethane diisocyanate having an NCO group content of about 33.6% and comprising about 99% of the 4,4′-isomer and about 1% of the 2,4′-isomer; and having an acidity value of 20 as determined by ASTM D-5629. Isocyanate C: diphenylmethane diisocyanate having an NCO group content of about 33.6% and comprising about 99% of the 4,4′-isomer and about 1% of the 2,4′-isomer; and having an acidity value of 4 as determined by ASTM D-5629. Epoxide A: polyepoxide based upon linseed oil and having an epoxide equivalent weight of about 180; commercially available as Epoxol 9-5 from Unitech Chemical Inc. Catalyst A: 1-methyl-3-phospholene-1-oxide Acid A: trimethylsilyl trifluoromethane sulfonate The following experiments were conducted to illustrate the effect of an acid scavenger on decreasing the time and/or catalyst level needed for completion of the carbodiimidization of monomeric MDI to 29.5% NCO. The following procedure was used to prepare CD Isocyanate 1 and CD Isocyanate 3. Procedure: CD Isocyanate was prepared by adding 100 pbw of the lsocyanate tested to a reaction vessel and heating to 80° C. under flowing nitrogen. In the examples representative of the present invention, 1000 ppm of Epoxide A was added to the isocyanate and the mixture was stirred at 80° C. for 1 hour. (No epoxide was added in the comparative examples.) While at 80° C., 2.5 ppm of Catalyst A (1-methyl-3-phospholene-1-oxide, i.e. PHO) was added. The reaction progressed and was monitored by titration and/or refractive index until the desired % NCO was reached. At this point 32.5 ppm, based on the weight of the starting isocyanate component, of Acid A, a catalyst poison, i.e. trimethylsilyl trifluoromethane sulphonate (TMST) was added. The TMST was stirred into the reaction and then the vessel was cooled to room temperature. The time required to reach the desired % NCO was affected by three factors: (i) catalyst level, (ii) temperature, and (iii) acidity of the monomeric MDI. Higher levels of MDI acidity resulted in an increased (i.e. longer) reaction time. The acidity of the starting isocyanate was determined in accordance with ASTM D 5629. Results: Example 1 Comparative Isocyanate A (having an initial acidity of about 7 ppm) was used to prepare CD Isocyanate 1 in accordance with the above procedure, without the addition of epoxide. The reaction reached completion, as measured by a % NCO of about 29.5%, in about 490 minutes. This product is referred to as CD Isocyanate 1. Example 2 Isocyanate C (having an initial acidity of about 4) was used to prepared CD Isocyanate 2 in accordance with the above procedure. After the addition of Isocyanate C to the reaction vessel, 1000 ppm Epoxide A was added to 100 pbw of Isocyanate C, and allowed to react at 80° C. for 1 hour. While at 80° C., 1.0 ppm of Catalyst A was added. Even with such a low level of catalyst, the reaction was completed in 400 minutes. This product is referred to as CD Isocyanate 2. Example 3: Comparative Isocyanate B (having an initial acidity of about 20 ppm) was used to prepare CD Isocyanate 3. Epoxide was not added to Isocyanate B in the preparation of CD Isocyanate 3. A conventional CD isocyanate was made as described in Example 1 above, which is also a comparative example. After 365 minutes, the NCO group content was only 32.65. The run was stopped at this point, but extrapolation of this data indicated an estimated time to completion of approximately 1,000 minutes. This product is referred to as CD Isocyanate 3. Example 4 In this example, Isocyanate B which had an initial acidity of 20 ppm was used as the starting polyisocyanate. In addition, 1000 ppm of Epoxol 9-5 was added to 100 pbw of Isocyanate B. As in Example 2 above, Epoxol 9-5 was added while the MDI was being heated to about 80° C., and allowed to react for 1 hour before the addition of Catalyst A. Surprisingly, this run reached completion (to a % NCO of about 29.5%) only 180 minutes after the addition of the Catalyst. This product is referred to as CD Isocyanate 4. TABLE 1 Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4 Isocyanate A C B B Isocyanate (pbw) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Initial % 33.6 33.6 33.6 33.6 NCO of Isocyanate Acidity (ppm) 7 4 20 20 Epoxide A 0% 0.1% 0% 0.1% (% by wt.)1 Catalyst A (ppm) 2.5 1.0 2.5 2.5 Acid A (ppm) 32.5 13.5 32.5 32.5 Product CD Iso 1 CD Iso 2 CD Iso 3 CD Iso 4 Time to reach 490 400 1,0002 180 29.5% % NCO (mins) 1% by wt. of epoxide based on the weight of the starting polyisocyanate 2estimated based on reaction rate over first 10 hrs of reaction Although the invention has been described in detail in the foregoing for the purpose of illustration, it is to be understood that such detail is solely for that purpose and that variations can be made therein by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention except as it may be limited by the claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to an improved process for the preparation of carbodiimide modified organic isocyanate, preferably polyphenylmethane polyisocyanates, and most preferably diphenylmethane diisocyanates. This process comprises (1) neutralizing acidic impurities in an organic isocyanate, (2) partially carbodiimidizing isocyanate groups of the neutralized organic isocyanate, (3) terminating the carbodiimidization reaction. Carbodiimidization of isocyanates is known and described in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,853,473, 4,937,012, 5,202,358, 5,610,408, 6,120,699, 6,362,247, and 6,489,503, and in EP 193,787. Carbodiimidization of isocyanates is desirable to provide storage stable liquids. Liquids are easier to pump and less expensive to transport than fused solids or slurries. The liquids are homogeneous compositions as supplied without the need to homogenize as with slurries or fused solids. In the production of polyurethanes, a liquid can be added easily by weight or volume and combined with suitable co-reactants at room temperature. This is safer than using the materials at elevated temperature and the corresponding higher vapor pressure of the heated materials. Methods for improving stability and/or reactivity of polyisocyanates are also known and described in the art. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,793,362, 5,342,881, 5,726,240, 5,783,652 and 6,528,609. Most of these patents disclose blending or mixing an organic polyisocyanate with an epoxide or other compound. Many of these methods describe improving the reactivity of polymer MDI or adducts prepared from MDI that initially have adicity values that well exceed 25 ppm as measured using ASTM D 5629. By comparison, the refined starting materials described in the present invention typically have acidity values well under 25 ppm. Due to the extremely low levels of highly efficient catalyst used in the preparation of the carbodiimides described in the present invention and to the sensitivity of these catalysts to acidic impurities, it is necessary to remove even this low amount of acidity. Normally, the acidity of the isocyanate can be lowered to levels below 25 ppm by distillation. Depending on the efficiency of the columns used in the distillation process, these levels can be reduced to a range of 1-10 ppm. Trace levels of hydrogen chloride or hydrolysable chloride can be further removed by heating the isocyanate and passing an inert gas through the materials during distillation as in U.S. Pat. No. 3,516,950. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,814,103, 6,127,463 and 6,166,128 disclose that the color of various organic polyisocyanates can be stabilized and/or reduced by the addition of epoxides alone or in combination with hindered phenols. Copending application Ser. No. ______ (Agent docket number P08223), filed in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office on the same day as the present application, and which is commonly assigned, relates to TDI prepolymers with improved processing characteristics. These TDI prepolymer compositions comprise from about 95 to about 99.99% by weight of a prepolymer of toluene diisocyanate, and from about 0.01 to about 5% by weight of an epoxide having an epoxide equivalent weight of from about 44 to about 400. The prepolymer of TDI comprises the reaction product of toluene diisocyanate containing from about 60 to about 100% by weight of the 2,4-isomer and from about 0 to about 40% by weight of the 2,6-isomer, and an isocyanate-reactive component having a functionality of from about 1.5 to about 8 and an OH number of from about 14 to about 1870. Advantages of the present invention include lower color of the carbodiimide polyisocyanate product due to quicker processing to form the carbodiimide. The resulting products can be produced using lower levels of carbodiimidization catalyst so that the stability of the final product is improved. Also, the lower amount of catalyst requires less catalyst stopper which is advantageous since catalyst stopper can cause yellowing of the final product. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates to an improved process for the preparation of carbodiimide modified polymethylene polyphenylisocyanates, including those carbodimiide modified polymethylene polyisocyanates which contain uretonimine groups. This process comprises: (1) neutralizing acidic impurities in an organic isocyanate, preferably a polyisocyanate of the diphenylmethane series, with an acid scavenger, (2) partially carbodiimidizing isocyanate groups of the neutralized organic isocyanate with a catalyst of the phosphorous oxide type, and (3) terminating the carbodimiidization reaction by addition of an acid or other suitable poison. In accordance with the present invention, the process may also comprise (1) partially carbodiimidizing isocyanate groups of an organic isocyanate with a catalyst of the phosphorous oxide type, (2) neutralizing acidic impurities in the partially carbodiimidized isocyanate by addition of an acid scavenger, and (3) terminating the carbodimiidization reaction reaction by addition of an acid stopper or other suitable poison. In a preferred embodiment, the process of the present invention also inherently forms uretonimine groups in the carbodiimidized isocyanate. Almost all of the above prepared carbodiimide modified isocyanate groups form uretonimine groups at room temperature. In the presence of excess isocyanate groups, carbodiimides rapidly form uretonimine groups. The equilibrium favors the uretonimine at room temperature. The uretonimine is less favored at elevated temperatures and regenerates isocyanate and carbodiimide. The present invention also relates to liquid stable organic isocyanates containing carbodiimide groups and/or uretonimine groups. These isocyanates preferably have an NCO group content of from about 23 to about 32%, and preferably comprise (1) one or more diphenylmethane diisocyanates and/or higher homologues of the MDI series (i.e. polymethylene polyphenylisocyanates), and (2) one or more epoxide. The isocyanates of the present invention have an NCO group content of from about 23 to about 32% and comprise (1) from about 60 to less than 90% by weight of MDI, (2) from 10 to 40% by weight of carbodiimide and/or uretonimine, and (3) epoxide. The amount of epoxide present in the composition is relatively small. The sum of the %'s by weight of (1), (2) and (3) totals 100% by weight of the isocyanate. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20040617 | 20060418 | 20051222 | 99576.0 | 0 | GORR, RACHEL F | PROCESS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF CARBODIIMIDE MODIFIED ORGANIC ISOCYANATES | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
|||
10,870,198 | ACCEPTED | Transcriptional regulation of plant biomass and abiotic stress tolerance | The invention relates to plant transcription factor polypeptides, polynucleotides that encode them, homologs from a variety of plant species, and methods of using the polynucleotides and polypeptides to produce transgenic plants having advantageous properties, including increased biomass or improved cold or other osmotic stress tolerance, as compared to wild-type or reference plants. The invention also pertains to expression systems that may be used to regulate these transcription factor polynucleotides, providing constitutive, transient, inducible and tissue-specific regulation. | 1. A recombinant polynucleotide comprising a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes over its full length to SEQ ID NO: 1 or its complement under stringent conditions that include two wash steps of 6×SSC at 65° C., each step being 10-30 minutes in duration. 2. The recombinant polynucleotide of claim 1, wherein the recombinant polynucleotide is operably linked to at least one regulatory element capable of regulating expression of the recombinant polynucleotide when the recombinant polynucleotide is transformed into a plant. 3. The recombinant polynucleotide of claim 1, wherein the recombinant polynucleotide is incorporated into an expression vector. 4. The recombinant polynucleotide of claim 3, wherein the recombinant polynucleotide is incorporated into a cultured host cell. 5. The recombinant polynucleotide of claim 1, wherein the recombinant polynucleotide encodes a polypeptide comprising SEQ ID NO: 2. 6. The recombinant polynucleotide of claim 1, wherein the recombinant polynucleotide comprises SEQ ID NO: 1. 7. A transgenic plant having increased tolerance to an abiotic stress, wherein said transgenic plant comprises a recombinant polynucleotide comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes a member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides; wherein the member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides comprises: an AT-hook domain; and a second conserved domain comprising SEQ ID NO: 80 or SEQ ID NO: 81. 8. The transgenic plant of claim 7, wherein the AT-hook domain and the second conserved domain are at least 78% and 62% identical to the AT-hook domain and the second conserved domain of SEQ ID NO: 2, respectively. 9. The transgenic plant of claim 7, wherein the abiotic stress is cold. 10. The transgenic plant of claim 7, wherein the abiotic stress is an osmotic stress. 11. The transgenic plant of claim 10, wherein the osmotic stress is selected from the group consisting of heat, drought, desiccation, freezing, and high salt. 12. The transgenic plant of claim 7, wherein the member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 26, 30, 38 and 84. 13. The transgenic plant of claim 7, wherein the recombinant polynucleotide is operably linked to at least one regulatory element capable of regulating expression of the recombinant polynucleotide when the recombinant polynucleotide is transformed into a plant. 14. The transgenic plant of claim 13, wherein the regulatory element comprises an inducible or tissue specific promoter. 15. The transgenic plant of claim 14, wherein the tissue specific promoter is a vascular, an epidermal, a leaf, or a root promoter. 16. The transgenic plant of claim 14, wherein the inducible or tissue specific promoter is selected from the group consisting of a SUC2 promoter, a CUT1 promoter, an RBCS3 promoter, an ARSK1 promoter, and an RD29A promoter. 17. Seed produced from the transgenic plant according to claim 7. 18. A method for producing a transformed plant with greater tolerance to an abiotic stress than a control plant, the method comprising: (a) providing an expression vector comprising a polynucleotide sequence encoding a member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides; wherein the member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides comprises an AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain, in order from N-terminal to C-terminal, wherein the second conserved domain comprises SEQ ID NO: 80 or SEQ ID NO: 81; and wherein the polynucleotide sequence is operably linked to a regulatory element that controls expression of the polynucleotide sequence; (b) transforming a target plant with the expression vector to produce the transformed plant; and (c) growing the transformed plant comprising the expression vector. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain are at least 78% and 62% identical to the AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain of SEQ ID NO: 2, respectively. 20. The method of claim 18, wherein said abiotic stress tolerance is cold. 21. The method of claim 18, wherein said abiotic stress tolerance is an osmotic stress. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein said osmotic stress is selected from the group consisting of heat, desiccation, drought, freezing, and high salt. 23. The method of claim 18, wherein the member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides comprises a polypeptide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 26, 30, 38 and 84. 24. The method of claim 18, wherein the regulatory element is an inducible or tissue specific promoter. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the transformed plant has a morphology that is substantially similar to the control plant. 26. The method of claim 24, wherein the inducible or tissue specific promoter is selected from the group consisting of a SUC2 promoter, a CUT1 promoter, an RBCS3 promoter, an ARSK1 promoter, and an RD29A promoter. 27. The method of claim 18, the method steps further comprising: (d) selfing or crossing the transformed plant with itself or another plant, respectively, to produce seed; and (e) growing a progeny plant from the seed; wherein the progeny plant has greater tolerance to the abiotic stress than the control plant. 28. Seed produced from the transformed plant produced by the method according to claim 18. 29. Seed produced from the progeny plant produced by the method according to claim 27. 30. A transgenic plant having increased biomass, wherein said transgenic plant comprises a recombinant polynucleotide comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes a member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides; wherein the member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides comprises: an AT-hook domain; and a second conserved domain comprising SEQ ID NO: 80 or SEQ ID NO: 81. 31. The transgenic plant of claim 30, wherein the AT-hook domain and the second conserved domain are at least 78% and 62% identical to the AT-hook domain and the second conserved domain of SEQ ID NO: 2, respectively. 32. The transgenic plant of claim 30, wherein the member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 30, 38, 40, 42, 86, and 88. 33. The transgenic plant of claim 30, wherein the recombinant polynucleotide is operably linked to at least one regulatory element capable of regulating expression of the recombinant polynucleotide when the recombinant polynucleotide is transformed into a plant. 34. Seed produced from the transgenic plant according to claim 30. 35. A method for producing a transformed plant with greater biomass than a control plant, the method comprising: (a) providing an expression vector comprising a polynucleotide sequence encoding a member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides; wherein the member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides comprises an AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain, in order from N-terminal to C-terminal, wherein the second conserved domain comprises SEQ ID NO: 80 or SEQ ID NO: 81; and wherein the polynucleotide sequence is operably linked to a regulatory element that controls expression of the polynucleotide sequence; (b) transforming a target plant with the expression vector to produce the transformed plant; and (c) growing the transformed plant comprising the expression vector. 36. The method of claim 35, wherein the AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain are at least 78% and 62% identical to the AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain of SEQ ID NO: 2, respectively. 37. The method of claim 35, wherein the member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides comprises a polypeptide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 30, 38, 40, 42, 86, and 88. 38. The method of claim 35, the method steps further comprising: (d) selfing or crossing the transformed plant with itself or another plant, respectively, to produce seed; and (e) growing a progeny plant from the seed; wherein the progeny plant has greater biomass than the control plant. 39. Seed produced from the transformed plant produced by the method according to claim 35. 40. Seed produced from the progeny plant produced by the method according to claim 38. | RELATIONSHIP TO COPENDING APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of the following and commonly assigned applications: copending U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/565,948, filed Apr. 26, 2004; copending U.S. non-provisional patent application Ser. No. 10/669,824, filed Sep. 23, 2003, which claimed priority from each of the following: U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 09/823,676, filed Apr. 2, 2001, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,717,034 on Apr. 6, 2004, copending U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 10/374,780, filed Feb. 25, 2003, which claimed priority from copending U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 09/934,455, filed Aug. 22, 2001, and which in turn claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/227,439, filed Aug. 22, 2000 (expired); copending U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 10/412,699, filed Apr. 10, 2003, which claims priority from U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 09/533,392, filed Mar. 22, 2000 (abandoned), U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 09/533,029, filed Mar. 22, 2000 (abandoned), copending U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 09/533,030, filed Mar. 22, 2000, and copending U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 09/713,994, filed Nov. 16, 2000, U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 09/506,720, filed Feb. 17, 2000 (abandoned) which in turn claimed claimed priority from U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/135,134, filed May 20, 1999 (expired), U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 09/532,591, filed Mar. 22, 2000 (abandoned) which in turn claimed priority from U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/125,814, filed Mar. 23, 1999 (expired); copending U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 10/421,138, filed Apr. 23, 2003, which in turn claims priority from copending U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 09/996,140, filed Nov. 26, 2001; copending U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 10/225,066, filed Aug. 9, 2002; copending U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 10/225,067, filed Aug. 9, 2002; and copending U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 10/225,068, filed Aug. 9, 2002, which in turn claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/336,049, filed Nov. 19, 2001 (expired), U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/310,847, filed Aug. 9, 2001 (expired), and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/338,692, filed Dec. 11, 2001 (expired). The entire contents of these applications are hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to increasing a plant's size or biomass, the yield that may be obtained from such a plant, and increasing tolerance to abiotic stresses including cold and osmotic stresses. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Studies from a diversity of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms suggest a gradual evolution of biochemical and physiological mechanisms and metabolic pathways. Despite different evolutionary pressures, proteins that regulate the cell cycle in yeast, plant, nematode, fly, rat, and man have common chemical or structural features and modulate the same general cellular activity. A comparison of gene sequences with known structure and/or function from one plant species, for example, Arabidopsis thaliana, with those from other plants, allows researchers to develop models for manipulating a plant's traits and developing varieties with valuable properties. A plant's traits may be controlled through a number of cellular processes. One important way to manipulate that control is through transcription factors—proteins that influence the expression of a particular gene or sets of genes. Because transcription factors are key controlling elements of biological pathways, altering the expression levels of one or more transcription factors can change entire biological pathways in an organism. Strategies for manipulating a plant's biochemical, developmental, or phenotypic characteristics by altering a transcription factor expression can result in plants and crops with new and/or improved commercially valuable properties, including traits that improve yield under non-stressed conditions, or survival and yield during periods of abiotic stress. Examples of the latter include, for example, germination in cold conditions, and osmotic stresses such as desiccation, drought, excessive heat, and salt stress. Desirability of increasing biomass. The ability to increase the biomass or size of a plant would have several important commercial applications. Crop species may be generated that produce larger cultivars, generating higher yield in, for example, plants in which the vegetative portion of the plant is edible. Increased leaf size may be of particular interest. Increasing leaf biomass can be used to increase production of plant-derived pharmaceutical or industrial products. An increase in total plant photosynthesis is typically achieved by increasing leaf area of the plant. Additional photosynthetic capacity may be used to increase the yield derived from particular plant tissue, including the leaves, roots, fruits or seed, or permit the growth of a plant under decreased light intensity or under high light intensity. Modification of the biomass of another tissue, such as root tissue, may be useful to improve a plant's ability to grow under harsh environmental conditions, including drought or nutrient deprivation, because larger roots may better reach water or nutrients or take up water or nutrients. For some ornamental plants, the ability to provide larger varieties would be highly desirable. For many plants, including fruit-bearing trees, trees that are used for lumber production, or trees and shrubs that serve as view or wind screens, increased stature provides improved benefits in the forms of greater yield or improved screening. Problems associated with drought. A drought is a period of abnormally dry weather that persists long enough to produce a serious hydrologic imbalance (for example crop damage, water supply shortage, etc.). In severe cases, drought can last for many years and have devastating effects on agriculture. Drought is the primary weather-related problem in agriculture and also ranks as one of the major natural disasters of all time, causing not only economic damage, but also loss of human lives. For example, losses from the US drought of 1988 exceeded $40 billion, exceeding those caused by Hurricane Andrew in 1992, the Mississippi River floods of 1993, and the San Francisco earthquake in 1989. The 1984-1985 drought in the Horn of Africa led to a famine that killed 750,000 people. Problems for plants caused by low water availability include mechanical stresses caused by the withdrawal of cellular water. Drought also causes plants to become more susceptible to various diseases (Simpson (1981) in Water Stress on Plants, (Simpson, G. M., ed.), Praeger, N.Y., pp. 235-265). The most important factor in drought resistance is the ability of the plant to maintain high water status and turgidity, while maintaining carbon fixation. Various adaptive mechanisms influence this ability, including increasing root surface area or depth, osmotic adjustment, and the accumulation of hydrophilic proteins. ABA is also an essential regulatory component of many of these protective features. Maintaining reproductive performance is another component of yield stability that has been studied in maize. Grain yield is known to be correlated with the kernel number per unit area rather than the weight per kernel. Yield losses in maize due to drought are particularly prevalent when the stress occurs at the transition from vegetative to reproductive growth. A consequence of the growth of maize under drought stress conditions is the delay in silking in relation to pollen shed, adversely affecting kernel set (Edmeades et al. (2000) in Physiology and Modeling Kernel Set in Maize, M. E. Westgate and K. J. Boote, eds (Crop Sci. Soc. America and Amer. Soc. Agron., Madison, Wis.) and reproductive performance. Kernel set is also adversely affected when the grain sink size exceeds the nitrogen uptake capacity from dry soil (Chapman and Edmeades (1999) Crop Sci. 39: 1315-1324). Varieties that were selected for improved yield under drought stress at flowering showed similar performance gains under conditions of low nitrogen, suggesting a common mechanism of tolerance to the two stresses (Beck et al. (1996) in 51st Annual Corn and Sorghum Research Conference, D. Wilkinson, ed (Chicago: ASTA), pp. 85-111; Banzinger et al. (1999) Crop Sci. 39: 1035-1040). When a drought stress occurs between flowering and seed fill of soybeans, total seed yield is reduced due to a reduction in branch growth and thus seed number per branch (Frederick et al. (2001) Crop Sci. 41: 759-763). Physiological changes occurring in maize plants during drought include: (a) accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA); (b) inhibition of cell expansion, resulting in reduced leaf area, reduced silk growth, reduced stem elongation, and reduced root growth; (c) inhibition of cell division resulting in reduced organ size; (d) cellular osmotic adjustment (this is more apparent in sorghum and rice and less apparent in maize (Bolanos and Edmeades, 1991)); and (e) accumulation of proline (during severe drought). In addition to the many land regions of the world that are too arid for most, if not all, crop plants, overuse and over-utilization of available water is resulting in an increasing loss of agriculturally-usable land, a process which, in the extreme, results in desertification. The problem is further compounded by increasing salt accumulation in soils, which adds to the loss of available water in soils. Problems associated with high salt levels. One in five hectares of irrigated land is damaged by salt, an important historical factor in the decline of ancient agrarian societies. This condition is expected to worsen, further reducing the availability of arable land and crop production, since none of the top five food crops—wheat, corn, rice, potatoes, and soybean—can tolerate excessive salt. Detrimental effects of salt on plants are a consequence of both water deficit resulting in osmotic stress (similar to drought stress) and the effects of excess sodium ions on critical biochemical processes. As with freezing and drought, high saline causes water deficit. The presence of high salt makes it difficult for plant roots to extract water from their environment (Buchanan et al. (2000) in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Plants, American Society of Plant Physiologists, Rockville, Md.). Soil salinity is thus one of the more important variables that determines where a plant may thrive. In many parts of the world, sizable land areas are uncultivable due to naturally high soil salinity. To compound the problem, salination of soils that are used for agricultural production is a significant and increasing problem in regions that rely heavily on agriculture. The latter is compounded by over-utilization, over-fertilization and water shortage, typically caused by climatic change and the demands of increasing population. Salt tolerance is of particular importance early in a plant's lifecycle, since evaporation from the soil surface causes upward water movement, and salt accumulates in the upper soil layer where the seeds are placed. Thus, germination normally takes place at a salt concentration much higher than the mean salt level in the whole soil profile. Problems associated with excessive heat. Germination of many crops is very sensitive to temperature. A transcription factor that would enhance germination in hot conditions would be useful for crops that are planted late in the season or in hot climates. Seedlings and mature plants that are exposed to excess heat may experience heat shock, which may arise in various organs including leaves and particularly fruit, when transpiration is insufficient to overcome heat stress. Heat also damages cellular structures, including organelles and cytoskeleton, and impairs membrane function (Buchanan et al. (2000) supra). Heat shock may produce a decrease in overall protein synthesis, accompanied by expression of heat shock proteins. Heat shock proteins function as chaperones and are involved in refolding proteins denatured by heat. Heat stress often accompanies conditions of low water availability. Heat itself is seen as an interacting stress and adds to the detrimental effects caused by water deficit conditions. Evaporative demand exhibits near exponential increases with increases in daytime temperatures, and can result in high transpiration rates and low plant water potentials (Hall et al. (2000) Plant Physiol. 123: 1449-1458). High-temperature damage to pollen almost always occurs in conjunction with drought stress, and rarely occurs under well-watered conditions. It may be difficult to separate the effects of heat and drought stress on pollination and plant metabolism, and thus an understanding of the interaction between these and other stresses may be important when developing strategies to enhance stress tolerance by genetic manipulation. Problems associated with excessive cold or chilling conditions. The term “chilling sensitivity” has been used to describe many types of physiological damage produced at low, but above freezing, temperatures. Most crops of tropical origins such as soybean, rice, maize and cotton are easily damaged by chilling. Typical cold damage includes wilting, necrosis, chlorosis or leakage of ions from cell membranes. The underlying mechanisms of chilling sensitivity are not completely understood yet, but probably involve the level of membrane saturation and other physiological deficiencies. For example, photoinhibition of photosynthesis (disruption of photosynthesis due to high light intensities) often occurs under clear atmospheric conditions subsequent to cold late summer/autumn nights. Chilling may lead to yield losses and lower product quality through the delayed ripening of maize. Another consequence of poor growth is the rather poor ground cover of maize fields in spring, often resulting in soil erosion, increased occurrence of weeds, and reduced uptake of nutrients. A retarded uptake of mineral nitrogen could also lead to increased losses of nitrate into the ground water. By some estimates, chilling accounts for monetary losses in the United States (US) behind only to drought and flooding. Desirability of altered sugar sensing. Sugars are key regulatory molecules that affect diverse processes in higher plants including germination, growth, flowering, senescence, sugar metabolism and photosynthesis. Sucrose, for example, is the major transport form of photosynthate and its flux through cells has been shown to affect gene expression and alter storage compound accumulation in seeds (source-sink relationships). Glucose-specific hexose-sensing has also been described in plants and is implicated in cell division and repression of “famine” genes (photosynthetic or glyoxylate cycles). Water deficit is a common component of many plant stresses. Water deficit occurs in plant cells when the whole plant transpiration rate exceeds the water uptake. In addition to drought, other stresses, such as salinity and low temperature, produce cellular dehydration (McCue and Hanson (1990) Trends Biotechnol. 8: 358-362). Salt and drought stress signal transduction consist of ionic and osmotic homeostasis signaling pathways. The ionic aspect of salt stress is signaled via the SOS pathway where a calcium-responsive SOS3-SOS2 protein kinase complex controls the expression and activity of ion transporters such as SOS1. The pathway regulating ion homeostasis in response to salt stress has been reviewed recently by Xiong and Zhu (Xiong and Zhu (2002) Plant Cell Environ. 25: 131-139). The osmotic component of salt stress involves complex plant reactions that overlap with drought and/or cold stress responses. Common aspects of drought, cold and salt stress response have been reviewed recently by Xiong and Zhu (2002) supra. Those include: (a) transient changes in the cytoplasmic calcium levels very early in the signaling event (Knight, (2000) Int. Rev. Cytol. 195: 269-324; Sanders et al. (1999) Plant Cell 11: 691-706); (b) signal transduction via mitogen-activated and/or calcium dependent protein kinases (CDPKs; see Xiong and Zhu (2002) supra) and protein phosphatases (Merlot et al. (2001) Plant J. 25: 295-303; Tähtiharju and Palva (2001) Plant J. 26: 461-470); (c) increases in ABA levels in response to stress triggering a subset of responses (Xiong and Zhu (2002) supra, and references therein); (d) inositol phosphates as signal molecules (at least for a subset of the stress responsive transcriptional changes (Xiong et al. (2001) Genes Dev. 15: 1971-1984)); (e) activation of phospholipases which in turn generate a diverse array of second messenger molecules, some of which might regulate the activity of stress responsive kinases (phospholipase D functions in an ABA independent pathway, Frank et al. (2000) Plant Cell 12: 111-124); (f) induction of late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) type genes including the CRT/DRE-containing COR/RD genes (Xiong and Zhu (2002) supra); (g) increased levels of antioxidants and compatible osmolytes such as proline and soluble sugars (Hasegawa et al. (2000) Annu. Rev. Plant Mol. Plant Physiol. 51: 463-499); (h) accumulation of reactive oxygen species such as superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals (Hasegawa et al. (2000) supra). ABA biosynthesis is regulated by osmotic stress at multiple steps. Both ABA-dependent and ABA-independent osmotic stress signaling first modify constitutively expressed transcription factors, leading to the expression of early response transcriptional activators, which then activate downstream stress tolerance effector genes. Based on the commonality of many aspects of cold, drought and salt stress responses, it can be concluded that genes that increase tolerance to cold or salt stress can also improve drought stress protection. In fact, this has already been demonstrated for transcription factors (in the case of AtCBF/DREB1) and for other genes such as OsCDPK7 (Saijo et al. (2000) Plant J. 23: 319-327), or AVP1 (a vacuolar pyrophosphatase-proton-pump; Gaxiola et al. (2001) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 11444-11449). The present invention relates to methods and compositions for producing transgenic plants with modified traits, particularly traits that address agricultural and food needs. These traits, including increased biomass, altered sugar sensing, and tolerance to abiotic stress, may provide significant value in that greater yield may be achieved, and/or the plant can then thrive in hostile environments, where, for example, high or low temperature, low water availability or high salinity may limit or prevent growth of non-transgenic plants. We have identified polynucleotides encoding transcription factors, including G1073 (atHRC1), and equivalogs in the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides, developed numerous transgenic plants using these polynucleotides, and have analyzed the plants for their biomass and tolerance to abiotic stresses. In so doing, we have identified important polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences for producing commercially valuable plants and crops as well as the methods for making them and using them. Other aspects and embodiments of the invention are described below and can be derived from the teachings of this disclosure as a whole. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention pertains to a method for increasing a plant's biomass and tolerance to abiotic stresses. This is accomplished by providing a vector, plasmid or other nucleic acid construct that contains a transcription factor polynucleotide and regulatory elements for transcriptional regulation of the polynucleotide. The polynucleotide is a sequence that encodes a member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides, which are derived from a common polypeptide ancestor (FIG. 4), and which comprise an AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain. The G1073 clade member sequences that have been successfully used to confer increased tolerance to abiotic stress derive from a number of diverse species, including dicots such as Arabidopsis and soy, and monocots such as rice. The G1073 clade member polypeptides comprise an AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain, which in turn comprise the sequences SEQ ID NO: 79 (in the At-hook domain) and either SEQ ID NO: 80 or SEQ ID NO: 81 (in the second conserved domain). The vector, plasmid or nucleic acid construct may also contain a regulatory element. This may be a constitutive, inducible or tissue-specific promoter that controls expression of the polynucleotide sequence. The vector, plasmid or nucleic acid construct is then introduced into a target plant (a plant that has not yet been transformed with the vector, plasmid or nucleic acid construct), thus transforming the plant into one that has increased biomass and/or tolerance to an abiotic stress, relative to control plants. Inducible promoters may include, for example, the DREB2A and RD29A promoters. The RD29A promoter has been successfully used to regulate expression of the G1073 polynucleotide and confer increased abiotic stress tolerance. Examples of tissue-specific promoters that have been used in this manner include the ARSK1 (root specific) promoter, the CUT1 (epidermis-specific) promoter, the RBSC3 (leaf specific) promoter, and the SUC2 (vascular specific) promoter. Use of tissue-specific or inducible promoters mitigates undesirable morphological effects that may be associated with constitutive overexpression of G1073 clade members (e.g., when increased size is undesirable). The method also pertains to increasing a plant's biomass and/or tolerance to abiotic stress with a multiple vector approach. In this case, a first vector that comprises a promoter cloned in front of a LexA DNA binding domain fused to a GAL4 activation domain is introduced into the plant. A second vector is then introduced into the same plant; this second vector comprises a polynucleotide sequence encoding a G1073 polypeptide clade member. The plant is then allowed to overexpress the G1073 member polypeptide, which increases the plant's biomass and/or tolerance to abiotic stress. The promoter cloned in front of a LexA DNA binding domain may be, for example, the RD29A promoter, although other promoters that function in a similar capacity and that may be expressed in an inducible or tissue-specific manner are readily envisioned and also encompassed by the present invention. The methods encompassed by the invention may also be extended to propagation techniques used to generate plants. For example, a target plant that has been transformed with a polynucleotide encoding a G1073 polypeptide clade member and that has greater biomass and/or abiotic stress tolerance than to a wild-type or non-transformed control may be “selfed” (i.e., self-pollinated) or crossed with another plant to produce seed. Progeny plants may be grown from this seed, thus generating transformed progeny plants with increased tolerance to abiotic stress than control plants. Transgenic plants (and seed from these transgenic plants) produced by the present methods are also encompassed by the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEQUENCE LISTING AND DRAWINGS The Sequence Listing provides exemplary polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences of the invention. The traits associated with the use of the sequences are included in the Examples. CD-ROM 1 and CD-ROM2 are read-only memory computer-readable compact discs. Each contains a copy of the Sequence Listing in ASCII text format. The Sequence Listing is named “MBI0068CIP.ST25.txt” and is 167 kilobytes in size. The copies of the Sequence Listing on the CD-ROM discs are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. FIG. 1 shows a conservative estimate of phylogenetic relationships among the orders of flowering plants (modified from Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (1998) Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 84: 1-49). Those plants with a single cotyledon (monocots) are a monophyletic clade nested within at least two major lineages of dicots; the eudicots are further divided into rosids and asterids. Arabidopsis is a rosid eudicot classified within the order Brassicales; rice is a member of the monocot order Poales. FIG. 1 was adapted from Daly et al. (2001) Plant Physiol. 127: 1328-1333. FIG. 2 shows a phylogenic dendogram depicting phylogenetic relationships of higher plant taxa, including clades containing tomato and Arabidopsis; adapted from Ku et al. (2000) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97: 9121-9126; and Chase et al. (1993) Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 80: 528-580. FIG. 3 depicts the domain structure of AT-hook proteins, represented by a schematic representation of the G1073 (AtHRC1) protein. Arrows indicate potential CK2 and PKC phosphorylation sites. A conservative DNA binding domain is located at positions 34 through 42. FIG. 4 shows crop orthologs that were identified through BLAST analysis of proprietary and public data sources. A phylogeny tree was then generated using ClustaIX based on whole protein sequences. Sequences that are annotated with a “GID” number” beginning with capital letter “G” followed by “At” refer to Arabidopsis sequences; sequences with “Gm” are soy sequences, and “Os” are rice sequences. A representative number of G1073 clade members confer advantageous properties to plants when overexpressed; sequences that appear with a superscript “a” have been shown to confer increased tolerance to abiotic stress increased, and sequences that appear with a superscript “b” have been shown to confer increased biomass. Many of the remaining sequences have not yet been tested in overexpressing plants. Several G1073 clade member sequences that have also been shown to confer abiotic stress in plants are not shown in FIG. 4, but are disclosed in Example VIII. In FIGS. 5A-5H, the alignments of a number of AT-hook proteins identified in FIG. 4 are shown, and include clade members from Arabidopsis (G1067, G1069, G1073, G1667, G2153, G2156, G2789), soy G3456, G3459, G3460), and rice (G3399, G3400, G3401, G3407) that have been shown to confer similar traits in plants when overexpressed (the clade is indicated by the large box and bracket). Also shown are the AT-hook conserved domains (FIG. 5C) and the second conserved domains spanning FIGS. 5D through 5F). FIGS. 6A and 6B show wild-type (left) and G1073-overexpressing (right) Arabidopsis stem cross-sections. In the stem from the G1073-overexpressing plant, the vascular bundles are larger (containing more cells in the phloem and xylem areas) and the cells of the cortex are enlarged. Many Arabidopsis plants that overexpress G1073 (FIG. 7A, example on right) are larger than wild-type control plants (FIG. 7A, left). This distinction also holds true for the floral organs, which, as seen in FIG. 7B, are significantly larger in the G1073-overexpressing plant on the right than in that from the wild-type plant on the left. FIG. 8 is a graph comparing silique number in control (wild type) and 35S::G1073 plants indicating how seed number is associated with the increased number of siliques per plant seen in the overexpressing lines. As seen in FIGS. 9A and 9B, G1073 functions in both soybean and tomato to increase biomass. In FIG. 9A, the larger soybean plant on the right is overexpressing G1073. Tomato leaves of a number of G1073 overexpressor lines were much larger than those of wild-type tomato plants, as seen in FIG. 9B by comparing the leaves of the overexpressor plant on the left and that from a wild-type plant on the right. FIG. 10A is a photograph of an Arabidopsis plant overexpressing the monocot gene G3399, a rice ortholog of G1073. The phenotype of increased size and mass is the same as the phenotype conferred by Arabidopsis G1073 and its paralog sequences G1067, G2153 and G2157. FIG. 10B similarly shows the effects of another rice ortholog, G3407, at seven days. The overexpressor on the left is approximately 50% larger than the control plant on the right. FIG. 11 shows the effects of overexpression of G3460, a soy ortholog of G1073, on plant morphology. Thirty-eight days after planting, the overexpressor on the left has significantly broader and more massive leaves than the control plant on the right. The overexpressor also demonstrates late development, a characteristic also seen when G1073 or its paralogs are overexpressed. FIG. 12 shows the effects of overexpression of G3460, a soy ortholog of G1073, in Arabidopsis plants subjected to a plate-based desiccation assay. The seedlings overexpressing G3460 are more tolerant to the desiccation treatment, as evidenced by the larger size, greater root mass, and greener color of the plants on the left than the control plants on the right. