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20487_CaliforniaStateRoute7 | state route state highway state california running border east north terminus interstate orchard road continues route north route provides convenient access country mexico southern portion route opened rest route connecting opened route description highway begins east border station open seven days week north border highway splits roads pass customs roads merge fork west cars fork east commercial vehicles takes western fork passes fork northern end merges highway expressway known orchard road reaching travels north grade intersection roads northern end turns orchard road intersects entire route runs desert built expressway standards route constructed allow commercial traffic travel mexico united_states california freeway expressway system national_highway_system network highways essential country economy defense mobility annual average daily traffic aadt inspection station road spur highest aadt highway history added state highway system freeway expressway system segment mexican border completed march expressway standards cost million million dollars complete border crossing opened december delays constructing mexican portion border crossing economic crisis mexico money complete construction road leading border facility mexican mexican border facility segment began construction march cost million million dollars completed major intersections note necessarily reflect current mileage refers mileage spur route border entire route | California State Route 7 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
20804_U.S.Route199 | route route highway states california oregon highway established spur route replaced interstate stretches miles route near california northeast interstate oregon highway northern portion highway oregon officially known majority road california route california freeway expressway system eligible roadway road established designation applied highway roadway designated highway route route description begins partial interchange northeast road county route connects routes north access highway quickly enters climbs ridge crosses meets state route heads northwest follows banks river takes steady climb rivers national forest passing settlements approaches summit turns east continues northeast following near source rest area passing border smith river elevation feet old curving route summit exists leaving tunnel descends alongside small broken creek crosses oregon leaves national forest enters oregon descends passing brien west end north cave junction leaves curves west ocean follows small creeks past hill summit elevation feet highway descends summit alongside past wonder ends enters south downtown meets splits partial interchange main turns north passing downtown ending exit locally known continues straight bypassing downtown end exit signed directions signage split shows north mainline downtown bypass exit marked exit defined routing takes main downtown calls spur exit spur consistent signs surface calls spur downtown route older route downtown way pair sixth southbound seventh northbound streets entirely overlapping exit continues north concrete arch bridge built carries sixth street parallel seventh street bridge bridge crosses river lane bridge built bypass completed spur began downtown southbound northbound streets soon old new routes join spur ends trumpet interchange exit history incorporated population road leading inland incorporated meeting june survey completed october work stopped corporation revived december began construction road opened road road shown maps led northeast toll booth took generally northerly route near state line turned east crossing forth states oregon mountain turned northeast following branches past brien north final stretch ran easterly jacksonville present fish road second road california built acquired stand trees present site california converge began build road flats road state line near shown old toll road maps tolls charged starting road completed built free road flats mouth including suspension bridge extended east oregon initial state highway system road southwest state line named november time grants pass crescent city route toll road narrow winding mountain road long grades remaining road california california added portion state highway system state highway bond issue extension road highway continued south completely oregon oregon changed grants pass crescent city highway new highway completed states september june new dedicated bypassing remainder old road organized promote route largely nevada major improvement highway alignment replaced winding route california july early designations route marked signs posted highway route branch oregon moved present bypassed extended north downtown proposed branch street east downtown included highway moved streets way pair built early 1960s remained old alignment california state line added california freeway expressway system renumbering route designation dropped making route legislative number state routes shorter crossed state line remained ends spur east downtown built time moved streets bypass downtown new major intersections grants pass parkway entire route county | U.S. Route 199 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
20951_U.S.Route395inCalifornia | route california state california route mile route traverses interstate near southern city limits north oregon state line near route clips nevada serving cities returning california prior served metropolitan areas san_diego highway serves connection los_angeles area communities highway access highest point united_states lowest point north_america corridor california gold rush numbering known names including route california freeway expressway system eligible scenic highway system route description route california split segments highway exits california nevada southern segment crosses passes east sierra nevada northern segment follows crosses begins partial interchange interstate heads north road enters western edge founded advantage water history home second fastest growing city united_states july july rural road passing cities growth cities highway changing character rural suburban leaving area scenery changes suburban neighborhoods disappear highway traverses crossing desert route clips northeastern corner edwards air force base past base road intersects currently grade intersection gradually upgraded freeway leaving passes crosses highway crosses county line near traversing mountains route crosses rail line owned loosely follows route state route railroad abandoned north station parallels old railroad grade point lone pine mountains indian passes cities bus located routed follows western boundary china lake far big little created prolific rock art traded distant tribes tools crafted stone highway proceeds valley merging state route prior july state route interstate continued south junction route route follows edge sierra nevada mountains ran concurrent junction north bishop follows valleys eastern edge sierra mountains gradually increase altitude reaching peak feet near passing small lakes highway enters traverses entire length entering valley near site valley named explorer guides primarily home european settlement fertile lake valley southern portion valley dry water valley use commonly called shores highway passes north lake lone pine lone pine noted access highest point united_states lowest point north_america mount whitney mountains surrounding visible bishop corridor loosely follows abandoned rail line colorado railroad run rail line runs eastern edge valley road runs west edge corridor lone pine north nevada state line noted high concentration natural hot springs leading area known hot springs past lone pine highway passes concentration camp japanese americans imprisoned world war community independence county seat home north small fort independence indian reservation nearby tapped vegetation visible north point portion valley bishop highway overlapped north end valley sits bishop largest city bishop serves gateway recreation areas including north end bishop separation current terminus route mile route motorists ultimately massachusetts east coast point route departs rail corridors colorado grade following modern corridor nevada scenery changes dramatically past bishop highway reaches end valley single ascent gains feet elevation highway routed spur ranges sierra nevada mountains scales sierra nevada ridge feet mountain passes crossed sierra nevada highway enters midway ascent called highway travels west shore reservoir supplied resume following river instead cutting serve ski resort area paralleling runway airport miles past junction leading highway second summit feet summit separates watershed salt lake approximately times concentration salt ocean descent highway passes near community june lake recreation area freshwater lakes famous trout fishing june june lake area served june lake junction june lake loop road arriving brief concurrency routes separate southern end junction miles pass route highest paved route california eastern boundary national park visible miles highway finally passes lake sierra crest geographic feature feet altitude highest point highest point highway california summit separates watershed highway descends tributaries heading descent highway passes ghost town state park system preserved including items shelves abandoned stores fourth summit crossed california devil gate pass elevation feet separates east west walker rivers winding descent follows exiting near towns walker miles south california nevada state line nevada leaves california serve metropolitan areas highway runs miles nevada nevada highway crosses pass exiting mountains highway returns follow sierra returns california freeway soon downgraded divided highway past state line road follows edge sierra honey lake point north highway follows rail line originally built nevada california oregon railway line owned highway enters state corner entering miles later short segment freeway exit junction exit numbered resides hundreds miles origin highway exit number instead uses distance point entry california directly serve major cities highway noted weather crossing miles pass lowest pass sierra time numbered route alternate junction south connect mainline interstate driving route longer route sacramento mainline miles versus miles alternate route likely open winter storms sierra highway proceeds west square mile km2 route control city technically enter city intersection state route makes sharp turn avoiding city making near complete loop plateau highway bends crosses route highway serves towns likely parallels confluence north fork past confluence highway follows junction california route travel west way western california east nevada state route nevada state line highways briefly concurrent ranch indian reservation travels north northeast direction miles california paralleling east shore crossing oregon state line new pine creek oregon history sierra trail los_angeles lake loosely paralleling modern state route state route trail believed trail common use passing area california gold rush area directly affected gold silver rushes fertile areas strikes nevada farmers raised cattle goods trade mining boom towns nearby town bishop established trade goods mining town aurora established trail appearing maps guides mining rushes died saw revival construction beginning route promoted scenic value trip rail lines far included blue book early road united_states rail lines northern southern segments corridor railroads built 1880s branching nevada lines intended connect main line nevada lines completed colorado railway formed intent extending rail line existing virginia nevada rail line finished bring economic development valley railroad completed past shores lake line acquired plans connect narrow gauge line standard gauge lines area plans narrow gauge line scrapped corridor northern segment nevada california oregon railway line started connect great northern railway oregon line completed ending oregon portion line active series acquisitions owns line portion connection main lines northern california nevada railroad feather river route route commissioned minor spur route connecting washington canada 1930s extended san_diego existing state routes extension appeared map extended california concurrent new southern terminus pacific highway san_diego traveling north traversed path modern road routed east today road lake years portions road today signed historic lake highway crossed replaced bridge past route passed portions returning near portion straightened route modern past route followed reaching modern terminus straightened construction portion south removed assigned routes time road paved upgraded straightened parts built freeway standards notable upgrades portion built replaced second span built today california freeway expressway system eligible major intersections letter measured road based original southern terminus san_diego necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted numbers reset county lines start end county given county column | U.S. Route 395 in California | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
21006_CaliforniaStateRoute115 | state route state highway state california runs interstate southeast entire route routing added state highway system constructed officially designated state highway renumbering route description begins interchange heads northwest community briefly enters city near exit city intersects county roads turning north continuing rural eventually beginning overlap continuing west east turns north intersects miles highway turns west reaching north end california freeway expressway system national_highway_system network highways essential country economy defense mobility eligible officially designated scenic highway annual average daily traffic aadt road intersection 5th street intersection highway avenue highest aadt highway history routing added state highway system following completion road san_diego increased tourism growth led development highways construction system expected aid future growth according los_angeles_times northern section defined highway south route defined route roadway constructed state described majority low type road portion route paved entire road paved routing signed route highway continued west intersection later ran concurrently briefly heading south junction bonds corner officially defined state highway renumbering segment south altered portion south near bonds corner deleted definition clarified route near route southeasterly routing adjusted end south old routing future imperial county transportation plan proposed improvement north lane highway lane expressway major intersections letter measured road based alignment existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted entire route | California State Route 115 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
21070_WashingtonStateRoute9 | state route mile long state highway traversing counties state washington highway extends north interchange vicinity north arlington canada border roadways briefly concurrent route arlington near spur route serves trucks traveling british_columbia created roads route current highway roadway extending current southern terminus established road arlington current concurrency established branch state road mount baker added state highway system roads combined roads added create originally ran branch connected mainline canada border later included segment deleted highway renumbering introduced sign routes signed existing system replace extended south shortened later wasn complete complete lake stevens arlington complete construction projects arranged improved roadway projects ranged expanding current weigh station hill road intersection highway eliminate degree turns widening lanes lane divided highway plans complete projects improve corridor projects include adding roundabout south addition web cameras route description state route originates road partial cloverleaf interchange north temporarily paralleling rail line highway intersects roadway passes residential communities shortly leaving terminates road passes crosses rail line enter north river bridge highway encounters diamond interchange 2nd street road turns northeast intersect avenue route curving north route interchanges modified diamond interchange westbound routed suburban near lake stevens shoreline ends highway intersection roadway estimated daily average motorists making stretch road busiest highway forms western boundary eastern boundary passing weigh station junction road intersects continues roadway passes passing residential subdivisions highway enters downtown arlington brief concurrency crosses passes enter heavily forested area leave entering highway continues northwest large forest intersects encounters established passing big lake community roadway serves intersecting roundabout turning northeast clear lake elementary route crosses street concurrent named moore street end concurrency road turns north paralleling rail line continuing north city rural areas passes crosses exits rural highway enters valley located east crossing roadway concurrent traveling west road splits continues north series degree turns plain located near route encounters named main street travels west north intersects rural area travels northeast ends spur route serves trucks branches terminates canada border road continues north canada border highway spur route short spur route trucks travelling canada spur starts cherry street travels east street north avenue canada border boundary avenue continuation canada highway cherry street intersection estimated daily average motorists roadway history current route began road extending grace today north appearing map arlington segment built arlington highway section roadway included state highway system current concurrency branch state road extending mount baker established ran north west branch connected main highway canada border realigned deleted concurrent extended east arlington concurrency added extended west concurrent highway renumbering new system highways sign routes introduced signed existing primary secondary state highways signed shortened grace complete highway complete lake stevens arlington completed construction projects lake stevens weigh station located west highway hill road expanded serve trucks late interchange modified use traffic signals added january roadway turn lanes added november opened new alignment bypassed degree turns roundabout added intersection east summer highway widened lane road lane divided highway curve roadway north arlington late turn lanes added intersections near future developments population grew new residents use lane accidents increased average collisions year 1990s collisions year late improving corridor projects located line scheduled completed south improving highway multiple ways including new intersections new web cameras new turn lanes lane road widened lane divided highway starting intersection south arlington scheduled rebuilt roundabout roundabout option chosen traffic signal early october route development plan currently designed highway north arlington project widen left turn lane removed residents located road protested major intersections spur intersections entire spur | Washington State Route 9 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
21075_Interstate780 | interstate interstate state california serves connect interstate interstate north originally segment interstate extended rerouted city maintained parkway continues west state route route description interstate state maintained freeway begins lemon street parkway quickly crossing underneath cloverleaf interchange freeway passes parts unincorporated heads southeast marsh bypasses downtown hills north ends north end heading south history paved county road connected north following present maine street columbus parkway state highways designated legislative route connection added unsigned designation extended east north route short spur connecting bridge added route initially entered street left east fifth street making turns built 1940s reducing number turns corner east second streets september approved spurs connections urban areas loop soon numbered east half incorporated number existing legislative routes including routes crossing proposed ending near downtown piece freeway north cloverleaf interchange built late 1950s upgraded extremely short roadway beginning lemon street crossing laurel street ending avenue cedar street extended east old highway cities completed new bridge year bridge opened renumbering legislative designation completed freeway changed route route reflecting interstate designation short piece non freeway extending west state route route followed alignment state highway taken initially connected lemon street later followed north proposed constructed extension west north east added route route waterfront freeway scaled boulevard approved relocation freeway july route interstate system renumbered corresponding legislative changes project construct new northbound interchange rebuilt new span opened august route deleted state highway system soon city constructed parkway replacing maryland street south directly connecting surface road exit list letter measured road based alignment route existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted entire route | Interstate 780 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
21230_U.S.Route163 | route route highway mile highway runs northward states arizona utah southernmost miles length nation highway forms trail highway cuts heart featured numerous movies commercials highway designated replacing portion old alignment utah routed northern section effectively northern terminus bluff utah state utah briefly plans different routing north bluff plans rejected resulting signed route official designation officials resolved route number follow numbering convention highways number normally spur route highways connected route description arizona southern terminus located junction south nation road continues south junction heads north west airport passes town highway curves northeast curves north continues north highway goes curve resulting northeasterly heading continues heading heads crosses border utah mile stretch highway approximately miles north junction utah border designated scenic route state arizona utah utah portion highway begins entering utah highway junctions center highway proceeds northeast town mexican hat highway crosses exits nation highway travels east signed terminus bluff route continued signed portion north bluff signed creation formally removed length utah designated bluff monument valley scenic forms trail national scenic highways utah codified law defined utah code history modern routing utah initially designated state route extended junction route arizona road appeared maps early dirt road time arizona portion added state highway system designated state route designated arizona utah alignment highways corners region alignment routed arizona instead utah absorbed route terminus interstate approved new iteration route absorbed alignment utah truncated bluff approval logs placed northern terminus crescent junction state utah signed joint intent nation construct new highway connect bluff businesses asked request extensions new road proposal run near colorado routes state route route route current new road bluff colorado state highway proposal extend upgrades state route state route submitted proposal rejected cited route direct built highway standards pursue extension utah state legislature approved new road bluff creek route extension utah definition conflicted definition resolved signing extended portion state route plan extend abandoned extension renumbered state route numbers run synonymous route designation state changed definition match national definition portion north bluff remained unsigned october requested obtained approval junction resolving junction list | U.S. Route 163 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
21557_ArizonaStateRoute92 | state route state highway state arizona running roughly pattern begins ends traffic circle running entirely route constructed numbered late 1930s route traveled north past today routing corrected 1960s route description begins intersection sierra designation roads heading north east intersection heads south passing residential areas desert terrain road passes town west route flanked located turns eastward passing miles mexico united_states border route passes town turning northeast roadway enters town meeting terminus traffic circle city highway maintained responsible maintaining like highways state role periodically surveys traffic routes surveys presented form average annual daily traffic number vehicles use route average day year calculated vehicles route daily near daily near northern terminus highway listed national_highway_system system roads united_states important nation economy defense mobility history highway constructed originating heading south turned east stretch turned south following current route time section route corresponding current routing paved northern section gravel road northern section improved took segment north leaving section south city east routing modified junction list entire route | Arizona State Route 92 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
21760_CaliforniaStateRoute11 | state route state route planned connect proposed new mexico border crossing east planning road began 1990s construction started portion complete rest road scheduled completion route description proposed toll facility serve new border crossing east connect corridor connects portion completed segment plans construct interchanges drive road proposed route curves southeast reaching border crossing operate toll road entire route completed history added state highway system years later parties including signatories letter intent build border crossing route added california freeway expressway system senate bill passed presidential permit allowed border crossing constructed year later alternatives considered terms constructing interchanges removing proposed toll route state funding allocated cover million cost include port entry million endorsed project january approved proposed freeway route december plans construct road stages interchange road continuing construction commercial vehicle facility building border crossing construction connecting started december completed march entire road scheduled completion tolls planned road order delays crossing border low vary depending current traffic crossings area funds countries exit list entire route san_diego | California State Route 11 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
21791_WashingtonStateRoute903 | state route mile long state highway located entirely washington united_states highway links provides access interstate highway existed numbered highway highway linking existed previously considered turning control highway happened continues maintain highway route description begins intersection north interchange headed westerly town entering highway intersects spur route spur serves bypass travelers wish avoid main interchange roadway parallels railroad line terminates south highway north block turning west second street exiting town turning northwesterly continues roundabout entering town highway continues town turning southwesterly nevada street turning northwesterly seventh street exiting highway continues terminating boundary east roadway continues northerly measures traffic counts measured terms annual average daily traffic cars northern terminus cars past intersection pennsylvania avenue history current highway numbered maps roadway following roughly alignment existence state highway renumbering designation changed considering dropping state highway system turning highway idea quickly dropped roundabout proposed estimated cost million paid roundabout opened traffic july completed august highway boundary cost million major intersections entire highway spur route mile long lane spur route constructed spur route serves short connector allowing travelers wish continue west bypass main junction north average cars day travel spur route | Washington State Route 903 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
21796_ArizonaStateRoute96 | state route east west mile long state highway central state arizona runs east road near road built late 1930s logged state route section officially system remainder highway officially designated turn century route description begins intersection old approximately miles east junction heads south meet route intersection heads east desert area roadway turns southward intersecting crosses turns slightly southeastward hilly area turns eastward passes series turns highway ends west end intersection road continues east road highway maintained responsible constructing maintaining highways state role surveys volumes traffic highways surveys presented form annual average daily traffic aadt number vehicles travel road average day year calculated average vehicles road daily termini highway listed national_highway_system system roads united_states important nation economy defense mobility history road connecting built road logged state highway system extent defined right way acquired improvement approaches bridges route portion route eastern terminus officially added system signage west junction exists portion officially state highway junction list entire route | Arizona State Route 96 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
21806_WashingtonStateRoute220 | state route mile long state highway located entirely indian reservation washington united_states highway linked fort state park west east highway built renumbered state highway renumbering route slated removed state highway system legislative session removed april route description started fort state park headed easterly fort road hawk road intersection highway turned north follows hawk road intersection highway turned east white swan road passing downtown turning south curtis street highway passed railway rail line western railroad curtis street turned easterly fort road fort road continued perfectly east intersecting route crossing highway continued city street west terminating year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated cars highway western terminus cars interchange history highway constructed time segment linking completed highway signed state highway renumbering number applied highway original eastern terminus terminus extended highway highways removed system effective april today roads routed accessible designated major collector roads entirety routing designated classified route city eligible receive funding highway junction near road span major intersections entire highway | Washington State Route 220 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
22402_Interstate215(Utah) | interstate utah interstate known locally belt route auxiliary interstate state utah forms degree loop salt_lake_city suburbs route begins mouth canyon junction heads south edge salt_lake_city metropolitan area eastern suburbs continues west murray turning north passing city ring western suburbs enters short distance reaching interstate proposed mid-1950s salt_lake_city time western portion belt route assigned eastern portion belt route designated interstate designation scrapped provide single route number entire route designation covering complete belt route freeway constructed segments beginning section completed north near airport originally planned complete mid-1970s challenges citizens groups environmental impact statements led completion section south south route description begins interchange mouth canyon near southeast corner salt_lake_city connects drive state route point splits legs connecting salt_lake_city drive canyon freeway travels southeast east bench lanes direction route enters residential area turns south exit appears incomplete diamond interchange south lacks ramp northbound past interchange ramp connects south northbound block south partial interchange lacking ramp northbound entering heading south soon turns southwest ramp allows northbound motorists connect boulevard exit signed south south incomplete interchanges roads past interchange south serves southbound road turns south begins descending corner point southbound lanes lower parallel northbound lanes belt route reaching interchange south corner freeway enters turns west sunken freeway reaches interchange highland drive signed east interchange features grade separated ramp northbound east eastbound past junction interchange union park avenue appears grade separated ramp union park avenue present freeway enters murray interchange serving westbound motorists connects east state street route eastbound travelers connect west separate exit road turns northwest short time approach junction called approaching interchange route gains lanes ground level freeway freeway crosses loses lane enters curves northwest crossing process right partial cloverleaf interchange road route turns west final time turning north interchange freeway continues north partial cloverleaf interchange south route enters encounters south eastbound lanes grade separated ramp northbound road turns northeast enters industrial area western salt_lake_city reaching cloverleaf interchange route turns north single point urban interchange california avenue freeway continues north partial stack interchange involving access road freeway loses lane direction interstate passes airport east diamond interchanges north north occur freeway approaches past north freeway enters rural road curves northwest interchange legacy parkway gives northbound motorists southbound legacy parkway motorists respective connections road turns east loses lane direction diamond interchange highway merges northbound history belt route salt_lake_city proposed predecessor present day holding hearings concerning construction beginning early southeast quadrant route originally placed junction proposed murray northeasterly murray eventually reaching east bench run north mouth canyon proposed time immediately plan met opposition local residents area proposed route primarily residential suburb southern portion murray years hearings widespread opposition residents released proposed routing june placed southeast quadrant runs today criticism remained opposition saying route residential areas western quadrant placed close major november small lane portion northwest quadrant belt route opened west south north north salt lake city international airport portion road extended east upgraded freeway standards construction southeast quadrant time replacing canyon south began involved parallel route road south prior connected section south opened january portion roadway south south opening november construction progressing western quadrant murray time land acquisition taking place rest southeastern quadrant east murray south citizens group named halted right way lack environmental impact statement controversial proposed cloverleaf interchange east released main alternatives build alternative leave gap southeast quadrant building road modern day path south moving southern portion southwest south extending eastern portion south sandy west south filed lawsuit challenging western quadrant east murray opened november gaps belt route present north near airport state street murray south step completing gap taken june construction interstate state street east began followed lawsuit awarded favor november july route completed time portion road expensive state terms cost mile road depressed surrounding neighborhoods section open followed section union park avenue east opened november built sunken freeway western quadrant freeway completed october closing gap california avenue interchange wasn opened august road east south finished belt route completed opening freeway south south october major modifications occurred belt route consisted rebuilding southern interchange widening lanes south murray addition interchange legacy parkway south south rebuilt respectively original proposal belt route salt_lake_city southeastern quadrant received designation maintain continuity belt route number replaced favor designation covering entire route exit list | Interstate 215 (Utah) | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
22722_WashingtonStateRoute433 | state route mile long state highway located entirely washington united_states highway begins midway national_register_of_historic_places listed lewis travels north prior state highway renumbering highway highway designation changed state route current route description enters washington national_register_of_historic_places listed lewis highway travels northwest bridge dropping city port intersecting access road port highway continues north paralleling railroad tracks belonging columbia intersecting gaining lane direction total lanes highway terminates intersection highway posted speed limit miles hour entire length oregon way continues end downtown year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated vehicles use highway percent traffic trucks entire highway listed list highways statewide significance marks portion highway critical connecting major communities state national_highway_system system roads important nation economy defense mobility lewis form serving link washington oregon long bicycle race held annually history state highway renumbering highway renumbering highway renumbered branch current branch replaced area highway continued north highway truncated industrial way major intersections entire highway | Washington State Route 433 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
22935_Interstate605(Washington) | interstate washington interstate common designation given local media outlets proposals new auxiliary interstate highway bypassing state washington proposals heard 1960s including highways connecting way canada border projects designated time project convert state route limited access freeway construction currently proposals plans new interstate highway freeway bypassing surfaced proposal create new highway west banks residents forced highway east banks lake voicing concerns residents east lake voiced similar concerns plan later dropped ordered study investigate benefits extending north plan dropped study found average minutes saved current routes square owner support known new freeway linking study ordered legislature creating new commerce corridor link south canada border north study showed highway existing north economically feasible study proposed toll road trucks presence passenger cars discourage truck drivers new alternate route highway estimated cost billion related projects state currently plans build interstate widening segment completed creating limited access freeway southeast proposals allows drivers bypass area southern eastern sides | Interstate 605 (Washington) | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
22969_WashingtonStateRoute503 | state route mile long state highway serving clark counties state washington highway travels north short concurrency eastern terminus communities rural crossing yale bridge intersects spur route turns west parallel downstream woodland highway ends interchange interstate highway signed state road current route split woodland combined form highway renumbering spur route established travels northeast serving community route description begins concurrent intersection fourth plain road highways travel north lane avenue turns east parkway continues north rural passing roadway bypasses west crosses turns northeast avenue enters 10th avenue intersects eastern terminus west highway crosses lewis river leaves pass listed national_register_of_historic_places located continues heading northeast heavily forested region foothills lake turns east lake highway enters following highway travels north crosses foot long lane warren bridge listed national_register_of_historic_places located downstream upstream continues turns west intersection spur route heads east highway travels southwestward valley passes communities yale enters woodland turns south ending diamond interchange near confluence lewis columbia rivers year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated busiest section highway concurrency serving vehicles busiest section western terminus spur east yale serving vehicles designated national_highway_system includes roadways important national economy defense mobility history follows route state road established traveling east woodland county line lewis river road removed state highway system transferred maintenance clark counties contracted build bridge bridge opened traffic september cost completion dam downstream caused water levels rise counties completed lane warren bridge named yale bridge following year serve remote communities yale creation primary secondary state highways state road added state highway system traveled miles turned west end north established traveled miles south maintained clark counties 1940s timber approach spans replaced steel maintenance established highway renumbering codified successor woodland remaining portion highway valley woodland yale bridge closed following eruption opened yale bridge placed national_register_of_historic_places july spur route added state highway system original yale county line designated serving historic park spur route spur known locally begins mile long route intersection east yale north yale bridge highway travels northeast yale lake forested region passing yale park community spur turns east beaver bay park ends shortly line south lewis river road state road established spur route conducted series surveys measure traffic volume terms aadt calculated vehicles day spur route major intersections | Washington State Route 503 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
22971_WashingtonStateRoute16 | state route mile long state highway state washington connecting pierce counties highway signed east west begins interchange interstate travels city freeway narrows crosses narrows partially narrows bridge continues port orchard freeway ends designation ends intersection southwest beginning freeway designated strategic highway network corridor national_highway_system main connecting naval base program created state highway renumbering successor successor state road traveled northeast south gig harbor extended narrows unfinished narrows bridge later collapse months opening expanded freeway stages beginning original ending opening interchange near port orchard future improvements corridor include installation high occupancy vehicle lanes connect rest freeway network scheduled completion route description begins interchange downtown freeway travels northwest sound transit commuter train semi directional interchange avenue begins paralleling continues west past diamond interchange interchange center street stadium skyline neighborhood freeway travels past partial cloverleaf interchanges 19th street pearl street signed heads north continues west past partial cloverleaf interchange narrows twin suspension foot long westbound span foot long eastbound span combine carry lanes eastbound span electronic toll collection good program bridge tolls passengers motorcycle set good accounts collected toll plaza prices increasing additional passenger good accounts non good users continues intersects 24th street partial diamond interchange east narrows airport passes toll plaza eastbound narrows bridge freeway travels northwest gig harbor past interchanges olympic drive drive near gig harbor high school reaches continues interchange drive past intersecting southern terminus freeway bypasses east intersecting spur entering passes community intersects main access highway interchange entering city port orchard freeway ends serving western terminus west city lane highway continues west inlet intersecting spur route ending intersection year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated busiest section west interchange downtown serving vehicles busiest section interchange west port orchard serving vehicles designated strategic highway network corridor connecting state highway system national_highway_system important national economy defense mobility entire route includes highways connect major communities state washington history present route roughly follows route state highways signed 20th century state road state road traveled north south gig harbor primary connector olympic state road designated included secondary highway named traveled gig harbor narrows site construction suspension bridge open extended southeast unfinished narrows bridge city transfer bridge ownership state washington collapse original bridge november truncated gig harbor traffic ferry landing manchester second narrows bridge opened october extended following year intersection downtown replaced sign route system created state highway renumbering traveling began converting corridor controlled access freeway construction designed columns cost million opened connected new freeway replacing boulevard bypass pierce county line opened route divided spur route remainder port orchard upgraded freeway 1980s grade intersection remained diamond interchange completed installing high occupancy vehicle lanes lanes system scheduled completion beginning early 2000s frontage roads built freeway sound walls erected near residential areas began installing exit numbers interchanges correspond replaced new westbound structure carrying lanes original closed demolished eastbound began construction november scheduled completed westbound widened planned width february mile section beginning pierce county line extended north dedicated tony memorial highway honor killed line duty stretch highway years earlier carries narrows proposed locals late 19th century credited local traveling narrows planned build bridge narrows connect western terminus proposed sound naval shipyard port orchard extensive lobbying local auto groups businesses authorized construction road bridge narrows february created march construct maintain toll bridges state beginning seattle bridge designed american suspension bridge engineer began construction november partnership companies received million grant million loan tolls opened july included ceremonies attended estimated people including governor washington martin foot long bridge christened construction workers cost million build longest suspension span world completion following day art chosen commemorative final ferry crossing narrows original toll bridge cost cents car cents extra passenger cents pedestrians bridge prone movement collapsed approximately november winds excess miles hour fatality collapse dog trapped car belonging local reporter second foot long constructed officially opening traffic october bridge designed let wind pass structure open deck traffic lane bridge began increasing vehicles nearly vehicles according aadt data increased traffic prompted approve construction eastbound bridge finished early 2000s foot long eastbound bridge constructed opening july ceremonies attended people including governor newer eastbound bridge provided debut good pass allows frequent users bypass toll way placed inside reducing toll routes spur route mile long spur route located travels west southbound spur route added state highway system aligned avoid traffic signals included road annual aadt survey calculated vehicles spur route alternate route mile long alternate route serving eastbound toll plaza narrows bridge alternate route added state highway system completion eastbound narrows bridge july included road annual aadt survey calculated vehicles alternate route exit list | Washington State Route 16 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
23219_WashingtonStateRoute163 | state route mile long state highway state washington highway serves city community traveling ferry route community begins interchange travels north pearl street designation continues ferry established highway renumbering extending auburn highway previously early 20th century designated branch state road primary state highway late 1960s moved pearl street ferry route added route description begins pearl street partial cloverleaf interchange freeway north pearl street travels north serving leaving entering serving highway enters passes science math institute traveling point defiance ferry ferry operated mile long route served class traveling speed knots mph minute crossing ferries depart head north community operates ferry day crossings toll adult passengers charged cards accepted year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated vehicles day highway interchange ferry carried passengers vehicles according statistics history designated highway renumbering road extending route auburn corridor previously later branch state road state road creation primary secondary state highways branch stayed designated removed highway system late 1960s designated pearl street point defiance ferry terminal route extended point defiance serving major revisions occurred highway route regular ferry service point defiance started june creation served route completion operated years replaced refurbished briefly returned route twice june september october loaned ferry built began serving route january major intersections | Washington State Route 163 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
23456_ArizonaStateRoute347 | state route known miles long north south state highway central arizona route begins heads north passes meeting route ends interchange interstate south primarily serves major road road lies short stretch chin indian community road built late 1930s established state highway 1990s average vehicles use roadway daily route description route begins intersection west heads northward lane expressway entirety desert landscape intersecting road crossing canal meets farm appears west road road east road farmland enters chin indian community passing intersects route community route route retains heads continuing northerly path road exits indian community residential area west desert east past road orientation switches residential area located east arrangement landscape switches road passes meeting highway road passes meets grade intersection rail line owned north highway passes passes intersection passes businesses intersecting named route enters residential area abruptly passing desert road turns northeasterly heading turning north slightly northeast road crosses intersecting road road away follows serves heads east small distance ending diamond interchange exit queen creek road continues municipal airport route maintained responsible maintaining highways state role department periodically conducts surveys measure traffic highways arizona surveys presented form average annual daily traffic aadt number vehicles use highway average day year calculated vehicles road daily near intersection vehicles route near interchange average day highway listed national_highway_system system roads united_states important nation economy defense mobility history section north present day built road headed north route road extended south current terminus time built route numbered route finished south east edges phoenix area preparations establish number reserved right way parkway controversy road dubbed time river native americans reservation parkway ran want actor owned ranch road appeared movies killed native americans route officially established state highway current routing widened lane road lane expressway today junction list | Arizona State Route 347 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
23583_WashingtonStateRoute538 | state route alternatively named mile long state highway located northern area city limits urban growth boundary located subdivision state washington highway existed county road travels interstate west passing route riverside drive main campus terminating roundabout designated current roadway county road farmland years traveled primary state highway known current designation created bypassed riverside drive roundabout constructed riverside drive intersection widened route description state route begins interstate interchange northern located south roadway handled daily average motorists interchange named travels east commercial zone passing riverside drive route crossing set rail tracks transitioning commercial residential area campus located north highway passed eventually leaves city limits road turns southeast ends roundabout urban growth boundary history originating county road designated ran signed highway renumbering created replace replaced interstate replaced built western terminus early june late july constructed roundabout intersection new roundabout reduced length mile early 18th street highway expanded riverside drive intersection awarded contract road january construction began closure riverside drive intersection closure delayed lasted june actual happened late june year major intersections entire highway | Washington State Route 538 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
23652_Interstate80inNevada | interstate nevada interstate traverses northern portion state nevada freeway serves sparks metropolitan area goes towns wells way state follows historical routes feather river route portions nevada entire state follows historical routes state route route freeway corridor follows paths rivers transportation corridor 1840s route description enters nevada canyon paralleling railroad exiting canyon freeway serves meadows urban area consisting sparks freeway passes north downtown depressed alignment intersecting interstate route interchange busiest portion averaging vehicles day freeway passes downtown sparks casino floor leaving sparks metropolitan area freeway resumes following canyon traffic volumes drop vehicles day continue dropping time freeway reaches center state freeway exits corridor near mile desert past freeway cuts barren desert called mile desert era california trail comes came travelers endure miles usable water crossing valley regardless routes valley travelers followed closely path marker stands rest area eastern edge valley near junction honors travelers suffered crossing valley thousands abandoned possessions animals loved ones desert marker portion portion california trail miles follows way freeway passes towns wells joined feather river route runs parallel railroad utah state line freeway visual distance river run portions freeway bypasses bends cutting mountains canyon walls freeway bypasses bends feet highway bypasses pass feet east passes bypass curves river wells departs california trail point east freeway follows routes state route freeway cuts mountain ranges arriving great salt lake desert summit elevation feet highest point interstate nevada second range silver zone pass feet crossing mountains freeway arrives freeway enters utah great salt lake desert salt flats overlaps portions run concurrently highways nevada runs concurrently near runs concurrently runs concurrently towns wells west history california trail general route interstate california bound travelers called california trail utah state line west follows modified routing lesser branch trail called main route trail canyon portion nevada main route california trail ran north modern state route west follows california trail west middle california trail splits branches branches route route named waterways guide branch sierra nevada mountains follows route route route route route state route railroads route modern previously construction railroads railroad completed closely followed main line west wells feather river route constructed generally follows runs parallel nevada east highways paved road portion nevada designated nevada state route formation highway system route numbered route formation highway gradually upgraded interstate highway standards signed interstate officials utah initiated meetings officials nevada california route time redundant interstate nevada officials agreed suggested truncated nevada officials recommended changes occur nevada piece expected completed edition map nevada showing designation highway designation removed freeway completed piece nevada finished bypass started construction note freeway state business loops nevada use historical route interstate known nevada exit list | Interstate 80 in Nevada | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
23903_CaliforniaStateRoute14 | state route north south state highway state california largely southern portion highway signed route connects interstate golden state freeway border city north los_angeles neighborhoods south near route extends south state route area los_angeles portion south junction constructed southern constructed route busy commuter freeway serving connecting cities lancaster rest area northern portion vincent south route named highway serves edwards air force base primary landing strips nasa section rural following line hot desert forming mountain range route loosely paralleled main line commuter rail system connection los_angeles linked road connects los_angeles places mountain nevada route route prior coast coast route massachusetts non freeway segment silver queen road north known sierra highway old routing interstate silver queen road moved newer freeway alignment portions route remain signed names associated including midland trail route california freeway expressway system route description valley freeway southern portion freeway interstate avenue exit near lancaster designated state legislature begins santa mountains interchange splitting golden state freeway interstate busiest portion route annual average daily traffic aadt count vehicles day freeway forms eastern boundary route road continues northeast crosses western canyon seasonal ascent rugged rural terrain small towns ascent later towns freeway forms southern boundary county park past highway mountains elevation feet route highway mountains loosely parallels main line valley line pass highway descends large valley highway crosses descent serves primary north south communities lancaster county route avenue lancaster runs concurrently highway exit south northern terminus route near designated point overlooking features historic plaque honors aviation accomplishments including space shuttle breaking sound barrier speed record freeway passes los_angeles line avenue continues run north highway passes close edwards air force base main landing strips nasa base air spacecraft freeway portion terminates south serves main street runs downtown area east route home privately funded human vast airplane graveyard visible route state route routed concurrent rerouted bypass running north east town character highway changes leaves road divided highway grade intersections departs corridor main follow crest forming sierra nevada mountains route continues follow branch line connector railway main line railroad proceeds route heads away pass highway views mountains scenery changes highway departs crosses traffic counts drop dramatically highway rural aadt vehicles northern terminus continues north route routing expressway northern terminus runs briefly concurrent state route northern terminus merges turns expressway heading north bishop route continues follow crest serving national park history trails road use general alignment modern route called extended los_angeles lake dirt road completed 1910s pack trail los_angeles_times declared complete portion modern paved late 19th century corridor modern route use lines line connect los_angeles significantly longer direct east modern interstate lower longer steep grade descent rail line remains primary rail line connect southern northern california use today owned operated second resulted acquired finished colorado railroad built standard gauge connector narrow gauge colorado line main plans eventually convert acquired line standard gauge line abandoned conversion complete southern portion line active connections midland trail organized coast coast trails united_states trail infancy routing changed numerous times established modern state route joining named trails eventually follow route included highway parts modern route continue signed names north officially designated sierra aforementioned highway route route extended colorado california june extension midland trail route entered california nevada slightly north previous route midland trail instead passing bishop designated parts modern route began upgraded freeway standards state highway renumbering truncated bishop portion los_angeles designated state route previously route designation los_angeles area portion modern state route significant portions moved freeway alignment routing south current routing north known sierra highway freeway section east red road completed portions areas pass completed freeway complete far north avenue freeway completed incidents pass interchange road southern terminus route meet site number catastrophic incidents interchange partially collapsed twice earthquakes earthquake earthquake result collapse intersection renamed wayne dean memorial interchange honoring motorcycle officer killed unable stop time drove collapsed ramp south south earthquakes collapsed portions rebuilt surviving portions reinforced tractor trailer trucks collided tunnel truck lanes southbound interchange resulting fire started soon encompassing entire tunnel trucks passenger vehicle tunnel time truck tunnel closed days structural damage repairs cancelled plans route unfinished route definition california streets highways code states route begins state route near sunset area los_angeles constructed end legislative end route area los_angeles called paved road directly connects points state route interstate nearest roads area intersection route unusual design long ramps connections result freeway revolt residents canceled plans freeway extension route alignment route canceled different alignment constructed proposed connections route future rapid growth lancaster southern california average rush hour speeds miles hour future predictions continued growth route corridor including predictions population response multiple government agencies proposed adding transportation los_angeles expanding capacity existing route rail corridors proposals bypass valley freeway boring tunnel extending freeway published map showing potential improvements transportation infrastructure southern california proposal showed portion route new routes mountains idea advanced combination toll tunnel surface highway preliminary studies estimated costs billion suggested charging varying toll adjusted time day averaging way passage major intersections letter measured road based alignment existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted numbers reset county lines start end county given county column | California State Route 14 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