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention relates to polynucleotides and polypeptides for modifying phenotypes of plants, particularly those associated with increased biomass and/or abiotic stress tolerance. Throughout this disclosure, various information sources are referred to and/or are specifically incorporated. The information sources include scientific journal articles, patent documents, textbooks, and World Wide Web browser-inactive page addresses. While the reference to these information sources clearly indicates that they can be used by one of skill in the art, each and every one of the information sources cited herein are specifically incorporated in their entirety, whether or not a specific mention of “incorporation by reference” is noted. The contents and teachings of each and every one of the information sources can be relied on and used to make and use embodiments of the invention. As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” include the plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, a reference to “a host cell” includes a plurality of such host cells, and a reference to “a stress” is a reference to one or more stresses and equivalents thereof known to those skilled in the art, and so forth. Definitions “Nucleic acid molecule” refers to an oligonucleotide, polynucleotide or any fragment thereof. It may be DNA or RNA of genomic or synthetic origin, double-stranded or single-stranded, and combined with carbohydrate, lipids, protein, or other materials to perform a particular activity such as transformation or form a useful composition such as a peptide nucleic acid (PNA). “Polynucleotide” is a nucleic acid molecule comprising a plurality of polymerized nucleotides, e.g., at least about 15 consecutive polymerized nucleotides. A polynucleotide may be a nucleic acid, oligonucleotide, nucleotide, or any fragment thereof. In many instances, a polynucleotide comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding a polypeptide (or protein) or a domain or fragment thereof. Additionally, the polynucleotide may comprise a promoter, an intron, an enhancer region, a polyadenylation site, a translation initiation site, 5′ or 3′ untranslated regions, a reporter gene, a selectable marker, or the like. The polynucleotide can be single-stranded or double-stranded DNA or RNA. The polynucleotide optionally comprises modified bases or a modified backbone. The polynucleotide can be, e.g., genomic DNA or RNA, a transcript (such as an mRNA), a cDNA, a PCR product, a cloned DNA, a synthetic DNA or RNA, or the like. The polynucleotide can be combined with carbohydrate, lipids, protein, or other materials to perform a particular activity such as transformation or form a useful composition such as a peptide nucleic acid (PNA). The polynucleotide can comprise a sequence in either sense or antisense orientations. “Oligonucleotide” is substantially equivalent to the terms amplimer, primer, oligomer, element, target, and probe and is preferably single-stranded. “Gene” or “gene sequence” refers to the partial or complete coding sequence of a gene, its complement, and its 5′ or 3′ untranslated regions. A gene is also a functional unit of inheritance, and in physical terms is a particular segment or sequence of nucleotides along a molecule of DNA (or RNA, in the case of RNA viruses) involved in producing a polypeptide chain. The latter may be subjected to subsequent processing such as chemical modification or folding to obtain a functional protein or polypeptide. A gene may be isolated, partially isolated, or found with an organism's genome. By way of example, a transcription factor gene encodes a transcription factor polypeptide, which may be functional or require processing to function as an initiator of transcription. Operationally, genes may be defined by the cis-trans test, a genetic test that determines whether two mutations occur in the same gene and that may be used to determine the limits of the genetically active unit (Rieger et al. (1976) Glossary of Genetics and Cytogenetics: Classical and Molecular, 4th ed., Springer Verlag, Berlin). A gene generally includes regions preceding (“leaders”; upstream) and following (“trailers”; downstream) of the coding region. A gene may also include intervening, non-coding sequences, referred to as “introns”, located between individual coding segments, referred to as “exons”. Most genes have an associated promoter region, a regulatory sequence 5′ of the transcription initiation codon (there are some genes that do not have an identifiable promoter). The function of a gene may also be regulated by enhancers, operators, and other regulatory elements. A “recombinant polynucleotide” is a polynucleotide that is not in its native state, e.g., the polynucleotide comprises a nucleotide sequence not found in nature, or the polynucleotide is in a context other than that in which it is naturally found, e.g., separated from nucleotide sequences with which it typically is in proximity in nature, or adjacent (or contiguous with) nucleotide sequences with which it typically is not in proximity. For example, the sequence at issue can be cloned into a vector, or otherwise recombined with one or more additional nucleic acid. An “isolated polynucleotide” is a polynucleotide, whether naturally occurring or recombinant, that is present outside the cell in which it is typically found in nature, whether purified or not. Optionally, an isolated polynucleotide is subject to one or more enrichment or purification procedures, e.g., cell lysis, extraction, centrifugation, precipitation, or the like. A “polypeptide” is an amino acid sequence comprising a plurality of consecutive polymerized amino acid residues e.g., at least about 15 consecutive polymerized amino acid residues. In many instances, a polypeptide comprises a polymerized amino acid residue sequence that is a transcription factor or a domain or portion or fragment thereof. Additionally, the polypeptide may comprise: (i) a localization domain; (ii) an activation domain; (iii) a repression domain; (iv) an oligomerization domain; (v) a DNA-binding domain; or the like. The polypeptide optionally comprises modified amino acid residues, naturally occurring amino acid residues not encoded by a codon, non-naturally occurring amino acid residues. “Protein” refers to an amino acid sequence, oligopeptide, peptide, polypeptide or portions thereof whether naturally occurring or synthetic. “Portion”, as used herein, refers to any part of a protein used for any purpose, but especially for the screening of a library of molecules which specifically bind to that portion or for the production of antibodies. A “recombinant polypeptide” is a polypeptide produced by translation of a recombinant polynucleotide. A “synthetic polypeptide” is a polypeptide created by consecutive polymerization of isolated amino acid residues using methods well known in the art. An “isolated polypeptide,” whether a naturally occurring or a recombinant polypeptide, is more enriched in (or out of) a cell than the polypeptide in its natural state in a wild-type cell, e.g., more than about 5% enriched, more than about 10% enriched, or more than about 20%, or more than about 50%, or more, enriched, i.e., alternatively denoted: 105%, 110%, 120%, 150% or more, enriched relative to wild type standardized at 100%. Such an enrichment is not the result of a natural response of a wild-type plant. Alternatively, or additionally, the isolated polypeptide is separated from other cellular components with which it is typically associated, e.g., by any of the various protein purification methods herein. “Homology” refers to sequence similarity between a reference sequence and at least a fragment of a newly sequenced clone insert or its encoded amino acid sequence. “Identity” or “similarity” refers to sequence similarity between two polynucleotide sequences or between two polypeptide sequences, with identity being a more strict comparison. The phrases “percent identity” and “% identity” refer to the percentage of sequence similarity found in a comparison of two or more polynucleotide sequences or two or more polypeptide sequences. “Sequence similarity” refers to the percent similarity in base pair sequence (as determined by any suitable method) between two or more polynucleotide sequences. Two or more sequences can be anywhere from 0-100% similar, or any integer value therebetween. Identity or similarity can be determined by comparing a position in each sequence that may be aligned for purposes of comparison. When a position in the compared sequence is occupied by the same nucleotide base or amino acid, then the molecules are identical at that position. A degree of similarity or identity between polynucleotide sequences is a function of the number of identical, matching or corresponding nucleotides at positions shared by the polynucleotide sequences. A degree of identity of polypeptide sequences is a function of the number of identical amino acids at corresponding positions shared by the polypeptide sequences. A degree of homology or similarity of polypeptide sequences is a function of the number of amino acids at corresponding positions shared by the polypeptide sequences. “Alignment” refers to a number of nucleotide bases or amino acid residue sequences aligned by lengthwise comparison so that components in common (i.e., nucleotide bases or amino acid residues at corresponding positions) may be visually and readily identified. The fraction or percentage of components in common is related to the homology or identity between the sequences. Alignments such as those of FIGS. 5A-5H may be used to identify conserved domains and relatedness within these domains. An alignment may suitably be determined by means of computer programs known in the art, such as MACVECTOR software (1999) (Accelrys, Inc., San Diego, Calif.). A “conserved domain” or “conserved region” as used herein refers to a region in heterologous polynucleotide or polypeptide sequences where there is a relatively high degree of sequence identity between the distinct sequences. An “AT-hook” domain”, such as is found in a polypeptide member of AT-hook transcription factor family, is an example of a conserved domain. With respect to polynucleotides encoding presently disclosed transcription factors, a conserved domain is preferably at least nine base pairs (bp) in length. A “conserved domain”, with respect to presently disclosed AT-hook polypeptides refers to a domain within a transcription factor family that exhibits a higher degree of sequence homology, such as at least about 62% sequence identity including conservative substitutions, or at least about 63%, or at least about 65%, or at least about 67%, or at least about 68%, or at least about 69%, or at least about 71%, or at least about 78%, %, or at least about 89% amino acid residue sequence identity to the conserved domain. Sequences that possess or encode for conserved domains that meet these criteria of percentage identity, and that have comparable biological activity to the present transcription factor sequences, thus being members of the G1073 lade of transcription factor polypeptides, are encompassed by the invention. A fragment or domain can be referred to as outside a conserved domain, outside a consensus sequence, or outside a consensus DNA-binding site that is known to exist or that exists for a particular transcription factor class, family, or sub-family. In this case, the fragment or domain will not include the exact amino acids of a consensus sequence or consensus DNA-binding site of a transcription factor class, family or sub-family, or the exact amino acids of a particular transcription factor consensus sequence or consensus DNA-binding site. Furthermore, a particular fragment, region, or domain of a polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide, can be “outside a conserved domain” if all the amino acids of the fragment, region, or domain fall outside of a defined conserved domain(s) for a polypeptide or protein. Sequences having lesser degrees of identity but comparable biological activity are considered to be equivalents. As one of ordinary skill in the art recognizes, conserved domains may be identified as regions or domains of identity to a specific consensus sequence (see, for example, Riechmann et al. (2000) Science 290: 2105-2110). Thus, by using alignment methods well known in the art, the conserved domains of the plant transcription factors for the AT-hook proteins (Reeves and Beckerbauer (2001) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1519: 13-29; and Reeves (2001) Gene 277: 63-81) may be determined. The conserved domains for SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 26, 30, 38, 40, 42, 84 and 86 are listed in Table 1. Also, the polypeptides of Table 1 have AT-hook and second conserved domains specifically indicated by start and stop sites. A comparison of the regions of the polypeptides in SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 26, 30, 38, 40 and 42 allows one of skill in the art (see, for example, Reeves and Nisson (1995) Biol. Chem. 265: 8573-8582) to identify AT-hook domains or conserved domains for any of the polypeptides listed or referred to in this disclosure. “Complementary” refers to the natural hydrogen bonding by base pairing between purines and pyrimidines. For example, the sequence A-C-G-T (5′->3′) forms hydrogen bonds with its complements A-C-G-T (5′->3′) or A-C-G-U (5′->3′). Two single-stranded molecules may be considered partially complementary, if only some of the nucleotides bond, or “completely complementary” if all of the nucleotides bond. The degree of complementarity between nucleic acid strands affects the efficiency and strength of hybridization and amplification reactions. “Fully complementary” refers to the case where bonding occurs between every base pair and its complement in a pair of sequences, and the two sequences have the same number of nucleotides. The terms “highly stringent” or “highly stringent condition” refer to conditions that permit hybridization of DNA strands whose sequences are highly complementary, wherein these same conditions exclude hybridization of significantly mismatched DNAs. Polynucleotide sequences capable of hybridizing under stringent conditions with the polynucleotides of the present invention may be, for example, variants of the disclosed polynucleotide sequences, including allelic or splice variants, or sequences that encode orthologs or paralogs of presently disclosed polypeptides. Nucleic acid hybridization methods are disclosed in detail by Kashima et al. (1985) Nature 313:402-404, Sambrook et al. (1989) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y (“Sambrook”), and by Haymes et al. “Nucleic Acid Hybridization: A Practical Approach”, IRL Press, Washington, D.C. (1985), which references are incorporated herein by reference. In general, stringency is determined by the temperature, ionic strength, and concentration of denaturing agents (e.g., formamide) used in a hybridization and washing procedure (for a more detailed description of establishing and determining stringency, see the section “Identifying Polynucleotides or Nucleic Acids by Hybridization”, below). The degree to which two nucleic acids hybridize under various conditions of stringency is correlated with the extent of their similarity. Thus, similar nucleic acid sequences from a variety of sources, such as within a plant's genome (as in the case of paralogs) or from another plant (as in the case of orthologs) that may perform similar functions can be isolated on the basis of their ability to hybridize with known transcription factor sequences. Numerous variations are possible in the conditions and means by which nucleic acid hybridization can be performed to isolate transcription factor sequences having similarity to transcription factor sequences known in the art and are not limited to those explicitly disclosed herein. Such an approach may be used to isolate polynucleotide sequences having various degrees of similarity with disclosed transcription factor sequences, such as, for example, encoded transcription factors having 62% or greater identity with the AT-hook domain of disclosed transcription factors. The terms “paralog” and “ortholog” are defined below in the section entitled “Orthologs and Paralogs”. In brief, orthologs and paralogs are evolutionarily related genes that have similar sequences and functions. Orthologs are structurally related genes in different species that are derived by a speciation event. Paralogs are structurally related genes within a single species that are derived by a duplication event. The term “equivalog” describes members of a set of homologous proteins that are conserved with respect to function since their last common ancestor. Related proteins are grouped into equivalog families, and otherwise into protein families with other hierarchically defined homology types. This definition is provided at the Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) World Wide Web (www) website, “tigr.org” under the heading “Terms associated with TIGRFAMs”. The term “variant”, as used herein, may refer to polynucleotides or polypeptides, that differ from the presently disclosed polynucleotides or polypeptides, respectively, in sequence from each other, and as set forth below. With regard to polynucleotide variants, differences between presently disclosed polynucleotides and polynucleotide variants are limited so that the nucleotide sequences of the former and the latter are closely similar overall and, in many regions, identical. Due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, differences between the former and latter nucleotide sequences may be silent (i.e., the amino acids encoded by the polynucleotide are the same, and the variant polynucleotide sequence encodes the same amino acid sequence as the presently disclosed polynucleotide. Variant nucleotide sequences may encode different amino acid sequences, in which case such nucleotide differences will result in amino acid substitutions, additions, deletions, insertions, truncations or fusions with respect to the similar disclosed polynucleotide sequences. These variations may result in polynucleotide variants encoding polypeptides that share at least one functional characteristic. The degeneracy of the genetic code also dictates that many different variant polynucleotides can encode identical and/or substantially similar polypeptides in addition to those sequences illustrated in the Sequence Listing. Also within the scope of the invention is a variant of a transcription factor nucleic acid listed in the Sequence Listing, that is, one having a sequence that differs from the one of the polynucleotide sequences in the Sequence Listing, or a complementary sequence, that encodes a functionally equivalent polypeptide (i.e., a polypeptide having some degree of equivalent or similar biological activity) but differs in sequence from the sequence in the Sequence Listing, due to degeneracy in the genetic code. Included within this definition are polymorphisms that may or may not be readily detectable using a particular oligonucleotide probe of the polynucleotide encoding polypeptide, and improper or unexpected hybridization to allelic variants, with a locus other than the normal chromosomal locus for the polynucleotide sequence encoding polypeptide. “Allelic variant” or “polynucleotide allelic variant” refers to any of two or more alternative forms of a gene occupying the same chromosomal locus. Allelic variation arises naturally through mutation, and may result in phenotypic polymorphism within populations. Gene mutations may be “silent” or may encode polypeptides having altered amino acid sequence. “Allelic variant” and “polypeptide allelic variant” may also be used with respect to polypeptides, and in this case the term refer to a polypeptide encoded by an allelic variant of a gene. “Splice variant” or “polynucleotide splice variant” as used herein refers to alternative forms of RNA transcribed from a gene. Splice variation naturally occurs as a result of alternative sites being spliced within a single transcribed RNA molecule or between separately transcribed RNA molecules, and may result in several different forms of mRNA transcribed from the same gene. Thus, splice variants may encode polypeptides having different amino acid sequences, which may or may not have similar functions in the organism. “Splice variant” or “polypeptide splice variant” may also refer to a polypeptide encoded by a splice variant of a transcribed mRNA. As used herein, “polynucleotide variants” may also refer to polynucleotide sequences that encode paralogs and orthologs of the presently disclosed polypeptide sequences. “Polypeptide variants” may refer to polypeptide sequences that are paralogs and orthologs of the presently disclosed polypeptide sequences. Differences between presently disclosed polypeptides and polypeptide variants are limited so that the sequences of the former and the latter are closely similar overall and, in many regions, identical. Presently disclosed polypeptide sequences and similar polypeptide variants may differ in amino acid sequence by one or more substitutions, additions, deletions, fusions and truncations, which may be present in any combination. These differences may produce silent changes and result in a functionally equivalent transcription factor. Thus, it will be readily appreciated by those of skill in the art, that any of a variety of polynucleotide sequences is capable of encoding the transcription factors and transcription factor homolog polypeptides of the invention. A polypeptide sequence variant may have “conservative” changes, wherein a substituted amino acid has similar structural or chemical properties. Deliberate amino acid substitutions may thus be made on the basis of similarity in polarity, charge, solubility, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and/or the amphipathic nature of the residues, as long as a significant amount of the functional or biological activity of the transcription factor is retained. For example, negatively charged amino acids may include aspartic acid and glutamic acid, positively charged amino acids may include lysine and arginine, and amino acids with uncharged polar head groups having similar hydrophilicity values may include leucine, isoleucine, and valine; glycine and alanine; asparagine and glutamine; serine and threonine; and phenylalanine and tyrosine (for more detail on conservative substitutions, see Table 3). More rarely, a variant may have “non-conservative” changes, e.g., replacement of a glycine with a tryptophan. Similar minor variations may also include amino acid deletions or insertions, or both. Related polypeptides may comprise, for example, additions and/or deletions of one or more N-linked or O-linked glycosylation sites, or an addition and/or a deletion of one or more cysteine residues. Guidance in determining which and how many amino acid residues may be substituted, inserted or deleted without abolishing functional or biological activity may be found using computer programs well known in the art, for example, DNASTAR software (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,840,544). “Fragment”, with respect to a polynucleotide, refers to a clone or any part of a polynucleotide molecule that retains a usable, functional characteristic. Useful fragments include oligonucleotides and polynucleotides that may be used in hybridization or amplification technologies or in the regulation of replication, transcription or translation. A polynucleotide fragment” refers to any subsequence of a polynucleotide, typically, of at least about 9 consecutive nucleotides, preferably at least about 30 nucleotides, more preferably at least about 50 nucleotides, of any of the sequences provided herein. Exemplary polynucleotide fragments are the first sixty consecutive nucleotides of the transcription factor polynucleotides listed in the Sequence Listing. Exemplary fragments also include fragments that comprise a region that encodes an AT-hook domain of a transcription factor. Exemplary fragments also include fragments that comprise a conserved domain of a transcription factor. Exemplary fragments include fragments that comprise an AT-hook or second conserved domain of an AT-hook transcription factor, for example, amino acid residues 34-42 and 78-175 of G1073 (AtHRC1; SEQ ID NO: 2), as noted in Table 1. Fragments may also include subsequences of polypeptides and protein molecules, or a subsequence of the polypeptide. Fragments may have uses in that they may have antigenic potential. In some cases, the fragment or domain is a subsequence of the polypeptide which performs at least one biological function of the intact polypeptide in substantially the same manner, or to a similar extent, as does the intact polypeptide. For example, a polypeptide fragment can comprise a recognizable structural motif or functional domain such as a DNA-binding site or domain that binds to a DNA promoter region, an activation domain, or a domain for protein-protein interactions, and may initiate transcription. Fragments can vary in size from as few as 3 amino acid residues to the full length of the intact polypeptide, but are preferably at least about 30 amino acid residues in length and more preferably at least about 60 amino acid residues in length. The invention also encompasses production of DNA sequences that encode transcription factors and transcription factor derivatives, or fragments thereof, entirely by synthetic chemistry. After production, the synthetic sequence may be inserted into any of the many available expression vectors and cell systems using reagents well known in the art. Moreover, synthetic chemistry may be used to introduce mutations into a sequence encoding transcription factors or any fragment thereof. “Derivative” refers to the chemical modification of a nucleic acid molecule or amino acid sequence. Chemical modifications can include replacement of hydrogen by an alkyl, acyl, or amino group or glycosylation, pegylation, or any similar process that retains or enhances biological activity or lifespan of the molecule or sequence. The term “plant” includes whole plants, shoot vegetative organs/structures (for example, leaves, stems and tubers), roots, flowers and floral organs/structures (for example, bracts, sepals, petals, stamens, carpels, anthers and ovules), seed (including embryo, endosperm, and seed coat) and fruit (the mature ovary), plant tissue (for example, vascular tissue, ground tissue, and the like) and cells (for example, guard cells, egg cells, and the like), and progeny of same. The class of plants that can be used in the method of the invention is generally as broad as the class of higher and lower plants amenable to transformation techniques, including angiosperms (monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants), gymnosperms, ferns, horsetails, psilophytes, lycophytes, bryophytes, and multicellular algae (see for example, FIG. 1, adapted from Dalyet al. (2001) Plant Physiol. 127: 1328-1333; FIG. 2, adapted from Ku et al. (2000) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97: 9121-9126; and see also Tudge in The Variety of Life, Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y. (2000) pp. 547-606). A “transgenic plant” refers to a plant that contains genetic material not found in a wild-type plant of the same species, variety or cultivar. The genetic material may include a transgene, an insertional mutagenesis event (such as by transposon or T-DNA insertional mutagenesis), an activation tagging sequence, a mutated sequence, a homologous recombination event or a sequence modified by chimeraplasty. Typically, the foreign genetic material has been introduced into the plant by human manipulation, but any method can be used as one of skill in the art recognizes. A transgenic plant may contain an expression vector or cassette. The expression cassette typically comprises a polypeptide-encoding sequence operably linked (i.e., under regulatory control of) to appropriate inducible or constitutive regulatory sequences that allow for the controlled expression of polypeptide. The expression cassette can be introduced into a plant by transformation or by breeding after transformation of a parent plant. A plant refers to a whole plant as well as to a plant part, such as seed, fruit, leaf, or root, plant tissue, plant cells or any other plant material, e.g., a plant explant, as well as to progeny thereof, and to in vitro systems that mimic biochemical or cellular components or processes in a cell. “Wild type” or “wild-type”, as used herein, refers to a plant cell, seed, plant component, plant tissue, plant organ or whole plant that has not been genetically modified or treated in an experimental sense. Wild-type cells, seed, components, tissue, organs or whole plants may be used as controls to compare levels of expression and the extent and nature of trait modification with cells, tissue or plants of the same species in which a transcription factor expression is altered, e.g., in that it has been knocked out, overexpressed, or ectopically expressed. A “control plant” as used in the present invention refers to a plant cell, seed, plant component, plant tissue, plant organ or whole plant used to compare against transgenic or genetically modified plant for the purpose of identifying an enhanced phenotype in the transgenic or genetically modified plant. A control plant may in some cases be a transgenic plant line that comprises an empty vector or marker gene, but does not contain the recombinant polynucleotide of the present invention that is expressed in the transgenic or genetically modified plant being evaluated. In general, a control plant is a plant of the same line or variety as the transgenic or genetically modified plant being tested. A suitable control plant would include a genetically unaltered or non-transgenic plant of the parental line used to generate a transgenic plant herein. A “trait” refers to a physiological, morphological, biochemical, or physical characteristic of a plant or particular plant material or cell. In some instances, this characteristic is visible to the human eye, such as seed or plant size, or can be measured by biochemical techniques, such as detecting the protein, starch, or oil content of seed or leaves, or by observation of a metabolic or physiological process, e.g. by measuring tolerance to water deprivation or particular salt or sugar concentrations, or by the observation of the expression level of a gene or genes, e.g., by employing Northern analysis, RT-PCR, microarray gene expression assays, or reporter gene expression systems, or by agricultural observations such as osmotic stress tolerance or yield. Any technique can be used to measure the amount of, comparative level of, or difference in any selected chemical compound or macromolecule in the transgenic plants, however. “Trait modification” refers to a detectable difference in a characteristic in a plant ectopically expressing a polynucleotide or polypeptide of the present invention relative to a plant not doing so, such as a wild-type plant. In some cases, the trait modification can be evaluated quantitatively. For example, the trait modification can entail at least about a 2% increase or decrease, or an even greater difference, in an observed trait as compared with a control or wild-type plant. It is known that there can be a natural variation in the modified trait. Therefore, the trait modification observed entails a change of the normal distribution and magnitude of the trait in the plants as compared to control or wild-type plants. When two or more plants have “similar morphologies”, “substantially similar morphologies”, “a morphology that is substantially similar”, or are “morphologically similar”, the plants have comparable forms or appearances, including analogous features such as overall dimensions, height, width, mass, root mass, shape, glossiness, color, stem diameter, leaf size, leaf dimension, leaf density, internode distance, branching, root branching, number and form of inflorescences, and other macroscopic characteristics, and the individual plants are not readily distinguishable based on morphological characteristics alone. “Modulates” refers to a change in activity (biological, chemical, or immunological) or lifespan resulting from specific binding between a molecule and either a nucleic acid molecule or a protein. The term “transcript profile” refers to the expression levels of a set of genes in a cell in a particular state, particularly by comparison with the expression levels of that same set of genes in a cell of the same type in a reference state. For example, the transcript profile of a particular transcription factor in a suspension cell is the expression levels of a set of genes in a cell knocking out or overexpressing that transcription factor compared with the expression levels of that same set of genes in a suspension cell that has normal levels of that transcription factor. The transcript profile can be presented as a list of those genes whose expression level is significantly different between the two treatments, and the difference ratios. Differences and similarities between expression levels may also be evaluated and calculated using statistical and clustering methods. “Ectopic expression or altered expression” in reference to a polynucleotide indicates that the pattern of expression in, e.g., a transgenic plant or plant tissue, is different from the expression pattern in a wild-type plant or a reference plant of the same species. The pattern of expression may also be compared with a reference expression pattern in a wild-type plant of the same species. For example, the polynucleotide or polypeptide is expressed in a cell or tissue type other than a cell or tissue type in which the sequence is expressed in the wild-type plant, or by expression at a time other than at the time the sequence is expressed in the wild-type plant, or by a response to different inducible agents, such as hormones or environmental signals, or at different expression levels (either higher or lower) compared with those found in a wild-type plant. The term also refers to altered expression patterns that are produced by lowering the levels of expression to below the detection level or completely abolishing expression. The resulting expression pattern can be transient or stable, constitutive or inducible. In reference to a polypeptide, the term “ectopic expression or altered expression” further may relate to altered activity levels resulting from the interactions of the polypeptides with exogenous or endogenous modulators or from interactions with factors or as a result of the chemical modification of the polypeptides. The term “overexpression” as used herein refers to a greater expression level of a gene in a plant, plant cell or plant tissue, compared to expression in a wild-type plant, cell or tissue, at any developmental or temporal stage for the gene. Overexpression can occur when, for example, the genes encoding one or more transcription factors are under the control of a strong promoter (e.g., the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S transcription initiation region). Overexpression may also under the control of an inducible or tissue specific promoter. Thus, overexpression may occur throughout a plant, in specific tissues of the plant, or in the presence or absence of particular environmental signals, depending on the promoter used. Overexpression may take place in plant cells normally lacking expression of polypeptides functionally equivalent or identical to the present transcription factors. Overexpression may also occur in plant cells where endogenous expression of the present transcription factors or functionally equivalent molecules normally occurs, but such normal expression is at a lower level. Overexpression thus results in a greater than normal production, or “overproduction” of the transcription factor in the plant, cell or tissue. The term “transcription regulating region” refers to a DNA regulatory sequence that regulates expression of one or more genes in a plant when a transcription factor having one or more specific binding domains binds to the DNA regulatory sequence. Transcription factors of the present invention possess an AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain. Examples of similar AT-hook and second conserved domain of the sequences of the invention may be found in Table 1. The transcription factors of the invention also comprise an amino acid subsequence that forms a transcription activation domain that regulates expression of one or more abiotic stress tolerance genes in a plant when the transcription factor binds to the regulating region. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS Transcription Factors Modify Expression of Endogenous Genes A transcription factor may include, but is not limited to, any polypeptide that can activate or repress transcription of a single gene or a number of genes. As one of ordinary skill in the art recognizes, transcription factors can be identified by the presence of a region or domain of structural similarity or identity to a specific consensus sequence or the presence of a specific consensus DNA-binding site or DNA-binding site motif (see, for example, Riechmann et al. (2000) supra). The plant transcription factors of the present invention belong to the AT-hook transcription factor family (Reeves and Beckerbauer (2001) supra; and Reeves (2001) supra). Generally, the transcription factors encoded by the present sequences are involved in cell differentiation and proliferation and the regulation of growth. Accordingly, one skilled in the art would recognize that by expressing the present sequences in a plant, one may change the expression of autologous genes or induce the expression of introduced genes. By affecting the expression of similar autologous sequences in a plant that have the biological activity of the present sequences, or by introducing the present sequences into a plant, one may alter a plant's phenotype to one with improved traits related to osmotic stresses. The sequences of the invention may also be used to transform a plant and introduce desirable traits not found in the wild-type cultivar or strain. Plants may then be selected for those that produce the most desirable degree of over- or under-expression of target genes of interest and coincident trait improvement. The sequences of the present invention may be from any species, particularly plant species, in a naturally occurring form or from any source whether natural, synthetic, semi-synthetic or recombinant. The sequences of the invention may also include fragments of the present amino acid sequences. Where “amino acid sequence” is recited to refer to an amino acid sequence of a naturally occurring protein molecule, “amino acid sequence” and like terms are not meant to limit the amino acid sequence to the complete native amino acid sequence associated with the recited protein molecule. In addition to methods for modifying a plant phenotype by employing one or more polynucleotides and polypeptides of the invention described herein, the polynucleotides and polypeptides of the invention have a variety of additional uses. These uses include their use in the recombinant production (i.e., expression) of proteins; as regulators of plant gene expression, as diagnostic probes for the presence of complementary or partially complementary nucleic acids (including for detection of natural coding nucleic acids); as substrates for further reactions, e.g., mutation reactions, PCR reactions, or the like; as substrates for cloning e.g., including digestion or ligation reactions; and for identifying exogenous or endogenous modulators of the transcription factors. The polynucleotide can be, e.g., genomic DNA or RNA, a transcript (such as an mRNA), a cDNA, a PCR product, a cloned DNA, a synthetic DNA or RNA, or the like. The polynucleotide can comprise a sequence in either sense or antisense orientations. Expression of genes that encode transcription factors that modify expression of endogenous genes, polynucleotides, and proteins are well known in the art. In addition, transgenic plants comprising isolated polynucleotides encoding transcription factors may also modify expression of endogenous genes, polynucleotides, and proteins. Examples include Peng et al. (1997) Genes Development 11: 3194-3205) and Peng et al. (1999) Nature, 400: 256-261). In addition, many others have demonstrated that an Arabidopsis transcription factor expressed in an exogenous plant species elicits the same or very similar phenotypic response. See, for example, Fu et al. (2001) Plant Cell 13: 1791-1802); Nandi et al. (2000) Curr. Biol. 10: 215-218); Coupland (1995) Nature 377: 482-483); and Weigel and Nilsson (1995) Nature 377: 482-500). In another example, Mandel et al. (1992) Cell 71-133-143, and Suzuki et al.(2001) Plant J. 28: 409-418, teach that a transcription factor expressed in another plant species elicits the same or very similar phenotypic response of the endogenous sequence, as often predicted in earlier studies of Arabidopsis transcription factors in Arabidopsis (see Mandel et al. (1992) supra; Suzuki et al. (2001) supra). Other examples include Müller et al. (2001) Plant J. 28: 169-179; Kim et al. (2001) Plant J. 25: 247-259; Kyozuka and Shimamoto (2002) Plant Cell Physiol. 43: 130-135; Boss and Thomas (2002) Nature, 416: 847-850; He et al. (2000) Transgenic Res. 9: 223-227; and Robson et al. (2001) Plant J. 28: 619-631. In yet another example, Gilmour et al. (1998) Plant J. 16: 433-442) teach an Arabidopsis AP2 transcription factor, CBF1 (SEQ ID NO: 70), which, when overexpressed in transgenic plants, increases plant freezing tolerance. Jaglo et al. (2001) Plant Physiol. 127: 910-917, further identified sequences in Brassica napus which encode CBF-like genes and that transcripts for these genes accumulated rapidly in response to low temperature. Transcripts encoding CBF-like proteins were also found to accumulate rapidly in response to low temperature in wheat, as well as in tomato. An alignment of the CBF proteins from Arabidopsis, B. napus, wheat, rye, and tomato revealed the presence of conserved consecutive amino acid residues, PKK/RPAGRxKFxETRHP and DSAWR, that bracket the AP2/EREBP DNA binding domains of the proteins and distinguish them from other members of the AP2/EREBP protein family. (Jaglo et al. (2001) supra). Transcription factors mediate cellular responses and control traits through altered expression of genes containing cis-acting nucleotide sequences that are targets of the introduced transcription factor. It is well appreciated in the art that the effect of a transcription factor on cellular responses or a cellular trait is determined by the particular genes whose expression is either directly or indirectly (e.g., by a cascade of transcription factor binding events and transcriptional changes) altered by transcription factor binding. In a global analysis of transcription comparing a standard condition with one in which a transcription factor is overexpressed, the resulting transcript profile associated with transcription factor overexpression is related to the trait or cellular process controlled by that transcription factor. For example, the PAP2 gene (and other genes in the MYB family) have been shown to control anthocyanin biosynthesis through regulation of the expression of genes known to be involved in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway (Bruce et al. (2000) Plant Cell 12: 65-79; and Borevitz et al. (2000) Plant Cell 12: 2383-2393). Further, global transcript profiles have been used successfully as diagnostic tools for specific cellular states (e.g., cancerous vs. non-cancerous; Bhattacharjee et al. (2001) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 13790-13795; and Xu et al. (2001) Proc Natl Acad Sci, USA 98: 15089-15094). Consequently, it is evident to one skilled in the art that similarity of transcript profile upon overexpression of different transcription factors would indicate similarity of transcription factor function. Polypeptides and Polynucleotides of the Invention The present invention provides, among other things, transcription factors (TFs), and transcription factor homolog polypeptides, and isolated or recombinant polynucleotides encoding the polypeptides, or novel sequence variant polypeptides or polynucleotides encoding novel variants of transcription factors derived from the specific sequences provided in the Sequence Listing. Also provided are methods for modifying a plant's biomass by modifying the size or number of leaves or seed of a plant by controlling a number of cellular processes, and for increasing a plant's tolerance to abiotic stresses. These methods are based on the ability to alter the expression of critical regulatory molecules that may be conserved between diverse plant species. Related conserved regulatory molecules may be originally discovered in a model system such as Arabidopsis and homologous, functional molecules then discovered in other plant species. The latter may then be used to confer increased biomass or abiotic stress tolerance in diverse plant species. Exemplary polynucleotides encoding the polypeptides of the invention were identified in the Arabidopsis thaliana GenBank database using publicly available sequence analysis programs and parameters. Sequences initially identified were then further characterized to identify sequences comprising specified sequence strings corresponding to sequence motifs present in families of known transcription factors. In addition, further exemplary polynucleotides encoding the polypeptides of the invention were identified in the plant GenBank database using publicly available sequence analysis programs and parameters. Sequences initially identified were then further characterized to identify sequences comprising specified sequence strings corresponding to sequence motifs present in families of known transcription factors. Polynucleotide sequences meeting such criteria were confirmed as transcription factors. Additional polynucleotides of the invention were identified by screening Arabidopsis thaliana and/or other plant cDNA libraries with probes corresponding to known transcription factors under low stringency hybridization conditions. Additional sequences, including full length coding sequences, were subsequently recovered by the rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) procedure using a commercially available kit according to the manufacturer's instructions. Where necessary, multiple rounds of RACE are performed to isolate 5′ and 3′ ends. The full-length cDNA was then recovered by a routine end-to-end polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using primers specific to the isolated 5′ and 3′ ends. Exemplary sequences are provided in the Sequence Listing. The polypeptide and polynucleotide sequences of G1067 were previously identified in U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/135,134, filed May 20, 1999. The polypeptide and polynucleotide sequences of G1073 were previously identified in U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/125,814, filed Mar. 23, 1999. The function of G1073 in increasing biomass was disclosed in U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/227,439, filed Aug. 22, 2000, and the utility for increased drought tolerance observed in 35S::G1073 transgenic lines was disclosed in U.S. Non-Provisional application Ser. No. 10/374,780, filed Feb. 25, 2003. The polypeptide and polynucleotide sequences of G2153 and G2156 were previously identified in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/338,692, filed Dec. 11, 2001, and in U.S. Non-provisional patent application Ser. Nos. 10/225,066 and 10/225,068, both of which were filed Aug. 9, 2002. The altered sugar sensing and osmotic stress tolerance phenotype conferred by G2153 overexpression was disclosed in these filings. At the time each of the above applications were filed, these sequences were identified as encoding or being transcription factors, which were defined as polypeptides having the ability to effect transcription of a target gene. Sequences that have gene-regulating activity have been determined to have specific and substantial utility by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (Federal Register (2001) 66(4): 1095). These sequences and others derived from diverse species and found in the sequence listing have been ectopically expressed in overexpressor plants. The changes in the characteristic(s) or trait(s) of the plants were then observed and found to confer increased biomass or abiotic stress tolerance. Therefore, the polynucleotides and polypeptides can be used to improve desirable characteristics of plants. The polynucleotides of the invention were also ectopically expressed in overexpressor plant cells and the changes in the expression levels of a number of genes, polynucleotides, and/or proteins of the plant cells observed. Therefore, the polynucleotides and polypeptides can be used to change expression levels of a genes, polynucleotides, and/or proteins of plants or plant cells. The AT-Hook Transcription Factor Family In higher organisms, genomic DNA is assembled into multilevel complexes with a range of DNA-binding proteins, including the well-known histones and non-histone proteins such as the high mobility group (HMG) proteins. HMG proteins are classified into different groups based on their DNA-binding motifs, and one such group is the HMG-I(Y) subgroup (recently renamed as HMGA). Proteins in this group have been shown to bind to the minor groove of DNA via a conserved nine amino acid peptide (KRPRGRPKK) called the AT-hook motif (Reeves and Nisson (1995) supra). At the center of this AT-hook motif is a short, strongly conserved tripeptide of glycine-arginine-proline (GRP). This simple AT-hook motif can be present in a variable number of copies (1-15) in a given AT-hook protein. For example, the mammalian HMGA1 protein has three copies of this motif. The mammalian HMGA proteins participate in a wide variety of nuclear processes ranging from chromosome and chromatin remodeling, to acting as architectural transcription factors that regulate the expression of numerous genes in vivo. As a result, these proteins influence a diverse array of cellular processes including growth, proliferation, differentiation and death through the protein-DNA and protein-protein interactions (for reviews, see Reeves and Beckerbauer (2001) supra; and Reeves (2001) supra). It has been shown that HMGA proteins specifically interact with a large number of other proteins, most of which are transcription factors (Reeves (2001) supra). They are also subject to many types of post-translational modification. One example is phosphorylation, which markedly influences their ability to interact with DNA substrates, other proteins, and chromatin (Onate et al. (1994) Mol. Cell Biol. 14: 3376-3391; Falvo et al. (1995) Cell 83: 1101-1111; Reeves and Nissen (1995) supra; Huth et al. (1997) Nat. Struct. Biol. 4, 657-665; and Girard et al. (1998) EMBO J. 17: 2079-2085). In plants, a protein with AT-hook DNA-binding motifs was identified in oat (Nieto-Sotelo and Quail (1994) Biochem. Soc. Symp. 60, 265-275). This protein binds to the PE1 region in the oat phytochrome A3 gene promoter, and may be involved in positive regulation of PHYA3 gene expression (Nieto-Sotelo and Quail (1994) supra). DNA-binding proteins containing AT-hook domains have also been identified in a variety of plant species, including rice, pea and Arabidopsis (Meijer et al. (1996) Plant Mol. Biol. 31: 607-618; and Gupta et al (1997a) Plant Mol. Biol. 35: 987-992). The rice AT-hook genes are predominantly expressed in young and meristematic tissues, suggesting that AT-hook proteins may affect the expression of genes that determine the differentiation status of cells. The pea AT-hook gene is expressed in all organs including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, tendrils and developing seeds (Gupta et al. (1997a) supra). Northern blot analysis revealed that an Arabidopsis AT-hook gene was expressed in all organs with the highest expression in flowers and developing siliques (Gupta et al. (1997b) Plant Mol. Biol. 34: 529-536). Recently, it has also been shown that expression of a maize AT-hook protein in yeast cells produces better growth on a medium containing high nickel concentrations. Novel AT-Hook Transcription Factor Genes and Binding Motifs in Arabidopsis and Other Diverse Species We have identified at least thirty-four Arabidopsis genes that code for proteins with AT-hook DNA-binding motifs. Of these, there are twenty-two genes encoding a single AT-hook DNA-binding motif; eight genes encoding two AT-hook DNA-binding motifs; three genes (G280, G1367 and G2787, SEQ ID NOs: 55, 57 and 59, respectively) encoding four AT-hook DNA-binding motifs and a single gene (G3045, SEQ ID NO: 61) encoding three AT-hook DNA-binding motifs. G1073 (AtHRC1; SEQ ID NO: 2), for example, contains a single typical AT-hook DNA-binding motif (RRPRGRPAG) corresponding to positions 34 to 42 within the protein. A highly conserved 129 amino acid residue domain with unknown function (henceforth referred to as the “second conserved domain”) can be identified in the single AT-hook domain subgroup, the “G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides”, or more simply the “G1073 clade”. Following this region, a potential acidic domain spans from position 172 to 190. Additionally, analysis of the protein using PROSITE reveals three potential protein kinase C phosphorylation sites at Ser32, Thr83 and Thr102, and three potential casein kinase II phosphorylation sites at Ser6, Ser70 and Ser247 (FIG. 3). Compared to many other AT-hook proteins, the G1073 protein contains a shorter N-terminus (FIGS. 5A-5C). Members of the G1073 clade are structurally distinct from other AT-hook-related proteins, as may be seen in FIGS. 5E-5G, comparing G1073 and above sequences that are comprised within the G1073 clade, and those sequences including and below G1945 representing AT-hook sequences falling outside of the clade. Table 1 shows the polypeptides identified by: polypeptide SEQ ID NO (first column); Gene ID or “GID” No. (second column); the amino acid residue coordinates for the AT-hook and second conserved domain (third column); AT-hook sequences of the respective polypeptides (fourth column); the identity in percentage terms to the AT-hook domain of G1073 (fifth column); second conserved domain sequences of the respective polypeptides (sixth column); and the identity in percentage terms to the second conserved domain of G1073 (seventh column). Many of these sequences have been shown to confer abiotic stress tolerant phenotypes when overexpressed in plants, as indicated in the penultimate of Table 1. The last column indicates the sequences that have been observed to increase plant biomass in overexpressing lines relative to wild-type controls. The polypeptide sequences that show significant ability to confer abiotic stress tolerance and increased biomass include At-hook and second conserved domains with 78% and 62% or greater identity to the At-hook and second conserved domains of G1073, respectively. TABLE 1 Gene families and binding domains AT-hook and Second Conserved % ID to Domains in AA % ID Second SEQ Coordinates to First Conserved Abiotic ID and Base AT-hook Domain Second Domain Stress Greater NO: GID No. Coordinates domain of G1073 Conserved Domain of G1073 Tolerant Biomass 2 G1073 Polypeptide RRPRGRPAG 100% VSTYATRRGCGVCIISGTGAV 100% Yes Yes AtHRC1 coordinates: TNVTIRQPAAPAGGGVITLHG 34-42; 78-175 RFDILSLTGTALPPPAPPGAG GLTVYLAGGQGQVVGGNVAGS LIASGPVVLMAASF 26 G3406 Polypeptide RRPRGRPPG 89% VSTYARRRQRGVCVLSGSGVV 71% Yes No coordinates: TNVTLRQPSAPAGAVVSLHGR 82-90, 126- FEILSLSGSFLPPPAPPGATS 222 LTIFLAGGQGQVVGGNVVGAL YAAGPVIVIAASF 10 G3399 Polypeptide RRPRGRPPG 89% VAEYARRRGRGVCVLSGGGAV 71% Yes Yes coordinates: VNVALRQPGASPPGSMVATLR 99-107, 143- GRFEILSLTGTVLPPPAPPGA 240 SGLTVFLSGGQGQVIGGSVVG PLVAAGPVVLMAAS 4 G1067 Polypeptide KRPRGRPPG 78% VSTYARRRGRGVSVLGGNGTV 69% No data No AtHRC2 coordinates: SNVTLRQPVTPGNGGGVSGGG 86-94, 130- GVVTLHGRFEILSLTGTVLPP 235 PAPPGAGGLSIFLAGGQGQVV GGSVVAPLIASAPVILMAASF 16 G3459 Polypeptide RRPRGRPPG 89% VTAYARRRQRGICVLSGSGTV 68% Yes Yes coordinates: TNVSLRQPAAAGAVVTLHGRF 76-84, 121- EILSLSGSFLPPPAPPGATSL 216 TIYLAGGQGQVVGGNVIGELT AAGPVIVIAASF 30 G3400 Polypeptide RRPRGRPLG 89% VCEFARRRGRGVSVLSGGGAV 68% Yes Yes coordinates: ANVALRQPGASPPGSLVATMR 83-91, 127- GQFEILSLTGTVLPPPAPPSA 225 SGLTVFLSGGQGQVVGGSVAG QLIAAGPVFLMAASF 84 G2789 Polypeptide RRPRGRPAG 100% LAVFARRRQRGVCVLTGNGAV 67% Yes No coordinates: TNVTVRQPGGGVVSLHGRFEI 59-67; 103- LSLSGSFLPPPAPPAASGLKV 196 YLAGGQGQVIGGSVVGPLTAS SPVVVMAASF 18 G3460 Polypeptide RRPRGRPSG 89% VTAYARRRQRGICVLSGSGTV 67% Yes Yes coordinates: TNVSLRQPAAAGAVVRLHGRF 74-82, 118- EILSLSGSFLPPPAPPGATSL 213 TIYLAGGQGQVVGGNVVGELT AAGPVIVIAASF 86 G1667 Polypeptide KRPRGRPAG 89% LSDFARRKQRGLCILSANGCV 66% No Yes coordinates: TNVTLRQPASSGAIVTLHGRY 53-61; 97- EILSLLGSILPPPAPLGITGL 192 TIYLAGPQGQVVGGGVVGGLI ASGPVVLMAASF 8 G2156 Polypeptide KRPRGRPPG 78% VTTYARRRGRGVSILSGNGTV 65% Yes Yes AtHRC4 coordinates: ANVSLRQPATTAAHGANGGTG 72-80, 116- GVVALHGRFEILSLTGTVLPP 220 PAPPGSGGLSIFLSGVQGQVI GGNVVAPLVASGPVILMAASF 14 G3456 Polypeptide RRPRGRPPG 89% VAQFARRRQRGVSILSGSGTV 65% Yes Yes coordinates: VNVNLRQPTAPGAVMALHGRF 62-70, 106- DILSLTGSFLPGPSPPGATGL 201 TIYLAGGQGQIVGGEVVGPLV AAGPVLVMAATF 12 G3407 Polypeptide RRPRGRPPG 89% LTAYARRRQRGVCVLSAAGTV 63% No data Yes coordinates: ANVTLRQPQSAQPGPASPAVA 63-71, 106- TLHGRFEILSLAGSFLPPPAP 208 PGATSLAAFLAGGQGQVVGGS VAGALIAAGPVVVVAASF 38 G3401 Polypeptide RRPRGRPPG 89% IAHFARRRQRGVCVLSGAGTV 63% Yes Yes coordinates: TDVALRQPAAPSAVVALRGRF 35-43, 79- EILSLTGTFLPGPAPPGSTGL 174 TVYLAGGQGQVVGGSVVGTLT AAGPVMVIASTF 6 G2153 Polypeptide RRPRGRPPG 100% LATFARRRQRGICILSGNGTV 62% Yes Yes AtHRC3 coordinates: ANVTLRQPSTAAVAAAPGGAA 80-88, 124- VLALQGRFEILSLTGSFLPGP 227 APPGSTGLTIYLAGGQGQVVG GSVVGPLMAAGPVMLIAATF 42 G1069 Polypeptide RRPRGRPPG 89% IAHFSRRRQRGVCVLSGTGSV 62% Yes* Yes coordinates: ANVTLRQAAAPGGVVSLQGRF 67-75,111- EILSLTGAFLPGPSPPGSTGL 206 TVYLAGVQGQVVGGSVVGPLL AIGSVMVIAATF 40 G3556 Polypeptide RRPRGRPPG 89% IAGFSRRRQRGVSVLSGSGAV 62% No Yes coordinates: TNVTLRQPAGTGAAAVALRGR 45-53; 89- FEILSMSGAFLPAPAPPGATG 185 LAVYLAGGQGQVVGGSVMGEL IASGPVMVIAATF 88 G2157 88-96, 132- RRPRGRPPG 89% LNAFARRRGRGVSVLSGSGLV 60% No Yes 228 TNVTLRQPAASGGVVSLRGQF EILSMCGAFLPTSGSPAAAAG LTIYLAGAQGQVVGGGVAGPL IASGPVIVIAATF *results from previous studies, not shown Within the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides, the AT-hook domain comprises the consensus sequence: RPRGRPXG (SEQ ID NO: 79) Arg-Pro-Arg-Gly-Arg-Pro-Xaa-Gly where Xaa can be any of a number of amino acid residues; in the examples that have thus far been shown to confer abiotic stress tolerance, Xaa has been shown to represent an alanine, leucine, proline, or serine residue. Also within the G1073 lade, the second conserved domain generally comprises the consensus sequence: Gly-Xaa-Phe-Xaa-Ile-Leu-Ser-(Xaa)2-Gly-(Xaa)2-Leu-Pro-(Xaa)3-4-Pro-(Xaa)5-Leu-(Xaa)2-Tyr/Phe-(Xaa)2-Gly-(Xaa)2-Gly-Gln. A smaller subsequence of interest in the G1073 clade sequences comprises: Pro-(Xaa)5-Leu-(Xaa)2-Tyr-(Xaa)2-Gly-(Xaa)2-Gly-Gln (SEQ ID NO: 80); or Pro-(Xaa)5-Leu-(Xaa)2-Phe-(Xaa)2-Gly-(Xaa)2-Gly-Gln (SEQ ID NO: 81). The tenth position of SEQ ID NOs: 80 and 81 is an aromatic residue, specifically tyrosine or phenylalanine, in the G1073 sequences that have thus far been examined. Thus far, aromatic residues have not been found in the corresponding position in the At-hook transcription factors that are outside of the G1073 lade. Thus, the transcription factors of the invention each possess an AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain, and include paralogs and orthologs of G1073 found by BLAST analysis, as described below. As shown in Table 1, the AT-hook domains of G1073 and related sequences are at least 78% identical to the At-Hook domains of G1073 and at least 62% identical to the second conserved domain found in G1073. These transcription factors rely on the binding specificity of their AT-hook domains; many have been shown to have similar or identical functions in plants by increasing the size and biomass of a plant (also see Example VIII, below). Producing Polypeptides The polynucleotides of the invention include sequences that encode transcription factors and transcription factor homolog polypeptides and sequences complementary thereto, as well as unique fragments of coding sequence, or sequence complementary thereto. Such polynucleotides can be, e.g., DNA or RNA, e.g., mRNA, cRNA, synthetic RNA, genomic DNA, cDNA synthetic DNA, oligonucleotides, etc. The polynucleotides are either double-stranded or single-stranded, and include either, or both sense (i.e., coding) sequences and antisense (i.e., non-coding, complementary) sequences. The polynucleotides include the coding sequence of a transcription factor, or transcription factor homolog polypeptide, in isolation, in combination with additional coding sequences (e.g., a purification tag, a localization signal, as a fusion-protein, as a pre-protein, or the like), in combination with non-coding sequences (e.g., introns or inteins, regulatory elements such as promoters, enhancers, terminators, and the like), and/or in a vector or host environment in which the polynucleotide encoding a transcription factor or transcription factor homolog polypeptide is an endogenous or exogenous gene. A variety of methods exist for producing the polynucleotides of the invention. Procedures for identifying and isolating DNA clones are well known to those of skill in the art and are described in, e.g., Berger and Kimmel (1987), “Guide to Molecular Cloning Techniques”, in Methods in Enzymology, vol. 152, Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, Calif. (“Berger”); Sambrook et al. (1989) Molecular Cloning—A Laboratory Manual (2nd Edition), Vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., and Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Ausubel et al. editors, Current Protocols, Greene Publishing Associates, Inc. and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (supplemented through 2000; “Ausubel”). Alternatively, polynucleotides of the invention, can be produced by a variety of in vitro amplification methods adapted to the present invention by appropriate selection of specific or degenerate primers. Examples of protocols sufficient to direct persons of skill through in vitro amplification methods, including the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) the ligase chain reaction (LCR), Qβ-replicase amplification and other RNA polymerase mediated techniques (e.g., NASBA), e.g., for the production of the homologous nucleic acids of the invention are found in Berger (1987) supra, Sambrook (1989) supra, and Ausubel (through 2000) supra, as well as Mullis et al. (1990) PCR Protocols A Guide to Methods and Applications (Innis et al., eds) Academic Press Inc. San Diego, Calif. Improved methods for cloning in vitro amplified nucleic acids are described in Wallace et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,426,039. Improved methods for amplifying large nucleic acids by PCR are summarized in Cheng et al. (1994) Nature 369: 684-685 and the references cited therein, in which PCR amplicons of up to 40 kb are generated. One of skill will appreciate that essentially any RNA can be converted into a double stranded DNA suitable for restriction digestion, PCR expansion and sequencing using reverse transcriptase and a polymerase (Berger (1987) supra; Sambrook (1989) supra; and Ausubel (through 2000) supra). Alternatively, polynucleotides and oligonucleotides of the invention can be assembled from fragments produced by solid-phase synthesis methods. Typically, fragments of up to approximately 100 bases are individually synthesized and then enzymatically or chemically ligated to produce a desired sequence, e.g., a polynucleotide encoding all or part of a transcription factor. For example, chemical synthesis using the phosphoramidite method is described, e.g., by Beaucage et al. (1981) Tetrahedron Letters 22: 1859-1869; and Matthes et al. (1984) EMBO J. 3: 801-805. According to such methods, oligonucleotides are synthesized, purified, annealed to their complementary strand, ligated and then optionally cloned into suitable vectors. And if so desired, the polynucleotides and polypeptides of the invention can be custom ordered from any of a number of commercial suppliers. Homologous Sequences Sequences homologous to those provided in the Sequence Listing derived from Arabidopsis thaliana or from other plants of choice, are also an aspect of the invention. Homologous sequences can be derived from any plant including monocots and dicots and in particular agriculturally important plant species, including but not limited to, crops such as soybean, wheat, corn (maize), potato, cotton, rice, rape, oilseed rape (including canola), sunflower, alfalfa, clover, sugarcane, and turf; or fruits and vegetables, such as banana, blackberry, blueberry, strawberry, and raspberry, cantaloupe, carrot, cauliflower, coffee, cucumber, eggplant, grapes, honeydew, lettuce, mango, melon, onion, papaya, peas, peppers, pineapple, pumpkin, spinach, squash, sweet corn, tobacco, tomato, tomatillo, watermelon, rosaceous fruits (such as apple, peach, pear, cherry and plum) and vegetable brassicas (such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, and kohlrabi). Other crops, including fruits and vegetables, whose phenotype can be changed and which comprise homologous sequences include barley; rye; millet; sorghum; currant; avocado; citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, grapefruit and tangerines, artichoke, cherries; nuts such as the walnut and peanut; endive; leek; roots such as arrowroot, beet, cassaya, turnip, radish, yam, and sweet potato; and beans. The homologous sequences may also be derived from woody species, such pine, poplar and eucalyptus, or mint or other labiates. In addition, homologous sequences may be derived from plants that are evolutionarily-related to crop plants, but which may not have yet been used as crop plants. Examples include deadly nightshade (Atropa belladona), related to tomato; jimson weed (Datura strommium), related to peyote; and teosinte (Zea species), related to corn (maize). Orthologs and Paralogs Homologous sequences as described above can comprise orthologous or paralogous sequences. Several different methods are known by those of skill in the art for identifying and defining these functionally homologous sequences. Three general methods for defining orthologs and paralogs are described; an ortholog or paralog, including equivalogs, may be identified by one or more of the methods described below. Within a single plant species, gene duplication may cause two copies of a particular gene, giving rise to two or more genes with similar sequence and often similar function known as paralogs. A paralog is therefore a similar gene formed by duplication within the same species. Paralogs typically cluster together or in the same clade (a group of similar genes) when a gene family phylogeny is analyzed using programs such as CLUSTAL (Thompson et al. (1994) Nucleic Acids Res. 22: 4673-4680; Higgins et al. (1996) Methods Enzymol. 266: 383-402). Groups of similar genes can also be identified with pair-wise BLAST analysis (Feng and Doolittle (1987) J. Mol. Evol. 25: 351-360). For example, a clade of very similar MADS domain transcription factors from Arabidopsis all share a common function in flowering time (Ratcliffe et al. (2001) Plant Physiol. 126: 122-132), and a group of very similar AP2 domain transcription factors from Arabidopsis are involved in tolerance of plants to freezing (Gilmour et al. (1998) Plant J. 16: 433-442). Analysis of groups of similar genes with similar function that fall within one lade can yield sub-sequences that are particular to the clade. These sub-sequences, known as consensus sequences, can not only be used to define the sequences within each clade, but define the functions of these genes; genes within a clade may contain paralogous sequences, or orthologous sequences that share the same function (see also, for example, Mount (2001), in Bioinformatics: Sequence and Genome Analysis, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., page 543). Speciation, the production of new species from a parental species, can also give rise to two or more genes with similar sequence and similar function. These genes, termed orthologs, often have an identical function within their host plants and are often interchangeable between species without losing function. Because plants have common ancestors, many genes in any plant species will have a corresponding orthologous gene in another plant species. Once a phylogenic tree for a gene family of one species has been constructed using a program such as CLUSTAL (Thompson et al. (1994) Nucleic Acids Res. 22: 4673-4680; Higgins et al. (1996) supra) potential orthologous sequences can be placed into the phylogenetic tree and their relationship to genes from the species of interest can be determined. Orthologous sequences can also be identified by a reciprocal BLAST strategy. Once an orthologous sequence has been identified, the function of the ortholog can be deduced from the identified function of the reference sequence. Transcription factor gene sequences are conserved across diverse eukaryotic species lines (Goodrich et al. (1993) Cell 75: 519-530; Lin et al. (1991) Nature 353: 569-571; Sadowski et al. (1988) Nature 335: 563-564). Plants are no exception to this observation; diverse plant species possess transcription factors that have similar sequences and functions. Orthologous genes from different organisms have highly conserved functions, and very often essentially identical functions (Lee et al. (2002) Genome Res. 12: 493-502; Remm et al. (2001) J. Mol. Biol. 314: 1041-1052). Paralogous genes, which have diverged through gene duplication, may retain similar functions of the encoded proteins. In such cases, paralogs can be used interchangeably with respect to certain embodiments of the instant invention (for example, transgenic expression of a coding sequence). An example of such highly related paralogs is the CBF family, with three well-defined members in Arabidopsis and at least one ortholog in Brassica napus (SEQ ID NOs: 69, 71, 73, or 75, respectively), all of which control pathways involved in both freezing and drought stress (Gilmour et al. (1998) Plant J. 16: 433-442; Jaglo et al. (1998) Plant Physiol. 127: 910-917). The following references represent a small sampling of the many studies that demonstrate that conserved transcription factor genes from diverse species are likely to function similarly (i.e., regulate similar target sequences and control the same traits), and that transcription factors may be transformed into diverse species to confer or improve traits. (1) The Arabidopsis NPR1 gene regulates systemic acquired resistance (SAR); over-expression of NPR1 leads to enhanced resistance in Arabidopsis. When either Arabidopsis NPR1 or the rice NPR1 ortholog was overexpressed in rice (which, as a monocot, is diverse from Arabidopsis), challenge with the rice bacterial blight pathogen Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Oryzae, the transgenic plants displayed enhanced resistance (Chem et al. (2001) Plant J. 27: 101-113). NPR1 acts through activation of expression of transcription factor genes, such as TGA2 (Fan and Dong (2002) Plant Cell 14: 1377-1389). (2) E2F genes are involved in transcription of plant genes for proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). Plant E2Fs share a high degree of similarity in amino acid sequence between monocots and dicots, and are even similar to the conserved domains of the animal E2Fs. Such conservation indicates a functional similarity between plant and animal E2Fs. E2F transcription factors that regulate meristem development act through common cis-elements, and regulate related (PCNA) genes. (Kosugi and Ohashi, (2002) Plant J. 29: 45-59). (3) The ABI5 gene (ABA insensitive 5) encodes a basic leucine zipper factor required for ABA response in the seed and vegetative tissues. Co-transformation experiments with ABI5 cDNA constructs in rice protoplasts resulted in specific transactivation of the ABA-inducible wheat, Arabidopsis, bean, and barley promoters. These results demonstrate that sequentially similar ABI5 transcription factors are key targets of a conserved ABA signaling pathway in diverse plants. (Gampala et al. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 277: 1689-1694). (4) Sequences of three Arabidopsis GAMYB-like genes were obtained on the basis of sequence similarity to GAMYB genes from barley, rice, and L. temulentum. These three Arabidopsis genes were determined to encode transcription factors (AtMYB33, AtMYB65, and AtMYB101) and could substitute for a barley GAMYB and control alpha-amylase expression. (Gocal et al. (2001) Plant Physiol. 127: 1682-1693). (5) The floral control gene LEAFY from Arabidopsis can dramatically accelerate flowering in numerous dictoyledonous plants. Constitutive expression of Arabidopsis LEAFY also caused early flowering in transgenic rice (a monocot), with a heading date that was 26-34 days earlier than that of wild-type plants. These observations indicate that floral regulatory genes from Arabidopsis are useful tools for heading date improvement in cereal crops. (He et al. (2000) Transgenic Res. 9: 223-227). (6) Bioactive gibberellins (GAs) are essential endogenous regulators of plant growth. GA signaling tends to be conserved across the plant kingdom. GA signaling is mediated via GAI, a nuclear member of the GRAS family of plant transcription factors. Arabidopsis GAI has been shown to function in rice to inhibit gibberellin response pathways. (Fu et al. (2001) Plant Cell 13: 1791-1802). (7) The Arabidopsis gene SUPERMAN (SUP), encodes a putative transcription factor that maintains the boundary between stamens and carpels. By over-expressing Arabidopsis SUP in rice, the effect of the gene's presence on whorl boundaries was shown to be conserved. This demonstrated that SUP is a conserved regulator of floral whorl boundaries and affects cell proliferation. (Nandi et al. (2000) Curr. Biol. 10: 215-218.) (8) Maize, petunia and Arabidopsis myb transcription factors that regulate flavonoid biosynthesis are very genetically similar and affect the same trait in their native species, therefore sequence and function of these myb transcription factors correlate with each other in these diverse species (Borevitz et al. (2000) Plant Cell 12: 2383-2394). (9) Wheat reduced height-1 (Rht-B1/Rht-D1) and maize dwarf-8 (d8) genes are orthologs of the Arabidopsis gibberellin insensitive (GAI) gene. Both of these genes have been used to produce dwarf grain varieties that have improved grain yield. These genes encode proteins that resemble nuclear transcription factors and contain an SH2-like domain, indicating that phosphotyrosine may participate in gibberellin signaling. Transgenic rice plants containing a mutant GAI allele from Arabidopsis have been shown to produce reduced responses to gibberellin and are dwarfed, indicating that mutant GAI orthologs could be used to increase yield in a wide range of crop species. (Peng et al. (1999) Nature 400: 256-261.) Transcription factors that are homologous to the listed AT-hook transcription factors will typically share at least about 78% and 62% amino acid sequence identity in their AT-hook and second conserved domains, respectively. More closely related transcription factors can share at least about 89% or about 100% identity in their AT-hook domains, and at least about 63%, 65%, 66%, 67%, 68%, 69%, 71%, or greater identity with the second conserved domain of G1073, as seen by the examples shown to confer abiotic stress tolerance in Table 1. Transcription factors that are homologous to the listed sequences should share at least about 50%, or at least about 75%, or at least about 80%, or at least about 90%, or at least about 95% amino acid sequence identity over the entire length of the polypeptide or the homolog. At the nucleotide level, the sequences of the invention will typically share at least about 40% nucleotide sequence identity, preferably at least about 50%, about 60%, about 70% or about 80% sequence identity, and more preferably about 85%, about 90%, about 95% or about 97% or more sequence identity to one or more of the listed full-length sequences, or to a listed sequence but excluding or outside of the region(s) encoding a known consensus sequence or consensus DNA-binding site, or outside of the region(s) encoding one or all conserved domains. The degeneracy of the genetic code enables major variations in the nucleotide sequence of a polynucleotide while maintaining the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein. Percent identity can be determined electronically, e.g., by using the MEGALIGN program (DNASTAR, Inc. Madison, Wis.). The MEGALIGN program can create alignments between two or more sequences according to different methods, for example, the clustal method (see, for example, Higgins and Sharp (1988) Gene 73: 237-244.) The clustal algorithm groups sequences into clusters by examining the distances between all pairs. The clusters are aligned pairwise and then in groups. Other alignment algorithms or programs may be used, including FASTA, BLAST, or ENTREZ, FASTA and BLAST, and which may be used to calculate percent similarity. These are available as a part of the GCG sequence analysis package (University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.), and can be used with or without default settings. ENTREZ is available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information. In one embodiment, the percent identity of two sequences can be determined by the GCG program with a gap weight of 1, e.g., each amino acid gap is weighted as if it were a single amino acid or nucleotide mismatch between the two sequences (see U.S. Pat. No. 6,262,333). Other techniques for alignment are described in Methods in Enzymology, vol. 266, Computer Methods for Macromolecular Sequence Analysis (1996), ed. Doolittle, Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, Calif., USA. Preferably, an alignment program that permits gaps in the sequence is utilized to align the sequences. The Smith-Waterman is one type of algorithm that permits gaps in sequence alignments (see Shpaer (1997) Methods Mol. Biol. 70: 173-187). Also, the GAP program using the Needleman and Wunsch alignment method can be utilized to align sequences. An alternative search strategy uses MPSRCH software, which runs on a MASPAR computer. MPSRCH uses a Smith-Waterman algorithm to score sequences on a massively parallel computer. This approach improves ability to pick up distantly related matches, and is especially tolerant of small gaps and nucleotide sequence errors. Nucleic acid-encoded amino acid sequences can be used to search both protein and DNA databases. The percentage similarity between two polypeptide sequences, e.g., sequence A and sequence B, is calculated by dividing the length of sequence A, minus the number of gap residues in sequence A, minus the number of gap residues in sequence B, into the sum of the residue matches between sequence A and sequence B, times one hundred. Gaps of low or of no similarity between the two amino acid sequences are not included in determining percentage similarity. Percent identity between polynucleotide sequences can also be counted or calculated by other methods known in the art, e.g., the Jotun Hein method (see, for example, Hein (1990) Methods Enzymol. 183: 626-645.) Identity between sequences can also be determined by other methods known in the art, e.g., by varying hybridization conditions (see US Patent Application No. 20010010913). Thus, the invention provides methods for identifying a sequence similar or paralogous or orthologous or homologous to one or more polynucleotides as noted herein, or one or more target polypeptides encoded by the polynucleotides, or otherwise noted herein and may include linking or associating a given plant phenotype or gene function with a sequence. In the methods, a sequence database is provided (locally or across an internet or intranet) and a query is made against the sequence database using the relevant sequences herein and associated plant phenotypes or gene functions. In addition, one or more polynucleotide sequences or one or more polypeptides encoded by the polynucleotide sequences may be used to search against a BLOCKS (Bairoch et al. (1997) Nucleic Acids Res. 25: 217-221), PFAM, and other databases which contain previously identified and annotated motifs, sequences and gene functions. Methods that search for primary sequence patterns with secondary structure gap penalties (Smith et al. (1992) Protein Engineering 5: 35-51) as well as algorithms such as Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST; Altschul (1993) J. Mol. Evol. 36: 290-300; Altschul et al. (1990) J. Mol. Biol. 215: 403-410), BLOCKS (Henikoff and Henikoff (1991) Nucleic Acids Res. 19: 6565-6572), Hidden Markov Models (HMM; Eddy (1996) Curr. Opin. Str. Biol. 6: 361-365; Sonnhammer et al. (1997) Proteins 28: 405-420), and the like, can be used to manipulate and analyze polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences encoded by polynucleotides. These databases, algorithms and other methods are well known in the art and are described in Ausubel et al. (1997) Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y., unit 7.7, and in Meyers (1995) Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Wiley VCH, New York, N.Y., p 856-853. A further method for identifying or confirming that specific homologous sequences control the same function is by comparison of the transcript profile(s) obtained upon overexpression or knockout of two or more related transcription factors. Since transcript profiles are diagnostic for specific cellular states, one skilled in the art will appreciate that genes that have a highly similar transcript profile (e.g., with greater than 50% regulated transcripts in common, or with greater than 70% regulated transcripts in common, or with greater than 90% regulated transcripts in common) will have highly similar functions. Fowler et al. (2002) Plant Cell 14: 1675-1679, have shown that three paralogous AP2 family genes (CBF1, CBF2 and CBF3), each of which is induced upon cold treatment, and each of which can condition improved freezing tolerance, have highly similar transcript profiles. Once a transcription factor has been shown to provide a specific function, its transcript profile becomes a diagnostic tool to determine whether putative paralogs or orthologs have the same function. Furthermore, methods using manual alignment of sequences similar or homologous to one or more polynucleotide sequences or one or more polypeptides encoded by the polynucleotide sequences may be used to identify regions of similarity and AT-hook domains. Such manual methods are well-known of those of skill in the art and can include, for example, comparisons of tertiary structure between a polypeptide sequence encoded by a polynucleotide that comprises a known function with a polypeptide sequence encoded by a polynucleotide sequence which has a function not yet determined. Such examples of tertiary structure may comprise predicted alpha helices, beta-sheets, amphipathic helices, leucine zipper motifs, zinc finger motifs, proline-rich regions, cysteine repeat motifs, and the like. Orthologs and paralogs of presently disclosed transcription factors may be cloned using compositions provided by the present invention according to methods well known in the art. cDNAs can be cloned using mRNA from a plant cell or tissue that expresses one of the present transcription factors. Appropriate mRNA sources may be identified by interrogating Northern blots with probes designed from the present transcription factor sequences, after which a library is prepared from the mRNA obtained from a positive cell or tissue. Transcription factor-encoding cDNA is then isolated using, for example, PCR, using primers designed from a presently disclosed transcription factor gene sequence, or by probing with a partial or complete cDNA or with one or more sets of degenerate probes based on the disclosed sequences. The cDNA library may be used to transform plant cells. Expression of the cDNAs of interest is detected using, for example, methods disclosed herein such as microarrays, Northern blots, quantitative PCR, or any other technique for monitoring changes in expression. Genomic clones may be isolated using similar techniques to those. Examples of orthologs of the Arabidopsis polypeptide sequences SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 8, 42 and 86, include SEQ ID NOs: 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 26, 30, 38, 40, and other functionally similar orthologs listed in the Sequence Listing. In addition to the sequences in the Sequence Listing, the invention encompasses isolated nucleotide sequences that are sequentially and structurally similar to G1073, G1067, G2153, G2156, G3399, G3407, G3456, G3459, G3460, G3406, G3400, G3401, G3556, G1069, G2789 and G1667 (SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 25, 29, 37, 39, 41, 85 and 86, respectively) and can function in a plant by increasing biomass and abiotic stress tolerance, particularly when overexpressed. These polypeptide sequences represent clade members that function similarly to G1073 by conferring abiotic stress tolerance, and show significant sequence similarity to G1073, particularly in their respective conserved domains, as identified in Table 1. Since a representative number of these polynucleotide sequences in the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides are phylogenetically (FIG. 4) and sequentially (FIG. 5A-5H) related and have been shown to increase a plant's biomass and abiotic stress tolerance, one skilled in the art would predict that other similar, phylogenetically related sequences falling within the G1073 clade would also increase a plant's biomass and abiotic stress tolerance when overexpressed. Identifying Polynucleotides or Nucleic Acids by Hybridization Polynucleotides homologous to the sequences illustrated in the Sequence Listing and tables can be identified, e.g., by hybridization to each other under stringent or under highly stringent conditions. Single stranded polynucleotides hybridize when they associate based on a variety of well characterized physical-chemical forces, such as hydrogen bonding, solvent exclusion, base stacking and the like. The stringency of a hybridization reflects the degree of sequence identity of the nucleic acids involved, such that the higher the stringency, the more similar are the two polynucleotide strands. Stringency is influenced by a variety of factors, including temperature, salt concentration and composition, organic and non-organic additives, solvents, etc. present in both the hybridization and wash solutions and incubations (and number thereof), as described in more detail in the references cited below (e.g., Sambrook et al. (1989); Berger and Kimmel (1987); and Anderson and Young (1985)). Encompassed by the invention are polynucleotide sequences that are capable of hybridizing to the claimed polynucleotide sequences, including any of the transcription factor polynucleotides within the Sequence Listing, and fragments thereof under various conditions of stringency (see, for example, Wahl and Berger (1987) Methods Enzymol. 152: 399-407; and Kimmel (1987) Methods Enzymol. 152: 507-511). In addition to the nucleotide sequences listed in the Sequence Listing, full length cDNA, orthologs, and paralogs of the present nucleotide sequences may be identified and isolated using well-known methods. The cDNA libraries, orthologs, and paralogs of the present nucleotide sequences may be screened using hybridization methods to determine their utility as hybridization target or amplification probes. With regard to hybridization, conditions that are highly stringent, and means for achieving them, are well known in the art. See, for example, Sambrook et al. (1989) “Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual” (2nd ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory); Berger (1987) supra, pages 467-469; and Anderson and Young (1985) “Quantitative Filter Hybridisation”, In: Hames and Higgins, ed., Nucleic Acid Hybridisation A Practical Approach. Oxford, IRL Press, 73-111. Stability of DNA duplexes is affected by such factors as base composition, length, and degree of base pair mismatch. Hybridization conditions may be adjusted to allow DNAs of different sequence relatedness to hybridize. The melting temperature (Tm) is defined as the temperature when 50% of the duplex molecules have dissociated into their constituent single strands. The melting temperature of a perfectly matched duplex, where the hybridization buffer contains formamide as a denaturing agent, may be estimated by the following equations: (I) DNA-DNA: Tm(° C.)=81.5+16.6(log [Na+])+0.41(%G+C)−0.62(% formamide)−500/L (II) DNA-RNA: Tm(° C.)=79.8+18.5(log [Na+])+0.58(%G+C)+0.12(%G+C)2−0.5(% formamide)−820/L (III) RNA-RNA: Tm(° C.)=79.8+18.5(log [Na+])+0.58(%G+C)+0.12(%G+C)2−0.35(% formamide)−820/L where L is the length of the duplex formed, [Na+] is the molar concentration of the sodium ion in the hybridization or washing solution, and % G+C is the percentage of (guanine+cytosine) bases in the hybrid. For imperfectly matched hybrids, approximately 1° C. is required to reduce the melting temperature for each 1% mismatch. Hybridization experiments are generally conducted in a buffer of pH between 6.8 to 7.4, although the rate of hybridization is nearly independent of pH at ionic strengths likely to be used in the hybridization buffer (Anderson and Young (1985) supra). In addition, one or more of the following may be used to reduce non-specific hybridization: sonicated salmon sperm DNA or another non-complementary DNA, bovine serum albumin, sodium pyrophosphate, sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS), polyvinyl-pyrrolidone, ficoll and Denhardt's solution. Dextran sulfate and polyethylene glycol 6000 act to exclude DNA from solution, thus raising the effective probe DNA concentration and the hybridization signal within a given unit of time. In some instances, conditions of even greater stringency may be desirable or required to reduce non-specific and/or background hybridization. These conditions may be created with the use of higher temperature, lower ionic strength and higher concentration of a denaturing agent such as formamide. Stringency conditions can be adjusted to screen for moderately similar fragments such as homologous sequences from distantly related organisms, or to highly similar fragments such as genes that duplicate functional enzymes from closely related organisms. The stringency can be adjusted either during the hybridization step or in the post-hybridization washes. Salt concentration, formamide concentration, hybridization temperature and probe lengths are variables that can be used to alter stringency (as described by the formula above). As a general guidelines high stringency is typically performed at Tm-5° C. to Tm-20° C., moderate stringency at Tm-20° C. to Tm-35° C. and low stringency at Tm-35° C. to Tm-50° C. for duplex >150 base pairs. Hybridization may be performed at low to moderate stringency (25-50° C. below Tm), followed by post-hybridization washes at increasing stringencies. Maximum rates of hybridization in solution are determined empirically to occur at Tm-25° C. for DNA-DNA duplex and Tm-15° C. for RNA-DNA duplex. Optionally, the degree of dissociation may be assessed after each wash step to determine the need for subsequent, higher stringency wash steps. High stringency conditions may be used to select for nucleic acid sequences with high degrees of identity to the disclosed sequences. An example of stringent hybridization conditions obtained in a filter-based method such as a Southern or Northern blot for hybridization of complementary nucleic acids that have more than 100 complementary residues is about 5° C. to 20° C. lower than the thermal melting point (Tm) for the specific sequence at a defined ionic strength and pH. Conditions used for hybridization may include about 0.02 M to about 0.15 M sodium chloride, about 0.5% to about 5% casein, about 0.02% SDS or about 0.1% N-laurylsarcosine, about 0.001 M to about 0.03 M sodium citrate, at hybridization temperatures between about 50° C. and about 70° C. More preferably, high stringency conditions are about 0.02 M sodium chloride, about 0.5% casein, about 0.02% SDS, about 0.001 M sodium citrate, at a temperature of about 50° C. Nucleic acid molecules that hybridize under stringent conditions will typically hybridize to a probe based on either the entire DNA molecule or selected portions, e.g., to a unique subsequence, of the DNA. Stringent salt concentration will ordinarily be less than about 750 mM NaCl and 75 mM trisodium citrate. Increasingly stringent conditions may be obtained with less than about 500 mM NaCl and 50 mM trisodium citrate, to even greater stringency with less than about 250 mM NaCl and 25 mM trisodium citrate. Low stringency hybridization can be obtained in the absence of organic solvent, e.g., formamide, whereas high stringency hybridization may be obtained in the presence of at least about 35% formamide, and more preferably at least about 50% formamide. Stringent temperature conditions will ordinarily include temperatures of at least about 30° C., more preferably of at least about 37° C., and most preferably of at least about 42° C. with formamide present. Varying additional parameters, such as hybridization time, the concentration of detergent, e.g., sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and ionic strength, are well known to those skilled in the art. Various levels of stringency are accomplished by combining these various conditions as needed. The washing steps that follow hybridization may also vary in stringency; the post-hybridization wash steps primarily determine hybridization specificity, with the most critical factors being temperature and the ionic strength of the final wash solution. Wash stringency can be increased by decreasing salt concentration or by increasing temperature. Stringent salt concentration for the wash steps will preferably be less than about 30 mM NaCl and 3 mM trisodium citrate, and most preferably less than about 15 mM NaCl and 1.5 mM trisodium citrate. Thus, hybridization and wash conditions that may be used to bind and remove polynucleotides with less than the desired homology to the nucleic acid sequences or their complements that encode the present transcription factors include, for example: 6×SSC at 65° C.; 50% formamide, 4×SSC at 42° C.; or 0.5×SSC, 0.1% SDS at 65° C.; with, for example, two wash steps of 10-30 minutes each. Useful variations on these conditions will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art. A person of skill in the art would not expect substantial variation among polynucleotide species encompassed within the scope of the present invention because the highly stringent conditions set forth in the above formulae yield structurally similar polynucleotides. If desired, one may employ wash steps of even greater stringency, including about 0.2×SSC, 0.1% SDS at 65° C. and washing twice, each wash step being about 30 minutes, or about 0.1×SSC, 0.1% SDS at 65° C. and washing twice for 30 minutes. The temperature for the wash solutions will ordinarily be at least about 25° C., and for greater stringency at least about 42° C. Hybridization stringency may be increased further by using the same conditions as in the hybridization steps, with the wash temperature raised about 3° C. to about 5° C., and stringency may be increased even further by using the same conditions except the wash temperature is raised about 6° C. to about 9° C. For identification of less closely related homologs, wash steps may be performed at a lower temperature, e.g., 50° C. An example of a low stringency wash step employs a solution and conditions of at least 25° C. in 30 mM NaCl, 3 mM trisodium citrate, and 0.1% SDS over 30 minutes. Greater stringency may be obtained at 42° C. in 15 mM NaCl, with 1.5 mM trisodium citrate, and 0.1% SDS over 30 minutes. Even higher stringency wash conditions are obtained at 65° C.-68° C. in a solution of 15 mM NaCl, 1.5 mM trisodium citrate, and 0.1% SDS. Wash procedures will generally employ at least two final wash steps. Additional variations on these conditions will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art (see, for example, US Patent Application No. 20010010913). Stringency conditions can be selected such that an oligonucleotide that is perfectly complementary to the coding oligonucleotide hybridizes to the coding oligonucleotide with at least about a 5-10× higher signal to noise ratio than the ratio for hybridization of the perfectly complementary oligonucleotide to a nucleic acid encoding a transcription factor known as of the filing date of the application. It may be desirable to select conditions for a particular assay such that a higher signal to noise ratio, that is, about 15× or more, is obtained. Accordingly, a subject nucleic acid will hybridize to a unique coding oligonucleotide with at least a 2× or greater signal to noise ratio as compared to hybridization of the coding oligonucleotide to a nucleic acid encoding known polypeptide. The particular signal will depend on the label used in the relevant assay, e.g., a fluorescent label, a colorimetric label, a radioactive label, or the like. Labeled hybridization or PCR probes for detecting related polynucleotide sequences may be produced by oligolabeling, nick translation, end-labeling, or PCR amplification using a labeled nucleotide. Encompassed by the invention are polynucleotide sequences that are capable of hybridizing to the claimed polynucleotide sequences, including any of the transcription factor polynucleotides within the Sequence Listing, and fragments thereof under various conditions of stringency (see, for example, Wahl and Berger (1987) supra, pages 399-407; and Kimmel (1987) Methods Enzymol. 