23972_CaliforniaStateRoute198 | state route east west state highway begins route south ends national park connects mid developed portion intersects major north south routes including interstate highway approved construction 1910s bond issues added state highway system parts highway upgraded freeway 1960s portion converted expressway completion scheduled late route description road begins remote interchange south leaving passes climbs lane road crosses unnamed pass descends town agricultural briefly runs concurrently sides road passes enormous intersects interstate near harris ranch airport freeway west landscape bit rural goes passes near continues lane expressway intersection encounters freeway freeway interchange enters largest city passes goes remains freeway east intersecting passing road starts climb forested ends national park near lake main routes providing access national park north california freeway expressway system eligible designated scenic highway defined history added state highway system bond issues floated pay construction system bond issue approved state voters included road west connecting county seats central north south highway route bond issue route extended west coast trunk highway route near assigned route designation bond issue passed included extension east national park entire length route marked number adopted renumbering portion east interstate near added california freeway expressway system parts built construction freeway east road approved january remainder freeway time contingent routing projected cost entire freeway east million million today dollars scheduled completed freeway completed expressway connecting completed expressway heading west access controlled west construction began november project widen lane mile section lane expressway million project completed december future plans improve state highways county developers interested building distribution warehouses strategic location midway los_angeles areas currently turned lack freeway access plan extend freeway segment naval air station voters shown little interest passing transportation taxes fund projects major intersections letter measured road based alignment existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted numbers reset county lines start end county given county column | California State Route 198 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
24081_SierraHighway | sierra highway road southern_california united_states refers length trail formed 19th century rebuilt highways early 20th century ran los_angeles lake following parts modern state route route state route portions road currently signed sierra highway old alignment route los_angeles road signed unusual designation state route city second signed portion bishop traversing extremes california advertised world highway showcase natural beauty california far bypassed early 1970s freeways road known portion noted primary filming location film duel route description connects los_angeles lake eastern edge california serving counties los_angeles alpine highway exists roadway called los_angeles north better known numbered designations current use traversing state highway crosses mountain passes highway sierra nevada highway crosses devil gate pass monitor pass southern_california begins near north limit intersects junction historically intersection route route located adjacent intersection replacement freeways pass interchange interstate state route highway serves main city route moved freeway alignment process old alignment route complete result portion signed signifying relinquished formal specifications route published logs route existence acknowledged bridge inventory logs according maintains sierra highway feet north avenue leaves drive remaining sierra highway maintained city designation modern route main line cross mountains elevation feet transportation use different paths mountains separating near uses railroad uses modern route hybrid route ridges older routes formed santa river tributaries exiting mountains enters serves main streets lancaster highway runs parallel modern route railroad frontage road shy freeway portion route ends frontage road dirt path eventually terminates point canonical route joins state route passing downtown route state route north state routes significantly changed paved called significant portions upgraded divided highway upgrades alignment old lane road highway cuts follow series valleys crest traversing passes highest point united_states feet highway signed section portion past separation bishop rebuilt new alignment ascent lake unlike highway relocation southern california old renamed called creek road sierra highway lake highway crosses mountainous terrain inside sierra nevada giving highway sierra nevada road passes attractions national park separates prior nevada state line following portion route year round closes route monitor pass winter months motorists destined lake winter continue nevada return california history recorded journey trail common use passing area dirt road people began promoting scenic route los_angeles_times announced governor announced funding construct new road connect real national park finished new wonderful circuit route complete beautiful scenic routes world published article called author trip detailed promoting trail scenic trip pack rail lines distributed promotional book annual convention book contained article sung praises soon world famous highway called noting trail article assured readers county state officials working upgrade route aid convict labor soon boulevard entire distance los_angeles lake article concluded stating highway ways way wonders article state legislature extend route similar modern state route returning included blue book early road united_states los_angeles_times declared complete announcing portion valley paved dedicated following sunday sierra highway 1930s highways formed extended california southern terminus extended washington san_diego near extended colorado midland trail south bishop state highway renumbering truncated bishop route separation renumbered 1970s bypassed freeways old lane road remained famous roadway steven_spielberg feature length film duel near film unseen truck driver attempts kill innocent trapped truck game prominently shows desert portions duel status trucks film road process restored current owner driven truck sierra highway nostalgia enjoying terrified looks receives passing motorists recognize movies filmed vicinity including scenes major intersections | Sierra Highway | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
24096_UtahStateRoute143 | utah state route state route state highway state utah entire highway designated lake scenic program road designated utah parkway program miles long connects providing access second highest paved road state feet sea level western section road started logging road nineteenth century pioneers designated state highway years later route extended present day eastern end route description state route begins interstate west south travels center town turning south route climbs past cliffs named reddish color produced iron farther canyon highway passes enters begins steep climb grade reaching places travel semi trucks recommended route climbs elevation nearly feet enters town utah highest incorporated city home utah highest ski resort plateau open allowing views miles direction area populated alpine meadows continues climbing southward passing northern edge natural canyon eroded western edge plateau similarly route reaches highest point feet sea level second highest paved road utah feet route turns east continuing south leads rest highway heads east descends thick forests interspersed ancient lava fields distant views plateau visible south east leg route passes south east sides popular fishing winter ice fishing continues descent heading northeast alongside enters exits route ends city miles canyon national park east history early roads archaic hunter route far culture evidence passage found roadway form rock art recently time european settlement area inhabited people hunting gathering town settled pioneers built wagon road access timber buildings eventually road extended south took automobile improvements road completed able visitors weekly trips area state route commissioned road boundary route extended reach route state route main street north boundary increasing length miles construction interstate area caused state legislature twice modify alignment change came constructed bypass west town following route center town result state legislature moved west interstate alignment keeping old alignment state highway system accomplished designating southwestern new highway extending north incorporating northwestern alignment construction complete including second interchange original plans interchange located west summit interchange southwest interchange north response legislature rerouted connect west interchange instead turning north main street turned south main street blocks coinciding turned west reach new interchange blocks main street overlapping transferred remainder route deleted withdrawn state highway system route northerly designated end undergone route changes prior connected southern boundary year major realignment state highways deleted road designated left non highway portion going national monument highway designation southern portion southern boundary designated eastern monument boundary added legislative resolution provision portion route inside boundaries national monument included state highway system granted right way federal authorities legislative description updated reflect granted ends south boundary national monument route designated called lake scenic called utah parkway currently considered nomination federal american road major intersections | Utah State Route 143 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
24112_CaliforniaStateRoute70 | state route state highway state california connecting sacramento route near lowest sierra nevada forest service parallels western pacific railroad feather river route trail earliest predecessor spur california trail followed railroad built route trail dirt road needed construction later converted present state highway construction highway began involved boring tunnels previously road signed crossing sierra nevada lower elevation interstate road renumbered state highway renumbering today portions upgraded lane expressway freeway locations route description state route begins partial interchange north sacramento close feather river route rail line parallels entire highway heads north lane mix expressway freeway north crossing line freeway second time continues city makes turns overlaps heading north lane road lane freeway begins south ends major connection northwest straight movement construction replace intersection interchange completed november portion begins turns northeast mountains short spurs north paradise crosses double feather river route short lane section runs bridge present merges old road create lake 1960s crossing drops canyon north fork feather river follows usually opposite feather river route results places transportation lines cross river bridge arch bridge crosses lower railroad bridge soon highway tunnels rock formations canyon fair distance canyon formed east branch north fork feather river reaches junction state route near routes overlap southeast point east branch splits highway heads southeast partly creek past leaves valley creek passing feather river route following small rail line passes spring garden tunnel brings valley takes southeast ends state route splits south east large begins community heads directly passing north end south end crossing pass railroad takes descending slightly end portion west state route near eligible designated entire route california freeway expressway system lanes history trails opened trail pass crossing sierra nevada lower elevation existing route california trail split route california trail near roughly followed present passing followed ridges company incorporated july build spanish ranch wagon road bypassed older trail west spanish ranch began collecting tolls november toll road built continuing improvements southwest line law authorized improve portion east county improved road east pass began completed 1870s completed main line california followed old trail east west reached building railroad created dirt road canyon assist construction citizens created push improvements roadway creation year round route existing route ridges closed months winter state highway bond issue passed state voters included route connecting surveyor surveyed route state announced existing ridge route improved debate state legislative road committee included statement route follow amendment authorizing bond issue instead keeping route changed designation extension short route bond issue modern route construction began july convict labor easier portions contractors remainder bridges tunnels slowed great depression difficult portion tunnels built hang rope steep granite slopes repeatedly caused delays commission dedicated road ceremony halfway ends august construction cost million miles new road remainder old trail junction route east added state highway system extension route paved new route created stretching woodland route state route southeast including present route woodland route east pass new state route state route extended southwest woodland oakland end original state route replaced route alternate continued south woodland davis southeast nevada join ends direct route south sacramento added state highway system route later rerouted state route alternate designation short lived replaced state route renumbering southwest alternate instead state ran south state route route point north sacramento new state route came northwest continued south despite ending state route signed state route road garden highway sacramento originally built feather river highway northeast followed present dam boulevard county route present location ran north northeast alongside north fork feather river route covered lake left north meeting present alignment old road flooded million new alignment lanes built west relocated nearby alignment double feather river northwest dam carrying highway rail line dedicated august portions upgraded freeways north early 2010s south split mid-1950s extended farther south late 1960s late 2000s downtown built early 1960s upgraded lane expressway feather river boulevard north county line freeway portion south parkway freeway interchange constructed access lake development previously served intersection road removal intersection effectively upgraded expressway portion freeway south feather river boulevard intersection early 2010s lane segment south expanded lane expressway freeway section bypassing small town east west interchange feather river boulevard lake opened traffic eliminating intersection sacramento major intersections portion route state route state route signed north south route letter measured road based alignment existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted numbers reset county lines start end county given county column | California State Route 70 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
24116_PeñaBoulevard | named denver mayor mile long freeway located colorado freeway opened provides primary access denver international airport opened time begins extension airport boulevard aurora interchange interstate travels north east end airport intermediate interchange route description denver international airport access highway begins interchange aurora northern continuation airport boulevard highway interchange east 40th avenue provides traffic access aurora airport boulevard running south travelers leaving airport use exit access eastbound adjacent airport boulevard interchange travelers airport access interchange continuing north highway leaves aurora passes area aurora gateway park development adjacent interchange provides access neighborhood east 56th avenue interchange final exit boulevard turns east near rocky mountain arsenal national wildlife refuge reaches interchange tower road serves airport hotels cloverleaf interchange provides alternate north south route travelers wishing bypass eastern area intersects mile hour higher speed limit interchange easternmost exit entering denver international airport inside airport grounds freeway intersects car rental return area connects parking terminal access roads segment freeway listed national_highway_system system roads important nation economy defense mobility portion airport listed principal arterial history construction million equivalent million freeway opened halted weeks summer family living right way near interchange 56th avenue thousand people employed construction airport connecting freeway originally toll served parking lots located entrance airport causing delays persons dropping people airport toll booth removed new installed exits airport parking named influential bringing construction denver international airport future construction westbound ramp tower road design process opening expected exit list | Peña Boulevard | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
24184_CaliforniaStateRoute905 | state route state highway san_diego california connects interstate interstate united_states mexico border entire highway international border freeway exits continues east interchange turning southeast reaching border routed existence route designated redesignated freeway completed road border crossing opened delays obtaining funding construction highway converted expressway freeway plans highway eventually known interstate route description begins intersection avenue road begins freeway intersecting partial cloverleaf interchange interchanges freeway intersects following southeast parallel interchanges avenue route interchanges freeway planned toll facility serve new border crossing east immediately turns south final interchange road route ends truck traffic use cross border california freeway expressway system national_highway_system annual average daily traffic aadt junction highest aadt freeway history known road existed dirt road paved road connected easternmost area discussions held maintenance road trucks travelling majority running parallel road interstate added state highway system renumbering planning underway extension east proposed endorsed routing away future residential developments plans early highway heading southwest new border crossing bypass area year state public works director subsequently asked connect new crossing connection following legislature added new extended southwest mexican border near border field state park state highway system southerly extension border state highway freeway expressway systems years later planning began construction crossing construction connect later local association municipal governments recommended million federal funding construction later endorsed construction freeway completion border crossing freeway primarily serve border traffic preventing land speculation mexican authorities wanted crossing constructed indicated funding available following representative attempted accelerate construction crossing funding highway construction began southern portion january opened traffic april portion freeway opened concerns freeway citing confusion northern portion entire cost project million extended east replacing southerly segment legislature took effect beginning estimates completing freeway ran million million late plans push adding obtain additional federal funding san_diego city county allocated million construct temporary way access border crossing years later indicated upgrade lane road preferred option state agreed million million project city contributing million county adding million approved continuous roadway border non eligible federal interstate highway construction dollars october border crossing opened january route number changed signs updated change apply federal funding original piece west rest constructed efforts underway secure federal funding highway infrastructure near mexican border largely supported senator representative representative chairman visited region giving informal approval proposal governor approved million federal funding complete freeway concerns expressed local residents municipal officials apparent priority terms funding especially constructed toll road compete toll road enterprise congress approved million funding completion road widened lanes cost million percent traffic designed handle considered california busiest trade route mexico traffic increased factor number people dying traffic accidents approaching times state average widening road considered temporary fix problem year allocated million state funding completing freeway interchange road opened december delays congress approving federal funding resulted delayed start construction rest construction began boulevard road april july efforts construction going despite funding state bonds boulevard road opened december interchange began upgraded april construction million federal funding finished february final freeway segment boulevard opened july entire cost project connecting border crossing million future plans constructed funds constructing rest previously direct connection grade intersections completion newest freeway segment freeway freeway connection traffic exit media road exit head north head east connection freeway freeway interchange planned connection additional interchange planned heritage road exit list letter measured road route established based western end mexican border rest alignment existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted entire route san_diego | California State Route 905 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
24448_ColoradoStateHighway112 | colorado state highway state highway mile long state highway southern colorado built formally defined route begins western end junction highway road travels east crossing miles west center reaching eastern terminus meets route description route begins central begins northward oak street crossing route exits city curves northeastward highway county line travels northeasterly direction soon intersects traverses east way route suddenly curves eastward meets route continues meet numerous county roads length land road transitions plain grassland circular shaped fields crops route meets approximately miles east east route enters town center skirts south town 8th street meets railroad connects town farther south route moves east farmland meets county road continues south skirts county line way east north history mile gravel road numbered ran center road continued late 1910s built state highway ran built route mile gap county line work began 1920s renumbered paved county line residents sought better roads began improving area highway fully surfaced year counties paid rest road asphalt major routing major intersections | Colorado State Highway 112 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
24658_CaliforniaStateRoute47 | california state route state route state highway state california connecting mainland los_angeles area south end heads east vincent thomas bridge island end state maintenance state highway begins junction crossing bridge north mainland second terminus begins signage continues locally maintained route mainly street freeway alignment follows corridor santa freeway near downtown los_angeles entire route california freeway expressway system constructed segments freeways officially known parts seaside freeway continues continues grade intersections gap street surface roadway albeit intersections runs alongside rail line route description state route begins south end harbor freeway los_angeles neighborhood heads east vincent thomas bridge interchange harbor boulevard suspension bridge main channel coming ground level locally maintained seaside avenue interchange toll plaza freeway ends navy way road enters ocean boulevard rebuilt freeway exit freeway frontage roads intersecting turning north terminal island freeway ocean boulevard leads east bridge interstate access downtown state maintenance begins signed state route partial interchange allowing access north crosses channel bridge lift bridge opened bridge leaves freeway continues northeast state maintenance ends remainder signed locally maintained quickly crosses anaheim street merges continues southwest wilmington local street street street rebuilt project begins roadway passes cross streets street interchange street del boulevard boulevard beach freeway interchange way connector ramps major grade intersection split north del boulevard south street moves east west rail line corridor built crossover south street halfway street del boulevard north boulevard rail line descends mile mid corridor trench streets ground level street west local frontage road east cross streets grade separated rail line intersecting streets grade avenue bridges crossings segment include century freeway access avenue south 25th street rail line curves northeast trench roadways join single soon interchanges santa freeway north end route street continues north east downtown los_angeles crossing west ending soon street spring street history decided urging harbor truck highway association formed build harbor truck boulevard stretching miles los_angeles intended trucks port los portion completed extension wilmington opened february resulting completely independent truck route port roadway lay halfway wilmington avenue extended existing street ran avenue west street north limit truck boulevard continued west street lying crossed east rest route anaheim street wilmington trucks turn east south continue southwest wilmington highway soon came known street way wilmington state highway instead state took street west east plans freeways evolved plan modified city included single freeway connecting los_angeles beginning heading south southwest paralleling plan shifted route farther east near present keeping route near second freeway leaving parkway san freeway east downtown heading south near second freeway came known parkway connected north southwest long beach naval shipyard located island paid construction million freeway island willow street including million construction began early completed link dedicated january replacing older early plans included north south freeway splitting merge harbor parkway harbor freeway venice parkway northeast rejoining split freeway riverside parkway south initially known east pass west pass later harbor parkway remained separate route roughly main street state legislature added east pass state highway system route approved revised master plan based studied new replaced parkway downtown los_angeles continued north kept south santa freeway southern riverside parkway interchange freeway golden state freeway replaced rest riverside parkway south santa freeway route riverside parkway piece north parkway state highway renumbering industrial freeway route route deleted year extended west south end replacing truncated time later replaced extended extension added state highway system route included construction million freeway link bridge west harbor freeway officially seaside freeway called extension harbor freeway media began march dedicated july parts connected los_angeles maintained seaside avenue maintained ocean boulevard freeway upgrade completed june traffic signals remain ramps connecting ocean boulevard early maps extend north near location adopted january led northwest end street near paralleled street los_angeles state law specified shall use street bridge beach freeway adopted alignment east legislature created state route replace alignment cancellation industrial freeway planned port expansions project created including improved rail line widening lanes south rebuilt project grade major streets south signed remains lanes project replace bridge plan improve connection near south end possibly building new expressway replacement south extending northwest originally planned alignment south major intersections letter measured road based alignment existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted entire route | California State Route 47 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