152: 507-511). In addition to the nucleotide sequences in the Sequence Listing, full length cDNA, orthologs, and paralogs of the present nucleotide sequences may be identified and isolated using well-known methods. The cDNA libraries, orthologs, and paralogs of the present nucleotide sequences may be screened using hybridization methods to determine their utility as hybridization target or amplification probes. Identifying Polynucleotides or Nucleic Acids with Expression Libraries In addition to hybridization methods, transcription factor homolog polypeptides can be obtained by screening an expression library using antibodies specific for one or more transcription factors. With the provision herein of the disclosed transcription factor, and transcription factor homolog nucleic acid sequences, the encoded polypeptide(s) can be expressed and purified in a heterologous expression system (for example, E. coli) and used to raise antibodies (monoclonal or polyclonal) specific for the polypeptide(s) in question. Antibodies can also be raised against synthetic peptides derived from transcription factor, or transcription factor homolog, amino acid sequences. Methods of raising antibodies are well known in the art and are described in Harlow and Lane (1988), Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Such antibodies can then be used to screen an expression library produced from the plant from which it is desired to clone additional transcription factor homologs, using the methods described above. The selected cDNAs can be confirmed by sequencing and enzymatic activity. Sequence Variations It will readily be appreciated by those of skill in the art, that any of a variety of polynucleotide sequences are capable of encoding the transcription factors and transcription factor homolog polypeptides of the invention. Due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, many different polynucleotides can encode identical and/or substantially similar polypeptides in addition to those sequences illustrated in the Sequence Listing. Nucleic acids having a sequence that differs from the sequences shown in the Sequence Listing, or complementary sequences, that encode functionally equivalent peptides (i.e., peptides having some degree of equivalent or similar biological activity) but differ in sequence from the sequence shown in the Sequence Listing due to degeneracy in the genetic code, are also within the scope of the invention. Altered polynucleotide sequences encoding polypeptides include those sequences with deletions, insertions, or substitutions of different nucleotides, resulting in a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide with at least one functional characteristic of the instant polypeptides. Included within this definition are polymorphisms which may or may not be readily detectable using a particular oligonucleotide probe of the polynucleotide encoding the instant polypeptides, and improper or unexpected hybridization to allelic variants, with a locus other than the normal chromosomal locus for the polynucleotide sequence encoding the instant polypeptides. Allelic variant refers to any of two or more alternative forms of a gene occupying the same chromosomal locus. Allelic variation arises naturally through mutation, and may result in phenotypic polymorphism within populations. Gene mutations can be silent (i.e., no change in the encoded polypeptide) or may encode polypeptides having altered amino acid sequence. The term allelic variant is also used herein to denote a protein encoded by an allelic variant of a gene. Splice variant refers to alternative forms of RNA transcribed from a gene. Splice variation arises naturally through use of alternative splicing sites within a transcribed RNA molecule, or less commonly between separately transcribed RNA molecules, and may result in several mRNAs transcribed from the same gene. Splice variants may encode polypeptides having altered amino acid sequence. The term splice variant is also used herein to denote a protein encoded by a splice variant of an mRNA transcribed from a gene. Those skilled in the art would recognize that, for example, G1073, SEQ ID NO: 2, represents a single transcription factor; allelic variation and alternative splicing may be expected to occur. Allelic variants of SEQ ID NO: 1 can be cloned by probing cDNA or genomic libraries from different individual organisms according to standard procedures. Allelic variants of the DNA sequence shown in SEQ ID NO: 1, including those containing silent mutations and those in which mutations result in amino acid sequence changes, are within the scope of the present invention, as are proteins which are allelic variants of SEQ ID NO: 2. cDNAs generated from alternatively spliced mRNAs, which retain the properties of the transcription factor are included within the scope of the present invention, as are polypeptides encoded by such cDNAs and mRNAs. Allelic variants and splice variants of these sequences can be cloned by probing cDNA or genomic libraries from different individual organisms or tissues according to standard procedures known in the art (see U.S. Pat. No. 6,388,064). Thus, in addition to the sequences set forth in the Sequence Listing, the invention also encompasses related nucleic acid molecules that include allelic or splice variants, and sequences that are complementary. Related nucleic acid molecules also include nucleotide sequences encoding a polypeptide comprising a substitution, modification, addition and/or deletion of one or more amino acid residues. Such related polypeptides may comprise, for example, additions and/or deletions of one or more N-linked or O-linked glycosylation sites, or an addition and/or a deletion of one or more cysteine residues. For example, Table 2 illustrates, for example, that the codons AGC, AGT, TCA, TCC, TCG, and TCT all encode the same amino acid: serine. Accordingly, at each position in the sequence where there is a codon encoding serine, any of the above trinucleotide sequences can be used without altering the encoded polypeptide. TABLE 2 Amino acid Possible Codons Alanine Ala A GCA GCC GCG GCU Cysteine Cys C TGC TGT Aspartic acid Asp D GAC GAT Glutamic acid Glu E GAA GAG Phenylalanine Phe F TTC TTT Glycine Gly G GGA GGC GGG GGT Histidine His H CAC CAT Isoleucine Ile I ATA ATC ATT Lysine Lys K AAA AAG Leucine Leu L TTA TTG CTA CTC CTG CTT Methionine Met M ATG Asparagine Asn N AAC AAT Proline Pro P CCA CCC CCG CCT Glutamine Gln Q CAA CAG Arginine Arg R AGA AGG CGA CGC CGG CGT Serine Ser S AGC AGT TCA TCC TCG TCT Threonine Thr T ACA ACC ACG ACT Valine Val V GTA GTC GTG GTT Tryptophan Trp W TGG Tyrosine Tyr Y TAC TAT Sequence alterations that do not change the amino acid sequence encoded by the polynucleotide are termed “silent” variations. With the exception of the codons ATG and TGG, encoding methionine and tryptophan, respectively, any of the possible codons for the same amino acid can be substituted by a variety of techniques, e.g., site-directed mutagenesis, available in the art. Accordingly, any and all such variations of a sequence selected from the above table are a feature of the invention. In addition to silent variations, other conservative variations that alter one, or a few amino acids in the encoded polypeptide, can be made without altering the function of the polypeptide, these conservative variants are, likewise, a feature of the invention. For example, substitutions, deletions and insertions introduced into the sequences provided in the Sequence Listing, are also envisioned by the invention. Such sequence modifications can be engineered into a sequence by site-directed mutagenesis (Wu, editor; Methods Enzymol. (1993) vol. 217, Academic Press) or the other methods noted below. Amino acid substitutions are typically of single residues; insertions usually will be on the order of about from 1 to 10 amino acid residues; and deletions will range about from 1 to 30 residues. In preferred embodiments, deletions or insertions are made in adjacent pairs, e.g., a deletion of two residues or insertion of two residues. Substitutions, deletions, insertions or any combination thereof can be combined to arrive at a sequence. The mutations that are made in the polynucleotide encoding the transcription factor should not place the sequence out of reading frame and should not create complementary regions that could produce secondary mRNA structure. Preferably, the polypeptide encoded by the DNA performs the desired function. Conservative substitutions are those in which at least one residue in the amino acid sequence has been removed and a different residue inserted in its place. Such substitutions generally are made in accordance with the Table 3 when it is desired to maintain the activity of the protein. Table 3 shows amino acids which can be substituted for an amino acid in a protein and which are typically regarded as conservative substitutions. In one embodiment, transcriptions factors listed in the Sequence Listing may have up to 10 conservative substitutions and retain their function. In another embodiment, transcriptions factors listed in the Sequence Listing may have more than 10 conservative substitutions and still retain their function. TABLE 3 Conservative Residue Substitutions Ala Ser Arg Lys Asn Gln; His Asp Glu Gln Asn Cys Ser Glu Asp Gly Pro His Asn; Gln Ile Leu, Val Leu Ile; Val Lys Arg; Gln Met Leu; Ile Phe Met; Leu; Tyr Ser Thr; Gly Thr Ser; Val Trp Tyr Tyr Trp; Phe Val Ile; Leu Similar substitutions are those in which at least one residue in the amino acid sequence has been removed and a different residue inserted in its place. Such substitutions generally are made in accordance with the Table 4 when it is desired to maintain the activity of the protein. Table 4 shows amino acids which can be substituted for an amino acid in a protein and which are typically regarded as structural and functional substitutions. For example, a residue in column 1 of Table 4 may be substituted with a residue in column 2; in addition, a residue in column 2 of Table 4 may be substituted with the residue of column 1. TABLE 4 Residue Similar Substitutions Ala Ser; Thr; Gly; Val; Leu; Ile Arg Lys; His; Gly Asn Gln; His; Gly; Ser; Thr Asp Glu, Ser; Thr Gln Asn; Ala Cys Ser; Gly Glu Asp Gly Pro; Arg His Asn; Gln; Tyr; Phe; Lys; Arg Ile Ala; Leu; Val; Gly; Met Leu Ala; Ile; Val; Gly; Met Lys Arg; His; Gln; Gly; Pro Met Leu; Ile; Phe Phe Met; Leu; Tyr; Trp; His; Val; Ala Ser Thr; Gly; Asp; Ala; Val; Ile; His Thr Ser; Val; Ala; Gly Trp Tyr; Phe; His Tyr Trp; Phe; His Val Ala; Ile; Leu; Gly; Thr; Ser; Glu Substitutions that are less conservative than those in Table 4 can be selected by picking residues that differ more significantly in their effect on maintaining (a) the structure of the polypeptide backbone in the area of the substitution, for example, as a sheet or helical conformation, (b) the charge or hydrophobicity of the molecule at the target site, or (c) the bulk of the side chain. The substitutions which in general are expected to produce the greatest changes in protein properties will be those in which (a) a hydrophilic residue, e.g., seryl or threonyl, is substituted for (or by) a hydrophobic residue, e.g., leucyl, isoleucyl, phenylalanyl, valyl or alanyl; (b) a cysteine or proline is substituted for (or by) any other residue; (c) a residue having an electropositive side chain, e.g., lysyl, arginyl, or histidyl, is substituted for (or by) an electronegative residue, e.g., glutamyl or aspartyl; or (d) a residue having a bulky side chain, e.g., phenylalanine, is substituted for (or by) one not having a side chain, e.g., glycine. Further Modifying Sequences of the Invention by Mutation/Forced Evolution In addition to generating silent or conservative substitutions as noted, above, the present invention optionally includes methods of modifying the sequences of the Sequence Listing. In the methods, nucleic acid or protein modification methods are used to alter the given sequences to produce new sequences and/or to chemically or enzymatically modify given sequences to change the properties of the nucleic acids or proteins. Thus, in one embodiment, given nucleic acid sequences are modified, e.g., according to standard mutagenesis or artificial evolution methods to produce modified sequences. The modified sequences may be created using purified natural polynucleotides isolated from any organism or may be synthesized from purified compositions and chemicals using chemical means well known to those of skill in the art. For example, Ausubel (1997 and 2000; supra), provides additional details on mutagenesis methods. Artificial forced evolution methods are described, for example, by Stemmer (1994; Nature 370: 389-391), Stemmer (1994; Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 10747-10751), and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,811,238, 5,837,500, and 6,242,568. Methods for engineering synthetic transcription factors and other polypeptides are described, for example, by Zhang et al. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275: 33850-33860, Liu et al. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276: 11323-11334, and Isalan et al. (2001) Nature Biotechnol. 19: 656-660. Many other mutation and evolution methods are also available and expected to be within the skill of the practitioner. Similarly, chemical or enzymatic alteration of expressed nucleic acids and polypeptides can be performed by standard methods. For example, sequence can be modified by addition of lipids, sugars, peptides, organic or inorganic compounds, by the inclusion of modified nucleotides or amino acids, or the like. For example, protein modification techniques are illustrated in Ausubel (1997 and 2000; supra). Further details on chemical and enzymatic modifications can be found herein. These modification methods can be used to modify any given sequence, or to modify any sequence produced by the various mutation and artificial evolution modification methods noted herein. Accordingly, the invention provides for modification of any given nucleic acid by mutation, evolution, chemical or enzymatic modification, or other available methods, as well as for the products produced by practicing such methods, e.g., using the sequences herein as a starting substrate for the various modification approaches. For example, optimized coding sequence containing codons preferred by a particular prokaryotic or eukaryotic host can be used e.g., to increase the rate of translation or to produce recombinant RNA transcripts having desirable properties, such as a longer half-life, as compared with transcripts produced using a non-optimized sequence. Translation stop codons can also be modified to reflect host preference. For example, preferred stop codons for Saccharomyces cerevisiae and mammals are TAA and TGA, respectively. The preferred stop codon for monocotyledonous plants is TGA, whereas insects and E. coli prefer to use TAA as the stop codon. The polynucleotide sequences of the present invention can also be engineered in order to alter a coding sequence for a variety of reasons, including but not limited to, alterations which modify the sequence to facilitate cloning, processing and/or expression of the gene product. For example, alterations are optionally introduced using techniques which are well known in the art, e.g., site-directed mutagenesis, to insert new restriction sites, to alter glycosylation patterns, to change codon preference, to introduce splice sites, etc. Furthermore, a fragment or domain derived from any of the polypeptides of the invention can be combined with domains derived from other transcription factors or synthetic domains to modify the biological activity of a transcription factor. For instance, a DNA-binding domain derived from a transcription factor of the invention can be combined with the activation domain of another transcription factor or with a synthetic activation domain. A transcription activation domain assists in initiating transcription from a DNA-binding site. Examples include the transcription activation region of VP 16 or GAL4 (Moore et al. (1998) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 376-381; Aoyama et al. (1995) Plant Cell 7: 1773-1785), peptides derived from bacterial sequences (Ma and Ptashne (1987) Cell 51: 113-119) and synthetic peptides (Giniger and Ptashne (1987) Nature 330: 670-672). Expression and Modification of Polypeptides Typically, polynucleotide sequences of the invention are incorporated into recombinant DNA (or RNA) molecules that direct expression of polypeptides of the invention in appropriate host cells, transgenic plants, in vitro translation systems, or the like. Due to the inherent degeneracy of the genetic code, nucleic acid sequences which encode substantially the same or a functionally equivalent amino acid sequence can be substituted for any listed sequence to provide for cloning and expressing the relevant homolog. The transgenic plants of the present invention comprising recombinant polynucleotide sequences are generally derived from parental plants, which may themselves be non-transformed (or non-transgenic) plants. These transgenic plants may either have a transcription factor gene “knocked out” (for example, with a genomic insertion by homologous recombination, an antisense or ribozyme construct) or expressed to a normal or wild-type extent. However, overexpressing transgenic “progeny” plants will exhibit greater mRNA levels, wherein the mRNA encodes a transcription factor, that is, a DNA-binding protein that is capable of binding to a DNA regulatory sequence and inducing transcription, and preferably, expression of a plant trait gene. Preferably, the mRNA expression level will be at least three-fold greater than that of the parental plant, or more preferably at least ten-fold greater mRNA levels compared to said parental plant, and most preferably at least fifty-fold greater compared to said parental plant. Vectors Promoters, and Expression Systems The present invention includes recombinant constructs comprising one or more of the nucleic acid sequences herein. The constructs typically comprise a vector, such as a plasmid, a cosmid, a phage, a virus (e.g., a plant virus), a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC), a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC), or the like, into which a nucleic acid sequence of the invention has been inserted, in a forward or reverse orientation. In a preferred aspect of this embodiment, the construct further comprises regulatory sequences, including, for example, a promoter, operably linked to the sequence. Large numbers of suitable vectors and promoters are known to those of skill in the art, and are commercially available. General texts that describe molecular biological techniques useful herein, including the use and production of vectors, promoters and many other relevant topics, include Berger (1987) supra, Sambrook (1989), supra, and Ausubel (through 2000) supra. Any of the identified sequences can be incorporated into a cassette or vector, e.g., for expression in plants. A number of expression vectors suitable for stable transformation of plant cells or for the establishment of transgenic plants have been described including those described in Weissbach and Weissbach (1989) Methods for Plant Molecular Biology, Academic Press, and Gelvin et al. (1990) Plant Molecular Biology Manual, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Specific examples include those derived from a Ti plasmid of Agrobacteriun tumefaciens, as well as those disclosed by Herrera-Estrella et al. (1983) Nature 303: 209, Bevan (1984) Nucleic Acids Res. 12: 8711-8721, Klee (1985) Bio/Technology 3: 637-642, for dicotyledonous plants. Alternatively, non-Ti vectors can be used to transfer the DNA into monocotyledonous plants and cells by using free DNA delivery techniques. Such methods can involve, for example, the use of liposomes, electroporation, microprojectile bombardment, silicon carbide whiskers, and viruses. By using these methods transgenic plants such as wheat, rice (Christou (1991) Bio/Technology 9: 957-962) and corn (Gordon-Kamm (1990) Plant Cell 2: 603-618) can be produced. An immature embryo can also be a good target tissue for monocots for direct DNA delivery techniques by using the particle gun (Weeks et al. (1993) Plant Physiol. 102: 1077-1084; Vasil (1993) Bio/Technology 10: 667-674; Wan and Lemeaux (1994) Plant Physiol. 104: 37-48, and for Agrobacterium-mediated DNA transfer (Ishida et al. (1996) Nature Biotechnol. 14: 745-750). Typically, plant transformation vectors include one or more cloned plant coding sequences (genomic or cDNA) under the transcriptional control of 5′ and 3′ regulatory sequences and a dominant selectable marker. Such plant transformation vectors typically also contain a promoter (e.g., a regulatory region controlling inducible or constitutive, environmentally-or developmentally-regulated, or cell- or tissue-specific expression), a transcription initiation start site, an RNA processing signal (such as intron splice sites), a transcription termination site, and/or a polyadenylation signal. A potential utility for the transcription factor polynucleotides disclosed herein is the isolation of promoter elements from these genes that can be used to program expression in plants of any genes. Each transcription factor gene disclosed herein is expressed in a unique fashion, as determined by promoter elements located upstream of the start of translation, and additionally within an intron of the transcription factor gene or downstream of the termination codon of the gene. As is well known in the art, for a significant portion of genes, the promoter sequences are located entirely in the region directly upstream of the start of translation. In such cases, typically the promoter sequences are located within 2.0 kb of the start of translation, or within 1.5 kb of the start of translation, frequently within 1.0 kb of the start of translation, and sometimes within 0.5 kb of the start of translation. The promoter sequences can be isolated according to methods known to one skilled in the art. Examples of constitutive plant promoters which can be useful for expressing the transcription factor sequence include: the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter, which confers constitutive, high-level expression in most plant tissues (see, for example, Odell et al. (1985) Nature 313: 810-812); the nopaline synthase promoter (An et al. (1988) Plant Physiol. 88: 547-552); and the octopine synthase promoter (Fromm et al. (1989) Plant Cell 1: 977-984). The transcription factors of the invention may be operably linked with a specific promoter that causes the transcription factor to be expressed in response to environmental, tissue-specific or temporal signals. A variety of plant gene promoters are known to regulate gene expression in response to environmental, hormonal, chemical, developmental signals, and in a tissue-active manner; many of these may be used for expression of a transcription factor sequence in plants. Choice of a promoter is based largely on the phenotype of interest and is determined by such factors as tissue (e.g., seed, fruit, root, pollen, vascular tissue, flower, carpel, etc.), inducibility (e.g., in response to wounding, heat, cold, drought, light, pathogens, etc.), timing, developmental stage, and the like. Numerous known promoters have been characterized and can favorably be employed to promote expression of a polynucleotide of the invention in a transgenic plant or cell of interest. For example, tissue specific promoters include: seed-specific promoters (such as the napin, phaseolin or DC3 promoter described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,773,697), fruit-specific promoters that are active during fruit ripening (such as the dru I promoter (U.S. Pat. No. 5,783,393), or the 2A11 promoter (U.S. Pat. No. 4,943,674) and the tomato polygalacturonase promoter (Bird et al. (1988) Plant Mol. Biol. 11: 651-662), root-specific promoters, such as ARSK1, and those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,618,988, 5,837,848 and 5,905,186, epidermis-specific promoters, including CUT1 (Kunst et al. (1999) Biochem. Soc. Trans. 28: 651-654), pollen-active promoters such as PTA29, PTA26 and PTA13 (U.S. Pat. No. 5,792,929), promoters active in vascular tissue (Ringli and Keller (1998) Plant Mol. Biol. 37: 977-988), flower-specific (Kaiser et al. (1995) Plant Mol. Biol. 28: 231-243), pollen (Baerson et al. (1994) Plant Mol. Biol. 26: 1947-1959), carpels (Ohl et al. (1990) Plant Cell 2: 837-848), pollen and ovules (Baerson et al. (1993) Plant Mol. Biol. 22: 255-267), auxin-inducible promoters (such as that described in van der Kop et al. (1999) Plant Mol. Biol. 39: 979-990 or Baumann et al. (1999) Plant Cell 11: 323-334), cytokinin-inducible promoter (Guevara-Garcia (1998) Plant Mol. Biol. 38: 743-753), promoters responsive to gibberellin (Shi et al. (1998) Plant Mol. Biol. 38: 1053-1060, Willmott et al. (1998) Plant Mol. Biol. 38: 817-825) and the like. Additional promoters are those that elicit expression in response to heat (Ainley et al. (1993) Plant Mol. Biol. 22: 13-23), light (e.g., the pea rbcS-3A promoter, Kuhlemeier et al. (1989) Plant Cell 1: 471-478, and the maize rbcS promoter, Schaffner and Sheen (1991) Plant Cell 3: 997-1012); wounding (e.g., wunl, Siebertz et al. (1989) Plant Cell 1: 961-968); pathogens (such as the PR-1 promoter described in Buchel et al. (1999) Plant Mol. Biol. 40: 387-396, and the PDF1.2 promoter described in Manners et al. (1998) Plant Mol. Biol. 38: 1071-1080), and chemicals such as methyl jasmonate or salicylic acid (Gatz (1997) Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 48: 89-108). In addition, the timing of the expression can be controlled by using promoters such as those acting at senescence (Gan and Amasino (1995) Science 270: 1986-1988); or late seed development (Odell et al. (1994) Plant Physiol. 106: 447-458). Plant expression vectors can also include RNA processing signals that can be positioned within, upstream or downstream of the coding sequence. In addition, the expression vectors can include additional regulatory sequences from the 3′-untranslated region of plant genes, e.g., a 3′ terminator region to increase mRNA stability of the mRNA, such as the PI-II terminator region of potato or the octopine or nopaline synthase 3′ terminator regions. Additional Expression Elements Specific initiation signals can aid in efficient translation of coding sequences. These signals can include, e.g., the ATG initiation codon and adjacent sequences. In cases where a coding sequence, its initiation codon and upstream sequences are inserted into the appropriate expression vector, no additional translational control signals may be needed. However, in cases where only coding sequence (e.g., a mature protein coding sequence), or a portion thereof, is inserted, exogenous transcriptional control signals including the ATG initiation codon can be separately provided. The initiation codon is provided in the correct reading frame to facilitate transcription. Exogenous transcriptional elements and initiation codons can be of various origins, both natural and synthetic. The efficiency of expression can be enhanced by the inclusion of enhancers appropriate to the cell system in use. Expression Hosts The present invention also relates to host cells which are transduced with vectors of the invention, and the production of polypeptides of the invention (including fragments thereof) by recombinant techniques. Host cells are genetically engineered (i.e., nucleic acids are introduced, e.g., transduced, transformed or transfected) with the vectors of this invention, which may be, for example, a cloning vector or an expression vector comprising the relevant nucleic acids herein. The vector is optionally a plasmid, a viral particle, a phage, a naked nucleic acid, etc. The engineered host cells can be cultured in conventional nutrient media modified as appropriate for activating promoters, selecting transformants, or amplifying the relevant gene. The culture conditions, such as temperature, pH and the like, are those previously used with the host cell selected for expression, and will be apparent to those skilled in the art and in the references cited herein, including Sambrook (1989) supra, and Ausubel (through 2000) supra. The host cell can be a eukaryotic cell, such as a yeast cell, or a plant cell, or the host cell can be a prokaryotic cell, such as a bacterial cell. Plant protoplasts are also suitable for some applications. For example, the DNA fragments are introduced into plant tissues, cultured plant cells or plant protoplasts by standard methods including electroporation (Fromm et al. (1985) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82: 5824-5828), infection by viral vectors such as cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) (Hohn et al. (1982) Molecular Biology of Plant Tumors, Academic Press, New York, N.Y., pp. 549-560; U.S. Pat. No. 4,407,956), high velocity ballistic penetration by small particles with the nucleic acid either within the matrix of small beads or particles, or on the surface (Klein et al. (1987) Nature 327: 70-73), use of pollen as vector (WO 85/01856), or use of Agrobacterium tumefaciens or A. rhizogenes carrying a T-DNA plasmid in which DNA fragments are cloned. The T-DNA plasmid is transmitted to plant cells upon infection by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, and a portion is stably integrated into the plant genome (Horsch et al. (1984) Science 233: 496-498; Fraley et al. (1983) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80: 4803-4807). The cell can include a nucleic acid of the invention that encodes a polypeptide, wherein the cell expresses a polypeptide of the invention. The cell can also include vector sequences, or the like. Furthermore, cells and transgenic plants that include any polypeptide or nucleic acid above or throughout this specification, e.g., produced by transduction of a vector of the invention, are an additional feature of the invention. For long-term, high-yield production of recombinant proteins, stable expression can be used. Host cells transformed with a nucleotide sequence encoding a polypeptide of the invention are optionally cultured under conditions suitable for the expression and recovery of the encoded protein from cell culture. The protein or fragment thereof produced by a recombinant cell may be secreted, membrane-bound, or contained intracellularly, depending on the sequence and/or the vector used. As will be understood by those of skill in the art, expression vectors containing polynucleotides encoding mature proteins of the invention can be designed with signal sequences which direct secretion of the mature polypeptides through a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell membrane. Modified Amino Acid Residues Polypeptides of the invention may contain one or more modified amino acid residues. The presence of modified amino acids may be advantageous in, for example, increasing polypeptide half-life, reducing polypeptide antigenicity or toxicity, increasing polypeptide storage stability, or the like. Amino acid residue(s) are modified, for example, co-translationally or post-translationally during recombinant production or modified by synthetic or chemical means. Non-limiting examples of a modified amino acid residue include incorporation or other use of acetylated amino acids, glycosylated amino acids, sulfated amino acids, prenylated (e.g., farnesylated, geranylgeranylated) amino acids, PEG modified (for example, “PEGylated”) amino acids, biotinylated amino acids, carboxylated amino acids, phosphorylated amino acids, etc. References adequate to guide one of skill in the modification of amino acid residues are replete throughout the literature. The modified amino acid residues may prevent or increase affinity of the polypeptide for another molecule, including, but not limited to, polynucleotide, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and lipid derivatives, and other organic or synthetic compounds. Identification of Additional Protein Factors A transcription factor provided by the present invention can also be used to identify additional endogenous or exogenous molecules that can affect a phentoype or trait of interest. Such molecules include endogenous molecules that are acted upon either at a transcriptional level by a transcription factor of the invention to modify a phenotype as desired. For example, the transcription factors can be employed to identify one or more downstream genes that are subject to a regulatory effect of the transcription factor. In one approach, a transcription factor or transcription factor homolog of the invention is expressed in a host cell, e.g., a transgenic plant cell, tissue or explant, and expression products, either RNA or protein, of likely or random targets are monitored, e.g., by hybridization to a microarray of nucleic acid probes corresponding to genes expressed in a tissue or cell type of interest, by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis of protein products, or by any other method known in the art for assessing expression of gene products at the level of RNA or protein. Alternatively, a transcription factor of the invention can be used to identify promoter sequences (such as binding sites on DNA sequences) involved in the regulation of a downstream target. After identifying a promoter sequence, interactions between the transcription factor and the promoter sequence can be modified by changing specific nucleotides in the promoter sequence or specific amino acids in the transcription factor that interact with the promoter sequence to alter a plant trait. Typically, transcription factor DNA-binding sites are identified by gel shift assays. After identifying the promoter regions, the promoter region sequences can be employed in double-stranded DNA arrays to identify molecules that affect the interactions of the transcription factors with their promoters (Bulyk et al. (1999) Nature Biotechnol. 17: 573-577). The identified transcription factors are also useful to identify proteins that modify the activity of the transcription factor. Such modification can occur by covalent modification, such as by phosphorylation, or by protein-protein (homo or -heteropolymer) interactions. Any method suitable for detecting protein-protein interactions can be employed. Among the methods that can be employed are co-immunoprecipitation, cross-linking and co-purification through gradients or chromatographic columns, and the two-hybrid yeast system. The two-hybrid system detects protein interactions in vivo and has been previously described (Chien et al. (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88: 9578-9582), and is commercially available from Clontech (Palo Alto, Calif.). In such a system, plasmids are constructed that encode two hybrid proteins: one consists of the DNA-binding domain of a transcription activator protein fused to the transcription factor polypeptide and the other consists of the transcription activator protein's activation domain fused to an unknown protein that is encoded by a cDNA that has been recombined into the plasmid as part of a cDNA library. The DNA-binding domain fusion plasmid and the cDNA library are transformed into a strain of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae that contains a reporter gene (e.g., lacZ) whose regulatory region contains the transcription activator's binding site. Either hybrid protein alone cannot activate transcription of the reporter gene. Interaction of the two hybrid proteins reconstitutes the functional activator protein and results in expression of the reporter gene, which is detected by an assay for the reporter gene product. Then, the library plasmids responsible for reporter gene expression are isolated and sequenced to identify the proteins encoded by the library plasmids. After identifying proteins that interact with the transcription factors, assays for compounds that interfere with the transcription factor protein-protein interactions can be performed. Subsequences Also contemplated are uses of polynucleotides, also referred to herein as oligonucleotides, typically having at least 12 bases, preferably at least 50 bases, which hybridize under stringent conditions to a polynucleotide sequence described above. The polynucleotides may be used as probes, primers, sense and antisense agents, and the like, according to methods as noted above. Subsequences of the polynucleotides of the invention, including polynucleotide fragments and oligonucleotides are useful as nucleic acid probes and primers. An oligonucleotide suitable for use as a probe or primer is at least about 15 nucleotides in length, more often at least about 18 nucleotides, often at least about 21 nucleotides, frequently at least about 30 nucleotides, or about 40 nucleotides, or more in length. A nucleic acid probe is useful in hybridization protocols, for example, to identify additional polypeptide homologs of the invention, including protocols for microarray experiments. Primers can be annealed to a complementary target DNA strand by nucleic acid hybridization to form a hybrid between the primer and the target DNA strand, and then extended along the target DNA strand by a DNA polymerase enzyme. Primer pairs can be used for amplification of a nucleic acid sequence, e.g., by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or other nucleic-acid amplification methods (Sambrook (1989) supra and Ausubel (through 2000) supra). In addition, the invention includes an isolated or recombinant polypeptide including a subsequence of at least about 15 contiguous amino acids encoded by the recombinant or isolated polynucleotides of the invention. For example, such polypeptides, or domains or fragments thereof, can be used as immunogens, e.g., to produce antibodies specific for the polypeptide sequence, or as probes for detecting a sequence of interest. A subsequence can range in size from about 15 amino acids in length up to and including the full length of the polypeptide. To be encompassed by the present invention, an expressed polypeptide which comprises such a polypeptide subsequence performs at least one biological function of the intact polypeptide in substantially the same manner, or to a similar extent, as does the intact polypeptide. For example, a polypeptide fragment can comprise a recognizable structural motif or functional domain such as a DNA binding domain that activates transcription, for example, by binding to a specific DNA promoter region an activation domain, or a domain for protein-protein interactions. Production of Transgenic Plants Modification of Traits The polynucleotides of the invention are favorably employed to produce transgenic plants with various traits, or characteristics, that have been modified in a desirable manner, e.g., to improve the seed characteristics of a plant. For example, alteration of expression levels or patterns (e.g., spatial or temporal expression patterns) of one or more of the transcription factors (or transcription factor homologs) of the invention, as compared with the levels of the same protein found in a wild-type plant, can be used to modify a plant's traits. An illustrative example of trait modification, improved characteristics, by altering expression levels of a particular transcription factor is described further in the Examples and the Sequence Listing. Arabidopsis as a Model System Arabidopsis thaliana is the object of rapidly growing attention as a model for genetics and metabolism in plants. Arabidopsis has a small genome, and well-documented studies are available. It is easy to grow in large numbers and mutants defining important genetically controlled mechanisms are either available, or can readily be obtained. Various methods to introduce and express isolated homologous genes are available (see Koncz et al., editors, Methods in Arabidopsis Research (1992) World Scientific, New Jersey N.J., in “Preface”). Because of its small size, short life cycle, obligate autogamy and high fertility, Arabidopsis is also a choice organism for the isolation of mutants and studies in morphogenetic and development pathways, and control of these pathways by transcription factors (Koncz (1992) supra, p. 72). A number of studies introducing transcription factors into A. thaliana have demonstrated the utility of this plant for understanding the mechanisms of gene regulation and trait alteration in plants (see, for example, factors (Koncz (1992) supra, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,417,428). Arabidopsis Genes in Transgenic Plants Expression of genes which encode transcription factors modify expression of endogenous genes, polynucleotides, and proteins are well known in the art. In addition, transgenic plants comprising isolated polynucleotides encoding transcription factors may also modify expression of endogenous genes, polynucleotides, and proteins. Examples include Peng et al. (1997) et al. Genes and Development 11: 3194-3205, and Peng et al. (1999) Nature 400: 256-261. In addition, many others have demonstrated that an Arabidopsis transcription factor expressed in an exogenous plant species elicits the same or very similar phenotypic response. See, for example, Fu et al. (2001) Plant Cell 13: 1791-1802; Nandi et al. (2000) Curr. Biol. 10: 215-218; Coupland (1995) Nature 377: 482-483; and Weigel and Nilsson (1995) Nature 377: 482-500. Homologous Genes Introduced into Transgenic Plants Homologous genes that may be derived from any plant, or from any source whether natural, synthetic, semi-synthetic or recombinant, and that share significant sequence identity or similarity to those provided by the present invention, may be introduced into plants, for example, crop plants, to confer desirable or improved traits. Consequently, transgenic plants may be produced that comprise a recombinant expression vector or cassette with a promoter operably linked to one or more sequences homologous to presently disclosed sequences. The promoter may be, for example, a plant or viral promoter. The invention thus provides for methods for preparing transgenic plants, and for modifying plant traits. These methods include introducing into a plant a recombinant expression vector or cassette comprising a functional promoter operably linked to one or more sequences homologous to presently disclosed sequences. Plants and kits for producing these plants that result from the application of these methods are also encompassed by the present invention. Transcription Factors of Interest for the Modification of Plant Traits Currently, the existence of a series of maturity groups for different latitudes represents a major barrier to the introduction of new valuable traits. Any trait (e.g. abiotic stress tolerance or increased biomass) has to be bred into each of the different maturity groups separately, a laborious and costly exercise. The availability of single strain, which could be grown at any latitude, would therefore greatly increase the potential for introducing new traits to crop species such as soybean and cotton. For the specific effects, traits and utilities conferred to plants, one or more transcription factor genes of the present invention may be used to increase or decrease, or improve or prove deleterious to a given trait. For example, knocking out a transcription factor gene that naturally occurs in a plant, or suppressing the gene (with, for example, antisense suppression), may cause decreased tolerance to an osmotic stress relative to non-transformed or wild-type plants. By overexpressing this gene, the plant may experience increased tolerance to the same stress. More than one transcription factor gene may be introduced into a plant, either by transforming the plant with one or more vectors comprising two or more transcription factors, or by selective breeding of plants to yield hybrid crosses that comprise more than one introduced transcription factor. Genes, Traits and Utilities that Affect Plant Characteristics Plant transcription factors can modulate gene expression, and, in turn, be modulated by the environmental experience of a plant. Significant alterations in a plant's environment invariably result in a change in the plant's transcription factor gene expression pattern. Altered transcription factor expression patterns generally result in phenotypic changes in the plant. Transcription factor gene product(s) in transgenic plants then differ(s) in amounts or proportions from that found in wild-type or non-transformed plants, and those transcription factors likely represent polypeptides that are used to alter the response to the environmental change. By way of example, it is well accepted in the art that analytical methods based on altered expression patterns may be used to screen for phenotypic changes in a plant far more effectively than can be achieved using traditional methods. I. Increased Biomass. Plants overexpressing nine distinct related AT-hook transcription factors of the invention, including sequences from diverse species of monocots and dicots, such as Arabidopsis thaliana polypeptides G1073, G1067, G1667, G2153 and G2156, G2157, Oryza sativa polypeptides G3399, G3400, G3401, G3407, G3556, and Glycine max polypeptides G3456, G3459 and G3460, become larger than control or wild-type plants, and generally produced broader leaves than control or wild-type plants. For some ornamental plants, the ability to provide larger varieties with these genes or their equivalogs may be highly desirable. More significantly, crop species overexpressing these genes from diverse species would also produce larger cultivars, and thus higher yields, particularly in those plants which the vegetative portion of the plant is edible (e.g., lettuce, chard, etc.). This has already been observed in Arabidopsis and tomato plants. Tomato plants overexpressing the A. thaliana G2153 and G2157 polypeptides have been found to be significantly larger than wild-type control tomato plants. Numerous Arabidopsis lines that overexpress G3399, G3400, G3401, G3407, or G3556, which are rice genes, and G3456, G3459 or G3460, which are soy genes, develop significantly larger rosettes and leaves than wild-type Arabidopsis controls. II. Increased Abiotic Stress Tolerance. Overexpression of many of the transcription factors in the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides confer increased stress tolerance when the sequences are overexpressed in plants. The increased biomass observed in many of these plants appears to be related to the particular mechanism of stress tolerance exhibited by these genes. The decision for a lateral organ to continue growth and expansion versus entering late development phases (growth cessation and senescence) is controlled genetically and hormonally, including regulation at an organ size checkpoint (e.g., Mizukami (2001) Curr Opinion Plant Biol 4: 533-39; Mizukami and Fisher (2000) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97: 942-947; Hu et al. 2003 Plant Cell 15: 1591). Organ size is controlled by the meristematic competence of organ cells, with increased meristematic competence leading to increased organ size (both leaves and stems). Plant hormones can impact plant organ size, with, for example, ethylene pathway overexpression leading to reduced organ size. There also suggestions that auxin plays a determinative role in organ size. Stress responses can impact hormone levels in plant tissues, including ABA and ethylene levels, thereby modifying meristematic competence and final organ size. Thus, overexpression of HRC genes alters environmental (e.g., stress) inputs to the organ size checkpoint, thus enhancing organ size under typical growth conditions. Due to frequent exposure to stresses under typical plant growth conditions, the maximum genetically programmed organ size is infrequently achieved. It is well appreciated that increased leaf organ size can result in increased seed yield, through enhanced energy capture and source activity. Thus, a major strategy for yield optimization is altered characteristics of the sensor that integrates external environmental stress inputs to meristematic competence and organ size control. The HRC genes that are the subject of the instant invention represent one component of this control mechanism. Increased expression of HRC genes leads to diminished sensitivity of the environmental sensor for organ size control to those stress inputs. This increase in stress threshold for diminished meristematic competence results in increased vegetative and seed yield under typical plant growth conditions. AT-hook proteins are known to modulate gene expression through interactions with other proteins. Thus, the environmental integration mechanism for organ size control instantiated by HRC proteins will have additional components whose function will be recognized by the ability of the encoded proteins to participate in regulating gene sets that are regulated by HRC proteins. Identification of additional components of the integration can be achieved by identifying other transcription factors that bind to upstream regulatory regions, detecting proteins that directly interact with HRC proteins. A. Responses to High Sugar Concentrations: Sugar Sensing. In addition to their important role as an energy source and structural component of the plant cell, sugars are central regulatory molecules that control several aspects of plant physiology, metabolism and development (Hsieh et al. (1998) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 13965-13970). It is thought that this control is achieved by regulating gene expression and, in higher plants, sugars have been shown to repress or activate plant genes involved in many essential processes such as photosynthesis, glyoxylate metabolism, respiration, starch and sucrose synthesis and degradation, pathogen response, wounding response, cell cycle regulation, pigmentation, flowering and senescence. The mechanisms by which sugars control gene expression are not understood. Several sugar sensing mutants have turned out to be allelic to ABA and ethylene mutants. ABA is found in all photosynthetic organisms and acts as a key regulator of transpiration, stress responses, embryogenesis, and seed germination. Most ABA effects are related to the compound acting as a signal of decreased water availability, whereby it triggers a reduction in water loss, slows growth, and mediates adaptive responses. However, ABA also influences plant growth and development via interactions with other phytohormones. Physiological and molecular studies indicate that maize and Arabidopsis have almost identical pathways with regard to ABA biosynthesis and signal transduction. For further review, see Finkelstein and Rock (2002) “Abscisic acid biosynthesis and response”, in The Arabidopsis Book, Editors: Somerville and Meyerowitz (American Society of Plant Biologists, Rockville, Md.). Thus, G1073, G2153, G2156 and related transcription factors are likely involved in hormone signaling based on the sucrose sugar sensing phenotype of 35S::G1073, 35S::G2153 and 35S::G2156 transgenic lines. On the other hand, the sucrose treatment used in these experiments (9.5% w/v) could also be an osmotic stress. Therefore, one could interpret these data as an indication that the 35S::G1073, 35S::G2153 and 35S::G2156 transgenic lines are more tolerant to osmotic stress. However, it is well known that plant responses to ABA, osmotic and other stress may be linked, and these different treatments may even act in a synergistic manner to increase the degree of a response. For example, Xiong, Ishitani, and Zhu ((1999) Plant Physiol. 119: 205-212) have shown that genetic and molecular studies may be used to show extensive interaction between osmotic stress, temperature stress, and ABA responses in plants. These investigators analyzed the expression of RD29A-L UC in response to various treatment regimes in Arabidopsis. The RD29A promoter contains both the ABA-responsive and the dehydration-responsive element—also termed the C-repeat—and can be activated by osmotic stress, low temperature, or ABA treatment; transcription of the RD29A gene in response to osmotic and cold stresses is mediated by both ABA-dependent and ABA-independent pathways (Xiong, Ishitani, and Zhu (1999) supra). LUC refers to the firefly luciferase coding sequence, which, in this case, was driven by the stress responsive RD29A promoter. The results revealed both positive and negative interactions, depending on the nature and duration of the treatments. Low temperature stress was found to impair osmotic signaling but moderate heat stress strongly enhanced osmotic stress induction, thus acting synergistically with osmotic signaling pathways. In this study, the authors reported that osmotic stress and ABA can act synergistically by showing that the treatments simultaneously induced transgene and endogenous gene expression. Similar results were reported by Bostock and Quatrano ((1992) Plant Physiol. 98: 1356-1363), who found that osmotic stress and ABA act synergistically and induce maize Em gene expression. Ishitani et al (1997) Plant Cell 9: 1935-1949) isolated a group of Arabidopsis single-gene mutations that confer enhanced responses to both osmotic stress and ABA. The nature of the recovery of these mutants from osmotic stress and ABA treatment suggested that although separate signaling pathways exist for osmotic stress and ABA, the pathways share a number of components; these common components may mediate synergistic interactions between osmotic stress and ABA. Thus, contrary to the previously-held belief that ABA-dependent and ABA-independent stress signaling pathways act in a parallel manner, our data reveal that these pathways cross-talk and converge to activate stress gene expression. Because sugars are important signaling molecules, the ability to control either the concentration of a signaling sugar or how the plant perceives or responds to a signaling sugar could be used to control plant development, physiology or metabolism. For example, the flux of sucrose (a disaccharide sugar used for systemically transporting carbon and energy in most plants) has been shown to affect gene expression and alter storage compound accumulation in seeds. Manipulation of the sucrose signaling pathway in seeds may therefore cause seeds to have more protein, oil or carbohydrate, depending on the type of manipulation. Similarly, in tubers, sucrose is converted to starch which is used as an energy store. It is thought that sugar signaling pathways may partially determine the levels of starch synthesized in the tubers. The manipulation of sugar signaling in tubers could lead to tubers with a higher starch content. Thus, the presently disclosed transcription factor genes that manipulate the sugar signal transduction pathway, including, for example, G1073 and G2156, along with their equivalogs, may lead to altered gene expression to produce plants with desirable traits. In particular, manipulation of sugar signal transduction pathways could be used to alter source-sink relationships in seeds, tubers, roots and other storage organs leading to increase in yield. B. Responses to Osmotic Stresses (High Salt, Freezing, Dehydration and Drought) Plants are subject to a range of environmental challenges. Several of these, including salt stress, general osmotic stress, drought stress and freezing stress, have the ability to impact whole plant and cellular water availability. Not surprisingly, then, plant responses to this collection of stresses are related. In a recent review, Zhu notes that “most studies on water stress signaling have focused on salt stress primarily because plant responses to salt and drought are closely related and the mechanisms overlap” (Zhu (2002) Ann. Rev. Plant Biol. 53: 247-273). Many examples of similar responses (i.e., genetic pathways to this set of stresses) have been documented. For example, the CBF transcription factors have been shown to condition resistance to salt, freezing and drought (Kasuga et al. (1999) Nature Biotech. 17: 287-291). The Arabidopsis rd29B gene is induced in response to both salt and dehydration stress, a process that is mediated largely through an ABA signal transduction process (Uno et al. (2000) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97: 11632-11637), resulting in altered activity of transcription factors that bind to an upstream element within the rd29B promoter. In Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (ice plant), Patharker and Cushman have shown that a calcium-dependent protein kinase (McCDPK1) is induced by exposure to both drought and salt stresses (Patharker and Cushman (2000) Plant J. 24: 679-691). The stress-induced kinase was also shown to phosphorylate a transcription factor, presumably altering its activity, although transcript levels of the target transcription factor are not altered in response to salt or drought stress. Similarly, Saijo et al. demonstrated that a rice salt/drought-induced calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (OsCDPK7) conferred increased salt and drought tolerance to rice when overexpressed (Saijo et al. (2000) Plant J. 23: 319-327). Exposure to dehydration invokes similar survival strategies in plants as does freezing stress (see, for example, Yelenosky (1989) Plant Physiol 89: 444-451) and drought stress induces freezing tolerance (see, for example, Siminovitch et al. (1982) Plant Physiol 69: 250-255; and Guy et al. (1992) Planta 188: 265-270). In addition to the induction of cold-acclimation proteins, strategies that allow plants to survive in low water conditions may include, for example, reduced surface area, or surface oil or wax production. Plants overexpressing G1073, G1067 and G2156 have been shown to be more tolerant to dehydration in plate-based desiccation assays than wild-type control plants (as shown in tables in Examples VIII and IX). G1067, G1069 and G2789 have been shown to be more tolerant to drought in soil-based assays. Consequently, one skilled in the art would expect that some pathways involved in resistance to one of these stresses, and hence regulated by an individual transcription factor, will also be involved in resistance to another of these stresses, regulated by the same or homologous transcription factors. Of course, the overall resistance pathways are related, not identical, and therefore not all transcription factors controlling resistance to one stress will control resistance to the other stresses. Nonetheless, if a transcription factor conditions resistance to one of these stresses, it would be apparent to one skilled in the art to test for resistance to these related stresses. Thus, modifying the expression of G1073 clade members may be used to increase a plant's tolerance to low water conditions and provide the benefits of improved survival, increased yield and an extended geographic and temporal planting range. A number of the G1073 clade sequences (G1073, G1067, G1069, G2153, G2156, G2657, G3401 and G3460) have been shown to have an altered osmotic stress tolerance phenotype by virtue of the improved germination of plants overexpressing these sequences on high sugar-containing media. Most of these genes have also been shown to confer increased salt stress or desiccation tolerance to overexpressing plants (all have been shown to increase osmotic stress tolerance in Arabidopsis, and G2153 has been shown to do the same for mature tomato plants). Thus, modification of the expression of these and other structurally related disclosed transcription factor genes may be used to increase germination rate or growth under adverse osmotic conditions, which could impact survival and yield of seeds and plants. Osmotic stresses may be regulated by specific molecular control mechanisms that include genes controlling water and ion movements, functional and structural stress-induced proteins, signal perception and transduction, and free radical scavenging, and many others (Wang et al. (2001) Acta Hort. (ISHS) 560: 285-292). Instigators of osmotic stress include freezing, drought and high salinity, each of which are discussed in more detail below. In many ways, freezing, high salt and drought have similar effects on plants, not the least of which is the induction of common polypeptides that respond to these different stresses. For example, freezing is similar to water deficit in that freezing reduces the amount of water available to a plant. Exposure to freezing temperatures may lead to cellular dehydration as water leaves cells and forms ice crystals in intercellular spaces (Buchanan (2000) supra). As with high salt concentration and freezing, the problems for plants caused by low water availability include mechanical stresses caused by the withdrawal of cellular water. Thus, the incorporation of transcription factors that modify a plant's response to osmotic stress into, for example, a crop or ornamental plant, may be useful in reducing damage or loss. Specific effects caused by freezing, high salt and drought are addressed below. The genes of the Sequence Listing, including, for example, G1073, G2153, G2156, G3401, G3456, G3459, and G3460, that provide tolerance to salt may be used to engineer salt tolerant crops and trees that can flourish in soils with high saline content or under drought conditions. In particular, increased salt tolerance during the germination stage of a plant enhances survival and yield. Presently disclosed transcription factor genes that provide increased salt tolerance during germination, the seedling stage, and throughout a plant's life cycle, would find particular value for imparting survival and yield in areas where a particular crop would not normally prosper. C. Responses to Cold Stress Enhanced chilling tolerance may extend the effective growth range of chilling sensitive crop species by allowing earlier planting or later harvest. Improved chilling tolerance may be conferred by increased expression of glycerol-3-phosphate acetyltransferase in chloroplasts (see, for example, Wolter et al. (1992) et al. EMBO J. 4685-4692, and Murata et al. (1992) Nature 356: 710-713). Chilling tolerance could also serve as a model for understanding how plants adapt to water deficit. Both chilling and water stress share similar signal transduction pathways and tolerance/adaptation mechanisms. For example, acclimation to chilling temperatures can be induced by water stress or treatment with ABA. Genes induced by low temperature include dehydrins (or LEA proteins). Dehydrins are also induced by salinity, ABA, water stress, and during the late stages of embryogenesis. Another large impact of chilling occurs during post-harvest storage. For example, some fruits and vegetables do not store well at low temperatures (for example, bananas, avocados, melons, and tomatoes). The normal ripening process of the tomato is impaired if it is exposed to cool temperatures. Transcription factor genes that confer resistance to chilling temperatures thus enhance tolerance during post-harvest storage. Several of the presently disclosed transcription factor genes have been shown to confer better germination and growth in cold conditions. For example, the improved germination in cold conditions seen with G1073, G2153 G2156, G3400, G3401, G3456, G3459, and G3460 indicates a role in regulation of cold responses by these genes and other members of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides. These genes thus can be overexpressed or otherwise engineered to manipulate the response to low temperature stress. Genes that would allow germination and seedling vigor in the cold would have highly significant utility in allowing seeds to be planted earlier in the season with a high rate of survival. Transcription factor genes that confer better survival in cooler climates allow a grower to move up planting time in the spring and extend the growing season further into autumn for higher crop yields. Germination of seeds and survival at temperatures significantly below that of the mean temperature required for germination of seeds and survival of non-transformed plants would increase the potential range of a crop plant into regions in which it would otherwise fail to thrive. Increased Biomass Overexpression of G1073 and a number of other members of the G1073 clade, including G1667, G2153, G2156, G3399, G3400, G3401, G3407, G3456, G3459, G3460, and G3556, has been shown to produce plants that are larger than control, particularly at later stages of growth. For some ornamental plants, the ability to provide larger varieties with these genes or their equivalogs may be highly desirable. For many plants, including fruit-bearing trees, trees that are used for lumber production, or trees and shrubs that serve as view or wind screens, increased stature provides improved benefits in the forms of greater yield or improved screening. Crop species may also produce higher yields on larger cultivars, particularly those in which the vegetative portion of the plant is edible. Delayed Flowering In a sizeable number of species, for example, root crops, where the vegetative parts of the plants constitute the crop and the reproductive tissues are discarded, it is advantageous to identify and incorporate transcription factor genes that delay or prevent flowering in order to prevent resources being diverted into reproductive development. For example, overexpression of G1073, G1067, G1667, G2153, G2156, G3399, G3401, G3406, G3459, G3460 or G3556 delays flowering time in transgenic plants. Extending vegetative development with presently disclosed transcription factor genes could thus bring about large increases in yields. Prevention of flowering can help maximize vegetative yields and prevent escape of genetically modified organism (GMO) pollen. Summary of altered plant characteristics. Members of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides, which derive from a wide range of plants, have been shown in laboratory and field experiments to confer increased size, abiotic stress tolerance and delayed flowering phenotypes in plants that overexpress these sequences. The invention also provides polynucleotides that encode G1073 clade polypeptides, fragments thereof, conserved domains thereof, paralogs, orthologs, equivalogs, and fragments thereof. These sequences are listed in the Sequence Listing, and due to the high degree of structural similarity to the sequences of the invention, it is expected that many of the sequences for which data have not been generated will also function to increase plant biomass and/or abiotic stress tolerance. The invention also encompasses the complements of the polynucleotides. The polynucleotides are also useful for screening libraries of molecules or compounds for specific binding and for identifying other sequences of G1073 clade member by identifying orthologs having similar sequences, particularly in the conserved domains. Antisense and Co-Suppression In addition to expression of the nucleic acids of the invention as gene replacement or plant phenotype modification nucleic acids, the nucleic acids are also useful for sense and anti-sense suppression of expression, e.g., to down-regulate expression of a nucleic acid of the invention, e.g., as a further mechanism for modulating plant phenotype. That is, the nucleic acids of the invention, or subsequences or anti-sense sequences thereof, can be used to block expression of naturally occurring homologous nucleic acids. A variety of sense and anti-sense technologies are known in the art, e.g., as set forth in Lichtenstein and Nellen (1997) Antisense Technology: A Practical Approach IRL Press at Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. Antisense regulation is also described in Crowley et al. (1985) Cell 43: 633-641; Rosenberg et al. (1985) Nature 313: 703-706; Preiss et al. (1985) Nature 313: 27-32; Melton (1985) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82: 144-148; Izant and Weintraub (1985) Science 229: 345-352; and Kim and Wold (1985) Cell 42: 129-138. Additional methods for antisense regulation are known in the art. Antisense regulation has been used to reduce or inhibit expression of plant genes in, for example in European Patent Publication No. 271988. Antisense RNA may be used to reduce gene expression to produce a visible or biochemical phenotypic change in a plant (Smith et al. (1988) Nature 334: 724-726; Smith et al. (1990) Plant Mol. Biol. 14: 369-379). In general, sense or anti-sense sequences are introduced into a cell, where they are optionally amplified, for example, by transcription. Such sequences include both simple oligonucleotide sequences and catalytic sequences such as ribozymes. For example, a reduction or elimination of expression (i.e., a “knock-out”) of a transcription factor or transcription factor homolog polypeptide in a transgenic plant, e.g., to modify a plant trait, can be obtained by introducing an antisense construct corresponding to the polypeptide of interest as a cDNA. For antisense suppression, the transcription factor or homolog cDNA is arranged in reverse orientation (with respect to the coding sequence) relative to the promoter sequence in the expression vector. The introduced sequence need not be the full length cDNA or gene, and need not be identical to the cDNA or gene found in the plant type to be transformed. Typically, the antisense sequence need only be capable of hybridizing to the target gene or RNA of interest. Thus, where the introduced sequence is of shorter length, a higher degree of homology to the endogenous transcription factor sequence will be needed for effective antisense suppression. While antisense sequences of various lengths can be utilized, preferably, the introduced antisense sequence in the vector will be at least 30 nucleotides in length, and improved antisense suppression will typically be observed as the length of the antisense sequence increases. Preferably, the length of the antisense sequence in the vector will be greater than 100 nucleotides. Transcription of an antisense construct as described results in the production of RNA molecules that are the reverse complement of mRNA molecules transcribed from the endogenous transcription factor gene in the plant cell. Suppression of endogenous transcription factor gene expression can also be achieved using a ribozyme. Ribozymes are RNA molecules that possess highly specific endoribonuclease activity. The production and use of ribozymes are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,987,071 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,543,508. Synthetic ribozyme sequences including antisense RNAs can be used to confer RNA cleaving activity on the antisense RNA, such that endogenous mRNA molecules that hybridize to the antisense RNA are cleaved, which in turn leads to an enhanced antisense inhibition of endogenous gene expression. Vectors in which RNA encoded by a transcription factor or transcription factor homolog cDNA is over-expressed can also be used to obtain co-suppression of a corresponding endogenous gene, for example, in the manner described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,231,020 to Jorgensen. Such co-suppression (also termed sense suppression) does not require that the entire transcription factor cDNA be introduced into the plant cells, nor does it require that the introduced sequence be exactly identical to the endogenous transcription factor gene of interest. However, as with antisense suppression, the suppressive efficiency will be enhanced as specificity of hybridization is increased, e.g., as the introduced sequence is lengthened, and/or as the sequence similarity between the introduced sequence and the endogenous transcription factor gene is increased. Vectors expressing an untranslatable form of the transcription factor mRNA, e.g., sequences comprising one or more stop codon, or nonsense mutation, can also be used to suppress expression of an endogenous transcription factor, thereby reducing or eliminating its activity and modifying one or more traits. Methods for producing such constructs are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,583,021. Preferably, such constructs are made by introducing a premature stop codon into the transcription factor gene. Alternatively, a plant trait can be modified by gene silencing using double-strand RNA (Sharp (1999) Genes and Development 13: 139-141). Another method for abolishing the expression of a gene is by insertion mutagenesis using the T-DNA of Agrobacterium tumefaciens. After generating the insertion mutants, the mutants can be screened to identify those containing the insertion in a transcription factor or transcription factor homolog gene. Plants containing a single transgene insertion event at the desired gene can be crossed to generate homozygous plants for the mutation. Such methods are well known to those of skill in the art (see for example Koncz et al. (1992) Methods in Arabidopsis Research, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., River Edge N.J.). Suppression of endogenous transcription factor gene expression can also be achieved using RNA interference, or RNAi. RNAi is a post-transcriptional, targeted gene-silencing technique that uses double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) to incite degradation of messenger RNA (mRNA) containing the same sequence as the dsRNA (Constans, (2002) The Scientist 16:36). Small interfering RNAs, or siRNAs are produced in at least two steps: an endogenous ribonuclease cleaves longer dsRNA into shorter, 21-23 nucleotide-long RNAs. The siRNA segments then mediate the degradation of the target mRNA (Zamore, (2001) Nature Struct. Biol., 8:746-50). RNAi has been used for gene function determination in a manner similar to antisense oligonucleotides (Constans, (2002) The Scientist 16:36). Expression vectors that continually express siRNAs in transiently and stably transfected have been engineered to express small hairpin RNAs (shRNAs), which get processed in vivo into siRNAs-like molecules capable of carrying out gene-specific silencing (Brummelkamp et al., (2002) Science 296:550-553, and Paddison, et al. (2002) Genes & Dev. 16:948-958). Post-transcriptional gene silencing by double-stranded RNA is discussed in further detail by Hammond et al. (2001) Nature Rev Gen 2: 110-119, Fire et al. (1998) Nature 391: 806-811 and Timmons and Fire (1998) Nature 395: 854. Alternatively, a plant phenotype can be altered by eliminating an endogenous gene, such as a transcription factor or transcription factor homolog, e.g., by homologous recombination (Kempin et al. (1997) Nature 389: 802-803). A plant trait can also be modified by using the Cre-lox system (for example, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,658,772). A plant genome can be modified to include first and second lox sites that are then contacted with a Cre recombinase. If the lox sites are in the same orientation, the intervening DNA sequence between the two sites is excised. If the lox sites are in the opposite orientation, the intervening sequence is inverted. The polynucleotides and polypeptides of this invention can also be expressed in a plant in the absence of an expression cassette by manipulating the activity or expression level of the endogenous gene by other means, such as, for example, by ectopically expressing a gene by T-DNA activation tagging (Ichikawa et al. (1997) Nature 390 698-701; Kakimoto et al. (1996) Science 274: 982-985). This method entails transforming a plant with a gene tag containing multiple transcriptional enhancers and once the tag has inserted into the genome, expression of a flanking gene coding sequence becomes deregulated. In another example, the transcriptional machinery in a plant can be modified so as to increase transcription levels of a polynucleotide of the invention (see, for example, PCT Publications WO 96/06166 and WO 98/53057 which describe the modification of the DNA-binding specificity of zinc finger proteins by changing particular amino acids in the DNA-binding motif). The transgenic plant can also include the machinery necessary for expressing or altering the activity of a polypeptide encoded by an endogenous gene, for example, by altering the phosphorylation state of the polypeptide to maintain it in an activated state. Transgenic plants (or plant cells, or plant explants, or plant tissues) incorporating the polynucleotides of the invention and/or expressing the polypeptides of the invention can be produced by a variety of well established techniques as described above. Following construction of a vector, most typically an expression cassette, including a polynucleotide, e.g., encoding a transcription factor or transcription factor homolog, of the invention, standard techniques can be used to introduce the polynucleotide into a plant, a plant cell, a plant explant or a plant tissue of interest. Optionally, the plant cell, explant or tissue can be regenerated to produce a transgenic plant. The plant can be any higher plant, including gymnosperms, monocotyledonous and dicotyledenous plants. Suitable protocols are available for Leguminosae (alfalfa, soybean, clover, etc.), Umbelliferae (carrot, celery, parsnip), Cruciferae (cabbage, radish, rapeseed, broccoli, etc.), Curcurbitaceae (melons and cucumber), Gramineae (wheat, corn, rice, barley, millet, etc.), Solanaceae (potato, tomato, tobacco, peppers, etc.), and various other crops. See protocols described in Ammirato et al., Editors, (1984) Handbook of Plant Cell Culture—Crop Species, Macmillan Publ. Co., New York N.Y.; Shimamoto et al. (1989) Nature 338: 274-276; Fromm et al. (1990) Bio/Technol. 8: 833-839; and Vasil et al. (1990) Bio/Technol. 8: 429-434. Transformation and regeneration of both monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plant cells are now routine, and the selection of the most appropriate transformation technique will be determined by the practitioner. The choice of method will vary with the type of plant to be transformed; those skilled in the art will recognize the suitability of particular methods for given plant types. Suitable methods can include, but are not limited to: electroporation of plant protoplasts; liposome-mediated transformation; polyethylene glycol (PEG) mediated transformation; transformation using viruses; micro-injection of plant cells; micro-projectile bombardment of plant cells; vacuum infiltration; and Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. Transformation means introducing a nucleotide sequence into a plant in a manner to cause stable or transient expression of the sequence. Successful examples of the modification of plant characteristics by transformation with cloned sequences which serve to illustrate the current knowledge in this field of technology, and which are herein incorporated by reference, include: U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,571,706; 5,677,175; 5,510,471; 5,750,386; 5,597,945; 5,589,615; 5,750,871; 5,268,526; 5,780,708; 5,538,880; 5,773,269; 5,736,369 and 5,610,042. Following transformation, plants are preferably selected using a dominant selectable marker incorporated into the transformation vector. Typically, such a marker will confer antibiotic or herbicide resistance on the transformed plants, and selection of transformants can be accomplished by exposing the plants to appropriate concentrations of the antibiotic or herbicide. After transformed plants are selected and grown to maturity, those plants showing a modified trait are identified. The modified trait can be any of those traits described above. Additionally, to confirm that the modified trait is due to changes in expression levels or activity of the polypeptide or polynucleotide of the invention can be determined by analyzing mRNA expression using Northern blots, RT-PCR or microarrays, or protein expression using immunoblots or Western blots or gel shift assays. Integrated Systems for Determining Sequence Identity In addition to providing compositions and methods to improve plant traits, the present invention may be an integrated system, computer or computer readable medium that comprises an instruction set for determining the identity of one or more sequences in a database. In addition, the instruction set can be used to generate or identify sequences that meet any specified criteria. Furthermore, the instruction set may be used to associate or link certain functional benefits, such improved characteristics, with one or more identified sequence. For example, the instruction set can include, e.g., a sequence comparison or other alignment program, e.g., an available program such as, for example, the Wisconsin Package Version 10.0, such as BLAST, FASTA, PILEUP, FINDPATTERNS or the like (GCG, Madison, Wis.). Public sequence databases such as GenBank, EMBL, Swiss-Prot and PIR or private sequence databases such as PHYTOSEQ sequence database (Incyte Genomics,Wilmington, Del.) can be searched. Alignment of sequences for comparison can be conducted by the local homology algorithm of Smith and Waterman (1981) Adv. Appl. Math. 2: 482-489, by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman and Wunsch (1970) J. Mol. Biol. 48: 443-453, by the search for similarity method of Pearson and Lipman (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 2444-2448, by computerized implementations of these algorithms. After alignment, sequence comparisons between two (or more) polynucleotides or polypeptides are typically performed by comparing sequences of the two sequences over a comparison window to identify and compare local regions of sequence similarity. The comparison window can be a segment of at least about 20 contiguous positions, usually about 50 to about 200, more usually about 100 to about 150 contiguous positions. A description of the method is provided in Ausubel et al. (through 2000) supra). A variety of methods for determining sequence relationships can be used, including manual alignment and computer assisted sequence alignment and analysis. This later approach is a preferred approach in the present invention, due to the increased throughput afforded by computer assisted methods. As noted above, a variety of computer programs for performing sequence alignment are available, or can be produced by one of skill. One example algorithm that is suitable for determining percent sequence identity and sequence similarity is the BLAST algorithm, which is described in Altschul et al. (1990) supra. Software for performing BLAST analyses is publicly available, e.g., through the National Library of Medicine's National Center for Biotechnology Information (ncbi.nlm.nih; see at world wide web (www) National Institutes of Health US government (gov) website). This algorithm involves first identifying high scoring sequence pairs (HSPs) by identifying short words of length W in the query sequence, which either match or satisfy some positive-valued threshold score T when aligned with a word of the same length in a database sequence. T is referred to as the neighborhood word score threshold (Altschul et al. (1990, 1993) supra). These initial neighborhood word hits act as seeds for initiating searches to find longer HSPs containing them. The word hits are then extended in both directions along each sequence for as far as the cumulative alignment score can be increased. Cumulative scores are calculated using, for nucleotide sequences, the parameters M (reward score for a pair of matching residues; always >0) and N (penalty score for mismatching residues; always <0). For amino acid sequences, a scoring matrix is used to calculate the cumulative score. Extension of the word hits in each direction are halted when: the cumulative alignment score falls off by the quantity X from its maximum achieved value; the cumulative score goes to zero or below, due to the accumulation of one or more negative-scoring residue alignments; or the end of either sequence is reached. The BLAST algorithm parameters W, T, and X determine the sensitivity and speed of the alignment. The BLASTN program (for nucleotide sequences) uses as defaults a wordlength (W) of 11, an expectation (E) of 10, a cutoff of 100, M=5, N=−4, and a comparison of both strands. For amino acid sequences, the BLASTP program uses as defaults a wordlength (W) of 3, an expectation (E) of 10, and the BLOSUM62 scoring matrix (see Henikoff and Henikoff (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 10915-10919). Unless otherwise indicated, “sequence identity” here refers to the % sequence identity generated from a tblastx using the NCBI version of the algorithm at the default settings using gapped alignments with the filter “off” (see, for example, NIH NLM NCBI website at ncbi.nlm.nih). In addition to calculating percent sequence identity, the BLAST algorithm also performs a statistical analysis of the similarity between two sequences (see, for example, Karlin and Altschul (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 5873-5787). One measure of similarity provided by the BLAST algorithm is the smallest sum probability (P(N)), which provides an indication of the probability by which a match between two nucleotide or amino acid sequences would occur by chance. For example, a nucleic acid is considered similar to a reference sequence (and, therefore, in this context, homologous) if the smallest sum probability in a comparison of the test nucleic acid to the reference nucleic acid is less than about 0.1, or less than about 0.01, and or even less than about 0.001. An additional example of a useful sequence alignment algorithm is PILEUP. PILEUP creates a multiple sequence alignment from a group of related sequences using progressive, pairwise alignments. The program can align, for example, up to 300 sequences of a maximum length of 5,000 letters. The integrated system, or computer typically includes a user input interface allowing a user to selectively view one or more sequence records corresponding to the one or more character strings, as well as an instruction set which aligns the one or more character strings with each other or with an additional character string to identify one or more region of sequence similarity. The system may include a link of one or more character strings with a particular phenotype or gene function. Typically, the system includes a user readable output element that displays an alignment produced by the alignment instruction set. The methods of this invention can be implemented in a localized or distributed computing environment. In a distributed environment, the methods may be implemented on a single computer comprising multiple processors or on a multiplicity of computers. The computers can be linked, e.g. through a common bus, but more preferably the computer(s) are nodes on a network. The network can be a generalized or a dedicated local or wide-area network and, in certain preferred embodiments, the computers may be components of an intra-net or an internet. Thus, the invention provides methods for identifying a sequence similar or homologous to one or more polynucleotides as noted herein, or one or more target polypeptides encoded by the polynucleotides, or otherwise noted herein and may include linking or associating a given plant phenotype or gene function with a sequence. In the methods, a sequence database is provided (locally or across an inter or intra net) and a query is made against the sequence database using the relevant sequences herein and associated plant phenotypes or gene functions. Any sequence herein can be entered into the database, before or after querying the database. This provides for both expansion of the database and, if done before the querying step, for insertion of control sequences into the database. The control sequences can be detected by the query to ensure the general integrity of both the database and the query. As noted, the query can be performed using a web browser based interface. For example, the database can be a centralized public database such as those noted herein, and the querying can be done from a remote terminal or computer across an internet or intranet. Any sequence herein can be used to identify a similar, homologous, paralogous, or orthologous sequence in another plant. This provides means for identifying endogenous sequences in other plants that may be useful to alter a trait of progeny plants, which results from crossing two plants of different strain. For example, sequences that encode an ortholog of any of the sequences herein that naturally occur in a plant with a desired trait can be identified using the sequences disclosed herein. The plant is then crossed with a second plant of the same species but which does not have the desired trait to produce progeny which can then be used in further crossing experiments to produce the desired trait in the second plant. Therefore the resulting progeny plant contains no transgenes; expression of the endogenous sequence may also be regulated by treatment with a particular chemical or other means, such as EMR. Some examples of such compounds well known in the art include: ethylene; cytokinins; phenolic compounds, which stimulate the transcription of the genes needed for infection; specific monosaccharides and acidic environments which potentiate vir gene induction; acidic polysaccharides which induce one or more chromosomal genes; and opines; other mechanisms include light or dark treatment (for a review of examples of such treatments, see, Winans (1992) Microbiol. Rev. 56: 12-31; Eyal et al. (1992) Plant Mol. Biol. 19:589-599; Chrispeels et al. (2000) Plant Mol. Biol. 42: 279-290; Piazza et al. (2002) Plant Physiol. 128:1077-1086). Table 5 lists sequences discovered to be orthologous to a number of representative transcription factors of the present invention. The column headings include the transcription factors listed by (a) the SEQ ID NO: of the ortholog or nucleotide encoding the ortholog; (b) the Sequence Identifier or GenBank Accession Number; (c) the species from which the orthologs to the transcription factors are derived; and (d) the smallest sum probability during by BLAST analysis. TABLE 5 Paralogs and Orthologs and Other Related Genes of Representative Arabidopsis Transcription Factor Genes identified using BLAST SEQ ID NO: of Smallest Sum Ortholog or Sequence Probability to Nucleotide Identifier Arabidopsis Encoding or Accession Species from Which Polynucleotide Ortholog GID No. Number Ortholog is Derived Sequence 1 G1073 Arabidopsis thaliana 3 G1067 Arabidopsis thaliana 5 G2153 Arabidopsis thaliana 7 G2156 Arabidopsis thaliana 41 G1069 Arabidopsis thaliana 5e−90** 43 G1945 Arabidopsis thaliana 5e−51** 45 G2155 Arabidopsis thaliana 6e−43** 47 G1070 Arabidopsis thaliana 5e−70** 49 G2657 Arabidopsis thaliana 3e−70† 51 G1075 Arabidopsis thaliana 8e−72** 53 G1076 Arabidopsis thaliana 9e−74** 9 G3399 AP004165 Oryza sativa (japonica 1e−81† cultivar-group) 11 G3407 AP004635 Oryza sativa 5e−90† 13 G3456 BM525692 Glycine max 2e−87** 39 G3556 Oryza sativa 7e−67†† 15 G3459 C33095_1 Glycine max 6e−67†† 17 G3460 C33095_2 Glycine max 1e−66* 65 BH566718 Brassica oleracea 1e−129** 67 BH685875 Brassica oleracea 1e−124† BZ432677 Brassica oleracea 1e−113** BZ433664 Brassica oleracea 1e−107† BH730050 Brassica oleracea 1e−104† AP004971 Lotus corniculatus var. 3e−91** japonicus CC729476 Zea mays 1e−83** 21 G3403 AP004020 Oryza sativa (japonica 2e−81** cultivar-group) AAAA01000486 Oryza sativa (indica 7e−80* cultivar-group) CB003423 Vitis vinifera 2e−76* CC645378 Zea mays 4e−75* 23 G3458 C32394_2 Glycine max 9e−73** 25 G3406 AL662981 Oryza sativa 7e−73* BQ785950 Glycine max 3e−73* BH975957 Brassica oleracea 9e−72* BQ865858 Lactuca sativa 7e−72* CB891166 Medicago truncatula 5e−72* CF229888 Populus x canescens 2e−71* BQ863249 Lactuca sativa 2e−71* BG134451 Lycopersicon esculentum 3e−70* 27 G3405 AP005653 Oryza sativa (japonica 1e−69** cultivar-group) 29 G3400 AP005477 Oryza sativa (japonica 2e−67* cultivar-group) 31 G3404 AP003526 Oryza sativa (japonica 2e−67* cultivar-group) AP004971 Lotus corniculatus var. 7e−66* japonicus BM110212 Solanum tuberosum 8e−65* AC124953 Medicago truncatula 2e−63* 35 G3462 BI321563 Glycine max 3e−61* BH660108 Brassica oleracea 2e−61† BQ838600 Triticum aestivum 2e−59* CD825510 Brassica napus 7e−58† BF254863 Hordeum vulgare 1e−56* 37 G3401 AAAA01017331 Oryza sativa (japonica 9e−42* SC17331 cultivar-group AP004587 *Smallest sum probability comparison to G1073 †Smallest sum probability comparison to G1067 **Smallest sum probability comparison to G2153 ††Smallest sum probability comparison to 2156 Molecular Modeling Another means that may be used to confirm the utility and function of transcription factor sequences that are orthologous or paralogous to presently disclosed transcription factors is through the use of molecular modeling software. Molecular modeling is routinely used to predict polypeptide structure, and a variety of protein structure modeling programs, such as “Insight II” (Accelrys, Inc.) are commercially available for this purpose. Modeling can thus be used to predict which residues of a polypeptide can be changed without altering function (Crameri et al. (2003) U.S. Pat. No. 6,521,453). Thus, polypeptides that are sequentially similar can be shown to have a high likelihood of similar function by their structural similarity, which may, for example, be established by comparison of regions of superstructure. The relative tendencies of amino acids to form regions of superstructure (for example, helixes and β-sheets) are well established. For example, O'Neil et al. ((1990) Science 250: 646-651) have discussed in detail the helix forming tendencies of amino acids. Tables of relative structure forming activity for amino acids can be used as substitution tables to predict which residues can be functionally substituted in a given region, for example, in DNA-binding domains of known transcription factors and equivalogs. Homologs that are likely to be functionally similar can then be identified. Of particular interest is the structure of a transcription factor in the region of its conserved domains, such as those identified in Table 1. Structural analyses may be performed by comparing the structure of the known transcription factor around its conserved domain with those of orthologs and paralogs. Analysis of a number of polypeptides within a transcription factor group or clade, including the functionally or sequentially similar polypeptides provided in the Sequence Listing, may also provide an understanding of structural elements required to regulate transcription within a given family. EXAMPLES It is to be understood that this invention is not limited to the particular devices, machines, materials and methods described. Although particular embodiments are described, equivalent embodiments may be used to practice the invention. The invention, now being generally described, will be more readily understood by reference to the following examples, which are included merely for purposes of illustration of certain aspects and embodiments of the present invention and are not intended to limit the invention. It will be recognized by one of skill in the art that a transcription factor that is associated with a particular first trait may also be associated with at least one other, unrelated and inherent second trait which was not predicted by the first trait. Example I Full Length Gene Identification and Cloning Putative transcription factor sequences (genomic or ESTs) related to known transcription factors were identified in the Arabidopsis thaliana GenBank database using the tblastn sequence analysis program using default parameters and a P-value cutoff threshold of −4 or −5 or lower, depending on the length of the query sequence. Putative transcription factor sequence hits were then screened to identify those containing particular sequence strings. If the sequence hits contained such sequence strings, the sequences were confirmed as transcription factors. Alternatively, Arabidopsis thaliana cDNA libraries derived from different tissues or treatments, or genomic libraries were screened to identify novel members of a transcription family using a low stringency hybridization approach. Probes were synthesized using gene specific primers in a standard PCR reaction (annealing temperature 60° C.) and labeled with 32P dCTP using the High Prime DNA Labeling Kit (Boehringer Mannheim Corp. (now Roche Diagnostics Corp., Indianapolis, Ind.). Purified radiolabelled probes were added to filters immersed in Church hybridization medium (0.5 M NaPO4 pH 7.0, 7% SDS, 1% w/v bovine serum albumin) and hybridized overnight at 60° C. with shaking. Filters were washed two times for 45 to 60 minutes with 1×SCC, 1% SDS at 60° C. To identify additional sequence 5′ or 3′ of a partial cDNA sequence in a cDNA library, 5′ and 3′ rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) was performed using the MARATHON cDNA amplification kit (Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.). Generally, the method entailed first isolating poly(A) mRNA, performing first and second strand cDNA synthesis to generate double stranded cDNA, blunting cDNA ends, followed by ligation of the MARATHON Adaptor to the cDNA to form a library of adaptor-ligated ds cDNA. Gene-specific primers were designed to be used along with adaptor specific primers for both 5′ and 3′ RACE reactions. Nested primers, rather than single primers, were used to increase PCR specificity. Using 5′ and 3′ RACE reactions, 5′ and 3′ RACE fragments were obtained, sequenced and cloned. The process can be repeated until 5′ and 3′ ends of the full-length gene were identified. Then the full-length cDNA was generated by PCR using primers specific to 5′ and 3′ ends of the gene by end-to-end PCR. Example II Construction of Expression Vectors The sequence was amplified from a genomic or cDNA library using primers specific to sequences upstream and downstream of the coding region. The expression vector was pMEN20 or pMEN65, which are both derived from pMON316 (Sanders et al. (1987) Nucleic Acids Res. 15:1543-1558) and contain the CaMV 35S promoter to express transgenes. To clone the sequence into the vector, both pMEN20 and the amplified DNA fragment were digested separately with SalI and NotI restriction enzymes at 37° C. for 2 hours. The digestion products were subject to electrophoresis in a 0.8% agarose gel and visualized by ethidium bromide staining. The DNA fragments containing the sequence and the linearized plasmid were excised and purified by using a QIAQUICK gel extraction kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.). The fragments of interest were ligated at a ratio of 3:1 (vector to insert). Ligation reactions using T4 DNA ligase (New England Biolabs, Beverly Mass.) were carried out at 16° C. for 16 hours. The ligated DNAs were transformed into competent cells of the E. coli strain DH5alpha by using the heat shock method. The transformations were plated on LB plates containing 50 mg/l kanamycin (Sigma Chemical Co. St. Louis Mo.). Individual colonies were grown overnight in five milliliters of LB broth containing 50 mg/l kanamycin at 37° C. Plasmid DNA was purified by using Qiaquick Mini Prep kits (Qiagen, Valencia Calif.). For the two-component system, two separate constructs are used: pPromoter::LexA-GAL4TA and opLexA:: transcription factor. The first of these (promoter::LexA-GAL4TA) comprised a desired promoter cloned in front of a LexA DNA binding domain fused to a GAL4 activation domain. The construct vector backbone (pMEN48, also known as P5375) also carried a kanamycin resistance marker along with an opLexA::GFP reporter. Transgenic lines were obtained containing this first component and at least one line was selected that showed reproducible expression of the reporter gene in the desired pattern through a number of generations. A homozygous population was established for that line and the population was supertransformed (to produce a supertransformation or “supTfn”) with the second construct (opLexA:: transcription factor) carrying the transcription factor of interest cloned behind a LexA operator site. This second construct vector backbone (pMEN53, also known as P5381) also contained a sulfonamide resistance marker. Example III Transformation of Agrobacterium with the Expression Vector After the plasmid vector containing the gene was constructed, the vector was used to transform Agrobacterium tumefaciens cells expressing the gene products. The stock of Agrobacterium tumefaciens cells for transformation were made as described by Nagel et al. (1990) FEMS Microbiol Letts. 