24824_CaliforniaStateRoute46 | california state route state route east west state highway state california major crossing connecting near east carried route california freeway expressway system lane highway highway near eligible designated road built improved 1920s fully paved majority originally designated entirely removed highway system eastern portion route route description state route begins southeast mile pacific_ocean heads east highway santa range relatively straight roadway built 1970s bypassing steep road passing near segment ends north turns north overlapping freeway valley formed central immediately splitting crosses passing near heads east hilly area community runs partially alongside merge near rest area turns northeast following pass settlement split crossing highway continues rise heads east summit near descending arm enters known follows perfectly straight eastward alignment crossing passing intersecting miles past crossing passes oil field seven miles west overlap short distance city passes canal ends county maintained road continues east sierra nevada foothills history second state highway bond issue approved state voters route created linking trunk route near coast trunk route passing coast ranges pass road built recommended county maintained poor road connection valley pass highway improved paving completed december extension west route near added ran north today alignment state sign route system established majority route receive state route designation instead new turned southwest legislative route modern followed northeast continued route west coast route paved 1950s moved longer better quality route replacing overlapping signed road west truncated eliminated renumbering east instead going south west continued west road paved new lane expressway carrying west built mid-1970s replacing lane stretch known blood alley large number car crashes mainly head collisions high volume tourists total people died widened lane expressway junction east west junction near town east junction split named actor killed car accident near site september current intersection marked james dean memorial junction junction officially dedicated september official commemoration 50th anniversary dean death actual intersection accident occurred contrary popular belief accident scene approximately feet south current intersection road use carried interim safety project december daytime installing rumble strips plans start widening section plans upgrade west segment build interchange james dean memorial junction north major intersections letter measured road based alignment existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted numbers reset county lines start end county given county column | California State Route 46 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
25078_WashingtonStateRoute224 | state route mile long state highway located entirely washington united_states highway serves connect interstate link state highway renumbering highway numbered lightly traveled rural highway average cars traveled highway daily currently studying plans alleviate traffic congestion western terminus highway plans ranging moving exit ramp creating roundabout adding traffic light route description begins interchange southern intersects turns east kennedy road passing park ride lot south highway road turns north van street paralleling slowly turning northeast rural area passing farmland main east west exiting town highway passes enters highway terminates intersection southeast airport highway crosses single track belonging port managed van street continues east terminus miles turning south avenue highway primarily lane road road expands lanes width highway remains terminus speed limits posted highway range miles hour miles hour year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated cars traveled intersection road west cars eastern terminus history roadway connected road alignment similar current highway appeared maps termini concurrent highways route highway known numbered state highway renumbering abolished primary secondary highway numbers replacing sign route numbers later renamed twin set bridges carry highway western terminus built initial construction southern washington current bridge carries constructed replacing original bridge highway future studying different proposed changes intersection improve traffic flow proposals introduced alleviate situation including replacing stop sign intersection traffic light intersection ramp implementing options featuring favors roundabout options estimates costs range million construct major intersections entire highway | Washington State Route 224 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
25198_CaliforniaStateRoute37 | state route state highway northern california runs miles northern shore built route runs southern tips counties interstate serves vital connection counties north san_francisco flags discovery kingdom accessible route route proposed built freeway standards early 1950s proposal met economic environmental obstacles making task impossible route problems included break turned land highway marsh home endangered salt marsh harvest mice section highway known blood alley high rate fatal accidents route description intended run state highway constructed begins junction heads northeast freeway quarter mile lane expressway route passes meeting southern terminus state route signal controlled intersection near route continues divided lane expressway easterly southeasterly direction crosses proceeds northern edge construction barrier portion lanes middle lane alternately serving passing lane direction stretch highway given nickname blood alley high rate fatal accidents middle lane removed accidents dropped dramatically lane freeway approaching northern crosses continues freeway overlapping old highway alignment passing north old road known proximity flags discovery kingdom previously known travels northeasterly direction white turning east crosses state route heads eastern terminus honoring police officer killed line duty early 1990s stretch drive serves entrance mini drive upgraded freeway following years complications remaining non freeway section upgraded route known route road honoring agent killed line duty accident originally toll road ran route route california freeway expressway system eligible designated scenic highway history stretch road east historical real result early 20th century built opened traffic highway followed current alignment east northeast present day route designated later signed state route prior state control section known point toll road toll road managed golden gate ferry built ancient native american trail purchased state tolls removed signed state route route state highway renumbering route starting near ending near lake proposed built freeway standards early 1950s proposal met economic environmental obstacles making task impossible route late golden gate ferries owners point toll road began plans build contract awarded oakland based october paved toll road built ancient native american trail san bay shore cut near expected cost toll exceeding toll road officials explained purpose road stimulate motor vehicle usage reducing times expenses motorists traveling sacramento areas offering direct route highway road opened traffic november received recommendation purchase road able invest owned rights right way route opposed purchase resulted congressional actions establish clear title deed route house representative earliest government officials pressure acquire toll road order convert toll free highway argued having toll road travel order reach golden gate bridge benefit cited seventh tenths mile difference distance toll road route deed permitting state purchase road granted attorney general october highway signed state route renumbering highway upgrading talks began upgrading highway proposition turn route toll road failed decided lane freeway best decision opposition residents surrounding neighborhoods federal oil allowed widening approach drive broke flooded portion developed land turning protected wetlands home endangered species new status environmental studies needed order continue project soon project split different phases handle problems particular areas divided newly created section relocated city able widen section build drive blood alley section updated problem route hinder progress section mare island plagued fatal accidents earning nickname blood alley people lost lives preliminary effort reduce fatalities officials established daylight test section requiring cars day passing lanes efforts ineffective local resident campaigned barrier erected death year old son blood alley time situation stretch worsened death toll rose thirty thought barrier matters worse difficult emergency vehicles attend accidents environmental issues cited waiting ability create causeway span area instead continued campaign despite opposition granted barrier barrier built controversy eliminated passing lanes barriers built longer crossover accidents median built problems needed resolved order road work safely environmentally friendly way emergency personnel needed quickly access accidents provide easy transport nearby hospitals alleviate problem implemented electric gate technology allow emergency vehicles cut certain parts median problem protect plant life salt marsh harvest mice residing highway result crews placed protect foliage added holes median barrier allow mice cross highway white interchange protect allowing widening passed allowed acres wetlands filled required times wetland restoration environmental studies widened elevated section road converted freeway accommodate pedestrians built eastbound freeway finally completed crossed broadway mini drive bypassing traffic signaled intersections railroad grade crossing project completed summer fully open traffic august future partnered regional local entities plan future scenarios focused structural adaptations highway response potential sea level rise impacts highways country face vertical geographic location likely sea level rise impacts popular option place highway causeway allowing escape flooding sea level rise reduce impacts marshes eliminate traffic noise impacts birds mammals human communities adjacent near highway options considered included placing highway meters higher building tunnel highway highway existing highways eliminate impacts marshes avoid sea level rise impacts major intersections letter measured road based alignment existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted numbers reset county lines start end county given county column popular culture route title train album california album cover includes picture california sign actually picture highway | California State Route 37 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
25247_WashingtonStateRoute4 | state route mile long state highway serving southwestern region state washington highway officially known travels east route counties interchange interstate designated lewis state scenic national_highway_system highway forms route ran creation united_states numbered highways signed created successor unsigned state highways route description begins intersection located rural highway designated lewis travels southeast serves northern terminus census designated place leaving continues east intersects route highway travels upstream turns southeast passing east julia butler white tailed deer shores continues east county seat intersects terminus northern terminus highway travels intersects western terminus serves port continues northern passes campus traveling intersects spur route crosses splits way pair traveling south downtown turns east continues eastern terminus diamond interchange north rivers mall year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated busiest section intersection street west way bridge serving vehicles busy section rural serving vehicles entire route designated national_highway_system highway system includes roadways important national economy defense mobility includes highways connect major communities state washington history present route codified state highway system state road connecting highway built area built road connecting state road officially designated ocean beach highway renumbered state road highway incorporated creation united_states numbered highways traveling east highway paved method remaining gap constructed gravel entire highway paved state road replaced traveling west south east highway renumbering replaced designated lewis creation state scenic highway system decommissioned replaced highway proposed route extended west white pass major intersections | Washington State Route 4 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
25507_U.S.Route730 | route route east west miles miles state oregon highway starts rural interchange interstate located east city travels east continuation columbia river highway intersecting city form short concurrency city highways continuing northeast washington highway travels rural ends intersection south created original united_states highways november traveling existing columbia river highway established south washington section added state highway system branch state road later branch highway concurrent traveling moved new route bypassing allowing extended southwest later interchange route description runs miles oregon washington listed national_highway_system system roads crucial nation economy defense mobility western terminus east end concurrency state highway states roadway maintained highest designation united states numbered highway route shortest highway system highway defined revised code washington oregon begins partial cloverleaf interchange located east city highway continuation columbia river highway travels northeast rail line passes reaching city continues northeast 6th street city highway intersects diamond interchange forms short concurrency continues east unincorporated community northern terminus oregon route rural highway turns northeastward lake intersects providing connections north recreation area south city heads washington traveling rail line canyon walls columbia river gorge survey measuring traffic volume average day year expressed terms annual average daily traffic aadt conducted calculated busiest section highway oregon interchange serving vehicles busy section highway washington state line serving vehicles washington continues north oregon reaching county highway intersects spur route turns east eastern terminus south community year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms aadt calculated washington section served vehicles day history highway oregon designated easternmost segment columbia river highway november created initial named state highway system segment washington added state highway system branch state road kept designation branch creation primary secondary highway system adopted november officials included traveling northeast south extended south washington san_diego california concurrent eastern terminus south moved new section bypassing cities november subsequently extended west intersection moved south interchange westward extension idaho washington suggested route included entirety suggested routing vancouver washington approved extension washington june routing present terminus aligned concurrency crossing bridge having shorter concurrency old route spur route mile long spur route rural connects westbound directed eastbound city included road annual aadt survey calculated vehicles spur route major intersections | U.S. Route 730 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
26058_WashingtonStateRoute410 | state route partially named named stephen memorial parkway mile long state highway traverses counties state washington begins interchange travels southeast cascade range junction western freeway serves built urban areas remainder route surface road traverses rural areas passes mountains route starts limited access southerly bypass surface road east city traveling eastward roadway serves crosses eventually parallels enters later heads crossing passes leaves park southeast leaves national forest travels parallel end city located west begins follows highway national forests mount national park parts state wagon roads established extending idaho decommissioned extended majority highway bypassing pass segment segment highway later shortened end replaced route description begins freeway interchange near highway travels southeast suburban areas crossing passing partial cloverleaf interchange drive named traffic avenue second partial cloverleaf interchange goes railroad owned amtrak rail service near northern bank turning northeast encounters western terminus way diamond interchange travels north valley avenue south freeway section near interchange busiest recorded daily average motorists freeway continuing northeast connects avenue turns southeast undivided highway community east roadway heads east passing shopping centers entering intersecting street travels northeast downtown turns north cross enter leaving highway travels northeast rural areas passes turning east renamed street intersects griffin avenue designated travels northwest auburn roadway named passes king county park southeastern direction begins parallel acre km2 state park consisting old growth forests highway crosses northeast confluence enters bridge ends community named river roadway encounters forest road proposed alternative road travels south alongside passing ranger creek state airport state owned airport open summer early fall travels south closed gate miles east pass summit winter early spring high wind limited cell service danger intersects pass turns east intersection heads series turns passing pass pass border pierce counties pass highway crosses completed east pass roadway begins parallel northeast follow little river junction end proposed named highway exits enters ends near canal history portion defined law built state washington state wagon road extended county road county road near road ran alongside reached summit continued traveling parallel ending county road connecting road approved built making oldest state roads washington state road known state road incorporated state highway system road named road shortened end cedar springs rest road transferred state road called road ran state highway system adjusted new roads added system including parts traveled section later later brief concurrency later connect follow state road secondary highway maintained counties began end state road concurrent future branch highway travels state road aligned south pass renamed pass highway reflect realignment despite road cross highway state highway system completely incorporating numbers instead names state road absorbed pass highway remained state road state road branch remained branch non existent system national highways improved concept auto trails formed late final plan system routes approved november routes included plan extended idaho parts concurrent new highways including state highway system changed primary secondary system remained concurrent state highways designations changed state state road primary state highway state road state road state road branch branch washington unveiled new numbering system highways state primary state highways repealed non concurrent highway june extended west idaho white pass eliminating original route highway remaining sections split routes segment state route interstate took segment segment markers taken december originally passed downtown following surface streets including main avenue traffic avenue main street cities late 1960s construction began limited access bypass city centers moved new freeway shortened current length extended october massive landslide buried miles west landslide blocked caused warnings severe flooding set residential use october permanently rerouted afterward completed paving new segment november years routed east toe landslide permanent mph route opened august major intersections | Washington State Route 410 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
26066_CaliforniaStateRoute244 | state route short unsigned freeway connection northeast sacramento california united_states connects junction interstate old route route added state highway system renumbered renumbering portions route removed system late route description starts east westernmost ramps avenue exit east connector ramps passes terminus terminates auburn boulevard having entered sacramento city limits near history legislative route defined proposed route legislative route northeast sacramento east legislative route state route approximately sunrise boulevard near renumbering assigned number route extension defined east route series volatile public hearings took place local residents protested construction route proposed sacramento area extension route removed route definition truncated end fair oaks boulevard near public forums ended abandoned plans routes truncated auburn boulevard present terminus bridges route date year bridges west interstate exit list letter measured road based alignment existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted entire route | California State Route 244 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
26087_CaliforniaStateRoute133 | state route state highway state california connects freeways ending toll road city portion north california freeway expressway system built expressway south freeway freeway near constructed county road 1910s portion upgraded freeway decades later plans extend freeway south canceled state southern road remains undivided highway majority eastern transportation corridor opened connector designated toll extension route description state route begins broadway block pacific_ocean changes highway leaves downtown enters soon lane direction entering canyon lies wilderness park west east major intersection road county route widens lanes highway interchange continues follows lane alignment west canyon moved old lane road center canyon late splits northwest canyon ends north park highway freeway crossing grade intersection followed interchange exit continues freeway serves parkway santa freeway crossing northwest crossing interchange exit ending history construction concrete roads started bond issue paved county road connecting state highway route forerunner road added state highway system route unsigned designation entire route added new california freeway expressway system planned upgrade named freeway november highway received sign route number state route renumbering opening piece freeway celebrated october connecting north end planned extension santa freeway trumpet interchange bypassing old route sand canyon avenue initially interchanges route state decided build remainder freeway late portion south removed freeway expressway system widening north lane expressway completed late moving road canyon allowing better access areas new state route added state highway system connecting northwest south end shifted southeast north end old route prevent route changing numbers crossed southern portion renumbered remainder extended eastern transportation corridor includes north completed october opening new northeast tolls toll portion employs barrier toll system drivers charged flat rate tolls based particular toll pass tolls collected selected ramps orange grove toll plaza spans ramps traffic instead pay springs toll plaza located immediately south interchange road electronic open road system cash longer accepted drivers pay electronic toll collection system license plate brand time payment online charged lower toll methods drivers pay days trip toll road accessed toll violation following table lists tolls exits passenger cars axle vehicles july vehicles pay higher toll orange grove toll plaza major intersections letter measured road based alignment existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted entire route | California State Route 133 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
26093_WashingtonStateRoute17 | state route mile long state highway serving central region state washington highway travels rural areas franklin adams grant douglas counties designated national_highway_system moses lake passing grand begins interchange travels north intersects near entering highway intersects interstate travels partial expressway continues north intersecting grand short concurrency west highway turns northwest crosses columbia river bridge ending southwestern edge established merger highways highway renumbering branch branch branch codified branch state road followed branch creation primary state highway system completed branch aligned north following year created moved wider route moses lake soap lake 1960s highway replaced limited access highway north replaced larger series projects area improve highway route description begins diamond interchange southeast highway travels northwest crosses rail line runs intersecting terminus west travels east northwest diamond interchange east highway continues north travels columbia basin railroad rural roadway serves western terminus eastern terminus west warden continuing northwest moses lake travels city intersects partial cloverleaf interchange serving eastern terminus concurrency roadway expands lanes turns north pioneer way business leaves concurrency travels downtown moses lake heads moses lake turn northwest limited access highway intersection broadway avenue signed northern terminus limited access highway intersects road diamond interchange north city heads northwest moses lake moses lake north passing south grant county international airport crosses intersects east rural highway continues north passes municipal airport intersects continue northwest grand passing lakes including lake highway turns northeast west shores park lake passes rest area roadway enters sun lakes state park passes north end grand intersects continuation west southern end begins concurrency briefly travels west turns north intersect eastern terminus corner roadway follows northward western terminus spur route highway continues northwest southern terminus crossing foot long columbia river bridge named bridge downstream chief joseph dam steel continuous deck bridge listed national_register_of_historic_places carries west highway continues north east bank passing ending intersection east near confluence columbia rivers year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms annual average daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated busiest section highway expressway road moses lake serving average vehicles busiest section highway serving average vehicles moses lake area designated national_highway_system includes roadways important national economy defense mobility includes highways connect major communities state washington history established highway renumbering successor highways designated primary secondary state highway system branch west branch east branch codified branch state road codified creation primary secondary state highways highway built corner 1950s soap lake branch established serve alternate route avoiding grand dam branch moved north newly built columbia river bridge present route old route bridge new branch later signed created traveling north moses lake soap lake existing gravel roads late 1930s later straightened widened 1970s originally mile long highway extending south created codified shortened miles current route aligned new alignment improvements area late 1960s approved opened late major revisions route occurred improved sections highway widening barriers moses lake lane highway designated widened lane limited access highway pioneer way road completed decade later october highway west designated program program september major intersections | Washington State Route 17 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
26202_WashingtonStateRoute231 | state route mile long state highway state washington serving communities lincoln stevens counties highway located entirely west serves route extends north concurrency near intersection south established concurrency existed state road later secondary state highway established formed highway crosses constructed added national_register_of_historic_places repair work late route description state route begins miles north diamond interchange interstate signed parent main route travels northwest south spanning miles miles shorter traveling northeast highway traverses hill cliff passing turns west direction roadway north narrow valley arrives oregon street roadway briefly turns east main street crossing railway line continuing northeast alongside tracks turning north plains highway parallels intersect west concurrent road broadway street enters turns north street crosses marsh causeway spring creek road highway travels northwest parallel canyon roadway crosses border lincoln stevens counties west nearly mile north bridge intersects connector intersection highway travels north community ford continues valley roadway named second street intersects connects east near crossing railway track second street turns west street passes local medical clinic crosses sheep creek railway second street leaves parallel railroad valley highway intersects ends intersection miles south history established sections current route state highway system early state road established included section near established connected lake county maintained road connected lake state road state road state road route system formed highways numbered route signed state roads respectively state road secondary route created extending state road year secondary route established span little falls dam long lake replaced western extension years later constructed spanned southern terminus moved eastern route bypassing extended north branch highway added route extended south east northern terminus highway renumbering created concurrent replaced replaced branch added national_register_of_historic_places june rest bridges northwest bridge repaired late major intersections | Washington State Route 231 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
26718_WashingtonStateRoute7 | state route state highway lewis pierce counties located state washington mile long roadway begins continues north intersect state highways ends interchange interstate road names second street rural areas pacific avenue 38th street near end highway short freeway proposed extended south parallel existing railroad owned serves median short freeway earliest road use current route appeared map area state highway system added system state road state road branches state road later branches highway renumbering branches auxiliary route bypasses established construction started connect fort lewis air force base route description state route begins intersection major east west highway traveling north second street paralleling route street intersects main avenue continues west city leaving highway passes heavily forested canyon near parallel river highway leaves enters roadway intersects goes east mount national park following line branches travels west plains passing plain suburban areas highway enters near fort lewis boundary intersects continues southwest pacific avenue enters shortly roadway partial cloverleaf interchange uses street south ramps entering pacific avenue turns east 38th street partial cloverleaf interchange short freeway proposed route roadway freeway busiest segment highway estimated daily average motorists median freeway route northern terminus interchange interstate ends interchange located near dome continues north parallel railroad single point urban interchange history map area showed roadway extending north later numbered state road added state highway system ran north created extended pacific_ocean south turned east highways replaced branches state road traveled state road creation primary state highways branch remained branch shortened chicago milwaukee started parallel route highway renumbering branches chicago milwaukee transferred railroad parallel highway new auxiliary route established provide bypass provide direct connections interstate air force base july groundbreaking ceremony start construction predicted finished segment highway high accident rate added safety improvements roadway currently developing route development plan improve roadway project divided phases phase completed focused second phase focused focus major intersections | Washington State Route 7 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