67: 325-328. Agrobacterium strain ABI was grown in 250 ml LB medium (Sigma) overnight at 28° C. with shaking until an absorbance over 1 cm at 600 nm (A600) of 0.5-1.0 was reached. Cells were harvested by centrifugation at 4,000×g for 15 minutes at 4° C. Cells were then resuspended in 250 μl chilled buffer (1 mM HEPES, pH adjusted to 7.0 with KOH). Cells were centrifuged again as described above and resuspended in 125 μl chilled buffer. Cells were then centrifuged and resuspended two more times in the same HEPES buffer as described above at a volume of 100 μl and 750 μl, respectively. Resuspended cells were then distributed into 40 μl aliquots, quickly frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at −80° C. Agrobacterium cells were transformed with plasmids prepared as described above following the protocol described by Nagel et al. 1990) supra. For each DNA construct to be transformed, 50-100 ng DNA (generally resuspended in 10 mM Tris-HCl, 1 mM EDTA, pH 8.0) was mixed with 40 μl of Agrobacterium cells. The DNA/cell mixture was then transferred to a chilled cuvette with a 2 mm electrode gap and subject to a 2.5 kV charge dissipated at 25 μF and 200 μF using a Gene Pulser II apparatus (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). After electroporation, cells were immediately resuspended in 1.0 ml LB and allowed to recover without antibiotic selection for 2-4 hours at 28° C. in a shaking incubator. After recovery, cells were plated onto selective medium of LB broth containing 100 μg/ml spectinomycin (Sigma) and incubated for 24-48 hours at 28° C. Single colonies were then picked and inoculated in fresh medium. The presence of the plasmid construct was verified by PCR amplification and sequence analysis. Example IV Transformation of Arabidopsis Plants with Agrobacterium tumefaciens with Expression Vector After transformation of Agrobacterium tumefaciens with plasmid vectors containing the gene, single Agrobacterium colonies were identified, propagated, and used to transform Arabidopsis plants. Briefly, 500 ml cultures of LB medium containing 50 mg/l kanamycin were inoculated with the colonies and grown at 28° C. with shaking for 2 days until an optical absorbance at 600 nm wavelength over 1 cm (A600) of >2.0 is reached. Cells were then harvested by centrifugation at 4,000×g for 10 minutes, and resuspended in infiltration medium (½× Murashige and Skoog salts (Sigma), 1× Gamborg's B-5 vitamins (Sigma), 5.0% (w/v) sucrose (Sigma), 0.044 μM benzylamino purine (Sigma), 200 μl/l Silwet L-77 (Lehle Seeds) until an A600 of 0.8 was reached. Prior to transformation, Arabidopsis thaliana seeds (ecotype Columbia) were sown at a density of ˜10 plants per 4″ pot onto Pro-Mix BX potting medium (Hummert International) covered with fiberglass mesh (18 mm×16 mm). Plants were grown under continuous illumination (50-75 μE/m2/second) at 22-23° C. with 65-70% relative humidity. After about 4 weeks, primary inflorescence stems (bolts) are cut off to encourage growth of multiple secondary bolts. After flowering of the mature secondary bolts, plants were prepared for transformation by removal of all siliques and opened flowers. The pots were then immersed upside down in the mixture of Agrobacterium infiltration medium as described above for 30 seconds, and placed on their sides to allow draining into a 1′×2′ flat surface covered with plastic wrap. After 24 hours, the plastic wrap was removed and pots are turned upright. The immersion procedure was repeated one week later, for a total of two immersions per pot. Seeds were then collected from each transformation pot and analyzed following the protocol described below. Example V Identification of Arabidopsis Primary Transformants Seeds collected from the transformation pots were sterilized essentially as follows. Seeds were dispersed into in a solution containing 0.1% (v/v) Triton X-100 (Sigma) and sterile water and washed by shaking the suspension for 20 minutes. The wash solution was then drained and replaced with fresh wash solution to wash the seeds for 20 minutes with shaking. After removal of the ethanol/detergent solution, a solution containing 0.1% (v/v) Triton X-100 and 30% (v/v) bleach (CLOROX; Clorox Corp. Oakland Calif.) was added to the seeds, and the suspension was shaken for 10 minutes. After removal of the bleach/detergent solution, seeds were then washed five times in sterile distilled water. The seeds were stored in the last wash water at 4° C. for 2 days in the dark before being plated onto antibiotic selection medium (1× Murashige and Skoog salts (pH adjusted to 5.7 with 1M KOH), 1× Gamborg's B-5 vitamins, 0.9% phytagar (Life Technologies), and 50 mg/l kanamycin). Seeds were germinated under continuous illumination (50-75 μE/m2/second) at 22-23° C. After 7-10 days of growth under these conditions, kanamycin resistant primary transformants (T1 generation) were visible and obtained. These seedlings were transferred first to fresh selection plates where the seedlings continued to grow for 3-5 more days, and then to soil (Pro-Mix BX potting medium). Primary transformants were crossed and progeny seeds (T2) collected; kanamycin resistant seedlings were selected and analyzed. The expression levels of the recombinant polynucleotides in the transformants varies from about a 5% expression level increase to a least a 100% expression level increase. Similar observations are made with respect to polypeptide level expression. Example VI Identification of Arabidopsis Plants with Transcription Factor Gene Knockouts The screening of insertion mutagenized Arabidopsis collections for null mutants in a known target gene was essentially as described in Krysan et al. (1999) Plant Cell 11: 2283-2290. Briefly, gene-specific primers, nested by 5-250 base pairs to each other, were designed from the 5′ and 3′ regions of a known target gene. Similarly, nested sets of primers were also created specific to each of the T-DNA or transposon ends (the “right” and “left” borders). All possible combinations of gene specific and T-DNA/transposon primers were used to detect by PCR an insertion event within or close to the target gene. The amplified DNA fragments were then sequenced which allows the precise determination of the T-DNA/transposon insertion point relative to the target gene. Insertion events within the coding or intervening sequence of the genes were deconvoluted from a pool comprising a plurality of insertion events to a single unique mutant plant for functional characterization. The method is described in more detail in Yu and Adam, U.S. application Ser. No. 09/177,733 filed Oct. 23, 1998. Example VII Identification of Modified Phenotypes in Overexpressing or Knockout Plants In some instances, expression patterns of the stress-induced genes may be monitored by microarray experiments. In these experiments, cDNAs are generated by PCR and resuspended at a final concentration of ˜100 ng/μl in 3×SSC or 150 mM Na-phosphate (Eisen and Brown (1999) Methods Enzymol. 303: 179-205). The cDNAs are spotted on microscope glass slides coated with polylysine. The prepared cDNAs are aliquoted into 384 well plates and spotted on the slides using, for example, an x-y-z gantry (OmniGrid) which may be purchased from GeneMachines (Menlo Park, Calif.) outfitted with quill type pins which may be purchased from Telechem International (Sunnyvale, Calif.). After spotting, the arrays are cured for a minimum of one week at room temperature, rehydrated and blocked following the protocol recommended by Eisen and Brown (1999; supra). Sample total RNA (10 μg) samples are labeled using fluorescent Cy3 and Cy5 dyes. Labeled samples are resuspended in 4×SSC/0.03% SDS/4 μg salmon sperm DNA/2 μg tRNA/50 mM Na-pyrophosphate, heated for 95° C. for 2.5 minutes, spun down and placed on the array. The array is then covered with a glass coverslip and placed in a sealed chamber. The chamber is then kept in a water bath at 62° C. overnight. The arrays are washed as described in Eisen and Brown (1999) supra) and scanned on a General Scanning 3000 laser scanner. The resulting files are subsequently quantified using IMAGENE, software (BioDiscovery, Los Angeles Calif.). RT-PCR experiments may be performed to identify those genes induced after exposure to abiotic stresses. Generally, the gene expression patterns from ground plant leaf tissue is examined. Reverse transcriptase PCR was conducted using gene specific primers within the coding region for each sequence identified. The primers were designed near the 3′ region of each DNA binding sequence initially identified. Total RNA from these ground leaf tissues was isolated using the CTAB extraction protocol. Once extracted total RNA was normalized in concentration across all the tissue types to ensure that the PCR reaction for each tissue received the same amount of cDNA template using the 28S band as reference. Poly(A+) RNA was purified using a modified protocol from the Qiagen OLIGOTEX purification kit batch protocol. cDNA was synthesized using standard protocols. After the first strand cDNA synthesis, primers for Actin 2 were used to normalize the concentration of cDNA across the tissue types. Actin 2 is found to be constitutively expressed in fairly equal levels across the tissue types being investigated. For RT PCR, cDNA template was mixed with corresponding primers and Taq DNA polymerase. Each reaction consisted of 0.2 μl cDNA template, 2 μl 10×Tricine buffer, 2 μl 10× Tricine buffer and 16.8 μl water, 0.05 μl Primer 1, 0.05 μl, Primer 2, 0.3 μl Taq DNA polymerase and 8.6 μl water. The 96 well plate is covered with microfilm and set in the thermocycler to start the reaction cycle. By way of illustration, the reaction cycle may comprise the following steps: Step 1: 93° C. for 3 minutes; Step 2: 93° C. for 30 seconds; Step 3: 65° C. for 1 minute; Step 4: 72° C. for 2 minutes; Steps 2, 3 and 4 are repeated for 28 cycles; Step 5: 72° C. for 5 minutes; and Step 6 4° C. To amplify more products, for example, to identify genes that have very low expression, additional steps may be performed: The following method illustrates a method that may be used in this regard. The PCR plate is placed back in the thermocycler for 8 more cycles of steps 2-4. Step 2 93° C. for 30 seconds; Step 3 65° C. for 1 minute; Step 4 72° C. for 2 minutes, repeated for 8 cycles; and Step 5 4° C. Eight microliters of PCR product and 1.5 μl of loading dye are loaded on a 1.2% agarose gel for analysis after 28 cycles and 36 cycles. Expression levels of specific transcripts are considered low if they were only detectable after 36 cycles of PCR. Expression levels are considered medium or high depending on the levels of transcript compared with observed transcript levels for an internal control such as actin2. Transcript levels are determined in repeat experiments and compared to transcript levels in control (e.g., non-transformed) plants. Modified phenotypes observed for particular overexpressor plants may include increased biomass, and/or increased or decreased abiotic stress tolerance or resistance. For a particular overexpressor that shows a less beneficial characteristic, such as reduced abiotic stress tolerance or resistance, it may be more useful to select a plant with a decreased expression of the particular transcription factor. For a particular knockout that shows a less beneficial characteristic, such as decreased abiotic stress tolerance, it may be more useful to select a plant with an increased expression of the particular transcription factor. The germination assays in this example followed modifications of the same basic protocol. Sterile seeds were sown on the conditional media listed below. Plates were incubated at 22° C. under 24-hour light (120-130 μEin/m2/s) in a growth chamber. Evaluation of germination and seedling vigor was conducted 3 to 15 days after planting. The basal media was 80% Murashige-Skoog medium (MS)+vitamins. For stress experiments conducted with more mature plants, seeds were germinated and grown for seven days on MS+vitamins+1% sucrose at 22° C. and then transferred to cold and heat stress conditions. The plants were either exposed to cold stress (6 hour exposure to 4-8° C.), or heat stress (32° C. was applied for five days, after which the plants were transferred back 22° C. for recovery and evaluated after 5 days relative to controls not exposed to the depressed or elevated temperature). The salt stress assays were intended to find genes that confer better germination, seedling vigor or growth in high salt. Evaporation from the soil surface causes upward water movement and salt accumulation in the upper soil layer where the seeds are placed. Thus, germination normally takes place at a salt concentration much higher than the mean salt concentration of in the whole soil profile. Plants differ in their tolerance to NaCl depending on their stage of development, therefore seed germination, seedling vigor, and plant growth responses were evaluated. Osmotic stress assays (including NaCl and mannitol assays) were conducted to determine if an osmotic stress phenotype was NaCl-specific or if it was a general osmotic stress related phenotype. Plants tolerant to osmotic stress could also have more tolerance to drought and/or freezing. For salt and osmotic stress germination experiments, the medium was supplemented with 150 mM NaCl or 300 mM mannitol. Growth regulator sensitivity assays were performed in MS media, vitamins, and either 0.3 μM ABA, 9.4% sucrose, or 5% glucose. Drought assays were performed to find genes that mediate better plant survival after short-term, severe water deprivation. Ion leakage is measured if needed. Positive osmotic stress tolerance results also support a drought-tolerant phenotype. Soil-based drought screens were performed with Arabidopsis plants overexpressing the transcription factors listed in the Sequence Listing, where noted below. Seeds from wild-type Arabidopsis plants, or plants overexpressing a polypeptide of the invention, were stratified for three days at 4° C. in 0.1% agarose. Fourteen seeds of each overexpressor or wild-type were then sown in three inch clay pots containing a 50:50 mix of vermiculite:perlite topped with a small layer of MetroMix 200 and grown for fifteen days under 24 hr light. Pots containing wild-type and overexpressing seedlings were placed in flats in random order. Drought stress was initiated by placing pots on absorbent paper for seven to eight days. The seedlings were considered to be sufficiently stressed when the majority of the pots containing wild-type seedlings within a flat had become severely wilted. Pots were then re-watered and survival was scored four to seven days later. Plants were ranked against wild-type controls for each of two criteria: tolerance to the drought conditions and recovery (survival) following re-watering. At the end of the initial drought period, each pot was assigned a numeric value score depending on the above criteria. A low value was assigned to plants with an extremely poor appearance (i.e., the plants were uniformly brown) and a high value given to plants that were rated very healthy in appearance (i.e., the plants were all green). After the plants were rewatered and incubated an additional four to seven days, the plants were reevaluated to indicate the degree of recovery from the water deprivation treatment. An analysis was then conducted to determine which plants best survived water deprivation, identifying the transgenes that consistently conferred drought-tolerant phenotypes and their ability to recover from this treatment. The analysis was performed by comparing overall and within-flat tabulations with a set of statistical models to account for variations between batches. Several measures of survival were tabulated, including: (a) the average proportion of plants surviving relative to wild-type survival within the same flat; (b) the median proportion surviving relative to wild-type survival within the same flat; (c) the overall average survival (taken over all batches, flats, and pots); (d) the overall average survival relative to the overall wild-type survival; and (e) the average visual score of plant health before rewatering. Experiments were performed to identify those transformants that exhibited modified sugar-sensing. For such studies, seeds from transformants were germinated on high sugar-containing media (5% glucose, 9.4% sucrose) that normally partially restrict hypocotyl elongation. Plants with altered sugar sensing may have either longer or shorter hypocotyls than normal plants when grown on this media. Additionally, other plant traits may be varied such as root mass. Sugar sensing assays were intended to find genes involved in sugar sensing by germinating seeds on high concentrations of sucrose and glucose and looking for degrees of hypocotyl elongation. The germination assay on mannitol controlled for responses related to osmotic stress. Sugars are key regulatory molecules that affect diverse processes in higher plants including germination, growth, flowering, senescence, sugar metabolism and photosynthesis. Sucrose is the major transport form of photosynthate and its flux through cells has been shown to affect gene expression and alter storage compound accumulation in seeds (source-sink relationships). Glucose-specific hexose-sensing has also been described in plants and is implicated in cell division and repression of “famine” genes (photosynthetic or glyoxylate cycles). Temperature stress assays were carried out to find genes that confer better germination, seedling vigor or plant growth under temperature stress (cold, freezing and heat). Temperature stress cold germination experiments were carried out at 8° C. Heat stress germination experiments were conducted at 32° C. to 37° C. for 6 hours of exposure. Flowering time was measured by the number of rosette leaves present when a visible inflorescence of approximately 3 cm is apparent. Rosette and total leaf number on the progeny stem are tightly correlated with the timing of flowering (Koomneef et al. (1991) Mol. Gen. Genet. 229: 57-66). The vernalization response was also measured. For vernalization treatments, seeds were sown to MS agar plates, sealed with micropore tape, and placed in a 4° C. cold room with low light levels for 6-8 weeks. The plates were then transferred to the growth rooms alongside plates containing freshly sown non-vernalized controls. Rosette leaves were counted when a visible inflorescence of approximately 3 cm was apparent. The transcription factor sequences of the Sequence Listing, or those in the present Tables or Figures, and their equivalogs, can be used to prepare transgenic plants and plants with altered traits. The specific transgenic plants listed below are produced from the sequences of the Sequence Listing, as noted. The Sequence Listing, Table 5 and Example VIII provide exemplary polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences of the invention. Example VIII Genes that Confer Significant Improvements to Plants This example provides experimental evidence for increased biomass and abiotic stress tolerance controlled by the transcription factor polypeptides and polypeptides of the invention. Experiments were performed to identify those transformants that exhibited a morphological difference relative to wild-type control plants, i.e., a modified structure and/or development characteristics. For such studies, the transformants were observed by eye to identify novel structural or developmental characteristics associated with the ectopic expression of the polynucleotides or polypeptides of the invention. Examples of genes and equivalogs that confer significant improvements to overexpressing plants are noted below. Experimental observations made with regard to specific genes whose expression has been modified in overexpressing plants, and potential applications based on these observations, are also presented. The transcription factor sequences of the Sequence Listing can be used to prepare transgenic plants with altered traits. From the experimental results of the plate-based physiology assays presented in the tables of this Example, it may be inferred that a representative number of sequences from diverse plant species imparted increased stress tolerance in a range of abiotic stress assays. Observed effects of overexpression on flowering time are also noted in the text below. These comparable effects indicate that sequences found within the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides are functionally related and can be used to confer various types of abiotic stress tolerance in plants. A number of these genes concurrently confer increased biomass and increased tolerance to multiple abiotic stresses. Results: As noted below and in previously-performed assays, a representative number of members of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides, including G1073, G1067, G1069, G2153, G2156, G3456, G3399, G3400, G3401, G3406, G3456, G3459 and G3460, increase abiotic stress tolerance when these sequences are overexpressed. G1073 (SEQ ID NO: 1 and 2) We have previously demonstrated that overexpression of G1073 imparts drought tolerance and enhanced yield in 35S::G1073 lines. We have now designated this locus as HERCULES 1 (HRC1). The aim of this study was to re-assess 35S::G1073 lines and compare its overexpression effects to those of its putative paralogs and orthologs. We also sought to test whether use of a two-component overexpression system would produce any strengthening of the phenotype relative to the use of a 35S direct promoter-fusion. G1073 overexpression via the two-component system resulted in similar phenotypes to those previously observed with previously performed direct promoter fusion experiments. In both projects, G1073-overexpressing plants exhibited an increase in biomass relative to wild-type control plants along with changes in leaf morphology and a slight to moderate delay in flowering time. Transgenic plants overexpressing G1073 were substantially larger than wild-type controls, with at least a 60% increase in biomass (FIGS. 6A and 6B, 7A, and 7B). The increased mass of 35S::G1073 transgenic plants was attributed to enlargement of multiple organ types including stems, roots and floral organs; other than the size differences, these organs were not affected in their overall morphology. 35S::G1073 plants exhibited an increase of the width (but not length) of mature leaf organs, produced 2-3 more rosette leaves, and had enlarged cauline leaves in comparison to corresponding wild-type leaves. Overexpression of G1073 resulted in an increase in both leaf mass and leaf area per plant, and leaf morphology (G1073 overexpressors tended to produce more serrated leaves). We also found that root mass was increased in the transgenic plants, and that floral organs were also enlarged (FIG. 7B). An increase of approximately 40% in stem diameter was observed in the transgenic plants. Images from the stem cross-sections of 35S::G1073 plants revealed that cortical cells are large and that vascular bundles contained more cells in the phloem and xylem relative to wild type controls (FIGS. 6A and 6B). Petal size in the 35S::G1073 lines was increased by 40-50% compared to wild type controls. Petal epidermal cells in those same lines were approximately 25-30% larger than those of the control plants. Furthermore, 15-20% more epidermal cells per petal were produced compared to wild type controls. Thus, in petals and stems, the increase in size was associated with an increase in cell size as well as in cell number. Seed yield was also increased compared to control plants. 35S::G1073 lines showed an increase of at least 70% in seed yield. This increased seed production was associated with an increased number of siliques per plant, rather than seeds per silique. 35S::G1073 two-component lines showed a mild to moderate delay in the onset of flowering and developed larger broader leaves than those of wild type controls. These effects were of intermediate penetrance, being observed, to varying extents in eight of twenty T1 lines. G1073 functions in both soybean and tomato to increase biomass. In FIG. 9A, the larger soybean plant on the right is overexpressing G1073. Tomato leaves of a number of G1073 overexpressor lines were much larger than those of wild-type tomato plants, as seen in FIG. 9B by comparing the leaves of the overexpressor plant on the left and that from a wild-type plant on the right Our previous studies with 35S direct promoter fusion resulted in plants with greater abiotic stress tolerance and drought tolerance in soil-based assays. As seen in the table below, the two component 35S::G1073 lines also displayed a markedly increased tolerance to high salt and sucrose levels during germination. As noted in Table 1 and subsequent tables in this example, we have obtained similar morphological and/or physiological phenotypes from overexpression of the related Arabidopsis genes (G1067, G1069, G1667, G2153, G2156, G2789), rice (G3399, G3400, G3401, G3406, G3407, G3556) and soy genes (G3456, G3459, G3460), indicating that these genes are likely to be functionally related. TABLE 6 Arabidopsis thaliana G1073 35S 2-components-supertransformation (supTfn) Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 301 ++ wt ++ wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 304 ++ wt ++ wt + wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 305 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 306 ++ wt ++ wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 308 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 310 + wt ++ wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 311 ++ wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 314 + wt ++ wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 319 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 320 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + more tolerant than wild-type control plants ++ much more tolerant than wild-type control plants Utilities The results of this study suggest that G1073 and other members of the G1073 clade can be used to improve drought related stress tolerance and yield under stress conditions when these sequences are overexpressed. The data also confirm our earlier conclusions obtained with G1073 that showed an increase in biomass and modified flowering time when this sequence is overexpressed. The developmental effects attributable to G1073 overexpression indicate that the gene could be used to modify traits such as flowering time and organ size. G1067 (SEQ ID NO: 3 and 4) G1067 is a paralog of G1073. Based on our phylogenetic analysis, this gene and G2156 are the most related paralogs of G1073. G1067 corresponds to ESCAROLA (ESC). Morphological effects of overexpression of this gene expressed under the control of the CaMV 35S promoter, including slow growth, delayed flowering and leaf curling, have been documented by Weigel et al. (2000) Plant Physiol. 122: 1003-1013. This study did not consider or report altered sugar sensing or increased abiotic stress tolerance. The aim of the current study was to re-evaluate the effects of G1067 overexpression using a two component approach. 35S::G1067 direct promoter fusion lines were found to exhibit a variety of deleterious phenotypes. However, a number of lines of transgenic plants overexpressing G11067 were found to be large and had broad leaves. Overexpression lines were also obtained using the two component expression system, and these lines were generally small and slow growing. The two-component lines were obtained at very low frequency, possibly indicating that high level overexpression produced lethality. It is possible that a higher level of G1067 activity was attained with a two component approach and that this impeded the isolation of transformants. Of the two-component lines that were obtained, four (#301, 302, 441, 442) of the five lines were notably smaller and slow developing compared to controls. The final line #303 was tiny and arrested growth early in development. TABLE 7 Arabidopsis thaliana G1067 35S 2-components-supertransformation Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 301 wt wt wt wt wt wt − wt wt 2-components-supTfn 302 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 441 wt wt wt ++ wt wt − wt + 2-components-supTfn 442 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt The results obtained with these abiotic stress experiments show that members of the G1073 clade, including G1067, are able to confer increased stress tolerance and yield under stress conditions when overexpressed. The undesirable morphological effects associated with G1067 overexpression suggest that plants overexpressing this sequence would benefit from optimization by inducible or tissue-specific regulatory control. G1069 (SEQ ID NO: 41 and 42) The sequence of G1069 was obtained from the EU Arabidopsis sequencing project, GenBank accession number Z97336, based on its sequence similarity within the conserved domain to other AT-hook related proteins in Arabidopsis. The sequence of G1069 was experimentally determined and the function of G1069 was analyzed using transgenic plants in which G1069 was expressed under the control of the 35 S promoter. Plants overexpressing G1069 showed changes in leaf architecture, reduced overall plant size, and retarded progression through the life cycle. This is a common phenomenon for most transgenic plants in which AT-hook proteins are overexpressed if the gene is predominantly expressed in root in the wild-type background. Indeed, based on analysis of RT-PCR results G1069 was predominantly expressed in roots. To minimize these detrimental effects, G1069 may be overexpressed under an inducible promoter or a tissue specific promoter such as root- or leaf-specific promoter. G1069 overexpressors tended to be slow developing and bolt later than wild-type controls. A number of lines had broad, short leaves (it is uncertain whether this resulted in an increase in overall biomass). A number of G1069 overexpressing lines showed more tolerance to osmotic stress when they were germinated on high sucrose containing plates. They also showed insensitivity to ABA in a germination assay. These experiments were repeated and only one line showed the ABA insensitive and osmotic stress tolerant phenotypes. G2153 (SEQ ID NO: 5 and 6) We have demonstrated that G2153 confers increased tolerance to osmotic stress in overexpressing plants. Based on a phylogenetic analysis, G2153 is more related to G1069 than the other putative G1073 paralogs. In our earlier studies, a number of G2153 overexpressing lines were larger, and had broader, flatter leaves than those of wild-type control plants. Some of these lines showed much larger rosettes than wild-type control plants. In the latest experiments, we generated lines for both direct fusion and two component constructs. Lines from both approaches exhibited similar effects. The majority of transformants were small, slow developing and had abnormally shaped leaves. However, a significant proportion of the G2153 overexpressing lines developed enlarged lateral organs (leaves and flowers), particularly at later developmental stages. It is particularly interesting that similar effects on organ growth and stress tolerance have also been obtained with 35S::G1073 and 35S::G2156 lines, suggesting that these sequences are functionally related. It should be noted that a greater frequency of deleterious phenotypes were seen among the two-component lines, perhaps indicating that these possessed higher levels of G2153 activity than the direct fusion lines. Tomato plants overexpressing the A. thaliana G2153 polypeptide have been found to be significantly larger than wild-type control tomato plants. Physiology assays with direct fusion lines re-confirmed our earlier observations that 35S::G2153 lines have enhanced tolerance to abiotic stress. In our newest studies, the results of which are presented in the table below, positive phenotypes were seen in NaCl, sucrose, ABA, and cold stress assays. Experiments conducted with the two component system have shown that these overexpressors were also more tolerant to abiotic stress, as presented in the table below. TABLE 8 Arabidopsis thaliana G2153 35S Direct Promoter Fusion and 2-components-supertransformation Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold Direct promoter-fusion 341 + wt + ++ wt + wt wt + Direct promoter-fusion 342 wt wt wt ++ wt + wt wt + Direct promoter-fusion 343 + wt + ++ wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter-fusion 345 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 347 wt wt wt ++ wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 348 + + wt ++ wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 349 + wt wt ++ wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 350 wt wt wt ++ wt + wt wt + Direct promoter-fusion 352 wt wt ++ ++ wt + wt wt + Direct promoter-fusion 354 wt wt + ++ wt + wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 302 wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 305 wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt + 2-components-supTfn 308 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + 2-components-supTfn 361 + wt wt + wt wt wt wt + 2-components-supTfn 363 wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt + 2-components-supTfn 365 wt wt + + wt wt wt wt + 2-components-supTfn 383 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 403 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 405 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 410 + wt wt wt wt + wt wt ++ 2-components-supTfn 401 wt wt wt ++ wt wt wt wt + 2-components-supTfn 406 wt wt wt ++ wt wt wt wt + 2-components-supTfn 408 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt + 2-components-supTfn 411 wt wt + ++ wt wt wt wt + Utilities The results obtained with these abiotic stress experiments show that members of the G1073 clade, including G2153, are able to confer increased stress tolerance and yield under stress conditions when overexpressed. G2153 is thus a potential candidate for improvement of drought related stress tolerance in commercial species. Based on the developmental effects observed, the gene could also be used to manipulate organ growth and flowering time. Undesirable morphological effects that may be associated with overexpression of G2153 suggest that plants overexpressing the sequence would benefit by optimization with inducible or tissue-specific regulatory control. G2156 (SEQ ID NO: 7 and 8) G2156 is a paralog to G1073. Based on amino acid sequence, the G2156 and G1067 polypeptides are phylogenetically more closely related to G1073 than the other putative paralogs. Our earlier studies characterized 35S::G2156 lines as having multiple morphological alterations. A number of Arabidopsis lines overexpressing G2156 under the control of the 35S promoter were found be larger, with broader leaves and larger rosettes than wild-type control plants. The aim of this study was to re-examine the effects of G2156 overexpression, particularly with respect to abiotic stress responses. In recent experiments, we generated lines for both direct fusion and two component constructs. Lines from both approaches exhibited similar effects. The majority of transformants were small, slow developing and had abnormally shaped leaves. However, a significant proportion of the lines developed enlarged lateral organs (leaves and flowers), particularly at later developmental stages. It should be noted that a greater frequency of deleterious phenotypes were seen among the two-component lines, perhaps indicating that these possessed higher levels of G2156 activity than the direct fusion lines. Physiology performed on the direct fusion and two component lines showed enhanced tolerance in a germination assay on sodium chloride media, and tolerance to other abiotic stress as well. It is particularly interesting that similar effects on organ growth and stress tolerance have been obtained with 35S::G1073 and 35S::G2153 lines, suggesting that these genes are functionally related. TABLE 9 Arabidopsis thaliana G2156 35S Direct Promoter Fusion and 2-components-supertransformation Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold Direct promoter-fusion 421 + wt ++ wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 422 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 424 ++ wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 425 + wt wt wt ++ wt wt wt + Direct promoter-fusion 428 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 429 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 431 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 432 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 434 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 435 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 322 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + 2-components-supTfn 401 wt wt + + wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 403 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + Utilities Based on the results of our overexpression studies, G1073 and other members of the G1073 clade, including G2156, may be used for improving abiotic stress tolerance in commercial species. Based on the developmental effects observed, the gene could also be used to manipulate organ growth and flowering time. G2789 (SEQ ID NO: 83 and 84) G2789 is a paralog of G1073. Overexpression of G2789 in Arabidopsis resulted in seedlings that were ABA insensitive and osmotic stress tolerant. In a germination assay on ABA containing media, G2789 transgenic seedlings showed enhanced seedling vigor. In a similar germination assay on media containing high concentrations of sucrose, the G2789 overexpressors also showed enhanced seedling vigor. In a repeat experiment on individual lines, all three lines showed the phenotype. G1667 (SEQ ID NO: 85 and 86) G1667 is a paralog of G1073. A number of G1667 overexpressing lines were larger than wild-type control plants, with curled and serrated leaves, larger rosette leaves, longer bolts, more secondary bolts, and more siliques present. This phenotype was similar to that observed in plants overexpressing G1073 and other G1073 clade members as noted as follows. G3456 (SEQ ID NO: 13 and 14) G3456 is a soy ortholog of G1073. The aim of this project is to determine whether overexpression of G3456 in Arabidopsis produces comparable effects to those of G1073 overexpression. 35S::G3456 lines exhibited alterations in overall size, coloration, inflorescence architecture, leaf shape, and flowering time. In particular, at later stages of growth, a significant number of lines developed enlarged leaves and displayed increased biomass relative to wild type controls. Lines 321-337 at early stages appeared normal. However, 3/17 lines (#329, 334, 335) were slightly small, had short internodes, and displayed curled leaves relative to controls. Later in development, four of seventeen lines (#323, 325, 328, 332) exhibited substantially larger rosettes than controls and also appeared dark in coloration. These plants also showed a slight delay in the onset of flowering. In lines 341-350 2/10 lines (#348 and 350) displayed noticeably enlarged leaves. All lines were rather dark at late stages and had slightly short inflorescence internodes leading to a somewhat bushy architecture. Occasional plants, such as #349, exhibited floral defects. For Lines 361-380, all plants were slightly larger and darker than controls at later stages. At early stages, these lines appeared normal. These developmental effects were similar to those produced in Arabidopsis plants overexpressing G1073 or other Arabidopsis polypeptides of the G1073 clade. A majority of the G3456 overexpressors demonstrated increased abiotic stress tolerance (e.g., growth in cold conditions) relative to wild-type control plants, as indicated in the table below. TABLE 10 Glycine max G3456 35S Direct Promoter Fusion Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold Direct promoter fusion 324 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 325 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter fusion 326 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter fusion 327 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 328 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter fusion 331 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter fusion 332 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter fusion 333 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 335 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter fusion 337 + wt wt + wt wt wt wt + Utilities. The results obtained with these abiotic stress experiments show that members of the G1073 clade, including G3456, are able to confer increased stress tolerance and yield under stress conditions when overexpressed. The developmental effects attributable to G3456 overexpression indicate that the gene could be used to modify traits such as flowering time and organ size. The dark coloration exhibited by some of the lines could indicate increased chlorophyll levels; G3456 might therefore also impact photosynthetic capacity, yield, and nutritional value. G3399 (SEQ ID NO: 9 and 10) G3399 is a rice ortholog of G1073. Phylogenetic analysis identifies G3399 along with G3400 as being the most closely related rice orthologs of G1073. The aim of this project was to determine whether overexpression of G3399 in Arabidopsis produces comparable effects to those of G1073 overexpression. 35S::G3399 lines were obtained containing either of two different constructs. Both constructs produced similar morphological phenotypes; many of the lines were small at early stages, showed alterations in leaf shape, and had slightly delayed flowering. However a significant number of lines developed enlarged lateral organs-leaves, rosettes and flowers—particularly at later stages, as compared to wild-type control plants. It is noteworthy that one of the constructs (P21269; SEQ ID NO: 82) contained an amino acid conversion (proline to a glutamine at residue 198, in a conserved domain) relative to the native protein. Lines for this mutated protein showed fewer undesirable morphologies than the wild type version. The morphologically similar effects caused by overexpression of this rice gene versus G1073 and other Arabidopsis paralogs suggest that they likely have related functions. Four G3399 overexpressor lines demonstrated increased abiotic stress tolerance relative to wild-type control plants, as indicated in the table below. TABLE 12 Oryza sativa (japonica cultivar-group) G3399 35S Direct Promoter Fusion Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold Direct promoter-fusion 321 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 322 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 323 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 325 wt wt wt wt ++ wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 330 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 331 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 332 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 336 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 338 wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 340 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 347 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter-fusion 348 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter-fusion 406 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 408 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt Direct promoter-fusion 409 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 410 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 412 wt wt wt wt wt + wt + wt Direct promoter-fusion 413 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 415 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt Direct promoter-fusion 416 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 417 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 420 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Utilities The results obtained with these abiotic stress experiments show that members of the G1073 clade, including G3399, are able to confer increased stress tolerance and yield under stress conditions when overexpressed. Undesirable morphological effects that are at times associated with overexpression of G3399 suggest that plants overexpressing the sequence would benefit by optimization with inducible or tissue-specific regulatory control. The morphological phenotypes indicate that the gene could be used to modify traits such as organ size and flowering time. This study also identified a specific region of the G3399 protein that might be modified in order to optimize the acquisition of desirable phenotypes. G3400 (SEQ ID NO: 29 and 30) G3400 is a rice ortholog of G1073. Phylogenetic analysis identifies G3400 along with G3399 as being the most closely related rice orthologs to G1073. The aim of this project was to determine whether overexpression of G3400 in Arabidopsis produces comparable effects to those of G1073 overexpression. Only a few 35S::G3400 overexpression lines have been obtained thus far. Such a low frequency of transformants suggests that the gene might have lethal effects when overexpressed at high levels. The lines that were obtained were small, slow developing and showed curled leaves. However, at later stages, two of the lines formed rather enlarged leaves and flowers. It should be noted that the morphologically similar effects caused by overexpression of this rice gene versus G1073 and its Arabidopsis paralogs suggest that these sequences likely have related functions. All of the G3400 overexpressors tested thus far demonstrated increased abiotic stress tolerance relative to wild-type control plants (germination and growth in cold), as indicated in the table below. TABLE 13 Oryza sativa (japonica cultivar-group) G3400 35S Direct Promoter Fusion Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold Direct promoter fusion 321 wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt + Direct promoter fusion 322 wt wt wt wt wt + wt + + Direct promoter fusion 323 wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt + Utilities The results obtained with these abiotic stress experiments show that members of the G1073 clade, including G3400, are able to confer increased stress tolerance and yield under stress conditions when overexpressed. Undesirable morphological effects that may be associated with overexpression of G3400 suggest that plants overexpressing the sequence would benefit by optimization with inducible or tissue-specific regulatory control. G3401 (SEQ ID NO: 37 and 38) G3401 is a rice ortholog of G1073. The aim of this project was to determine whether overexpression of G3401 in Arabidopsis produces comparable effects to those of G1073 overexpression. A significant number of 35S::G3401 lines obtained thus far showed a range of developmental changes including reduced size, slow growth, and altered leaf shape. At least one line exhibited slightly enlarged leaves at late stages. A number of the lines, including several showing abiotic stress tolerance, appeared normal at various stages of development. A majority of the overexpressors demonstrated insensitivity to ABA, and tolerance to a number of abiotic stresses, as indicated in the table below. TABLE 14 Oryza sativa (japonica cultivar-group) G3401 35S Direct Promoter Fusion Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold Direct promoter fusion 341 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 342 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 343 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 344 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 345 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 346 wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 347 + wt + + wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 348 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 352 + wt + + wt ++ wt wt wt Utilities The results obtained with these abiotic stress experiments show that members of the G1073 clade, including G3401, are able to confer increased tolerance and yield under abiotic stress conditions when these sequences are overexpressed. Undesirable morphological effects that are at times associated with overexpression of G3401 suggest that plants overexpressing the sequence would benefit by optimization with inducible or tissue-specific regulatory control. G3459 (SEQ ID NO: 15 and 16) G3459 is a soy ortholog of G1073. Some of the G3459 overexpressors exhibited developmental abnormalities, including contorted leaves, slightly small stature, small rosettes, floral abnormalities and short floral internodes leading to bunched inflorescences. At later stages of growth, a significant number of lines had larger rosettes and broad leaves with more serrations than wild-type control plants. Other lines appeared normal. A majority of the G3459 overexpressors demonstrated tolerance to high salt and a number of other abiotic stresses, as indicated in the table below. TABLE 15 Glycine max G3459 35S Direct Promoter Fusion Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold Direct promoter fusion 302 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 303 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 304 + wt wt wt wt wt − wt wt Direct promoter fusion 306 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 309 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 324 wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt + Direct promoter fusion 330 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter fusion 331 wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 332 wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt + Direct promoter fusion 333 wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 310 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 311 wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt + Utilities The results obtained with these abiotic stress experiments show that members of the G1073 clade, including G3459, are able to confer increased stress tolerance and yield under stress conditions when overexpressed. Undesirable morphological effects that are at times associated with overexpression of G3459 suggest that plants overexpressing the sequence would benefit by optimization with inducible or tissue-specific regulatory control. G3460 (SEQ ID NO: 17 and 18) G3460 is a soy ortholog of G1073. Phylogenetic analysis based on protein alignments places G3460 in a somewhat distant subclade within the G1073 clade. The aim of this project was to determine whether overexpression of G3460 in Arabidopsis produces comparable effects to those of G1073 overexpression. Overexpression lines were obtained; the majority of lines displayed a variety of morphological abnormalities including reduced size, slow growth, very delayed flowering, severely curled leaves and floral defects. However, nine out of a total of thirty six T1 lines showed a somewhat different phenotype; these plants were slightly late flowering but developed larger rosettes and extremely enlarged leaves, particularly at later stages of development. This resulted in a very substantial increase in vegetative biomass (possibly greater than that seen in 35S::G1073 Arabidopsis lines). It is interesting to note that some aspects of the above phenotype, such as the enlarged leaves, were similar to those seen in 35S::G1073 lines. However, other features such as the extremely twisted dark curled leaves seen in the majority of 35S::G3460 lines were not seen in 35S::G1073 transformants. A majority of the G3460 overexpressors demonstrated tolerance to a number of abiotic stresses, as indicated in the table below. TABLE 16 Glycine max G3460 35S Direct Promoter Fusion Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold Direct promoter fusion 306 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 309 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 310 wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 323 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 324 wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 343 wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter fusion 348 wt wt wt wt + wt + + wt Direct promoter fusion 350 + wt + wt wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter fusion 351 wt wt wt wt + wt + + + Direct promoter fusion 353 wt wt wt wt wt + wt + + Utilities The results obtained with these abiotic stress experiments show that members of the G1073 clade, including G3460, are able to confer increased stress tolerance and yield under stress conditions when overexpressed. Undesirable morphological effects that are at times associated with overexpression of G3460 suggest that plants overexpressing the sequence would benefit by optimization with inducible or tissue-specific regulatory control. G3460 is clearly a candidate for the enhancement of yield and biomass accumulation. G3406 (SEQ ID NO: 25 and 26) G3406 is a rice ortholog of G1073. The aim of this project was to determine whether overexpression of G3406 in Arabidopsis produces comparable effects to those of G1073 overexpression. Lines 321-329 may have been slightly small relative to wild-type controls at the rosette stage. At the early flowering stage, lines 361 and 362 may have been slightly late in developing. Other than these observations, the G3406 plants in Table 17 were morphologically indistinguishable from wild-type controls at all other stages of growth. As seen in Table 17, lines 361 and 362 were less sensitive to ABA and germination in cold conditions than wild type controls. Line 321 was also less sensitive to cold in a growth assay. TABLE 17 Oryza sativa G3406 35S Direct Promoter Fusion Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold Direct promoter-fusion 321 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + Direct promoter-fusion 323 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 324 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 325 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 326 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 329 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 361 wt wt wt + wt + wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 362 wt wt wt + wt + wt wt wt Utilities The results obtained with these abiotic stress experiments show that members of the G1073 clade, including G3406, are able to confer increased stress tolerance and yield under stress conditions when overexpressed. The relative lack of undesirable morphological effects associated with overexpression of G3406 suggests that these plants were not strongly overexpressing this sequence, also suggested by the relatively few positive stress assay results. G3556 (SEQ ID NO: 39 and 40) G3556 is a rice ortholog of G1073. A number of Arabidopsis lines overexpressing G3556 were exhibited broad, curling leaves and were late developing. No physiology results are available at this time. G2157 (SEQ ID NO: 87 and 88) Overall summary. Transgenic tomatoes expressing G2157 under the regulation of APETALA1 (AP1; Mandel et al. (1992a) Nature 360: 273-277), LIPID TRANSFER PROTEIN 1 (LTP1; Thoma et al. (1994) Plant Physiol. 