26735_MontanaHighway48 | montana highway short state maintained highway located southwestern region state montana highway miles long connects interstate passing mainly rural mining areas designated portions highway existed location route description begins intersection lane paved road highway proceeds northeastward rural mining land short distance intersecting roadway continues northeast running parallel short distance highway passes small created mining road proceeds northeastward rural mining land slightly bending eastward highway continues slight northeastward direction near town crossing highway proceeds eastern terminus intersection interstate frontage road near exit average daily traffic count vehicles trucks portion highway listed national_highway_system network roads important country economy defense mobility history short stretch near existed short dirt connector road existed near location route paved connected route officially designated miles reconstructed current route renumbered segments redesignated improved final miles highway reconstructed worked major junctions entire route | Montana Highway 48 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
26991_WashingtonStateRoute22 | state route mile long state highway spanning counties state washington existing highway serves connect small communities bypassed interstate section southeastern bypass highway lightly traveled passing mainly rural farmland highway parallels railway line majority route rail line highway years digit highway numbers washington indicate auxiliary routes parent route giving auxiliary routes decommissioned legislative session longer maintained route description begins exit concurrent hybrid diamond partial cloverleaf interchange route heads south farmland town highway passes double track belonging railway south end town intersects turning southeast heads south traveling southeast passes farmland passing small census designated place interchange city located north highway accessible turning highway leaves reservation turns southwest passing crosses county line continuing farmland approaching outskirts county seat serves bypass turning north intersecting desert wind east turning southwest wine country road terminating folded diamond interchange exit year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated cars traveled intersection bus road west cars passed town interchange segment highway western terminus listed list highways statewide significance marks portion highway critical connecting major communities state national_highway_system system roads important nation economy defense mobility history roadway existed connecting near current alignment roadway incomplete gap existing gap roadway completed segment numbered segment current originally numbered designations remained state highway renumbering small segment renumbered completion area continued town interstate completed truncated interstate rail line highway parallels west existed originally belonged portland seattle railway railway spring began million construction project build wider lanes shoulders city number collisions roadway improvements included installing new access ramps adding turn lanes roads project completed june major intersections related routes digit state highway numbers considered auxiliary routes digit parent route current decommissioned auxiliary routes state route mile long state highway located entirely indian reservation highway linked fort state park west east state route mile long state highway located entirely highway serves connect unincorporated community county seat state route mile long state highway located entirely serves role connecting city county seat state route mile long state highway located entirely highway serves connect link state route mile long lane state highway located entirely highway travels connects bridge listed national_register_of_historic_places | Washington State Route 22 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
27233_WashingtonStateRoute308 | state route mile long state highway state washington serving community highway travels generally east interchange east naval base main entrance naval warfare center codified branch state road continued branch highway renumbering branch section ran spur route serving established old route extended freeway routed new freeway route description begins diamond interchange east naval base highway travels east wooded land intersecting minor roads roadway turns northeast crosses unincorporated community passes serves main community ends main entrance naval warfare center continuing east avenue base year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated busiest section highway liberty bay serving vehicles busy section bridge liberty bay serving vehicles history current route added state highway system branch state road carried primary secondary state highway system branch branch traveled miles east near naval submarine base naval warfare center intersecting crossing liberty bay branch incorporated replaced short spur route serving established replace spur extended moved south end major intersections entire highway | Washington State Route 308 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
27274_WashingtonStateRoute27 | state route mile long state highway serving counties located eastern region state washington highway travels generally north route north interchange interstate serves region travels west east idaho auxiliary routes connecting highways highway state highway system later branch highways combined form highway renumbering designation extended south bypass north route description begins mile long route grand avenue intersection south highway travels downtown concurrent passes west main campus grand avenue crosses leaves city parallel rail line travels travels northeast city crosses short concurrency highway continues northwest alongside rail line town serving southern terminus west airport travels northeast crosses street intersects locally known street north end city highway turns west street travels bridge carrying john wayne pioneer trail leaving continues north rail line serves western terminus ends highway travels north neighborhood opportunity widens lanes road intersects diamond interchange utilizes indiana avenue montgomery drive exit ramps highway continues north crosses rail lines belonging branch designation ends trent avenue signed year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated busiest section interchange serving vehicles busy section serving vehicles history codified later paved branch creation primary secondary state highways branch route traveled miles north idaho state border south established traveling miles north branch highways combined form highway renumbering new state highway system place today western bypass originally planned late 1960s opened proposed ring road city routed completed segment extended south route intersect new highway rest bypass built highway extended north interchange trent avenue signed highway designated december program scenic extended north major intersections | Washington State Route 27 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
27550_ColoradoStateHighway74 | colorado state highway state highway state colorado running miles interstate morrison highway roughly follows hook shaped path running northwest southeast section route north town known parkway segment lane roadway section east lanes section known bear creek road primarily parallels passing towns route outskirts denver passes city mountain parks including bergen parks early road following current path established late 19th century miners floods ravaged road early 20th century measures taken prevent damage sites camp bear creek canyon scenic mountain drive section morrison called given route listing national_register_of_historic_places early designation route number went west current day designation section truncated late 1930s eastern segment added denver 1940s section removed newer improvements road include widening segment lanes constructing interchange route description begins interchange ramps westbound branch freeway exit north cross highway southwestward access eastbound provided highway slight distance west roadway heads southwesterly meeting intersection road route heads westward turning southwestward coniferous forest setting lane divided highway roadway turns westward meets county road passes north community terrain mountainous intersecting heads southwesterly turns south parkway meets crosses troublesome creek traveling west follows east open grassland occasional trees road narrows lanes climbs passing road turns southeastward continues community enters town passing lake bear creek route intersects heads west known bear creek road curves northward winds town lanes route follows path curving northeasterly east route meets road heads southeast route meets bypasses large curve took winds eastward north roadway passes north bear park intersects road east town abandoned section exists serves path private areas route heads curves creek rocky terrain passes stream exiting park enters morrison meets intersection morrison road serves continuation road denver route maintained responsible maintaining constructing transportation infrastructure colorado including highways role periodically conducts surveys highways measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure average daily traffic volume particular road calculated vehicles daily near vehicles near interchange history governor constructed toll road morrison canyon early road offered access mining logging resources creek road bridges wood surrounding region late 1870s toll roads longer common path maintenance responsibilities passed passes denver mountain parks including established colorado governor system encompassed areas west city comprising city owned park system world designated time ran past addition newly purchased parks 1910s denver granted ability enforce laws pertaining parks speed limit miles hour set roadway miles hour downhill parks near morrison camp established new deal work relief program built large park numbered camp camp left state camp section morrison known listed national_register_of_historic_places especially prone flooding seen morrison destroyed occasion road threatened floods cars road carried river control flooding creek preserve safety road denver manager parks sought build dam near dam finished years flood created lake following september flood crews federal work program built walls creek measuring feet high program called installed feet masonry points previous floods damaged roadway early 1930s designation intersection east pass road bergen park followed current designation morrison paved morrison oil surface resembling asphalt late oil surface approximately inch deep prevented erosion roadway canyon floods section west redesignated turned northward east end extended denver avenue section terminated denver opted sections away section road resurfaced widened year replaced eastern segment terminus route cut original current terminus morrison construction region completed included interchange northwest end 1990s sought upgrade expressway work project began improve interchange parkway widen roadway current state costing million major intersections entire route | Colorado State Highway 74 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
27670_U.S.Route12inWashington | route washington route major east west highway running washington detroit michigan spans miles state washington numbered highway span entire state west east starting near pacific_ocean crossing idaho state line near crosses cascade range south mount national park portions concurrent interstate interstate majority route parallel interstate highway extended washington portions washington state highway system early highway open white pass added state highway system legislature route approximately miles inception route portion grand mound designated route description begins pair way streets street eastbound street westbound western terminus intersects goes west south harbor south eastbound westbound lanes merge east near harbor historic leaves east passes towns lanes wide majority highway washington rural lane road town exits highway diamond interchange main highway continues east state route heads southeast rochester east runs north continues east town rochester interchanges exit town continues south concurrent exiting exit south highway heads east passes town intersects east runs north town intersects heads north cascade range passing south intersects serves entrance mount national park miles east intersection crosses elevation feet crossing open year round descends mountains intersects west serves pass entrance mount national park east widens lanes approaches city interchange exit runs concurrently bypassing towns paralleling exit near tri cities exit meets western terminus interstate run concurrently east ends intersects heads south town intersecting east north dodge east crossing idaho state line outside consists lane bypass known alignment passes number historical landmarks history created appropriated funds construct maintain highways sparsely settled areas state main highways populated areas continue entirely county control built state aid highways east west crossings including corridor currently served state road climbing east point near amendment renamed state road road moved cascade crossing north defined portion east pass follow point near east mouth replaced state road state road defined cross north pass included law surveyed connected network proposed state roads included westerly extension easterly extension route southeast east surveyed extension state road legislature added routes state highway system formed system primary secondary roads primary roads completely controlled state including maintenance received names secondary roads kept numbers county maintenance replaced state road west extended surveyed replaced state road continued state road majority route added time finally taken secondary state highways route forming continued idaho east original survey curved south state road near oregon state line bypassed designation instead continued directly east unlike earlier state roads primary roads followed existing county roads incomplete roadway remained secondary state road legislature designated surveyed route near north secondary state road restructuring system assigned numbers primary state highways state road primary route greatly expanded taking entire east pacific highway secondary state road realigned starting near heading north instead east alongside old pass west summit new state road named included roads vicinity mount national park road pass built roads connect included numbering designation including state road spur added state road connecting grand mound creating route west added state highway system west east highway system laid finalized late route connected following olympic highway state road concurrent state road state road differed present followed route despite state highway system crossing columbia river gorge opened traffic near east white pass close original plan east half state road added state highway system branch highway roadway pass added state highway system different alignment finally completed dedicated august opening southwest washington highways established ended montana current routing washington followed route extended westward stages extension idaho approved june times early 1960s states idaho washington oregon submitted plans westward extension officials vancouver washington oregon plan submitted highway going far plans rejected washington introduced new system sign route numbers signed present state route grand mound state route extension finally approved june taking routing crossed pass weather white pass replacing signs changed late december bypassed segments new major intersections | U.S. Route 12 in Washington | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
27904_WashingtonStateRoute502 | state route officially known battle ground highway mile long state highway state washington serving city highway travels east interchange interstate north dollars corner intersection serving connector prior highway renumbering established highway traveled south current western terminus construction new interchange project widen install median barrier roadway route description begins lane battle ground highway exit partial cloverleaf interchange located north travels east street crossing passing northbound rest area narrowed lane highway travels east rural community dollars corner enters city lane main street crosses travels city ending intersection main street year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated vehicles day highway entire route designated national_highway_system includes roadways important national economy defense mobility history created formation primary secondary state highways traveling mile long route east north intersect turned north west end woodland realigned lane limited access highway late 1940s extended south old highway intersect established highway renumbering codified successor section replaced constructed new interchange street april october cost million new interchange subsequent realignment shortened total length miles updated construction interchange uncovered archaeological remains belonging coast settlement creek years old entire highway christened battle ground highway importance connecting city began preparing install median barrier widen lanes interchange western city limit july accommodate increasing traffic highway speed limit miles hour construction million project began earnest wetlands created wetlands buried construction included driving concrete new lane highway includes foot shoulders bicycle pedestrian travel traffic signals major intersections opened june major intersections entire highway | Washington State Route 502 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
27986_WashingtonStateRoute100 | state route mile long state highway state washington serving highway travels route south cape disappointment north intersection lewis serves loop route spur route serves state park station established existing paved county road late 1950s highway washed away winter storm spur route shortened route description begins intersection highway turns north 1st avenue highway lewis travels west spruce street intersection clockwise terminus 2nd avenue continues pacific_ocean turns south pacific_coast past robert gray drive highway intersects spur route travels south fort road coast guard station cape disappointment turns north travels ends intersection block terminus year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated busiest section terminus serving vehicles busiest section intersection spur route serving vehicles history north head road portion traveling west pacific coast south state park existed paved roadway established complete loop route cape short spur route traveling south state park later renamed rebuilt winter storm washed away roadway spur route mile long spur route travels south mainline boundary spur route established main route originally miles long highway transferred january major intersections entire highway | Washington State Route 100 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
28112_U.S.Route89inUtah | route utah state utah route long north south state highway spanning miles central state serves local road paralleling occasionally interstate portions arizona north northeast wyoming serve separate corridors provides access national parks arizona connects logan state interstate established state road initially extended north following extension canada border interstate constructed roughly paralleling west replacing south process rerouted southern utah northern arizona old roadway route description arizona border enters utah south inside canyon national recreation area miles north crosses near page arizona leaving recreation area passing small town highway curves west grand staircase national monument stays near monument southern boundary crossing east passing south cliffs grand staircase city meets north end alternate route south arizona abruptly turns north begins climbing staircase begins utah scenic stretches north canyon junction ascended canyon carved near white cliffs meets junction travelers turn reach national park final step highway follows alongside highest point southern utah east end summit elevation feet north long valley junction descends valley meeting scenic highway leads canyon junction highway continues north valley narrows significantly opening near town valley create meets near kingston valley narrows canyon carries river confluence overlap interstate beginning follows freeway old alignment driven state maintained north overlaps business highways stay mainly west half valley faster bypassing communities surface road passes south curves east rising alongside exits downtown pre freeway alignment overlaps following separate alignment northwest area short uses roadway business spur city bypasses follows route town passes meets finally turns away turns east curving northeast formed tributary valley small cities meets south end connecting scenic turns east climbs valley reaching summit hill elevation feet parallels leg highway descending canyon junction near ghost town flooded landslide paralleled merge near junction form overlapped routes follow northwest splits north skirts west edge merges old south downtown north salt_lake_city parallels distance overlaps interstate following old main highway salt_lake_city los_angeles number numerous state highways connect including meets branch heads northeast connecting bypassing salt_lake_city north merges exit built near old road gap elevation feet routes split direct interchange north traffic exit exit turn east factory outlet drive follow frontage road location split way downtown salt_lake_city marked state street major north south street ends utah state capitol passing sandy murray enters salt_lake_city intersection south followed north blocks capitol turns south following alignment west north west rejoining route area modern runs block median crossing line main street median passing historic avenue station leaves downtown west curves northwesterly meeting modern terminus victory road leaves salt_lake_city exit acts frontage roads south junction splits northeast passing northerly curve west removes highway main street merges exit bypass old road narrow strip land separates leaves exit legacy parkway ends proceeds north freeway portion include exit numbers based mileage opposed overlapping freeway ends crosses surface alignment directions heads north lane road foothills east hill air force base crossing enters traverses washington boulevard rejoining old south downtown continues general northerly direction thin strip finally turns east away corridor idaho border meets current alignment southern outskirts turning east overlap city southeast bypass alignment routes head east southern finally leaving valley great salt lake small valley contains elevation feet turns north bypassing town west continues ascend dry canyon summit elevation feet small valley leads lane roadway turns east descends valley heads northeast bypassing east downtown logan continues northerly logan idaho splits east beginning long climb utah begins logan follows canyon past access road ski area state line elevation range highest point utah descends east slope curves shore elevation final segment idaho state line follows lake west shore location constrained west history created went far north travelers continue salt_lake_city highway extended north canada border near national park mid-1930s dispute utah idaho wyoming settled officials decided favor utah idaho placing near logan split northeasterly left twice travels today weather route wyoming preferred routing left instead beginning 1950s interstate constructed replacing traffic south leading route hand follows independent corridors south north logan truncated follows final alignment old southern running northerly follows succession linear valleys denver opened branch later main line extended subsidiary railway rail line reached farther south residents towns travel north old county road canyon poorly constructed steep grades rough surface designated highway south valleys state road soon initially route summit went entering east direct route considered serving communities required difficult construction covered loose sand reach summer commission added branch allowing communities access state road system connection west junction years later december commission added road sand hills system began construction sand clay road connection north added following rail line canyon providing route salt_lake_city state legislature state road system include short list given law federal aid projects entire route north kept including approaches roads addition short extension south arizona added amendment removed original route added second route west effectively forming large triangular loop town old route south added state road system early 1920s assigned numbers major state roads route arizona northerly state route numbers officially adopted legislature main route loop defined new state route followed branch loop removed south half remaining system despite designations majority instead marked remainder marked state route route ran north south central northern utah 1920s state route left logan ran east built federal aid forest road road north idaho added system state route legislature added state route alternate southern entrance left merged present numbered branch state route stretching north north east logan state highway 1930s extension took north later logan idaho removed overlapped logan mid-1950s year construction began canyon dam legislature designated new state route heading east southeast arizona route dam adjacent bridge replaced miles original state highway 1910s south end remainder new roadway area previously served improved roads route past dam initially designated alternate route completed february instead mainline better route weather old route south route alternate major numbering changes utah state highway system 1960s 1970s beginning construction interstate highways culminating renumbering state route numbers concurrent types dropped entirely majority changes visible public signs continued display following changes state routes related particular cut roadway south major intersections | U.S. Route 89 in Utah | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
28176_CaliforniaStateRoute174 | california state route state route state highway state california lane mile highway added state highway system connects interstate crossing concrete arch bridge majority highway eligible local residents blocked designation property rights concerns route description state route begins exit immediately crossing route turns right auburn street right bypasses downtown business route follows auburn street main street downtown follows old north downtown present state highway turns northwest highway crosses bridge old bridge preserved non traffic land curves north west turning west avenue state highway passes freeway ending auburn street surface routing history began improving county road route signed route contract september completed work mid september state legislature placed state highway system extension existing renumbering highway received signed designation state route local residents created halfway ends order preserve rural nature road foot wide concrete arch bridge took county line set replacement late 1980s group successfully lobbied preserve non traffic association pushed bus service add route highway agreed late runs route connecting downtown amtrak station request state legislature designated unincorporated county line city limits eligible attempted route officially declared argued designation protect scenic character rural flavor highway newly formed group concerned citizens opposed designation restrict property rights residents highway instance requiring use natural colors opposition successful remains eligible status major intersections letter measured road based alignment existed time necessarily reflect current mileage reflects realignment route indicates second realignment refers overlap correction change indicates classified temporary list list definitions segments remain relinquished local control omitted numbers reset county lines start end county given county column | California State Route 174 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
28314_WashingtonStateRoute162 | washington state route state route mile long state highway state washington serving rural highway travels interchange travels south northeast south prairie ending intersection near established successor codified highway crosses northwest bridge opened scheduled replaced newer bridge begin construction route description begins diamond interchange freeway travels south continuation valley avenue crossing highway continues south rural following line serves community joins pierce county foothills trail traveling southeast crosses bridge listed west confluence washington avenue travels southeast serving highway turns southwest bridge street crosses turning southeast later pioneer way outside south prairie continues northeast crossing foothills trail passing highway travels east crossing passing ending intersection southwest year conducts series surveys highways state measure traffic volume expressed terms average annual daily traffic aadt measure traffic volume average day year calculated vehicles day highway history codified creation primary secondary state highways beginning route traveling south prairie end intersection branch southwest branch traveled south electron removed state highway system highway traveled bridge opened concrete half bridge save total established highway renumbering codified replacement western terminus moved east interchange completion freeway bridge added national_register_of_historic_places example half bridge built concrete instead steel route highway seen major revision roadway added deteriorating replaced newer wider span scheduled begin construction major intersections entire highway | Washington State Route 162 | Engineering and technology | Transport | Road infrastructure: Western United States |
77_EdwardCreutz | january june american physicist worked manhattan_project world war war professor physics vice president research general published papers physics mathematics science policy held patents relating nuclear energy graduate helped princeton_university build world war worked nuclear design designing cooling system water cooled led group studied elements designs october moved group leader war ended accepted offer come head returned evaluate fusion program accepted offer vice president director pure applied science general leadership developed nuclear universities laboratories served assistant director director honolulu took particular interest museum preparation manual flowering plants hawaii early life born january beaver dam wisconsin son high school history teacher general science teacher older brothers john jim younger sister family moved wisconsin monroe wisconsin wisconsin played number musical instruments including played school bands played tenor dance orchestra called school orchestra monroe played left guard american football teams monroe expressed interest chemistry biology geology photography graduating took job local bank brother john graduated degree electrical engineering persuaded college john suggested aren sure science want physics basic later recalled best advice got entered studied mathematics physics money scarce great depression especially father died pay bills worked short order cook took job taking care physics laboratory equipment senior year taught physics laboratory classes encountered members faculty including gave research project junior year remained wisconsin graduate student receiving degree working upgrading generator question suggested previously observed high energy gamma rays produced bombarded wrote doctor philosophy thesis resonance scattering supervision married mathematics student wisconsin sister september couple children sons michael daughter moved princeton_university soon received offer princeton given inch build wanted help operational later recalled day princeton invited short report thesis work usually speakers journal club meetings time speakers program giants scientific accomplishments breathtaking meeting began sponsor asked met took sitting tennis shoes said professor come work great man held hand big dinner plate said voice glad meet managed glad meet electrified audience news europe discovery nuclear rushed confirm results built chamber linear radio vacuum tubes coffee cans motorcycle batteries apparatus princeton able confirm results world war early years world war led princeton group series experiments involving tons early concentrated manhattan_project teams working nuclear design including team princeton university_of_chicago conduct actual research hired work led included gale young group task design convert time existed paper gone critical july chose conservative design water cooling choice water controversial time water known absorb reducing efficiency confident group calculations correct water work technical difficulties involved liquid metal delay project working seven days week group designed september january studied metals water cooled system designed cooling system patent design issued young group leader conducted studies rods group looked process metals contact fast flowing processes aluminium investigated preparation later activities group reduced time taken produce years discovery spontaneous bred contamination led propose switching breeding challenge met developing type nuclear weapon design october moved group leader responsible explosive lens design preliminary testing difficulties encountered testing lenses led construction special test area responsible testing preparation trinity nuclear test conducted test nuclear material test brought bad news indicate trinity test fail worked night assess results able report results consistent perfect explosion later life war ended accepted offer come associate professor help create nuclear physics group turn recruited number young worked princeton manhattan_project chicago including funding built near pennsylvania time forefront research nuclear physics allowing study recently discovered visiting scholar created photographic professor head head member consultant addition work nuclear physics cultivated flowers home published papers floral species named varieties children paper published rare flower found island french travelled times translated grammar language french english family served hosts time young people spent year evaluating fusion program approached recruited join general division moved california vice president concurrently director pure applied science member general science leadership developed small universities laboratories fuel large prompt negative fuel temperature temperature core increases rapidly decreases highly unlikely completely impossible nuclear occur safety reliability allows installed densely populated areas ability generate high energy brief periods particularly useful research world popular research sold countries high temperature gas cooled successful power built united_states demonstration unit peach nuclear generating station pennsylvania operated successfully larger unit colorado encountered technical problems general conducted research energy including means published papers subject president richard_nixon appointed assistant director research assistant director acting deputy director 1970s energy crisis raised national profile energy issues served panel produced study called wife died cancer married worked enjoyed locating rare appointment ended director honolulu took particular interest museum work preparing volume manual flowering plants hawaii published expanded programs education outreach secured funding new buildings retired returned home california died june documentaries mars secret history project | Edward Creutz | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
98_FrederickReines | march august american physicist awarded nobel prize physics detection experiment scientist history associated discovery elementary particle subsequent thorough investigation fundamental properties graduate joined manhattan_project working group group leader participated number nuclear tests culminating director test series pacific early 1950s working developed equipment procedures detected supposedly june dedicated major career study properties interactions work influence study researchers come included detection created atmosphere cosmic rays detection emitted inaugurated field astronomy early life born new_jersey children parents jewish town russia met new_york_city later married older sister doctor older brothers david william lawyers said early education strongly influenced siblings great nephew founder religious movement family moved new_york father ran general store spent childhood looking said early childhood memories center typical american country store life small american town including independence day july celebrations marked fireworks patriotic music played pavilion sang chorus time considered possibility singing career instructed vocal coach provided lessons free family money family later moved north bergen new_jersey residing kennedy boulevard 57th street north bergen high school attended new_jersey graduated early age exhibited interest science liked creating building things later recalled interest science remember occurred moment religious school looking window twilight hand simulate noticed peculiar light phenomenon began fascination light ironically excelled literary history courses received average low marks science math freshman year high school improved areas junior senior years encouragement teacher gave key school laboratory cultivated love science senior year response question seniors asked wanted quote responded physicist accepted chose instead attend new_jersey earned degree mechanical engineering master science degree mathematical physics writing thesis critical review optical theory married august children robert entered earned doctor philosophy studied cosmic rays wrote thesis supervision nuclear liquid drop model nucleus publication thesis delayed end world war appeared recruited work manhattan_project remain years joined theoretical division important aspect critical mass calculations june group leader heading dragon tail experiment dragon machine attain critical state short bursts time research tool power source participated number nuclear tests writing reports results included operation crossroads bikini operation sandstone director series nuclear tests pacific saw american tests boosted weapons important step weapons studied effects nuclear authored paper stem formation important aspect air blast wave spite role nuclear tests concerned dangers radioactive pollution atmospheric nuclear tests advocate underground nuclear testing wake crisis participated project evolved jason delegate peace conference geneva discovery inner workings stars particle proposed theoretically december explain energy escaped beta decay decayed electron law conservation energy violated renamed italian little neutral proposed theory beta decay explained emitted nucleus created decay electron accounted missing energy theory described particle little mass electric charge difficult observe directly paper calculated easily pass earth concluded practically possible way observing conclusion greenhouse test series received permission head division leave residence study fundamental physics colleague decided detect want detect free later explained everybody said couldn according theory corresponding reverse reaction combines create soon annihilated electron produce gamma rays captured release gamma ray produce distinctive signature detected realised adding salt liquid enhance capture reaction resulting burst gamma rays source proposed atomic bomb permission obtained laboratory director work began digging shaft experiment convinced use nuclear instead bomb intense source advantage allowing multiple experiments carried long period time attempts large nuclear site known experiment included litres imp gal gal fluid tubes effort frustrated background noise cosmic rays encouragement tried time newer larger savannah river site emitted high cm2 sec convenient shielded location metres metres underground june able send telegram announcing found informed proven wrong said shouldn believe read papers dedicated major career study properties interactions work influence study future researchers come left teach ending collaboration basis work detecting head physics department case led group detect created atmosphere cosmic rays voice singer childhood time performing duties research supervisor chairman physics department sang direction performances took research team left new dean physical sciences extended research interests graduate students development medical radiation measuring total radiation delivered human body radiation therapy prepared possibility measuring distant events explosion explosions rare thought lucky lifetime able catch streaming specially designed wait explode signs large calling early warning systems emitted detected michigan collaboration ton located salt near cleveland normally recorded background events day registered events seconds discovery regarded field astronomy honored nobel prize physics work detecting unfortunately died nobel prize awarded posthumously received awards including robert memorial prize award prize franklin medal elected member foreign member remained dean physical sciences professor emeritus continued teaching remained faculty death death died long illness california august survived wife children papers named honor publications detection free predecessor agency predecessor agency august carter wagner free absorption cross section expected cross section measurements fragment electron spectrum predecessor agency predecessor agency june experiments predecessor agency september roberts blood learned status aims ocean predecessor agency july matters selected works world scientific isbn | Frederick Reines | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
692_IsaacNewton | sir december march english physicist mathematician described day natural philosopher widely recognised influential scientists time key figure scientific revolution book mathematical principles natural philosophy published laid foundations classical mechanics newton seminal contributions shares credit development newton formulated laws motion universal dominated scientists view physical universe centuries laws motion mathematical description gravity principles account tides phenomena newton removed doubts validity model solar system work demonstrated motion objects earth bodies described principles prediction earth shaped later measurements helped convince continental european scientists superiority mechanics earlier system newton built practical reflecting developed theory colour based observation white light colours visible spectrum formulated law cooling studied speed sound introduced notion fluid addition work mathematician newton contributed study power series non developed method roots function classified cubic plane curves newton fellow second professor mathematics university_of_cambridge devout unorthodox christian unusually member cambridge faculty day refused holy orders church_of_england privately rejected doctrine trinity work mathematical sciences newton dedicated time study biblical chronology work areas remained unpublished long death later life newton president newton served british government warden master life early life born according julian calendar use england time christmas day december january hamlet county lincolnshire father named died months born prematurely small child mother reportedly said fit inside newton mother remarried went live new husband reverend smith leaving son care maternal grandmother young disliked stepfather maintained mother marrying revealed entry list sins committed age threatening father mother smith burn house newton mother children second marriage age seventeen newton educated taught latin greek mathematics removed school october found mother widowed second time attempted farmer newton hated farming master persuaded mother send school complete education motivated partly desire revenge bully ranked student distinguishing mainly building models june admitted cambridge recommendation uncle started paying way performing duties awarded scholarship guaranteed years time college teachings based aristotle newton supplemented modern philosophers learned work set series mechanical philosophy found discovered began develop mathematical theory later soon newton obtained degree august university temporarily closed precaution great plague cambridge student newton private studies home subsequent years saw development theories law april returned cambridge october elected fellow trinity required ordained priests enforced restoration years assertion church_of_england sufficient issue avoided unconventional views stood way newton managed avoid means special permission charles_ii middle years section studies impressed professor anxious develop religious administrative potential master trinity years later newton succeeded year received elected fellow middle years mathematics newton work said distinctly advance branch mathematics studied work subject usually referred seen manuscript october published newton mathematical papers author manuscript sent june identified letter sent collins august year newton fellow college young extraordinary genius proficiency things newton later involved dispute priority development newton controversy modern historians believe newton developed independently different occasionally suggested newton published account began publishing account methods differential method recognised convenient adopted continental european british suggestion fails notice content critics newton time modern times pointed book newton published forerunner manuscripts motion bodies orbit written language know newton later dot write work extensively uses geometric form based limiting values small quantities newton gave demonstration method explained form remarking thing performed method called book dense theory application modern times est nearly newton time use methods involving orders small present papers motion decades preceding newton reluctant publish feared controversy criticism close swiss mathematician started write new version newton corresponded relationship newton deteriorated book completed starting members newton member accused dispute broke force proclaimed study newton true labelled fraud study cast doubt later found newton wrote study concluding remarks began bitter controversy marred lives newton death newton generally credited valid discovered newton identities newton method classified cubic plane curves degree substantial contributions theory finite differences use employ coordinate geometry derive solutions partial sums series precursor formula use power series confidence revert power series newton work infinite series inspired useful modern account newton mathematics written foremost scholar newton mathematics translated edited newton mathematical writings end life wrote newton work impact published chapter book edited newton received fellow college holy undivided trinity commitment set theology object studies holy orders time prescribed statutes years arrives resign college till point thought religion twice signed agreement thirty articles basis church_of_england doctrine appointed professor mathematics recommendation time fellow college cambridge oxford required holy orders ordained anglican priest terms required holder active church presumably time science newton argued exempt requirement charles_ii permission needed accepted argument conflict newton religious views anglican newton observed spectrum colours exiting position minimum light ray entering circular different colours different angles led conclude colour property light point debated prior years newton period investigated light demonstrating spectrum produced white light lens second modern scholarship revealed newton analysis white light owes debt showed coloured light change properties separating coloured beam shining objects newton noted regardless reflected scattered transmitted remained colour observed colour result objects interacting coloured light objects generating colour known newton theory colour work concluded lens suffer light colours proof concept constructed reflective mirrors instead lenses objective bypass problem building design known functional reflecting today known involved solving problem suitable mirror material shaping technique newton ground mirrors custom composition highly reflective metal newton rings judge quality late able produce reflecting inches long gave larger image asked demonstration reflecting interest encouraged publish notes colours later expanded work criticised newton ideas newton offended withdrew public debate newton brief exchanges appointed manage correspondence opened correspondence intended contributions newton transactions effect newton work proof elliptical form result force proportional square radius newton law universal history men remained generally poor terms death newton argued light composed particles accelerating medium waves explain repeated pattern reflection transmission thin films props retained theory fits disposed reflected transmitted later favoured purely explanation light account interference patterns general phenomenon today quantum mechanics idea wave particle bear minor resemblance newton understanding light hypothesis light newton existence transmit forces particles contact henry revived interest replaced forces based ideas attraction particles acquired newton writings stated newton age reason newton interest isolated contributions science time clear distinction science relied idea action distance vacuum developed theory gravity studies newton published theory light considered light extremely subtle ordinary matter speculated kind gross bodies light bodies receive activity particles light enter composition newton constructed primitive form generator glass globe article entitled newton indicated newton book beam book describes use multiple years newton discussion multiple beam central development narrow use beam led multiple theory subsequent newton amended young combined newton particle theory wave theory colour visible manifestation light science slowly came realise difference perception colour german poet scientist shake foundation hole find newton armour newton committed doctrine colour impossible thought object glasses remain imperfect incompatible proved wrong mechanics newton returned work mechanics considering effect planets reference laws motion followed brief exchange letters appointed manage correspondence opened correspondence intended contributions newton transactions newton interest astronomical matters received appearance winter corresponded exchanges newton worked proof elliptical form result force proportional square radius newton law universal history newton communicated results tract written sheets copied december tract contained nucleus newton developed expanded form published july encouragement financial help work newton stated universal laws motion laws describe relationship object forces acting resulting motion laying foundation classical mechanics contributed advances industrial revolution soon followed improved years continue non technologies modern world latin word weight effect known gravity defined law universal work newton presented like method analysis gave determination based law speed sound air earth figure accounted result moon attraction earth initiated study irregularities motion moon provided theory determination newton clear view solar system developed somewhat modern way recognised sun centre gravity solar system newton precisely centre sun body considered rest common centre gravity earth sun planets esteem centre world centre gravity rest moves uniformly forward right line newton adopted rest alternative view common consent centre rest newton invisible force able act vast distances led criticised introducing agencies science later second edition newton firmly rejected criticisms concluding general writing phenomena implied attraction far indicate cause unnecessary improper frame things implied phenomena newton famous expression non newton internationally recognised acquired circle including swiss born mathematician classification important early influence newton mathematician freed plane curves greek limitation sections newton followed lead classifying cubic curves plane found species divided types satisfying different probably newton help proved cubic types newton claimed types obtained plane projection proved according published volumes newton mathematical papers newton mapped development mathematics years largely carried plan later life newton wrote number religious tracts dealing literal symbolic interpretation bible manuscript newton sent disputed fidelity john fidelity original manuscripts remained unpublished number authors claimed work indication newton disputed belief trinity assure newton question passage denied trinity biographer scientist sir compiled manuscripts years wrote controversy known book memoirs life writings discoveries sir explains newton questioned passages denied doctrine trinity states newton known lifetime argued sir suspected witnesses revelations like mint employee humanitarian mentioned newton held doctrine later works observations daniel published death devoted great deal time newton member according accounts comments complain cold draught chamber request window closed newton moved london post warden position obtained patronage 1st earl halifax chancellor took charge england great somewhat toes lord lucas governor tower securing job deputy temporary chester branch newton best known master mint death position newton held years life appointments intended newton took seriously retiring cambridge duties exercising power reform currency punish warden master newton estimated percent coins taken great high treason hanged drawn despite criminals extremely difficult newton proved equal task disguised bars gathered evidence barriers placed prosecution separating branches government english law ancient formidable customs authority newton justice peace home counties draft letter matter stuck newton personal edition time conducted cross examinations witnesses suspects june christmas newton successfully prosecuted result report written newton september lords commissioners majesty treasury relationship gold coins silver coins changed royal proclamation december forbidding exchange gold silver shillings inadvertently resulted silver shortage silver coins pay imports exports paid gold effectively moving britain silver standard gold standard matter debate intended argued newton conceived work mint continuation work newton president associate position newton enemy royal prematurely publishing newton studies april newton royal visit cambridge likely motivated political considerations connected parliamentary election recognition newton scientific work services master mint newton second scientist sir newton people lost heavily collapsed significant trade slaves according niece lost end life newton took residence near winchester niece husband death half niece served social affairs house london loving uncle according letter recovering smallpox newton died sleep london march march march buried present funeral bachelor estate relatives years died papers went death newton hair examined found contain mercury probably resulting pursuits mercury poisoning explain newton late life personal relations claimed engaged newton married french writer philosopher london time newton funeral said sensible passion subject common mankind commerce women assured physician surgeon attended moments widespread belief died virgin commented writers mathematician economist physicist newton close friendship swiss mathematician met london intense relationship came abrupt unexplained end time newton suffered nervous breakdown correspondence survived september year newton breakdown included sending wild letters friends note included charge death fame mathematician said newton greatest genius lived added newton fortunate find system world establish english poet moved newton accomplishments write famous nature nature laws lay hid night god said let newton light newton modest achievements famously writing letter february seen standing shoulders giants writers think quotation written time newton dispute optical discoveries oblique attack said short addition statement hand widely known standing shoulders giants published seventeenth century poet university_of_cambridge fellow main point dwarf giant shoulders sees farther effect analogy place newton dwarf later memoir newton wrote know appear world like boy playing sea shore finding shell ordinary whilst great ocean truth lay tooth said belonged newton sold london set ring classified valuable tooth value approximately late bought currently disclosed kept picture newton study wall alongside ones newton remains influential today scientists demonstrated survey members britain headed newton asking greater effect history science newton scientists deemed newton greater overall contribution opinion poll today leading voted greatest physicist newton runner parallel survey rank file site gave spot newton newton monument seen north entrance choir choir screen near tomb executed sculptor white grey marble design architect monument features figure newton right elbow resting great books left hand pointing mathematical design pyramid globe showing signs path relief panel depicts instruments latin inscription base translates buried knight strength mind divine mathematical principles explored course figures planets paths tides sea rays light scholar previously imagined properties colours produced faithful nature antiquity holy scriptures philosophy majesty god mighty good expressed simplicity gospel manners existed great human race born december died march translation monuments paul cathedral image newton designed appeared series issued notes issued newton shown reverse notes holding book accompanied map solar system statue looking apple feet seen large bronze statue newton dated inspired blake dominates london religious views born anglican family newton held christian faith public considered orthodox mainstream christianity recent times described started record theological showed recently examined demonstrate extensive knowledge early church writings conflict defined creed took loser rejected conventional view trinity newton recognized christ divine god man subordinate father created especially interested prophecy great newton tried unsuccessfully obtain holder requirement moment received government future holders chair newton eyes christ god fundamental sin historian says newton public declaration private faith orthodox deemed extremely radical hid faith scholars personal beliefs concludes newton owned thoroughly read books possibly certainly anti minority view argues newton held eastern orthodox view trinity type view lost support late availability newton theological papers scholars identify newton laws motion universal newton best known discoveries warned view universe mere machine akin great clock said gravity explains motions planets explain set planets motion god things knows scientific fame newton studies bible early noteworthy newton wrote works criticism notably historical account notable scripture placed jesus christ april agrees traditionally accepted date believed world rejected implicit ordered informed universe understood understood active reason correspondence newton claimed writing eye principles work considering men belief deity saw evidence design system world wonderful system allowed effect choice newton insisted divine intervention eventually