105: 35-45) and SHOOT MERISTEMLESS (STM; Long and Barton (1998) Development 125: 3027-3035; Long and Barton (2000) Dev. Biol. 218: 341-353) promoters, and a significant increase in plant size was observed. Results with the AP1 and STM promoters were particularly noteable as the increased plant size was also associated with increased fruit set in these lines. G2157 is closely related to a subfamily of transcription factors well characterized in their ability to confer drought tolerance and to increase organ size. Genes within this subfamily have also exhibited deleterious morphological effects as in the overexpression of G2157 in Arabidopsis. It has been hypothesized that targeted expression of genes in this subfamily could increase the efficacy or penetrance of desirable phenotypes. In our overexpression studies of G1073, different promoters were used to optimize desired phenotypes. In this analysis, we discovered that localized expression via a promoter specific to young leaf and stem primordia (SUC2) was more effective than a promoter (RbcS3) lacking expression in meristematic tissue. In tomato, a similar result was obtained by expressing G2157 in meristematic and primordial tissues via the STM and AP1 promoters, respectively. G2157 has also been identified as being significantly induced under severe drought conditions. These results are strong evidence that G2157, when expressed in localized tissues in tomatoes, can mechanistically function in a similar fashion to its closely related paralogs. Genomics discoveries. The complete sequence of G2157 was determined. G2157 is expressed at low to moderate levels throughout the plant. It shows induction by Fusarium infection and possibly by auxin. The function of this gene was analyzed using transgenic plants in which G2157 was expressed under the control of the 35S promoter. Overexpression of G2157 produced distinct changes in leaf development and severely reduced overall plant size and fertility. The most strongly affected 35S::G2157 primary transformants were tiny, slow growing, and developed small dark green leaves that were often curled, contorted, or had serrated margins. A number of these plants arrested growth at a vegetative stage and failed to flower. Lines with a more moderate phenotype produced thin inflorescence stems; the flowers borne on these structures were frequently sterile and failed to open or had poorly formed stamens. Due to such defects, the vast majority of T1 plants produced very few seeds. The progeny of three T1 lines showing a moderately severe phenotype were examined; all three T2 populations, however, displayed wild-type morphology, suggesting that activity of the transgene had been reduced between the generations. G2157 expression has been assayed using microarrays. Assays in which drought conditions were applied to 6 week old Arabidopsis plants resulted in the increase of G2157 transcript approximately two fold above wild type plants, under severe drought conditions. Summary of phenotype. Transgenic tomatoes expressing G2157 under the regulation of AP1, LTP and STM a significant increase in volume was observed. TABLE 18 Data Summary for G2157 Promoter Volume (m3) Avg ± Std (Count) 35S 0.31 ± 0.087 (3) AP1 0.33 ± 0.068 (3) LTP1 0.33 ± 0.054 (3) STM 0.36 ± 0.114 (2) Wild-type 0.165 ± 0.005 (277) Example IX Mitigation of Undesirable Morphological Effects by G1073 Clade Polypeptide Overexpression The abiotic stress results shown above provide evidence that members of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides may be used to create plants with the characteristics of improved yield, performance and/or range. However, overexpression of these clade members may bring about unwanted morphological effects, including smaller plant size. This was observed with many, but not all, of the lines generated in the present study. Since it is often desirable to generate plants with normal or near-normal stature, a reduction or elimination of other morphological characteristics brought about by overexpression of a G1073 clade member under the regulatory control of a constitutive promoter may not always be the best approach to improving stress tolerance. This present study also included an investigation in the use of alternative promoter or two-component overexpression systems for the purpose of conferring enhanced stress tolerance and eliminating developmental abnormalities such as reduced size that were associated with G1073 constitutive overexpression. In this regard, the present invention also relates to methods and compositions for producing transgenic plants with improved stress performance achieved by altering the expression of G1073 and related sequences with specific promoter-gene combinations or other regulatory means. These combinations may regulate transcription factor expression patterns in a transient, inducible, or organ- or tissue-specific manner. As shown below, this approach may be used to generate plants that are morphologically similar to wild-type control plants that have not been transformed with a polynucleotide encoding G1073 or an equivalog. Thus, the type of regulatory element used to control regulation of the transcription factor gene may be used to alleviate undesirable developmental abnormalities or adverse morphological effects that would otherwise result by overexpressing of the same transcription factor genes with a constitutive promoter such as the 35S promoter. G1073 (Arabidopsis)—Root ARSK1 We have obtained ARSK1::G1073 lines using a two component approach; no consistent effects on morphology were apparent among these transformants and alterations in leaf size were not observed. Thus, either expression from the ARSK1 promoter was too weak or root expression was not sufficient to trigger the alterations in leaf size that are apparent in 35S::G1073 lines. Interestingly, although ARSK1::G1073 lines showed no clear morphological changes, five out of ten of these lines did exhibit enhanced tolerance to sodium chloride in a plate based germination assay. Two other lines outperformed wild type controls in a cold germination assay. These osmotic stress tolerance phenotypes are of particular interest, since they show that G1073 can provide stress tolerance independently of changes in organ size. Additionally, since ARSK1 is not significantly expressed in shoot tissue, the results suggest that G1073 expression is not required in the shoot in order to achieve stress tolerance. Morphology Summary Arabidopsis lines in which G1073 was expressed from the ARSK1 promoter (via the two component system) displayed no consistent difference in morphology compared to controls. Twenty T1 lines were examined (341-360); three lines (#342, 346, 357) were noted to be slightly small and slow developing. However the remainder of the lines exhibited wild-type morphology at all stages. Of the lines submitted for physiological assays, all except line 556 showed segregation on selection plates in the T2 generation that was compatible with the transgene being present at a single locus. Lines 556, showed segregation that was compatible with insertions at multiple loci. Physiology Summary Seedlings from five ARSK1::G1073 lines had more seedling vigor when germinated on plates containing sodium chloride. Seedlings from two other lines performed better than wild-type controls in a cold germination assay, and two lines performed better in a drought assay. TABLE 19 G1073 (Arabidopsis) - Root ARSK1 Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 342 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 344 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 345 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 346 wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 347 wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 351 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 354 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 355 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 356 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 359 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt G1073 (Arabidopsis)—Epidermal CUT1 We have obtained CUT1::G1073 lines using a two component approach; no consistent effects on morphology were apparent among these transformants and alterations in leaf size were not observed. Thus, either expression from the CUT1 promoter was too weak or epidermal expression was not sufficient to trigger the alterations in leaf size that are apparent in 35S::G1073 lines. Although CUT1::G1073 lines showed no clear morphological changes, three out of ten of these lines did exhibit enhanced tolerance to sodium chloride in a plate based germination assay. Two of these lines also outperformed wild type controls in a sucrose germination assay, whereas the third line germinated better than wild type controls on mannitol media. A fourth CUT1::G1073 line gave a positive result in the sucrose assay alone. Although these osmotic stress tolerance phenotypes were seen in a relatively small number of lines, they are of particular interest, since they suggest that G1073 can provide stress tolerance independently of changes in organ size. Additionally, the CUT1 driver line does not give significant expression in the root, suggesting that G1073 expression is not required in the root in order to achieve such tolerance. Morphology Summary Arabidopsis lines that express G1073 from the CUT I promoter (using the two component system; CUT1::LexA; opLexA::G1073) have now been generated. A total of nineteen of lines were obtained (381-399). Some size variation was apparent at early stages of growth, but overall, the plants showed no consistent differences in morphology to controls. Of the lines submitted for physiological assays, the following showed a segregation on selection plates in the T2 generation that was compatible with the transgene being present at a single locus: 384, 391, 392, 394, 396. Lines 381, 390, 393, 395, 397 showed segregation that was compatible with insertions at multiple loci. Physiology (Plate Assays) Summary Three CUT1::G1073 lines showed increased seedling vigor when germinated on plates containing sodium chloride. Of these three lines, seedlings of two lines also performed better than wild-type controls when germinated on sucrose whereas seedlings of the third line had better vigor when germinated on mannitol containing plates. A fourth line showed a better performance in a sucrose germination assay. TABLE 20 G1073 (Arabidopsis) - Epidermal CUT1 Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 381 wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 384 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 390 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 391 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 392 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 393 + ++ wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 394 + wt + wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 395 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 396 + wt + wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 397 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt G1073 (Arabidopsis)—Vascular SUC2 We have obtained SUC2::G1073 lines using a two component approach; the majority of these lines displayed wild-type morphology, and several lines had increased stress tolerance compared to wild-type control plants. Five of thirteen lines exhibited a slight delay in the onset of flowering, and developed enlarged leaves relative to controls. This effect became particularly apparent at later developmental stages. Similar phenotypes were obtained at a similar frequency in 35S::G1073 lines; thus the SUC2 and 35S promoters produced comparable morphological effects when used in combination with G1073. Morphology Summary Two sets of 2-component lines have been obtained (#1081-1088, 1101-1105) for which an opLexA::G1073 construct was supertransformed into a SUC2::LexA-GAL4TA promoter driver line. A number of these lines exhibited enlarged leaves and a slight delay in the onset of flowering, as detailed below: Lines 1081-1088: all appeared normal at early stages. #1085 and #1088 were slightly late flowering and developed enlarged leaves at later stages. #1082 was also slightly late flowering. The remaining lines showed wild-type morphology at all stages. Lines 1101-1105: all were slightly small at early stages. #1102 and #1105 were slightly later flowering and #1102 developed enlarged rosette leaves at late stages. The remaining lines all appeared normal later in development. It should be noted that a direct promoter-fusion construct (P21521) for SUC2::G1073 has also been built, but lines containing that construct have not yet been selected. Physiology Summary Three SUC2::G1073 lines showed increased seedling vigor when germinated on plates in cold conditions. Seedlings of two of these lines also performed better than wild-type controls when germinated on mannitol containing plates. A fourth line showed a better performance in a plate-based drought assay. TABLE 21 G1073 (Arabidopsis) - Vascular SUC2 Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 1081 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 1082 wt + wt wt wt + wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 1083 wt + wt wt wt + wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 1085 wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 1087 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 1088 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 1101 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 1102 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 1103 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 1104 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 1581 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 1582 + wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 1584 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 1585 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 1586 + wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 1587 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 1588 wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 1589 wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 1590 wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt Direct promoter-fusion 1591 wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt wt G1073 (Arabidopsis) Leaf RBCS3 We have obtained tissue-specific (leaf) promoter RBCS3::G1073 lines using a two component approach. Morphology Summary Lines 541 and 542 may have been marginally late but otherwise showed no obvious morphological differences relative to wild-type controls. Lines 961-973 were slightly slower growing than wild-type controls, but were otherwise morphologically similar to the controls. Physiology Summary Most notably, seedlings of these overexpressors showed increased tolerance to the osmotic stresses of salt and heat in germination assays. Two lines showed increased tolerance to cold in growth assays. TABLE 22 G1073 (Arabidopsis) - Leaf RBCS3 Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 541 wt wt wt + wt wt + wt + 2-components-supTfn 542 wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt 2-components-supTfn 961 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 962 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 965 wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt + 2-components-supTfn 966 wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt 2-components-supTfn 967 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 968 + wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt 2-components-supTfn 969 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 973 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt G1073 (Arabidopsis)—Super Activation (N-GAL4-TA) We have now isolated lines that overexpress a version of the G1073 protein that has a GAL4 activation domain fused to the N terminus. Morphology Summary For the most part, lines were morphologically indistinguishable from wild type controls, with a number of lines having normal or near-normal physiologies. However, there were a small number of plants that showed delayed flowering and changes in leaf shape. In addition, some were observed to be dark in coloration. Three batches of lines were generated that overexpressed a super-active form of G1073 comprising a GAL4 transactivation domain fused to the N terminus of the protein: lines 841-852, 981-991, and 1441-1460. The majority of plants in each of the above plantings appeared wild-type; however delayed flowering, and changes in leaf shape were apparent in a small number of the lines in each set. Plants showing this phenotype flowered up to 3-4 weeks after wild type controls (under 24-hour light), were dark in coloration, and had leaves that became curled and twisted (particularly at the late stages of the life cycle). This above phenotype was observed with the following frequencies: 3/12 lines (846, 851, 852) from the 841-852 set 2/11 (983, 989) lines from the 981-991 set 7/20 (1442, 1443, 1449, 1452, 1453, 1454, 1455) lines from the 1441-1460 set. Of the plants in this final set, however, only #1442 showed a strong phenotype whereas others displayed relatively mild effects. It is perhaps noteworthy that in addition to the effects on flowering time and leaf development, a small number of the T1 lines obtained in the second batch (981-991) were noted to be more advanced than wild-type controls at the 7 day stage. However, this effect was not observed in the T2 progeny of any of those lines or in either of the other two sets of T1 plants. Physiology Summary Seedlings of two of these superactivated lines showed increased tolerance to ABA, and germinated on plates in cold conditions. Seedlings of two lines also performed better than wild-type controls in a plate-based drought assay. Other lines showed a better performance in a sucrose-based osmotic stress assay, or in growth assays in cold or hot conditions. TABLE 23 G1073 (Arabidopsis) - Super Activation (N-GAL4-TA) Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold GAL4 N-terminus 842 wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt wt GAL4 N-terminus 843 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt GAL4 N-terminus 849 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt GAL4 N-terminus 850 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + + GAL4 N-terminus 851 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt GAL4 N-terminus 981 wt wt + + wt wt wt wt wt GAL4 N-terminus 983 wt wt wt + wt wt wt + wt GAL4 N-terminus 984 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt GAL4 N-terminus 985 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt GAL4 N-terminus 986 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt GAL4 N-terminus 989 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt G1073 (Arabidopsis)—Super Activation (C-GAL4-TA) We have now isolated lines that overexpress a version of the G1073 protein that has a GAL4 activation domain fused to the C terminus. Morphology Summary At various stages of growth, some of the plants with a GAL4 activation domain fused to the C terminus were somewhat small. However, many of the plants there were more tolerant to abiotic stresses, indicated in the table below, were only slightly smaller than wild-type controls at some stages of growth, and many of the lines were morphologically very similar to wild-type control plants. Physiology Summary Most of the lines C-GAL4 superactivated lines tested were more tolerant to osmotic stress in a plate-based severe desiccation assay than wild-type control plants. Two lines were more tolerant to high mannitol. TABLE 24 G1073 (Arabidopsis) - Super Activation (C-GAL4-TA) Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold GAL4 C-terminus 1542 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt GAL4 C-terminus 1543 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt GAL4 C-terminus 1544 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt GAL4 C-term terminus 1545 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt GAL4 C-terminus 1546 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt GAL4 C-terminus 1547 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt GAL4 C-terminus 1551 wt + wt wt wt wt wt + wt GAL4 C-terminus 1552 wt + wt wt wt wt wt + wt G1067 (Arabidopsis) Root ARSK1 We have obtained tissue-specific (root) ARSK1::G1067 lines using a two component approach. The majority (18 out of 26) of these transformants appeared wild type, and displayed no evidence of curled leaves and severe dwarfing. Eight of 26 lines showed size reductions and developed more slowly than controls, to various extents. In plate based stress assays, four out of ten lines ARSK1::G1067 lines showed enhanced tolerance in a severe dehydration assay. All of these four lines had shown a wild-type phenotype in the morphological screens, demonstrating that G1067 could enhance drought tolerance without producing obvious negative effects on plant size. Three other ARSK1::G1067 lines outperformed wild-type control plants in a high NaCl germination assay. TABLE 25 ARSK1::G1067 Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 344 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 345 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 346 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 347 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 401 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 402 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 403 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 406 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 407 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 408 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt G1067 (Arabidopsis) Leaf RBCS3 We have obtained tissue-specific (leaf) promoter RBCS3::G1067 lines using a two component approach. A number of RBCS3::G1067 lines produced with a two component approach were generally small at early stages, had short rounded leaves and flowered slightly late. At later stages of growth, the leaves became contorted and curled, but in occasional lines leaves appeared broader than those of controls. The appearance of broad leaves, albeit at a low frequency, suggests that G1073 and G1067 might, at least to some extent, be functionally related. Lines 581-590 showed a slight delay in the onset of flowering (about 1-5 days under 24-hour light). At early stages of growth, lines 621-629 were slightly small at early stages and had short, round, rather broad leaves. Delayed flowering was not noted in this set of lines. Late in the flowering stage, lines 621-629 had no consistent morphological differences relative to wild-type control plants, except for lines 622,624, which had slightly broad flat leaves. In later stages of growth there were no consistent differences in morphology between overexpressing lines 621-629 and wild-type control plants. Several of these lines had greater stress tolerance than wild-type control plants, as seen in the following table. TABLE 26 RBCS3::G1067 Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 581 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 582 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 586 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 587 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 588 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 622 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt GAL4 N-terminus 624 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 627 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + 2-components-supTfn 628 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 629 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt G1067 (Arabidopsis) Stress-Inducible RD29A We have obtained stress-inducible promoter RD29A::G1067 lines using a two component approach. The majority of these RD29A::LexA;opLexA::G1067) lines in the RD29A line 5 background showed no consistent alterations in morphology relative to controls. A smaller number of the transformants did show a small reduction in size and slightly more rounded leaves than controls. Thus, in these lines, low constitutive expression produced by the driver line could have triggered such effects. However, none of the lines showed the extreme dwarfing and curled leaves seen in 35S::G1067 lines. Several of these lines had greater stress tolerance than wild-type control plants, particularly in the plate-based severe desiccation assays, as seen in the following table. TABLE 27 RD29A::G1067 Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 661 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 663 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 664 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 668 + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 704 + + wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 707 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt GAL4 N-terminus 708 wt + wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 710 wt + wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 711 wt wt + + wt + wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 717 + wt wt + wt wt wt + wt G2156 (Arabidopsis) Root ARSK1 We have obtained tissue-specific (root) promoter ARSK1::G2156 lines using a two component approach. Approximately half of the lines from one of these batches displayed a very marginal delay in the onset of flowering, but the majority of lines displayed no obvious differences in growth and development to wild-type controls. Thus, use of a root promoter in combination with G2156 largely eliminated the undesirable morphologies produced by overexpression of that gene. Several of these lines also had greater stress tolerance than wild-type control plants, particularly in plate-based severe desiccation assays as seen in the following table. TABLE 28 ARSK1::G2156 Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 363 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 364 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 365 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 368 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 370 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 486 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 488 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 490 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 492 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 494 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt G2156 (Arabidopsis) Leaf RBCS3 We have obtained tissue-specific (leaf) promoter RBCS3::G2156 lines using a two component approach. At early stages, these plants were slightly small and showed rather rounded leaves. However, at later stages, 50% of the lines developed enlarged leaves and showed increased rosette biomass compare to controls. The majority of lines showing this phenotype also displayed a slight delay in the onset of flowering. We have previously observed large leaves in 35S::G2156 constitutive overexpressors. However, leaf enlargements were seen at lower frequency in the 35S::G2156 study than in the RBCS3::G2156 study. Additionally many of the lines from the 35S::G2156 experiment were very small and had multiple defects; these effects appear to have been avoided by use of the RBCS3 promoter. The increased leaf size seen in the present study was comparable to the effects produced by increased G1073 expression and serves to strengthen the conclusion that the two genes have related roles. RBCS3 produces expression in relatively mature, photosynthesizing leaf tissue. Thus, G2156 when expressed at a relatively late stage of leaf development produced developmental signals that maintained leaf growth. However, there remains the possibility that G2156 triggered the production of developmental signals in mature leaves that were then transmitted to younger leaf primordia, and committed them to overgrowth at an early stage. Several of these lines had greater abiotic stress tolerance than wild-type control plants, as seen in the following table. TABLE 29 RBCS3::G2156 Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 543 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 544 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt + wt 2-components-supTfn 551 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 552 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 553 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 554 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 557 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 582 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 584 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 587 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt G2156 (Arabidopsis) Stress-Inducible RD29A We have obtained stress-inducible promoter RD29A::G2156 lines using a two component approach. The majority of the two component RD29A::LexA;opLexA::G2156 transformants in the RD29A line 5 background showed no consistent differences in morphology to controls. A smaller number of lines did flower slightly late and developed enlarged leaves later in development. Thus, in these lines, low constitutive expression produced by the driver line could have triggered such effects. Several of these lines had greater stress tolerance than wild-type control plants, as seen in the following table. Particularly noteworthy were the results obtained showing that a majority of lines were less sensitive in the ABA germination assay, indicating an osmotic stress tolerant phenotype. TABLE 30 RD29A::G2156- Abiotic Stress Assay Results Germ in Germ in Germ in Germ Germ High High High in in Growth Growth Project Type Line NaCl Mannitol Sucrose ABA Heat Cold in Heat Desiccation in Cold 2-components-supTfn 622 wt wt wt wt wt wt − wt wt 2-components-supTfn 624 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 625 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 626 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 628 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 686 + wt + wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 688 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 689 wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 690 wt wt wt + wt wt wt wt wt 2-components-supTfn 692 wt wt + ++ wt wt wt wt wt Utilities for G1073 Clade Members Under Non-Constitutive Regulatory Control The results of these studies with the non-constitutive regulatory control of numerous G1073 clade members indicate that the polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences can be used to improve drought related stress tolerance while maintaining normal or near normal morphology under stress-free or low stress conditions, and improved size and vigor relative to wild-type control plants under conditions of abiotic stress. The data also confirm our conclusions that G1073 and other G1073 clade members may be valuable tools for the purpose of increasing yield, biomass and modifying flowering time. Analysis of combinations of G1073 clade member with regulatory elements was performed to 1) provide mechanistic insights into G1073 clade member function, and 2) to identify optimized patterns of G1073 clade member expression. Differential expression of G1073 and related sequences has revealed that some degree of osmotic stress tolerance can be obtained without a significant impact on plant or organ size. Specific examples include expression with tissue-specific promoters, including the CUT1 (epidermal-specific), The SUC2 (vascular-specific), the ARSK1 (root-specific), the RBCS3 (leaf specific) promoters, and stress inducible promoters, including the RD29A promoter. Lines that overexpressed a super-active form of G1073 comprising a GAL4 transactivation domain fused to either the N— or the C terminus of the polypeptide were also more tolerant to abiotic stresses, and were generally morphologically similar to wild-type control plants. These transcription factor-regulatory element combinations demonstrate that tissue-specific, inducible and transactivated G1073 clade members can be used to provide abiotic stress tolerance with little or no impact on overall plant growth or yield under low-abiotic stress conditions, and significantly improve yield and vigor in conditions of abiotic stress. Example X Identification of Homologous Sequences by Computer Homology Search This example describes identification of genes that are orthologous to Arabidopsis thaliana transcription factors from a computer homology search. Homologous sequences, including those of paralogs and orthologs from Arabidopsis and other plant species, were identified using database sequence search tools, such as the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) (Altschul et al. (1990) supra; and Altschul et al. (1997) Nucleic Acid Res. 25: 3389-3402). The tblastx sequence analysis programs were employed using the BLOSUM-62 scoring matrix (Henikoff and Henikoff (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 10915-10919). The entire NCBI GenBank database was filtered for sequences from all plants except Arabidopsis thaliana by selecting all entries in the NCBI GenBank database associated with NCBI taxonomic ID 33090 (Viridiplantae; all plants) and excluding entries associated with taxonomic ID 3701 (Arabidopsis thaliana). These sequences are compared to sequences representing transcription factor genes presented in the Sequence Listing, using the Washington University TBLASTX algorithm (version 2.0a19 MP) at the default settings using gapped alignments with the filter “off”. For each transcription factor gene in the Sequence Listing, individual comparisons were ordered by probability score (P-value), where the score reflects the probability that a particular alignment occurred by chance. For example, a score of 3.6e-59 is 3.6×10-59. In addition to P-values, comparisons were also scored by percentage identity. Percentage identity reflects the degree to which two segments of DNA or protein are identical over a particular length. Examples of sequences so identified are presented in, for example, the Sequence Listing, and Table 5. Paralogous or orthologous sequences were readily identified and available in GenBank by Accession number (Table 5; Sequence Identifier or Accession Number). The percent sequence identity among these sequences can be as low as 49%, or even lower sequence identity. Candidate paralogous sequences were identified among Arabidopsis transcription factors through alignment, identity, and phylogenic relationships. G1067, G2153 and G2156 (SEQ ID NO: 4, 6, and 8, respectively), paralogs of G1073, may be found in the Sequence Listing. Candidate orthologous sequences were identified from proprietary unigene sets of plant gene sequences in Zea mays, Glycine max and Oryza sativa based on significant homology to Arabidopsis transcription factors. These candidates were reciprocally compared to the set of Arabidopsis transcription factors. If the candidate showed maximal similarity in the protein domain to the eliciting transcription factor or to a paralog of the eliciting transcription factor, then it was considered to be an ortholog. Identified non-Arabidopsis sequences that were shown in this manner to be orthologous to the Arabidopsis sequences are provided in, for example, Table 5. Example XI Identification of Orthologous and Paralogous Sequences by PCR Orthologs to Arabidopsis genes may identified by several methods, including hybridization, amplification, or bioinformatically. This example describes how one may identify equivalogs to the Arabidopsis AP2 family transcription factor CBF 1 (polynucleotide SEQ ID NO: 69, encoded polypeptide SEQ ID NO: 70), which confers tolerance to abiotic stresses (Thomashow et al. (2002) U.S. Pat. No. 6,417,428), and an example to confirm the function of homologous sequences. In this example, orthologs to CBF1 were found in canola (Brassica napus) using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Degenerate primers were designed for regions of AP2 binding domain and outside of the AP2 (carboxyl terminal domain): Mol 368 (reverse) 5′-CAY CCN ATH TAY MGN GGN GT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 77) Mol 378 (forward) 5′-GGN ARN ARC ATN CCY TCN GCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 78 (Y: C/T, N: A/C/G/T, H: A/C/T, M: A/C, R: A/G) Primer Mol 368 is in the AP2 binding domain of CBF1 (amino acid sequence: His-Pro-Ile-Tyr-Arg-Gly-Val) while primer Mol 378 is outside the AP2 domain (carboxyl terminal domain) (amino acid sequence: Met-Ala-Glu-Gly-Met-Leu-Leu-Pro). The genomic DNA isolated from B. napus was PCR-amplified by using these primers following these conditions: an initial denaturation step of 2 minutes at 93° C.; 35 cycles of 93° C. for 1 minute, 55° C. for 1 minute, and 72° C. for 1 minute; and a final incubation of 7 minutes at 72° C. at the end of cycling. The PCR products were separated by electrophoresis on a 1.2% agarose gel and transferred to nylon membrane and hybridized with the AT CBF1 probe prepared from Arabidopsis genomic DNA by PCR amplification. The hybridized products were visualized by colorimetric detection system (Boehringer Mannheim) and the corresponding bands from a similar agarose gel were isolated using the Qiagen Extraction Kit (Qiagen, Valencia Calif.). The DNA fragments were ligated into the TA clone vector from TOPO TA Cloning Kit (Invitrogen Corporation, Carlsbad Calif.) and transformed into E. coli strain TOP10 (Invitrogen). Seven colonies were picked and the inserts were sequenced on an ABI 377 machine from both strands of sense and antisense after plasmid DNA isolation. The DNA sequence was edited by sequencer and aligned with the AtCBF1 by GCG software and NCBI blast searching. The nucleic acid sequence and amino acid sequence of one canola ortholog found in this manner (bnCBF1; polynucleotide SEQ ID NO: 75 and polypeptide SEQ ID NO: 76) identified by this process is shown in the Sequence Listing. The aligned amino acid sequences show that the bnCBF1 gene has 88% identity with the Arabidopsis sequence in the AP2 domain region and 85% identity with the Arabidopsis sequence outside the AP2 domain when aligned for two insertion sequences that are outside the AP2 domain. Similarly, paralogous sequences to Arabidopsis genes, such as CBF1, may also be identified. Two paralogs of CBF1 from Arabidopsis thaliana: CBF2 and CBF3. CBF2 and CBF3 have been cloned and sequenced as described below. The sequences of the DNA SEQ ID NO: 71 and 73 and encoded proteins SEQ ID NO: 72 and 74 are set forth in the Sequence Listing. A lambda cDNA library prepared from RNA isolated from Arabidopsis thaliana ecotype Columbia (Lin and Thomashow (1992) Plant Physiol. 99: 519-525) was screened for recombinant clones that carried inserts related to the CBF1 gene (Stockinger et al. (1997) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:1035-1040). CBF1 was 32P-radiolabeled by random priming (Sambrook et al. supra) and used to screen the library by the plaque-lift technique using standard stringent hybridization and wash conditions (Hajela et al. (1990) Plant Physiol. 93:1246-1252; Sambrook et al. supra) 6×SSPE buffer, 60° C. for hybridization and 0.1×SSPE buffer and 60° C. for washes). Twelve positively hybridizing clones were obtained and the DNA sequences of the cDNA inserts were determined. The results indicated that the clones fell into three classes. One class carried inserts corresponding to CBF1. The two other classes carried sequences corresponding to two different homologs of CBF1, designated CBF2 and CBF3. The nucleic acid sequences and predicted protein coding sequences for Arabidopsis CBF1, CBF2 and CBF3 are listed in the Sequence Listing (SEQ ID NOs: 69, 71, 73 and SEQ ID NOs: 70, 72, and 74, respectively). The nucleic acid sequences and predicted protein coding sequence for Brassica napus CBF ortholog is listed in the Sequence Listing (SEQ ID NOs: 75 and 76, respectively). A comparison of the nucleic acid sequences of Arabidopsis CBF1, CBF2 and CBF3 indicate that they are 83 to 85% identical as shown in Table 31. TABLE 31 Identity comparison of Arabidopsis CBF1, CBF2 and CBF3 Percent identitya DNAb Polypeptide cbf1/cbf2 85 86 cbf1/cbf3 83 84 cbf2/cbf3 84 85 aPercent identity was determined using the Clustal algorithm from the Megalign program (DNASTAR, Inc.). bComparisons of the nucleic acid sequences of the open reading frames are shown. Similarly, the amino acid sequences of the three CBF polypeptides range from 84 to 86% identity. An alignment of the three amino acidic sequences reveals that most of the differences in amino acid sequence occur in the acidic C-terminal half of the polypeptide. This region of CBF1 serves as an activation domain in both yeast and Arabidopsis (not shown). Residues 47 to 106 of CBF1 correspond to the AP2 domain of the protein, a DNA binding motif that to date, has only been found in plant proteins. A comparison of the AP2 domains of CBF1, CBF2 and CBF3 indicates that there are a few differences in amino acid sequence. These differences in amino acid sequence might have an effect on DNA binding specificity. Example XII Transformation of Canola with a Plasmid Containing CBF1, CBF2, or CBF3 After identifying homologous genes to CBF1, canola was transformed with a plasmid containing the Arabidopsis CBF1, CBF2, or CBF3 genes cloned into the vector pGA643 (An (1987) Methods Enzymol. 253: 292). In these constructs the CBF genes were expressed constitutively under the CaMV 35S promoter. In addition, the CBF1 gene was cloned under the control of the Arabidopsis COR15 promoter in the same vector pGA643. Each construct was transformed into Agrobacterium strain GV3101. Transformed Agrobacteria were grown for 2 days in minimal AB medium containing appropriate antibiotics. Spring canola (B. napus cv. Westar) was transformed using the protocol of Moloney et al. (1989) Plant Cell Reports 8: 238, with some modifications as described. Briefly, seeds were sterilized and plated on half strength MS medium, containing 1% sucrose. Plates were incubated at 24° C. under 60-80 μE/m2s light using a16 hour light/8 hour dark photoperiod. Cotyledons from 4-5 day old seedlings were collected, the petioles cut and dipped into the Agrobacterium solution. The dipped cotyledons were placed on co-cultivation medium at a density of 20 cotyledons/plate and incubated as described above for 3 days. Explants were transferred to the same media, but containing 300 mg/l timentin (SmithKline Beecham, Pa.) and thinned to 10 cotyledons/plate. After 7 days explants were transferred to Selection/Regeneration medium. Transfers were continued every 2-3 weeks (2 or 3 times) until shoots had developed. Shoots were transferred to Shoot-Elongation medium every 2-3 weeks. Healthy looking shoots were transferred to rooting medium. Once good roots had developed, the plants were placed into moist potting soil. The transformed plants were then analyzed for the presence of the NPTII gene/kanamycin resistance by ELISA, using the ELISA NPTII kit from 5Prime-3Prime Inc. (Boulder, Colo.). Approximately 70% of the screened plants were NPTII positive. Only those plants were further analyzed. From Northern blot analysis of the plants that were transformed with the constitutively expressing constructs, showed expression of the CBF genes and all CBF genes were capable of inducing the Brassica napus cold-regulated gene BN115 (homolog of the Arabidopsis COR15 gene). Most of the transgenic plants appear to exhibit a normal growth phenotype. As expected, the transgenic plants are more freezing tolerant than the wild-type control plants. Using the electrolyte leakage of leaves test, the control showed a 50% leakage at −2 to −3° C. Spring canola transformed with either CBF1 or CBF2 showed a 50% leakage at −6 to −7° C. Spring canola transformed with CBF3 shows a 50% leakage at about −10 to −15° C. Winter canola transformed with CBF3 may show a 50% leakage at about −16 to −20° C. Furthermore, if the spring or winter canola are cold acclimated the transformed plants may exhibit a further increase in freezing tolerance of at least −2° C. To test salinity tolerance of the transformed plants, plants were watered with 150 mM NaCl. Plants overexpressing CBF1, CBF2, or CBF3 grew better compared with plants that had not been transformed with CBF1, CBF2, or CBF3. These results demonstrate that equivalogs of Arabidopsis transcription factors can be identified and shown to confer similar functions in non-Arabidopsis plant species. Example XIII Screen of Plant cDNA library for Sequence Encoding a Transcription Factor DNA Binding Domain that Binds to a Transcription Factor Binding Promoter Element and Demonstration of Protein Transcription Regulation Activity The “one-hybrid” strategy (Li and Herskowitz (1993) Science 262: 1870-1874) is used to screen for plant cDNA clones encoding a polypeptide comprising a transcription factor DNA binding domain, a conserved domain. In brief, yeast strains are constructed that contain a lacZ reporter gene with either wild-type or mutant transcription factor binding promoter element sequences in place of the normal UAS (upstream activator sequence) of the GAL1 promoter. Yeast reporter strains are constructed that carry transcription factor binding promoter element sequences as UAS elements are operably linked upstream (5′) of a lacZ reporter gene with a minimal GAL1 promoter. The strains are transformed with a plant expression library that contains random cDNA inserts fused to the GAL4 activation domain (GAL4-ACT) and screened for blue colony formation on X-gal-treated filters (X-gal: 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-β-D-galactoside; Invitrogen Corporation, Carlsbad Calif.). Alternatively, the strains are transformed with a cDNA polynucleotide encoding a known transcription factor DNA binding domain polypeptide sequence. Yeast strains carrying these reporter constructs produce low levels of beta-galactosidase and form white colonies on filters containing X-gal. The reporter strains carrying wild-type transcription factor binding promoter element sequences are transformed with a polynucleotide that encodes a polypeptide comprising a plant transcription factor DNA binding domain operably linked to the acidic activator domain of the yeast GAL4 transcription factor, “GAL4-ACT”. The clones that contain a polynucleotide encoding a transcription factor DNA binding domain operably linked to GAL4-ACT can bind upstream of the lacZ reporter genes carrying the wild-type transcription factor binding promoter element sequence, activate transcription of the lacZ gene and result in yeast forming blue colonies on X-gal-treated filters. Upon screening about 2×106 yeast transformants, positive cDNA clones are isolated; i.e., clones that cause yeast strains carrying lacZ reporters operably linked to wild-type transcription factor binding promoter elements to form blue colonies on X-gal-treated filters. The cDNA clones do not cause a yeast strain carrying a mutant type transcription factor binding promoter elements fused to LacZ to turn blue. Thus, a polynucleotide encoding transcription factor DNA binding domain, a conserved domain, is shown to activate transcription of a gene. Example XIV Gel Shift Assays The presence of a transcription factor comprising a DNA binding domain which binds to a DNA transcription factor binding element is evaluated using the following gel shift assay. The transcription factor is recombinantly expressed and isolated from E. coli or isolated from plant material. Total soluble protein, including transcription factor, (40 ng) is incubated at room temperature in 10 μl of 1× binding buffer (15 mM HEPES (pH 7.9), 1 mM EDTA, 30 mM KCl, 5% glycerol, 5% bovine serum albumin, 1 mM DTT) plus 50 ng poly(dl-dC):poly(dl-dC) (Pharmacia, Piscataway N.J.) with or without 100 ng competitor DNA. After 10 minutes incubation, probe DNA comprising a DNA transcription factor binding element (1 ng) that has been 32P-labeled by end-filling (Sambrook et al. (1989) supra) is added and the mixture incubated for an additional 10 minutes. Samples are loaded onto polyacrylamide gels (4% w/v) and fractionated by electrophoresis at 150 V for 2h (Sambrook et al. supra). The degree of transcription factor-probe DNA binding is visualized using autoradiography. Probes and competitor DNAs are prepared from oligonucleotide inserts ligated into the BamHI site of pUC118 (Vieira et al. (1987) Methods Enzymol. 153: 3-11). Orientation and concatenation number of the inserts are determined by dideoxy DNA sequence analysis (Sambrook et al. supra). Inserts are recovered after restriction digestion with EcoRI and HindIII and fractionation on polyacrylamide gels (12% w/v) (Sambrook et al. supra). Example XV Cloning of Transcription Factor Promoters Promoters are isolated from transcription factor genes that have gene expression patterns useful for a range of applications, as determined by methods well known in the art (including transcript profile analysis with cDNA or oligonucleotide microarrays, Northern blot analysis, semi-quantitative or quantitative RT-PCR). Interesting gene expression profiles are revealed by determining transcript abundance for a selected transcription factor gene after exposure of plants to a range of different experimental conditions, and in a range of different tissue or organ types, or developmental stages. Experimental conditions to which plants are exposed for this purpose includes cold, heat, drought, osmotic challenge, and varied hormone concentrations (e.g., ABA). The tissue types and developmental stages include stem, root, flower, rosette leaves, cauline leaves, siliques, germinating seed, and meristematic tissue. The set of expression levels provides a pattern that is determined by the regulatory elements of the gene promoter. Transcription factor promoters for the genes disclosed herein are obtained by cloning 1.5 kb to 2.0 kb of genomic sequence immediately upstream of the translation start codon for the coding sequence of the encoded transcription factor protein. This region includes the 5′-UTR of the transcription factor gene, which can comprise regulatory elements. The 1.5 kb to 2.0 kb region is cloned through PCR methods, using primers that include one in the 3′ direction located at the translation start codon (including appropriate adaptor sequence), and one in the 5′ direction located from 1.5 kb to 2.0 kb upstream of the translation start codon (including appropriate adaptor sequence). The desired fragments are PCR-amplified from Arabidopsis Col-0 genomic DNA using high-fidelity Taq DNA polymerase to minimize the incorporation of point mutation(s). The cloning primers incorporate two rare restriction sites, such as Not1 and Sfi1, found at low frequency throughout the Arabidopsis genome. Additional restriction sites are used in the instances where a Not1 or Sfi1 restriction site is present within the promoter. The 1.5-2.0 kb fragment upstream from the translation start codon, including the 5′-untranslated region of the transcription factor, is cloned in a binary transformation vector immediately upstream of a suitable reporter gene, or a transactivator gene that is capable of programming expression of a reporter gene in a second gene construct. Reporter genes used include green fluorescent protein (and related fluorescent protein color variants), beta-glucuronidase, and luciferase. Suitable transactivator genes include LexA-GAL4, along with a transactivatable reporter in a second binary plasmid (as disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/958,131, incorporated herein by reference). The binary plasmid(s) is transferred into Agrobacterium and the structure of the plasmid confirmed by PCR. These strains are introduced into Arabidopsis plants as described in other examples, and gene expression patterns determined according to standard methods know to one skilled in the art for monitoring GFP fluorescence, beta-glucuronidase activity, or luminescence. Example XVI Transformation of Dicots Crop species overexpressing members of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides (e.g., G2153) have been shown experimentally to produce plants with increased biomass in field trials. This observation indicates that these genes, when overexpressed, will result in larger yields of various plant species, which may be most significant in those plants in which the vegetative portion of the plant is edible. Tomato plants overexpressing the A. thaliana G2153 polypeptide have been found to be larger than wild-type control tomato plants. Thus, transcription factor sequences listed in the Sequence Listing recombined into pMEN20 or pMEN65 expression vectors may be transformed into a plant for the purpose of modifying plant traits. The cloning vector may be introduced into a variety of cereal plants by means well known in the art such as, for example, direct DNA transfer or Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. It is now routine to produce transgenic plants using most dicot plants (see Weissbach and Weissbach, (1989) supra; Gelvin et al. (1990) supra; Herrera-Estrella et al. (1983) supra; Bevan (1984) supra; and Klee (1985) supra). Methods for analysis of traits are routine in the art and examples are disclosed above. Numerous protocols for the transformation of tomato and soy plants have been previously described, and are well known in the art. Gruber et al. ((1993) in Methods in Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, p. 89-119, Glick and Thompson, eds., CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton) describe several expression vectors and culture methods that may be used for cell or tissue transformation and subsequent regeneration. For soybean transformation, methods are described by Miki et al. (1993) in Methods in Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, p. 67-88, Glick and Thompson, eds., CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, (Townsend and Thomas), issued Oct. 8, 1996. There are a substantial number of alternatives to Agrobacterium-mediated transformation protocols, other methods for the purpose of transferring exogenous genes into soybeans or tomatoes. One such method is microprojectile-mediated transformation, in which DNA on the surface of microprojectile particles is driven into plant tissues with a biolistic device (see, for example, Sanford et al., (1987) Part. Sci. Technol. 5:27-37; Christou et al. (1992) Plant. J. 2: 275-281; Sanford (1993) Methods Enzymol. 217: 483-509; Klein et al. (1987) Nature 327: 70-73; U.S. Pat. No. 5,015,580 (Christou et al), issued May 14, 1991; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,322,783 (Tomes et al.), issued Jun. 21, 1994. Alternatively, sonication methods (see, for example, Zhang et al. (1991) Bio/Technology 9: 996-997); direct uptake of DNA into protoplasts using CaCl2 precipitation, polyvinyl alcohol or poly-L-ornithine (see, for example, Hain et al. (1985) Mol. Gen. Genet. 199: 161-168; Draper et al., Plant Cell Physiol. 23: 451-458 (1982)); liposome or spheroplast fusion (see, for example, Deshayes et al. (1985) EMBO J., 4: 2731-2737; Christou et al. (1987) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84: 3962-3966); and electroporation of protoplasts and whole cells and tissues (see, for example, Donn et al.(1990) in Abstracts of VIIth International Congress on Plant Cell and Tissue Culture IAPTC, A2-38: 53; D'Halluin et al. (1992) Plant Cell 4: 1495-1505; and Spencer et al. (1994) Plant Mol. Biol. 24: 51-61) have been used to introduce foreign DNA and expression vectors into plants. After a plant or plant cell is transformed (and the latter regenerated into a plant), the transformed plant may be crossed with itself or a plant from the same line, a non-transformed or wild-type plant, or another transformed plant from a different transgenic line of plants. Crossing provides the advantages of producing new and often stable transgenic varieties. Genes and the traits they confer that have been introduced into a tomato or soybean line may be moved into distinct line of plants using traditional backcrossing techniques well known in the art. Transformation of tomato plants may be conducted using the protocols of Koornmeef et al (1986) In Tomato Biotechnology: Alan R. Liss, Inc., 169-178, and in U.S. Pat. No. 6,613,962, the latter method described in brief here. Eight day old cotyledon explants are precultured for 24 hours in Petri dishes containing a feeder layer of Petunia hybrida suspension cells plated on MS medium with 2% (w/v) sucrose and 0.8% agar supplemented with 10 μM α-naphthalene acetic acid and 4.4 μM 6-benzylaminopurine. The explants are then infected with a diluted overnight culture of Agrobacterium tumefaciens containing an expression vector comprising a polynucleotide of the invention for 5-10 minutes, blotted dry on sterile filter paper and cocultured for 48 hours on the original feeder layer plates. Culture conditions are as described above. Overnight cultures of Agrobacterium tumefaciens are diluted in liquid MS medium with 2% (w/v/) sucrose, pH 5.7) to an OD600 of 0.8. Following cocultivation, the cotyledon explants are transferred to Petri dishes with selective medium comprising MS medium with 4.56 μM zeatin, 67.3 μM vancomycin, 418.9 μM cefotaxime and 171.6 μM kanamycin sulfate, and cultured under the culture conditions described above. The explants are subcultured every three weeks onto fresh medium. Emerging shoots are dissected from the underlying callus and transferred to glass jars with selective medium without zeatin to form roots. The formation of roots in a kanamycin sulphate-containing medium is a positive indication of a successful transformation. Transformation of soybean plants may be conducted using the methods found in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055 (Townsend et al., issued Oct. 8, 1996), described in brief here. In this method soybean seed is surface sterilized by exposure to chlorine gas evolved in a glass bell jar. Seeds are germinated by plating on {fraction (1/10)} strength agar solidified medium without plant growth regulators and culturing at 28° C. with a 16 hour day length. After three or four days, seed may be prepared for cocultivation. The seedcoat is removed and the elongating radicle removed 3-4 mm below the cotyledons. Overnight cultures of Agrobacterium tumefaciens harboring the expression vector comprising a polynucleotide of the invention are grown to log phase, pooled, and concentrated by centrifugation. Inoculations are conducted in batches such that each plate of seed was treated with a newly resuspended pellet of Agrobacterium. The pellets are resuspended in 20 ml inoculation medium. The inoculum is poured into a Petri dish containing prepared seed and the cotyledonary nodes are macerated with a surgical blade. After 30 minutes the explants are transferred to plates of the same medium that has been solidified. Explants are embedded with the adaxial side up and level with the surface of the medium and cultured at 22° C. for three days under white fluorescent light. These plants may then be regenerated according to methods well established in the art, such as by moving the explants after three days to a liquid counter-selection medium (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055). The explants may then be picked, embedded and cultured in solidified selection medium. After one month on selective media transformed tissue becomes visible as green sectors of regenerating tissue against a background of bleached, less healthy tissue. Explants with green sectors are transferred to an elongation medium. Culture is continued on this medium with transfers to fresh plates every two weeks. When shoots are 0.5 cm in length they may be excised at the base and placed in a rooting medium. Example XVII Increased Biomass and Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Monocots Cereal plants such as, but not limited to, corn, wheat, rice, sorghum, or barley, may be transformed with the present polynucleotide sequences, including monocot or dicot-derived sequences such as those presented in Tables 2 or 5, cloned into a vector such as pGA643 and containing a kanamycin-resistance marker, and expressed constitutively under, for example, the CaMV 35S or COR15 promoters. pMEN20 or pMEN65 and other expression vectors may also be used for the purpose of modifying plant traits. For example, pMEN020 may be modified to replace the NptII coding region with the BAR gene of Streptomyces hygroscopicus that confers resistance to phosphinothricin. The KpnI and BglII sites of the Bar gene are removed by site-directed mutagenesis with silent codon changes. The cloning vector may be introduced into a variety of cereal plants by means well known in the art including direct DNA transfer or Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. The latter approach may be accomplished by a variety of means, including, for example, that of U.S. Pat. No. 5,591,616, in which monocotyledon callus is transformed by contacting dedifferentiating tissue with the Agrobacterium containing the cloning vector. The sample tissues are immersed in a suspension of 3×10−9 cells of Agrobacterium containing the cloning vector for 3-10 minutes. The callus material is cultured on solid medium at 25° C. in the dark for several days. The calli grown on this medium are transferred to Regeneration medium. Transfers are continued every 2-3 weeks (2 or 3 times) until shoots develop. Shoots are then transferred to Shoot-Elongation medium every 2-3 weeks. Healthy looking shoots are transferred to rooting medium and after roots have developed, the plants are placed into moist potting soil. The transformed plants are then analyzed for the presence of the NPTII gene/kanamycin resistance by ELISA, using the ELISA NPTII kit from SPrime-3Prime Inc. (Boulder, Colo.). It is also routine to use other methods to produce transgenic plants of most cereal crops (Vasil (1994) Plant Mol. Biol. 25: 925-937) such as corn, wheat, rice, sorghum (Cassas et al. (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 11212-11216, and barley (Wan and Lemeaux (1994) Plant Physiol. 104:37-48). DNA transfer methods such as the microprojectile method can be used for corn (Fromm et al. (1990) Bio/Technol. 8: 833-839); Gordon-Kamm et al. (1990) Plant Cell 2: 603-618; Ishida (1990) Nature Biotechnol. 14:745-750), wheat (Vasil et al. (1992) Bio/Technol. 10:667-674; Vasil et al. (1993) Bio/Technol. 11:1553-1558; Weeks et al. (1993) Plant Physiol. 102:1077-1084), and rice (Christou (1991) Bio/Technol. 9:957-962; Hiei et al. (1994) Plant J. 6:271-282; Aldemita and Hodges (1996) Planta 199:612-617; and Hiei et al. (1997) Plant Mol. Biol. 35:205-218). For most cereal plants, embryogenic cells derived from immature scutellum tissues are the preferred cellular targets for transformation (Hiei et al. (1997) Plant Mol. Biol. 35:205-218; Vasil (1994) Plant Mol. Biol. 25: 925-937). For transforming corn embryogenic cells derived from immature scutellar tissue using microprojectile bombardment, the A188XB73 genotype is the preferred genotype (Fromm et al. (1990) Bio/Technol. 8: 833-839; Gordon-Kamm et al. (1990) Plant Cell 2: 603-618). After microprojectile bombardment the tissues are selected on phosphinothricin to identify the transgenic embryogenic cells (Gordon-Kamm et al. (1990) Plant Cell 2: 603-618). Transgenic plants are regenerated by standard corn regeneration techniques (Fromm et al. (1990) Bio/Technol. 8: 833-839; Gordon-Kamm et al. (1990) Plant Cell 2: 603-618). Northern blot analysis, RT-PCR or microarray analysis of the regenerated, transformed plants may be used to show expression of G1073 and related genes that are capable of inducing abiotic stress tolerance and larger size. To verify the ability to confer abiotic stress tolerance, mature plants overexpressing a G1073 or equivalog, or alternatively, seedling progeny of these plants, may be challenged by an osmotic stress, such as drought, heat, high salt, or freezing. Alternatively, these plants may challenged in an osmotic stress condition that may also measure altered sugar sensing, such as a high sugar condition. By comparing wild type and transgenic plants similarly treated, the transgenic plants may be shown to have greater tolerance to abiotic stress. After a monocot plant or plant cell has been transformed (and the latter regenerated into a plant) and shown to have greater size or tolerance to abiotic stress, or produce greater yield relative to a control plant under the stress conditions, the transformed monocot plant may be crossed with itself or a plant from the same line, a non-transformed or wild-type monocot plant, or another transformed monocot plant from a different transgenic line of plants. These experiments would demonstrate that members of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides can be identified and shown to confer larger size, greater yield, and/or greater abiotic stress tolerance in monocots, including tolerance or resistance to multiple stresses. Example XVIII Genes that Confer Significant Improvements to Non-Arabidopsis Species The function of specific orthologs of G1073 have been analyzed and may be further characterized and incorporated into crop plants. The ectopic overexpression of these orthologs may be regulated using constitutive, inducible, or tissue specific regulatory elements. Genes that have been examined and have been shown to modify plant traits (including increasing biomass and abiotic stress tolerance) encode members of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides, such as those found in Arabidopsis thaliana (SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, 6, 8, 42, 84 and 86) Oryza sativa (SEQ ID NO: 10, 12, 26, 30, and 38), and Glycine max (SEQ ID NO: 14, 16, 18, and 40). In addition to these sequences, it is expected that related polynucleotide sequences encoding polypeptides found in the Sequence Listing can also induce altered traits, including increased biomass and abiotic stress tolerance, when transformed into a considerable variety of plants of different species, and including dicots and monocots. The polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences derived from monocots (e.g., the rice sequences) may be used to transform both monocot and dicot plants, and those derived from dicots (e.g., the Arabidopsis and soy genes) may be used to transform either group, although it is expected that some of these sequences will function best if the gene is transformed into a plant from the same group as that from which the sequence is derived. Seeds of these transgenic plants are subjected to germination assays to measure sucrose sensing. Sterile monocot seeds, including, but not limited to, corn, rice, wheat, rye and sorghum, as well as dicots including, but not limited to soybean and alfalfa, are sown on 80% MS medium plus vitamins with 9.4% sucrose; control media lack sucrose. All assay plates are then incubated at 22° C. under 24-hour light, 120-130 μEin/m2/s, in a growth chamber. Evaluation of germination and seedling vigor is then conducted three days after planting. Overexpressors of these genes may be found to be more tolerant to high sucrose by having better germination, longer radicles, and more cotyledon expansion. These results have indicated that overexpressors of G1073, G1067, G1069, G2153, G2156, G2657, G3401 and G3460 are involved in sucrose-specific sugar sensing; it is expected that structurally similar orthologs of these sequences, including those found in the Sequence Listing, are also involved in sugar sensing, an indication of altered osmotic stress tolerance. Plants overexpressing the transcription factor sequences of the invention may also be subjected to soil-based drought assays to identify those lines that are more tolerant to water deprivation than wild-type control plants. A number of the lines of plants overexpressing a member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides will be significantly larger and greener, with less wilting or desiccation, than wild-type control plants, particularly after a period of water deprivation is followed by rewatering and a subsequent incubation period. The sequence of the G1073 clade member may be overexpressed under the regulatory control of constitutive, tissue specific or inducible promoters, or may comprise a GAL4 transactivation domain fused to either the N- or the C terminus of the polypeptide. The results presented in Example IX indicate that G1073 clade members may confer stress tolerance when they are overexpressed under the regulatory control of non-constitutive promoters or a transactivation domain fused to the clade member without a significant impact on plant morphology. The lines that display useful traits may be selected for further study or commercial development. Monocotyledonous plants, including rice, corn, wheat, rye, sorghum, barley and others, may be transformed with a plasmid containing a member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides. The G1073 clade sequence may include dicot or monocot-derived sequences such as those presented in Table 1 or Table 5. These AT-hook transcription factor genes may be cloned into a vector such as pGA643 and containing a kanamycin-resistance marker, and then expressed constitutively under the CaMV 35S promoter or COR15 promoter. The cloning vector may be introduced into monocots by, for example, means described in detail in Example XV, including direct DNA transfer or Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. The latter approach may be accomplished by a variety of means, including, for example, that of U.S. Pat. No. 5,591,616, in which monocotyledon callus is transformed by contacting dedifferentiating tissue with the Agrobacterium containing the cloning vector. The sample tissues are immersed in a suspension of 3×10−9 cells of Agrobacterium containing the cloning vector for 3-10 minutes. The callus material is cultured on solid medium at 25° C. in the dark for several days. The calli grown on this medium are transferred to Regeneration medium. Transfers are continued every 2-3 weeks (2 or 3 times) until shoots develop. Shoots are then transferred to Shoot-Elongation medium every 2-3 weeks. Healthy looking shoots are transferred to rooting medium and after roots have developed, the plants are placed into moist potting soil. The transformed plants are then analyzed for the presence of the NPTII gene/kanamycin resistance by ELISA, using the ELISA NPTII kit from SPrime-3Prime Inc. (Boulder, Colo.). Northern blot analysis, RT-PCR or microarray analysis of the regenerated, transformed plants may be used to show expression of a member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides that is capable of inducing abiotic stress tolerance. To verify the ability to confer abiotic stress tolerance, mature plants expressing a monocot-derived equivalog gene, or alternatively, seedling progeny of these plants, may be challenged using methods described in Example VII. By comparing wild type plants and the transgenic plants, the latter are shown be more tolerant to abiotic stress, and/or have increased biomass, as compared to wild type control plants similarly treated. These experiments demonstrate that a number of representative members of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides, including G1073, G1067, G2153, G2156, G3399, G3400, G3401, G3406, G3407, G3456, G3459 and G3460, can be identified and shown to increase biomass and improve abiotic stress tolerance, including osmotic stresses such as drought or salt stress. It is expected that the same methods may be applied to identify other useful and valuable members of the clade from a diverse range of species. All publications and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. The present invention is not limited by the specific embodiments described herein. The invention now being fully described, it will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that many changes and modifications can be made thereto without departing from the spirit or scope of the appended claims. Modifications that become apparent from the foregoing description and accompanying figures fall within the scope of the claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Studies from a diversity of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms suggest a gradual evolution of biochemical and physiological mechanisms and metabolic pathways. Despite different evolutionary pressures, proteins that regulate the cell cycle in yeast, plant, nematode, fly, rat, and man have common chemical or structural features and modulate the same general cellular activity. A comparison of gene sequences with known structure and/or function from one plant species, for example, Arabidopsis thaliana , with those from other plants, allows researchers to develop models for manipulating a plant's traits and developing varieties with valuable properties. A plant's traits may be controlled through a number of cellular processes. One important way to manipulate that control is through transcription factors—proteins that influence the expression of a particular gene or sets of genes. Because transcription factors are key controlling elements of biological pathways, altering the expression levels of one or more transcription factors can change entire biological pathways in an organism. Strategies for manipulating a plant's biochemical, developmental, or phenotypic characteristics by altering a transcription factor expression can result in plants and crops with new and/or improved commercially valuable properties, including traits that improve yield under non-stressed conditions, or survival and yield during periods of abiotic stress. Examples of the latter include, for example, germination in cold conditions, and osmotic stresses such as desiccation, drought, excessive heat, and salt stress. Desirability of increasing biomass. The ability to increase the biomass or size of a plant would have several important commercial applications. Crop species may be generated that produce larger cultivars, generating higher yield in, for example, plants in which the vegetative portion of the plant is edible. Increased leaf size may be of particular interest. Increasing leaf biomass can be used to increase production of plant-derived pharmaceutical or industrial products. An increase in total plant photosynthesis is typically achieved by increasing leaf area of the plant. Additional photosynthetic capacity may be used to increase the yield derived from particular plant tissue, including the leaves, roots, fruits or seed, or permit the growth of a plant under decreased light intensity or under high light intensity. Modification of the biomass of another tissue, such as root tissue, may be useful to improve a plant's ability to grow under harsh environmental conditions, including drought or nutrient deprivation, because larger roots may better reach water or nutrients or take up water or nutrients. For some ornamental plants, the ability to provide larger varieties would be highly desirable. For many plants, including fruit-bearing trees, trees that are used for lumber production, or trees and shrubs that serve as view or wind screens, increased stature provides improved benefits in the forms of greater yield or improved screening. Problems associated with drought. A drought is a period of abnormally dry weather that persists long enough to produce a serious hydrologic imbalance (for example crop damage, water supply shortage, etc.). In severe cases, drought can last for many years and have devastating effects on agriculture. Drought is the primary weather-related problem in agriculture and also ranks as one of the major natural disasters of all time, causing not only economic damage, but also loss of human lives. For example, losses from the US drought of 1988 exceeded $40 billion, exceeding those caused by Hurricane Andrew in 1992, the Mississippi River floods of 1993, and the San Francisco earthquake in 1989. The 1984-1985 drought in the Horn of Africa led to a famine that killed 750,000 people. Problems for plants caused by low water availability include mechanical stresses caused by the withdrawal of cellular water. Drought also causes plants to become more susceptible to various diseases (Simpson (1981) in Water Stress on Plants , (Simpson, G. M., ed.), Praeger, N.Y., pp. 235-265). The most important factor in drought resistance is the ability of the plant to maintain high water status and turgidity, while maintaining carbon fixation. Various adaptive mechanisms influence this ability, including increasing root surface area or depth, osmotic adjustment, and the accumulation of hydrophilic proteins. ABA is also an essential regulatory component of many of these protective features. Maintaining reproductive performance is another component of yield stability that has been studied in maize. Grain yield is known to be correlated with the kernel number per unit area rather than the weight per kernel. Yield losses in maize due to drought are particularly prevalent when the stress occurs at the transition from vegetative to reproductive growth. A consequence of the growth of maize under drought stress conditions is the delay in silking in relation to pollen shed, adversely affecting kernel set (Edmeades et al. (2000) in Physiology and Modeling Kernel Set in Maize , M. E. Westgate and K. J. Boote, eds (Crop Sci. Soc. America and Amer. Soc. Agron., Madison, Wis.) and reproductive performance. Kernel set is also adversely affected when the grain sink size exceeds the nitrogen uptake capacity from dry soil (Chapman and Edmeades (1999) Crop Sci. 39: 1315-1324). Varieties that were selected for improved yield under drought stress at flowering showed similar performance gains under conditions of low nitrogen, suggesting a common mechanism of tolerance to the two stresses (Beck et al. (1996) in 51st Annual Corn and Sorghum Research Conference, D. Wilkinson, ed (Chicago: ASTA), pp. 85-111; Banzinger et al. (1999) Crop Sci. 39: 1035-1040). When a drought stress occurs between flowering and seed fill of soybeans, total seed yield is reduced due to a reduction in branch growth and thus seed number per branch (Frederick et al. (2001) Crop Sci. 41: 759-763). Physiological changes occurring in maize plants during drought include: (a) accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA); (b) inhibition of cell expansion, resulting in reduced leaf area, reduced silk growth, reduced stem elongation, and reduced root growth; (c) inhibition of cell division resulting in reduced organ size; (d) cellular osmotic adjustment (this is more apparent in sorghum and rice and less apparent in maize (Bolanos and Edmeades, 1991)); and (e) accumulation of proline (during severe drought). In addition to the many land regions of the world that are too arid for most, if not all, crop plants, overuse and over-utilization of available water is resulting in an increasing loss of agriculturally-usable land, a process which, in the extreme, results in desertification. The problem is further compounded by increasing salt accumulation in soils, which adds to the loss of available water in soils. Problems associated with high salt levels. One in five hectares of irrigated land is damaged by salt, an important historical factor in the decline of ancient agrarian societies. This condition is expected to worsen, further reducing the availability of arable land and crop production, since none of the top five food crops—wheat, corn, rice, potatoes, and soybean—can tolerate excessive salt. Detrimental effects of salt on plants are a consequence of both water deficit resulting in osmotic stress (similar to drought stress) and the effects of excess sodium ions on critical biochemical processes. As with freezing and drought, high saline causes water deficit. The presence of high salt makes it difficult for plant roots to extract water from their environment (Buchanan et al. (2000) in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Plants , American Society of Plant Physiologists, Rockville, Md.). Soil salinity is thus one of the more important variables that determines where a plant may thrive. In many parts of the world, sizable land areas are uncultivable due to naturally high soil salinity. To compound the problem, salination of soils that are used for agricultural production is a significant and increasing problem in regions that rely heavily on agriculture. The latter is compounded by over-utilization, over-fertilization and water shortage, typically caused by climatic change and the demands of increasing population. Salt tolerance is of particular importance early in a plant's lifecycle, since evaporation from the soil surface causes upward water movement, and salt accumulates in the upper soil layer where the seeds are placed. Thus, germination normally takes place at a salt concentration much higher than the mean salt level in the whole soil profile. Problems associated with excessive heat. Germination of many crops is very sensitive to temperature. A transcription factor that would enhance germination in hot conditions would be useful for crops that are planted late in the season or in hot climates. Seedlings and mature plants that are exposed to excess heat may experience heat shock, which may arise in various organs including leaves and particularly fruit, when transpiration is insufficient to overcome heat stress. Heat also damages cellular structures, including organelles and cytoskeleton, and impairs membrane function (Buchanan et al. (2000) supra). Heat shock may produce a decrease in overall protein synthesis, accompanied by expression of heat shock proteins. Heat shock proteins function as chaperones and are involved in refolding proteins denatured by heat. Heat stress often accompanies conditions of low water availability. Heat itself is seen as an interacting stress and adds to the detrimental effects caused by water deficit conditions. Evaporative demand exhibits near exponential increases with increases in daytime temperatures, and can result in high transpiration rates and low plant water potentials (Hall et al. (2000) Plant Physiol. 123: 1449-1458). High-temperature damage to pollen almost always occurs in conjunction with drought stress, and rarely occurs under well-watered conditions. It may be difficult to separate the effects of heat and drought stress on pollination and plant metabolism, and thus an understanding of the interaction between these and other stresses may be important when developing strategies to enhance stress tolerance by genetic manipulation. Problems associated with excessive cold or chilling conditions. The term “chilling sensitivity” has been used to describe many types of physiological damage produced at low, but above freezing, temperatures. Most crops of tropical origins such as soybean, rice, maize and cotton are easily damaged by chilling. Typical cold damage includes wilting, necrosis, chlorosis or leakage of ions from cell membranes. The underlying mechanisms of chilling sensitivity are not completely understood yet, but probably involve the level of membrane saturation and other physiological deficiencies. For example, photoinhibition of photosynthesis (disruption of photosynthesis due to high light intensities) often occurs under clear atmospheric conditions subsequent to cold late summer/autumn nights. Chilling may lead to yield losses and lower product quality through the delayed ripening of maize. Another consequence of poor growth is the rather poor ground cover of maize fields in spring, often resulting in soil erosion, increased occurrence of weeds, and reduced uptake of nutrients. A retarded uptake of mineral nitrogen could also lead to increased losses of nitrate into the ground water. By some estimates, chilling accounts for monetary losses in the United States (US) behind only to drought and flooding. Desirability of altered sugar sensing. Sugars are key regulatory molecules that affect diverse processes in higher plants including germination, growth, flowering, senescence, sugar metabolism and photosynthesis. Sucrose, for example, is the major transport form of photosynthate and its flux through cells has been shown to affect gene expression and alter storage compound accumulation in seeds (source-sink relationships). Glucose-specific hexose-sensing has also been described in plants and is implicated in cell division and repression of “famine” genes (photosynthetic or glyoxylate cycles). Water deficit is a common component of many plant stresses. Water deficit occurs in plant cells when the whole plant transpiration rate exceeds the water uptake. In addition to drought, other stresses, such as salinity and low temperature, produce cellular dehydration (McCue and Hanson (1990) Trends Biotechnol. 8: 358-362). Salt and drought stress signal transduction consist of ionic and osmotic homeostasis signaling pathways. The ionic aspect of salt stress is signaled via the SOS pathway where a calcium-responsive SOS3-SOS2 protein kinase complex controls the expression and activity of ion transporters such as SOS1. The pathway regulating ion homeostasis in response to salt stress has been reviewed recently by Xiong and Zhu (Xiong and Zhu (2002) Plant Cell Environ. 25: 131-139). The osmotic component of salt stress involves complex plant reactions that overlap with drought and/or cold stress responses. Common aspects of drought, cold and salt stress response have been reviewed recently by Xiong and Zhu (2002) supra. Those include: (a) transient changes in the cytoplasmic calcium levels very early in the signaling event (Knight, (2000) Int. Rev. Cytol. 195: 269-324; Sanders et al. (1999) Plant Cell 11: 691-706); (b) signal transduction via mitogen-activated and/or calcium dependent protein kinases (CDPKs; see Xiong and Zhu (2002) supra) and protein phosphatases (Merlot et al. (2001) Plant J. 25: 295-303; Tähtiharju and Palva (2001) Plant J. 26: 461-470); (c) increases in ABA levels in response to stress triggering a subset of responses (Xiong and Zhu (2002) supra, and references therein); (d) inositol phosphates as signal molecules (at least for a subset of the stress responsive transcriptional changes (Xiong et al. (2001) Genes Dev. 15: 1971-1984)); (e) activation of phospholipases which in turn generate a diverse array of second messenger molecules, some of which might regulate the activity of stress responsive kinases (phospholipase D functions in an ABA independent pathway, Frank et al. (2000) Plant Cell 12: 111-124); (f) induction of late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) type genes including the CRT/DRE-containing COR/RD genes (Xiong and Zhu (2002) supra); (g) increased levels of antioxidants and compatible osmolytes such as proline and soluble sugars (Hasegawa et al. (2000) Annu. Rev. Plant Mol. Plant Physiol. 51: 463-499); (h) accumulation of reactive oxygen species such as superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals (Hasegawa et al. (2000) supra). ABA biosynthesis is regulated by osmotic stress at multiple steps. Both ABA-dependent and ABA-independent osmotic stress signaling first modify constitutively expressed transcription factors, leading to the expression of early response transcriptional activators, which then activate downstream stress tolerance effector genes. Based on the commonality of many aspects of cold, drought and salt stress responses, it can be concluded that genes that increase tolerance to cold or salt stress can also improve drought stress protection. In fact, this has already been demonstrated for transcription factors (in the case of AtCBF/DREB1) and for other genes such as OsCDPK7 (Saijo et al. (2000) Plant J. 23: 319-327), or AVP1 (a vacuolar pyrophosphatase-proton-pump; Gaxiola et al. (2001) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 11444-11449). The present invention relates to methods and compositions for producing transgenic plants with modified traits, particularly traits that address agricultural and food needs. These traits, including increased biomass, altered sugar sensing, and tolerance to abiotic stress, may provide significant value in that greater yield may be achieved, and/or the plant can then thrive in hostile environments, where, for example, high or low temperature, low water availability or high salinity may limit or prevent growth of non-transgenic plants. We have identified polynucleotides encoding transcription factors, including G1073 (atHRC1), and equivalogs in the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides, developed numerous transgenic plants using these polynucleotides, and have analyzed the plants for their biomass and tolerance to abiotic stresses. In so doing, we have identified important polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences for producing commercially valuable plants and crops as well as the methods for making them and using them. Other aspects and embodiments of the invention are described below and can be derived from the teachings of this disclosure as a whole. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention pertains to a method for increasing a plant's biomass and tolerance to abiotic stresses. This is accomplished by providing a vector, plasmid or other nucleic acid construct that contains a transcription factor polynucleotide and regulatory elements for transcriptional regulation of the polynucleotide. The polynucleotide is a sequence that encodes a member of the G1073 clade of transcription factor polypeptides, which are derived from a common polypeptide ancestor ( FIG. 4 ), and which comprise an AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain. The G1073 clade member sequences that have been successfully used to confer increased tolerance to abiotic stress derive from a number of diverse species, including dicots such as Arabidopsis and soy, and monocots such as rice. The G1073 clade member polypeptides comprise an AT-hook domain and a second conserved domain, which in turn comprise the sequences SEQ ID NO: 79 (in the At-hook domain) and either SEQ ID NO: 80 or SEQ ID NO: 81 (in the second conserved domain). The vector, plasmid or nucleic acid construct may also contain a regulatory element. This may be a constitutive, inducible or tissue-specific promoter that controls expression of the polynucleotide sequence. The vector, plasmid or nucleic acid construct is then introduced into a target plant (a plant that has not yet been transformed with the vector, plasmid or nucleic acid construct), thus transforming the plant into one that has increased biomass and/or tolerance to an abiotic stress, relative to control plants. Inducible promoters may include, for example, the DREB2A and RD29A promoters. The RD29A promoter has been successfully used to regulate expression of the G1073 polynucleotide and confer increased abiotic stress tolerance. Examples of tissue-specific promoters that have been used in this manner include the ARSK1 (root specific) promoter, the CUT1 (epidermis-specific) promoter, the RBSC3 (leaf specific) promoter, and the SUC2 (vascular specific) promoter. Use of tissue-specific or inducible promoters mitigates undesirable morphological effects that may be associated with constitutive overexpression of G1073 clade members (e.g., when increased size is undesirable). The method also pertains to increasing a plant's biomass and/or tolerance to abiotic stress with a multiple vector approach. In this case, a first vector that comprises a promoter cloned in front of a LexA DNA binding domain fused to a GAL4 activation domain is introduced into the plant. A second vector is then introduced into the same plant; this second vector comprises a polynucleotide sequence encoding a G1073 polypeptide clade member. The plant is then allowed to overexpress the G1073 member polypeptide, which increases the plant's biomass and/or tolerance to abiotic stress. The promoter cloned in front of a LexA DNA binding domain may be, for example, the RD29A promoter, although other promoters that function in a similar capacity and that may be expressed in an inducible or tissue-specific manner are readily envisioned and also encompassed by the present invention. The methods encompassed by the invention may also be extended to propagation techniques used to generate plants. For example, a target plant that has been transformed with a polynucleotide encoding a G1073 polypeptide clade member and that has greater biomass and/or abiotic stress tolerance than to a wild-type or non-transformed control may be “selfed” (i.e., self-pollinated) or crossed with another plant to produce seed. Progeny plants may be grown from this seed, thus generating transformed progeny plants with increased tolerance to abiotic stress than control plants. Transgenic plants (and seed from these transgenic plants) produced by the present methods are also encompassed by the invention. | 20040616 | 20110301 | 20050505 | 84313.0 | 0 | KRUSE, DAVID H | TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION OF PLANT BIOMASS AND ABIOTIC STRESS TOLERANCE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.