required reform system slow growth god wants wind watch time time cease sufficient perpetual motion newton position vigorously defended follower famous correspondence century later work natural explanation planet don require periodic divine intervention effect religious thought newton approach mechanical philosophy promoted viable alternative enthusiasts accepted orthodox like clarity simplicity science seen way combat emotional enthusiasm threat time second wave english newton discoveries demonstrate possibility natural religion attacks pre enlightenment magical thinking mystical elements christianity given foundation mechanical conception universe newton gave ideas completion mathematical importantly successful newton saw god master creator existence denied face creation manuscript wrote describes attempts extract scientific information bible estimated world end earlier predicting said mention assert time end shall stop men frequently predicting time end bring sacred discredit predictions fail character poor superman speculative fiction author says newton knows newton great scientist remember spent half life looking philosopher stone wanted find estimated million words writing newton papers million deal newton writings copies manuscripts texts mix knowledge philosophical speculation hidden layers imagery protect craft secrets content contained newton papers considered church spending sixteen years newton papers cambridge_university kept small number returned rest earl portsmouth descendant offered papers sale collection broken sold total dozen obtained collection auction went estimated half newton collection papers collection cambridge_university newton known writings currently online project undertaken newton project headed quote project web site newton fundamental contributions science include attraction discovery white light actually mixture colors mysterious newton known realm activity spanned thirty years life kept largely hidden contemporaries colleagues refer newton involvement discipline called seventeenth century england enlightenment philosophers enlightenment philosophers chose short history scientific predecessors newton principally guides applications singular concept nature natural law physical social field day respect lessons history social structures built discarded newton conception universe based natural laws seeds enlightenment ideology applied concepts natural law political systems advocating rights applied natural psychology self interest economic systems criticised current social order trying fit history natural models progress resisted elements newton work eventually conform strong religious views nature apple incident newton told story inspired theory watching fall apple tree said apple story myth arrive theory gravity single moment acquaintances newton manuscript account available fact confirm incident cartoon version apple actually hit newton head recorded memoirs sir life conversation newton april went garden drank shade self amidst discourse told situation notion came mind apple descend ground thought occasion fall apple sat mood sideways upwards constantly center reason earth draws drawing power matter sum drawing power matter earth center earth dos apple fall center matter draws matter proportion quantity apple draws earth earth draws apple newton assistant husband newton niece described event wrote newton life year retired cambridge mother lincolnshire whilst garden came thought power gravity brought apple tree ground limited certain distance earth power extend usually thought high moon said influence motion retain orbit fell calculating effect similar terms wrote essay epic poetry sir walking gardens thought system seeing apple falling tree known newton late idea terrestrial gravity extends square proportion moon took decades develop fledged theory question gravity existed extended far earth force holding moon orbit newton showed force decreased square distance moon period good agreement force responsible motions named universal trees claimed apple tree newton describes claims tree purchased school uprooted transported garden years later staff owned dispute claim tree present gardens described newton descendant original tree seen growing outside main gate cambridge room newton lived studied supply tree appears identical coarse cooking variety works published lifetime published method obvious laws processes vegetation unpublished reports master mint published posthumously system world optical lectures observations daniel newton robinson observations cave junction oregon isbn edition work notable scripture | Isaac Newton | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
961_HenryDeWolfSmyth | september american physicist diplomat played number key roles early development nuclear energy participant manhattan_project member ambassador educated princeton_university university_of_cambridge faculty member princeton chaired department early research gases interests shifted nuclear physics beginning mid-1930s world war member section consultant manhattan_project wrote manhattan_project public official history came known argued unsuccessfully crash course develop hydrogen bomb favor international control nuclear weapons sole member commission vote stripping security clearance ambassador played important role realization nuclear non treaty received peace award distinguished honor award award nuclear recipient named honor personal life born clinton new_york professor geology president princeton_university convinced join faculty princeton family moved princeton new_jersey elder brother attended primary secondary schools henry elder brother received undergraduate master degrees princeton chemistry earned harvard_university like henry father faculty member princeton brothers served world war manhattan_project married june member democratic_party education princeton attended miss fine school later princeton day school graduating entered princeton_university received classical education graduated class elected beta remained princeton graduate work graduate students earned master degree physics princeton respectively studying awarded fellowship joined university_of_cambridge studied earned second cambridge affiliated formed friendship soviet physicist win nobel prize physics work briefly soviet atomic bomb project early career world war worked proving ground earning second returned princeton year fellowship early years princeton faculty lived west main campus appointed instructor assistant professor associate professor professor chairman position held fellow studied molecules particularly carbon dioxide early research focusing gases impact means study gases critical energy levels published research article nitrogen gas basis article described method determining energy rays demonstrated method mercury following year method study nitrogen published hydrogen carbon dioxide nitrogen dioxide water dioxide carbon wrote published papers established leading field completed princeton working rays search element mid-1930s began shift interest nuclear physics inspired discovery splitting invention research articles concerned detection hydrogen appointment department chair forced devote time administrative work expense research department chair built princeton member physics responded media criticism basic science research useless suggesting seemingly useless research turn useful later world war world war involved helping united_states build atomic bomb member section charged producing material bomb proposed electromagnetic methods large samples project oversaw nuclear related project consultant manhattan_project built tested weapon associate director contributed manhattan_project headed research heavy water remained chairman princeton physics department war attendant obligations forced participate actively project later stages august general director manhattan_project appointed charged proposing government policy research development atomic energy war committee recommended national commission modeled fund oversee continued production fundamental research government laboratories universities private sector advocated comprehensive report released public following weapon use civilian director oversaw agreed selected write report following recommendation chairman granted unlimited access usual security minded insistence wrote known office later report released press august days attacks hiroshima nagasaki print copies meet demand persuaded director print end press fiscal year printed copies held copyright work prevent claiming permitted widespread reproduction essentially releasing public domain later reported financial balance minus dollars copyright fee report called semi technical report hoped men science country use help fellow citizens reaching wise decisions new atomic age urging superiors removed discussions bomb moral implications creators argues academic background report security driven focus physics expense engineering caused promote public perception manhattan_project primarily achievement postwar following war returned time duties princeton continued chair named joseph henry professor physics time spoke wrote regularly nuclear energy science policy worked expand physics department early physicist stepped chairman wanted physicist replace ultimately recommended position president nominated later year prompting resign chairman old colleague took post commission scientist spent weeks position attending hearings led senator hearings small alleged later condemned hearings grounded work nuclear scientists following soviet_union successful nuclear test august considering crash course develop hydrogen bomb member general chaired recommended unanimously course commissioners agree urged endorse international control nuclear weapons decided instead authorize hydrogen bomb program autobiography princeton colleague recalled recruited ivy mike hydrogen bomb project expressed support project response soviet test served principal advisors president preparing peace speech united_nations traces origins speech considering security clearance suspicion communist scientist commission despite personal dislike pressure commission new chairman sole commissioner vote stripping clearance june resigned september year frustration said treatment wrong history erased regret great work country returned princeton served high level administrative committees work included advising construction particle built jointly overseeing chaired committee chose succeed president princeton served consultant nuclear power congress private industry retired princeton fellow served vice president president elected member representative president appointed representative united_states position rank ambassador assumed position june following confirmation shared organization stated goal developing nuclear technology peaceful purposes helped develop later called unprecedented atmosphere played crucial role adoption nuclear non treaty retired august september assistant secretary state appointed chair committee review policy committee report affirmed importance civilian uses nuclear energy cleveland tapped time adviser position advocated transfer national nuclear december elected chairman tenure signed contract government construct operate later known construction began research programs planned stepped chairman remained board served board inc operated received peace award distinguished honor award recipient award nuclear given jointly award given named nuclear statesman award later life legacy retiring remained active 40th anniversary trinity test denounced president ronald_reagan strategic defense initiative called joint arms reductions united_states soviet_union died september princeton cause cardiac arrest long battled cancer endowed chair sitting professor physics | Henry DeWolf Smyth | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
1398_ArthurCompton | september march american physicist won nobel prize physics discovery effect demonstrated particle nature electromagnetic radiation sensational discovery time wave nature light demonstrated idea light wave particle properties easily accepted known leadership served chancellor awarded allowed students study abroad chose cambridge_university england studied scattering absorption gamma rays research lines led discovery effect rays investigate concluding result alignment electron spins studied cosmic rays discovering principally positively charged particles world war key figure manhattan_project developed nuclear weapons reports important launching project head responsibility producing nuclear convert finding ways separate design atomic bomb oversaw creation chicago nuclear went critical december responsible design operation tennessee began produced war chancellor tenure university formally undergraduate divisions named female professor enrolled record number students wartime veterans returned united_states early life born september ohio son catherine née named academic family dean later arthur attended arthur eldest brother attended earned phd physics princeton_university president mit second brother wilson likewise attended earned phd economics princeton president washington later brothers members initially interested astronomy took photograph described experiment examination motion water circular tube demonstrated rotation earth year graduated bachelor science degree entered princeton received master arts degree studied phd physics supervision writing intensity ray reflection distribution earned phd wilson group brothers earn princeton later trio simultaneously head american colleges sister mary married missionary principal june married classmate fellow graduate sons spent year physics instructor years research engineer pittsburgh worked development lamp world war developed aircraft instrumentation awarded allowed students study abroad chose cambridge_university england working son studied scattering absorption gamma rays observed scattered rays easily absorbed original source greatly impressed scientists especially ultimately named second son time baptist church science quarrel said religion god men children physics professor effect returning united_states appointed professor physics head found ray scattered free longer accordance relation energy incoming rays surplus energy having transferred discovery known effect scattering demonstrated particle concept electromagnetic radiation published paper explained ray shift particle like momentum invoked nobel prize winning explanation photo electric effect elements light containing specific energy depending frequency light paper derived mathematical relationship shift scattering angle rays assuming scattered ray interacted electron paper concludes reporting experiments verified derived relation formula formula initial formula scattering formula constant formula electron rest mass formula speed light formula scattering angle quantity known electron equal shift lies zero twice electron found rays experienced shift despite scattered large angles cases failed electron magnitude shift related electron entire upwards times smaller presented results meeting later recalled initiated contested scientific controversy known wave nature light demonstrated idea dual nature easily accepted particularly telling crystal explained reference wave nature earned nobel prize physics developed method observing instant individual scattered ray germany independently developed similar method rays moved university_of_chicago professor physics position occupy years demonstrated scattering rays sixteen elements periodic table hydrogen result predicted harvard_university spearheaded effort prove interpretation effect wrong carried series experiments instead found evidence correct conceded case investigated effect rays salt rays investigate concluding result alignment electron spins consultant general_electric returned england visiting professor oxford_university general_electric asked report activities research laboratory intrigued possibilities research lamps report prompted research program america developed book rays published showed materials ray patterns revised book help produce rays theory experiment work remained standard reference decades cosmic rays early 1930s interested cosmic rays time existence known origin nature remained speculative presence detected spherical bomb containing compressed air gas measuring electrical trips europe india mexico peru australia gave opportunity measure cosmic rays different altitudes latitudes groups observations globe found cosmic rays cent intense poles equator attributed effect cosmic rays principally charged particles suggested latitude effect earth magnetic field manhattan_project april head wartime created special committee headed report program report submitted prospects developing weapons nuclear propulsion ships nuclear weapons recently discovered october wrote report atomic bomb report worked calculations critical mass estimating kilograms tonnes long tons short tons discussed prospects spoke produced nuclear produced separated report submitted november stated bomb feasible conservative destructive power british colleagues final draft november report mention discussing latest research convinced bomb feasible december placed charge project hoped achieve controlled chain reaction january bomb january tackle problem different research groups working nuclear design columbia_university princeton_university concentrated chicago objectives produce convert find ways separate design build atomic bomb june assumed control nuclear weapons program manhattan_project month gave responsibility bomb design fell decide different types designs scientists devised pursued successful built labor disputes delayed construction new home red gate woods decided build chicago nuclear stands field direction went critical december arranged undertake ore build semi works tennessee major crisis program occurred july group confirmed created contained high levels spontaneous ruled use gun type nuclear weapon met challenge designing building type nuclear weapon site september watch brought online batch fed november shipments began february war remain prominent scientific adviser administrator served lawrence recommended military use atomic bomb japan awarded medal merit services manhattan_project return war ended resigned chair professor physics university_of_chicago returned inaugurated university ninth chancellor time chancellor university formally undergraduate divisions named female professor enrolled record numbers students wartime veterans returned united_states reputation connections national scientific circles allowed recruit nationally renowned scientific researchers university despite accomplishments criticized subsequently historians moving slowly racial integration making major institution higher learning open doors african americans retired chancellor remained faculty distinguished service professor natural philosophy retirement time faculty retirement wrote personal account role manhattan_project published philosophy handful scientists philosophers propose stage model free include championed idea human freedom based quantum invented notion microscopic quantum events bring chance world somewhat bizarre mechanism imagined sticks dynamite attached anticipating cat published reacting criticisms ideas chance direct cause people actions clarified stage nature idea article range random possible events adds determining factor act choice set known physical conditions adequate specify precisely forthcoming event conditions known define instead range possible events particular event occur exercises freedom act choice adding factor supplied physical conditions determining occur known person outside act working physical law inner knowledge fact intends tells actor free death legacy died berkeley california cerebral march survived wife sons buried ohio received awards lifetime including nobel prize physics gold medal commemorated ways crater moon named brother physics research building named honor invented gentle elongated version speed bump called holly roads campus remembered achievements chicago honor listed star nasa named honor effect central gamma ray detection instruments aboard observatory | Arthur Compton | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
1484_BoyceMcDaniel | june american nuclear physicist worked manhattan_project later directed skilled constructing smashing devices study fundamental structure matter helped build powerful particle time graduate student invented pair world war electronics expertise help develop separate noted having performed final check atomic bomb prior trinity test biography born attended ohio graduating attended graduated initial studies took place graduating master degree continued studies moved completed doctoral thesis examining absorption rates research classified adviser marked secret initiative moved mit held position studying rapidly evolving field fast electronics applied research particle physics outbreak world war joined new_mexico work manhattan_project research team crucial role helping identify needed detonate world nuclear bomb noted having performed final check atomic bomb prior trinity test project researchers join faculty war assistant professor professor student invented pair device measures gamma ray energies founder helped create electron world wilson predecessor director built electron enabled study phenomena new energy range quickly earned reputation hands designer indicated episode construction wound incorrectly fatal flaw repaired manufacturer months mac toy model studied carefully evening discovered ingenious simple way repair day crisis research fellow fellow director served retired faculty research included important measurements series including studies photo production production measurements electromagnetic form factors wilson continued collaborate wilson left head illinois wilson invited serve acting head section took year leave absence placed operation suffered frequent component failures left months later led effort increased power beam density factor contribution wilson said performance demonstrated mac skill leadership celebrated sixth sense finding sources trouble fixing returning proposed upgrading existing electron storage ring greatly increase energy particle collisions particles storage ring hit particles traveling opposite direction constructed world primary source information fundamental building blocks matter end particle physics experiments years later test facility rings future international linear developed proposal new mile diameter electron called obtain necessary million funding interviewed feelings work resulting dropping atomic bombs japanese cities said difficult assess things today preferred demonstration sad didn work way don know worked useful venture idea japanese honors elected governing board member trustee member trustee board member donated farm named acre property died heart attack new_york age | Boyce McDaniel | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
2518_JamesRainwater | december american physicist shared nobel prize physics determining shapes certain atomic world war worked manhattan_project developed atomic bombs began developing theory contrary believed atomic spherical ideas later tested confirmed experiments contributed scientific understanding rays participated naval research projects joined physics faculty columbia reached rank professor named received orlando lawrence award physics awarded nobel prize physics discovery connection collective motion particle motion atomic development theory structure atomic nucleus based connection early life born december council idaho son civil engineer ran local general store wife née referred james jim father died great epidemic mother moved california married sons freeman john time acquired half brother naval officer high school excelled mathematics chemistry physics admitted strength chemistry competition received degree physics major manhattan_project chose undertake studies columbia_university time unusual scholar california columbia renowned physics recently changed recently built physics department hired scientists like studied engaged studies lead construction nuclear built columbia basement received doctor philosophy thesis beam studies energy distribution written supervision built developed techniques use married march sons james robert william daughter died group moved university_of_chicago remained columbia joined manhattan_project sam laboratories manhattan_project allied effort world war develop atomic bombs primary task development technology produce use atomic bombs worked studies cross sections war dozen papers published thesis published parts thesis awarded doctorate awarded work manhattan_project later life remained columbia instructor began teaching courses nuclear structure developed theoretical treatment nuclear based liquid drop model nucleus superseded nuclear shell model explain structure heavy elements older theory limits columbia reported experimental results indicated moments greater indicated shell model occurred explained differences liquid drop nuclear shell models reconciled atomic nucleus spherical assumed assume shapes published theoretical paper chance year sharing office took challenge theory published results papers confirmed theory felt model overlooked later recalled proposal use nuclear model obvious answer immediately simultaneously suggested field understand surprised dismayed hear respected announce attended comment nuclear shell model work present theoretical justification apply funding built operational estate hudson_river new_york columbia_university family professor director worked student studies electron replaced worked turning facility reporter inform won nobel prize physics initially thought work hours passed discovered work atomic structure nobel prize shared succeeded professor physics fellow member noted seldom engaged little interest sports sons involved collapsed lecture revived student knew administer declining health retired professor emeritus february died arrest new_york survived wife sons half brother george | James Rainwater | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
3366_RobertBacher | august november american nuclear physicist leaders manhattan_project born ohio obtained undergraduate degree doctorate university_of_michigan writing doctoral thesis supervision effect structure atomic levels graduate work mit accepted job columbia_university accepted offer work new_york university town similar wife jean raised worked book stationary states books known bible december joined mit immediately cease research cross section organized sections incoming radar signals outgoing radar signals appointed handle incoming signals section gained valuable experience administration coordinating efforts scientists general_electric approached join manhattan_project new laboratory new_mexico insistence civilian military laboratory headed project later worked closely men discussed project progress daily basis war director served civilian agency replaced wartime manhattan_project inaugural commissioners left head mathematics astronomy appointed member president vice president stepped post professor emeritus died age early life career born ohio august child harry family moved michigan harry worked banker voice teacher attended later ann high school met professor head physics department university_of_michigan encouraged study physics entered university_of_michigan joined fraternity lived house house manager sophomore year moved home junior year concentrate physics suggestion applied entered study doctorate fees paid family father heart attack longer afford moved lived home attended university_of_michigan received general_electric build theoretical physics department university_of_michigan recruited distinguished young work university_of_michigan longer theoretical physics immediately signed course atomic structure investigated effect structure atomic levels subject phd thesis married mother gave ford model use family holiday house entertained guests including spent year taught attended lectures spent time better library decided create work listing energy constant electron configurations known working result book derived analysis optical dedicated second year moved country work taught harvard asked conduct recent discovery reading paper realized current theory resolved spin subject letter submitted visiting scholar year later suggest magnetic moment equal minus nuclear based unusually small magnetic moment nitrogen determined structure returned university_of_michigan alfred lloyd fellowship jobs hard find time great depression accepted job columbia_university worked difficult living new_york salary jean gave birth child martha december second child andrew born accepted offer work new_york university town similar jean raised worked book stationary states books known bible world war december joined mit immediately cease research reached arrangement director return days weeks completed researching cross section topic interest attempting build nuclear figures agree carefully checked results convinced urged publish submitted paper instructions publication war paper published organized sections incoming radar signals outgoing radar signals appointed handle incoming signals section gained valuable experience administration coordinating efforts scientists general_electric later recalled quickly concluded ultimate discrimination signals reflected target opposed noise finally ray tube develop tubes contract work producing supervised contracts visiting week following week hold joint meeting lab cambridge getting contract management manhattan_project assistant director approached join manhattan_project new laboratory new_mexico convinced plan military laboratory work scientific effort need civilian affair plan modified new laboratory civilian run contract felt contribution success project met april convinced needed wrote know extremely eager help work think fully realized appreciate administrative experience obvious administrative wisdom aware need present project evaluate highly fact worked physics informed year developments mit qualifications opinion nearly unique addition want express writing confidence stability judgement qualities stormy enterprise puts high premium accepted job moving head seven group leaders worked closely men discussed project progress daily basis july reorganized laboratory focus problem building type nuclear weapon necessary gun type design work broken head division larger division contained groups headed leaders included developed explosive lenses designed rest weapon numerous difficulties overcome means lenses required speed solid core design chosen likely design succeed coordinate efforts laboratory created committee called ride herd effort coordinate efforts laboratory included days day bomb test detonated new_mexico desert pit assembly team assembled nuclear capsule cylindrical section containing core old farmhouse near testing site capsule driven shot tower inserted spherical inside explosive assembly stuck recognized expansion capsule heat given core causing jam leaving parts contact temperatures allow capsule inserted fully watching test reaction merely works packaging core shipment august ice house received word japanese initiated surrender negotiations set task designing building new types assemblies authored report urging development super bomb served committee chaired looked documents produced manhattan_project chaired investigated technical feasibility international control nuclear energy services awarded medal merit january war returned head agreed needed major player high energy nuclear physics new needed find appointed new fellow united_states representatives divide time new_york_city october asked inaugural commissioners civilian agency formed replace wartime manhattan_project republican easily confirmed senate members united_states congress joint committee atomic energy vote commissioners scientist important factor decision accept post played leading role selection influential general advisory committee scientists appointed fellow commissioner began inspection conducted inventory material succeeded director found atomic bombs built primarily production problems problems way resolution observed nuclear tests representative original year term expired january president convinced stay resigned time president unable dissuade wished return head felt awkward working group leaders accepted offer chair mathematics astronomy work easily left senator charged commission specifically cost awarding scholarship communist loss grams felt return washington testify behalf crisis broke september air_force picked signs soviet_union nuclear test joined general british delegation discuss recent british pound triggered financial crisis concern markets react news saw evidence nuclear test conclusive particular came strongly making public announcement number people knew leak inevitable announcement days later division chair occupied vacant retired nominally primarily administrative post professors department remaining world class research laboratories funded founded directed directed facilities high energy physics created scratch moving high energy physics support anderson hired begin designing new found large building house originally grinding observatory inch mirror arranged grants worth million build required facilities year run facilities needed start hiring hired experimental physicist decided wanted offered large salary agreed pay brazil win nobel prize physics hired win nobel prize relatively new field radio astronomy sparked interest hired grant allowed build important center study spell end service washington served terms member president president november june december december term testified behalf old friend security hearing second worked examine partial nuclear test ban treaty monitored remained chair division physics mathematics astronomy appointed vice president stepped post age professor emeritus research visited time time master ceremonies events commemorating 40th anniversary founding laboratory died november retirement home california survived daughter son nuclear physicist working wife jean having died papers | Robert Bacher | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
3941_RobertR.Wilson | march january american physicist known work manhattan_project world war sculptor architect director graduate phd wilson received doctorate supervision work development subsequently went princeton_university work electromagnetic separation wilson colleagues joined manhattan_project wilson head later war wilson briefly joined faculty harvard_university associate professor went professor physics director new wilson colleagues constructed electron assumed subsequently known managed complete facility time budget time aesthetically pleasing main administrative building purposely reminiscent restored prairie herd american resigned protest inadequate government funding early life born frontier wyoming son wilson older sister parents separated years old custody awarded father lived mother time time early life spent cattle changed schools frequently attended number schools including illinois grandmother worked wilson entered awarded degree cum joined radiation laboratory time american site experimental theoretical physics efforts lawrence respectively wilson received doctor philosophy phd thesis theory year married wilson ran trouble lawrence harsh working fired twice time losing rubber seal inch prevented use demonstration potential donor later urging melted expensive pair whilst fired offered job decided instead princeton_university work manhattan_project princeton wilson eventually took project development alternative approach electromagnetic separation lawrence method purpose separating common key step producing atomic bomb project produced device called unlike electrical field separate instead magnetic work princeton terminated world war secret laboratory research atomic bomb manhattan_project opened like bunch professional soldiers wilson later recalled signed wilson moved princeton staff harvard_university appointed head late twenties youngest group leader experimental division measurements cross section reorganized laboratory august focus development type nuclear weapon wilson head research division groups reporting headed headed group headed headed march acquired additional responsibility developing instrumentation trinity nuclear test july wilson helped stack boxes explosives ton test preceded active community affairs serving town council nazi_germany surrendered initial motivation crash atomic bomb project dissipated discovered german nuclear energy project years wilson raised question continue work news met reception director manhattan_project later life interviewed oscar nominated documentary day trinity wilson strongly considered work bomb surrender germany regretted extent atomic bombing hiroshima nagasaki wilson helped organize called scientists petition international control atomic energy petition carried washington eventually making way secretary war president war wilson helped form served chairman accepted appointment associate professor harvard spent months berkeley designing new harvard replace taken harvard wilson published seminal paper use fast founded field therapy wilson went professor physics director new wilson colleagues constructed electron construction arrived report described purpose important problems nuclear physics minds elementary particles nature forces hold particles general connected problem concerns general expression electrical laws high energies produced experiments planned attack problems hope produce artificial supposedly elementary particles study interactions shall explore electrical interactions high energy search evidence pointing correct theory electricity high energy wilson initiated construction produced artificial tested quantum short distances machine built remains use built located known wilson use methods model electron initiated particle showers invented measure intensity high energy ray beams took leave absence assume nascent illinois largest particle constructed date wilson called justify dollar machine trend day wilson emphasized national security respect regard dignity men love culture good painters good great poets mean things honor country patriotic sense new knowledge honor country directly defending country help worth defending thanks wilson talented leadership management style adopted lawrence facility completed time budget according wilson gave chairman assurance signed blood exceed authorized million budget hell facility centered mile wilson subsequently initiated design particle renamed frequently referred wilson studied sculpture italy wanted appealing place work believing external harmony encourage internal harmony personally looking like stereotypical government lab playing key role design architecture surrounding facility restored prairie served home herd american started wilson bringing bull cows site ponds main building purposely reminiscent celebrates role sculptor featuring works including strip broken symmetry metal sculpture iii sits lobby building named honor wilson served director resigned protest considered inadequate funding federal government joined faculty university_of_chicago emeritus professor physics chicago moved columbia_university professor science human relations professor physics emeritus professor retired moved awards honors wilson received awards honors including award elected president death wilson suffered stroke recovered died january age nursing home new_york buried 19th century site survived wife jane sons daniel sister papers | Robert R. Wilson | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
4175_SamuelKingAllison | november september american physicist notable role manhattan_project awarded medal merit director later worked rode herd final stages project committee read countdown trinity nuclear test war involved scientists movement lobbying civilian control nuclear weapons early life born chicago illinois november son elementary school principal educated entered university_of_chicago participated varsity swimming water basketball mathematics chemistry graduated embarked phd chemistry supervision writing thesis atomic stability iii high temperatures topic closely related experimental physics research fellow harvard_university taught physics instructor associate professor met married children son samuel daughter catherine rays returned university_of_chicago professor professor physics studied effect theory ray time rays important means investigating atomic structures concept light wave particle properties demonstrated universally accepted harvard spearheaded effort prove interpretation effect wrong effort carried series meticulous experiments instead found overwhelming evidence correct credit conceded case outcome authored textbook rays theory experiment widely developed high resolution ray graduate student won fellowship study university_of_cambridge england studied published paper experiments production half lives radio carbon radio nitrogen impressed returning chicago built manhattan_project world war involved defence related work consultant october january january let contract study possibility team assembled chicago grow september joined coordinated early investigations feasibility atomic bomb began building courts disused stands field head chemistry section january march small experimental came closer design group columbia_university brought research groups working nuclear design columbia_university princeton_university chicago placed charge experimental work october consider proceed designing large production experimental work favored taking small steps argued larger steps necessary atomic bombs developed time affect course war director manhattan_project brigadier general told time important money approaches looked promising build end scientists watched project leap forward chicago went critical field december project began spread outside chicago director june late manhattan_project shifted new_mexico went november chairman able inform march type nuclear weapon ready testing july formed committee rode herd project ensuring stayed track schedule read countdown trinity nuclear test july presented medal merit work manhattan_project ceremony university_of_chicago january later life war director chairman chairman active scientist movement control atomic weapons scientists successfully lobbied nuclear weapons civilian military control eventually written atomic energy act strong opponent secrecy science influential speech announcing creation said determined return free research war secrecy imposed scientific research physics find rate scientists working subjects colors butterfly wings rebuilt called accelerate particles energies reference massive built planned accelerate particles electron volts believed useful results found low energies pioneer known heavy physics accelerating targets data reactions light elements subsequently prove useful study stellar later acquired generator recalled old paper producing minerals like allowed produce beam created hitherto unknown light elements measured capture cross sections effect work method analyze surface materials chemical analysis unavailable colleague subsequently analyze makeup moon later surveyor program missions continued candidates went distinguished careers died complications following september attending controlled nuclear fusion research conference england papers kept | Samuel King Allison | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
4678_JamesClerkMaxwell | june november scottish scientist field mathematical physics notable achievement classical theory electromagnetic radiation bringing time electricity light phenomenon called second great unification physics realised publication demonstrated electric magnetic fields travel space waves moving speed light proposed light medium cause electric magnetic phenomena unification light electrical phenomena led prediction existence radio waves helped develop distribution statistical means describing aspects theory gases known presenting colour photograph work rod joint like bridges discoveries helped usher era modern physics laying foundation fields special quantum mechanics regard 19th century scientist having greatest influence 20th century physics contributions science considered magnitude millennium poll survey prominent voted greatest physicist time newton centenary birthday described work profound physics experienced time newton life early life born june india street edinburgh advocate daughter sister father man comfortable means clerk family holders father brother 6th born adding surname inherited infant country estate near connections family members james cousin artist cousin son mother brother civil engineer close friends acted best man married parents met married mother nearly born earlier child daughter named elizabeth died infancy young family moved parents built acres estate indications suggest maintained curiosity early age age moved noise drew question passage added letter father sister law mother described innate sense happy man improved weather got moderate great work doors locks keys etc mouth investigates hidden course streams bell wires way water gets pond wall education recognising potential young boy mother took responsibility james early education victorian era largely job woman house long passages verses knowledge scripture detailed chapter verse quotation mother taken ill abdominal cancer unsuccessful operation died december years old james education overseen father father sister law jane played pivotal roles life formal schooling began unsuccessfully guidance sixteen year old hired tutor little known young man john hired son treated younger boy harshly slow john dismissed tutor november considerable thought sent james prestigious lodged term times house aunt isabella time passion drawing encouraged older cousin year old having raised isolation father countryside estate fit school year join second year classmates year senior mannerisms accent struck boys having arrived day school wearing pair shoes earned nickname epithet bearing complaint years social isolation academy ended met boys similar age notable scholars later life remained lifelong friends fascinated geometry early age regular received formal instruction despite winning school scripture biography prize second year academic work remained unnoticed age won school mathematical medal prize english poetry interests ranged far school pay particular attention examination performance wrote scientific paper age described mechanical means drawing mathematical curves piece properties related curves work oval curves presented professor natural philosophy deemed young present work work entirely original examined properties seventeenth century simplified construction left academy age began attending classes opportunity attend university_of_cambridge decided term complete course undergraduate studies edinburgh academic staff included highly regarded names year included sir logic mathematics natural philosophy find classes demanding able private study free time university particularly home experiment improvised chemical electric magnetic apparatus chief concerns regarded properties light constructed shaped blocks subjected stresses pair given viewed coloured fringes developed practice discovered means determining stress distribution physical structures age contributed papers transactions royal society edinburgh laid foundation important discovery later life temporary double produced shear stress paper paper oval curves written considered young stand present paper delivered tutor instead university_of_cambridge october accomplished mathematician left scotland university_of_cambridge initially attended end term transferred trinity believed easier obtain fellowship trinity elected elite secret society known intellectual understanding christian faith science grew rapidly cambridge years joined exclusive debating society intellectual elite essays sought work understanding great plan conceived old let left holy ground consecrated stationary faith positive negative land regular system rotation followed hide wish hidden assert right plot man set apart convinced christian actually purge land holy spots christians enclosed places sort great deal extensive important tracts territory rest openly christianity religion bible scheme form belief possessions tenure free fly ends world find god author salvation search scriptures find text stop mosaic law judaism commonly supposed orthodox pretend read found certain witty objections orthodox admit shut subject haunted coming drive ghosts let follow light extent christian beliefs intellectual test judged writings plenty evidence especially undergraduate days deeply examine faith certainly knowledge bible remarkable confidence scriptures based ignorance summer year spent time suffolk home uncle class mate love god shown family impressed particularly ill health minister wife return cambridge writes recent host letter including following testimony capacity wicked example man set escape god grace helping rid partially science completely society perfectly committing god november studied success mathematical genius earned nickname senior maker graduated trinity degree mathematics scored second highest final examination coming earning title second later declared equal ordeal smith prize examination immediately earning degree read paper bending purely mathematical papers written demonstrating growing stature mathematician decided remain trinity graduating applied fellowship process expect couple years success research student free apart examining duties pursue scientific interests leisure nature perception colour interest begun student forbes coloured spinning tops invented forbes able demonstrate white light result mixture red green blue light paper experiments colour laid principles colour combination presented march time able deliver fellow trinity october sooner norm asked prepare lectures set examination papers following february urged forbes apply newly vacant father assisted task preparing necessary references died april knew result candidacy accepted leaving cambridge november year old good years younger professor engaged new responsibilities head department preparing lectures committed hours week including weekly pro lecture local working men college lived months academic year spent summers inherited father focused attention problem scientists years nature saturn rings unknown remain stable breaking drifting away crashing saturn problem took particular resonance time college cambridge chosen topic adams prize devoted years studying problem proving regular solid ring stable fluid ring forced wave action break observed concluded rings composed numerous small particles called brick bats independently saturn awarded adams prize essay stability motion saturn rings submit entry work detailed convincing read commented remarkable applications mathematics physics seen considered final word issue direct observations voyager 1980s confirmed prediction befriended principal met daughter engaged february married june marriage record listed college seven years senior comparatively little known known helped lab worked experiments biographer friend adopted subject describing married life devotion merged neighbouring form room professors despite scientific reputation found laid unsuccessful applying forbes recently vacated chair edinburgh post instead going granted london instead recovering near fatal bout smallpox moved london wife london time king probably productive career awarded medal work colour later elected society period life display world light fast colour photograph develop ideas gases propose system defining physical quantities known dimensional analysis attend lectures came regular contact relationship men described close years senior showed signs maintained strong respect talents time especially noteworthy advances fields electricity examined nature electric magnetic fields paper physical lines force published provided conceptual model electromagnetic induction consisting tiny spinning cells magnetic parts later added published paper early additional discussed nature displacement current second additional dealt rotation plane light magnetic field phenomenon discovered known effect later years resigned chair london returned paper figures frames forces discussed designs wrote textbook theory heat treatise matter motion explicit use dimensional analysis professor physics cambridge charge development supervising step progress building purchase collection apparatus great contributions science editing original notes research appeared researched things questions density earth composition water died cambridge abdominal cancer november age mother died age type cancer minister regularly visited weeks immense power scope memory comments particularly illness drew heart soul spirit man firm faith incarnation results work holy spirit schemes systems philosophy found utterly word turned simple faith gospel death approached told cambridge colleague thinking gently dealt violent life desire like david serve generation god fall asleep buried near close grew extended biography life james clerk lifelong friend professor published collected works issued volumes personality great lover scottish poetry poems wrote best known closely based apparently sing accompanying guitar opening lines body meet body air body hit body fly collection poems published friend descriptions remark remarkable intellectual qualities matched social evangelical presbyterian later years elder church scotland religious beliefs related activities focus number papers attending father mother services child later underwent evangelical conversion april conversion aligned position scientific legacy studied commented electricity early paper lines force read paper presented simplified model work phenomena related reduced current knowledge linked set differential work later published physical lines force march calculated speed propagation electromagnetic field approximately speed light considered coincidence commenting scarcely avoid conclusion light consists transverse medium cause electric magnetic phenomena working problem showed predict existence waves electric magnetic fields travel space speed predicted simple electrical experiments data available time obtained velocity metres second paper theory electromagnetic field wrote agreement results light affections substance light electromagnetic disturbance propagated field according electromagnetic laws famous modern form partial differential appeared fully developed form textbook treatise electricity work period holding london post taking chair expressed electromagnetic potential theory oliver replaced electromagnetic potential field force fields electromagnetic theory reduced complexity theory differential known collectively laws according electromagnetic potential field arbitrary needed murdered use standard solution years later debate peter relative merits analysis result need greater physical insights provided theory purely local analysis commonplace proven correct connection light considered great accomplishments 19th century mathematical physics introduced concept electromagnetic field comparison force lines described understanding propagation field emitted active particles advance work light time believed propagation light required medium waves dubbed time existence medium space apparently mechanical means proved impossible reconcile experiments experiment require absolute frame reference valid result changed form moving observer difficulties inspired theory special process requirement stationary colour vision time strong interest psychology particularly interested following steps study colour vision published intervals series investigations concerning perception colour colour colour theory awarded medal theory colour vision demonstrated white lights sunlight composed number components white light newton showed orange paint yellow red look exactly like orange light composed yellow red lights time complex lights composed light look alike physically different called later proposed explained colours perceived limited number channels eyes proposed color theory recently developed linear prove young theory light able equally stimulated set different lights fact set different lights demonstrated case color matching experiments interested applying theory color perception colour photography stemming directly psychological work colour perception sum lights reproduce colour colour photographs produced set colored filters course paper proposed black white photographs scene taken red green blue filters transparent prints images projected screen equipped similar filters superimposed screen result perceived human eye complete reproduction colours scene lecture colour theory presented world demonstration colour photography principle colour analysis synthesis inventor single lens camera took picture photographed ribbon times red green blue filters making fourth photograph yellow filter according account demonstration photographic plates red barely sensitive green results pioneering experiment far perfect remarked published account lecture red green images fully photographed blue truly coloured image finding photographic materials sensitive rays representation colours objects greatly improved researchers concluded seemingly impossible partial success red filtered exposure light strongly reflected red entirely blocked red filter range sensitivity wet process employed theory investigated theory gases originating theory advanced successive particularly extent general accuracy doubt received enormous development field appeared laws friction mathematician developed theory particles gas work later formula called distribution gives fraction gas molecules moving specified velocity given temperature theory temperatures heat involve molecular movement approach previously established laws explained existing observations experiments better way achieved previously work led thought experiment came known demon second law violated imaginary capable particles energy established relations statements equality second derivatives respect different constructed plaster way exploring phase transitions based american scientist graphical papers control theory published paper governors vol paper considered central paper early days control theory governors refers governor governor regulate steam engines legacy honoured ways compound derived unit measuring magnetic mountain range venus gap rings saturn largest astronomical world diameter metres housing schools mathematics physics building campus king college london chair physics society undergraduate named university university_of_cambridge dedicated industry interactions statue edinburgh named architecture series proposed sculpture called star pay tribute software electromagnetic analysis named publications treatise electricity vol oxford press treatise electricity vol oxford press elementary treatise electricity oxford press scientific papers dover publication scientific papers cambridge theory heat contributions appeared attraction eleventh edition action michael | James Clerk Maxwell | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
5162_EugeneWigner | hungarian november january hungarian american theoretical physicist mathematician received half nobel prize physics contributions theory atomic nucleus elementary particles particularly discovery application fundamental symmetry principles graduate worked assistant berlin responsible introducing group theory physics particularly theory symmetry physics way performed ground breaking work pure mathematics authored number mathematical particular cornerstone mathematical quantum mechanics known research structure atomic nucleus princeton_university recruited moved united_states participated meeting resulted letter prompted president initiate manhattan_project develop atomic bombs afraid german nuclear weapon project develop atomic bomb manhattan_project led team task design nuclear convert weapons grade time existed paper gone critical disappointed given responsibility detailed design construction director early frustrated bureaucratic interference returned princeton postwar period served number government bodies including mathematics panel physics panel influential general advisory committee later life philosophical published best known work outside technical mathematics physics early life born austria-hungary november middle class jewish parents leather older sister known younger sister known later married british theoretical physicist home professional teacher age started school grade period developed interest mathematical problems age contracted doctors believed tuberculosis parents sent live weeks austrian mountains doctors concluded diagnosis mistaken family jewish secular studied secondary grammar school called school father attended religious education compulsory attended classes judaism taught fellow student year benefited instruction noted mathematics teacher escape communist regime family briefly fled austria returning hungary downfall partly reaction prominence jews regime family converted explained later life family decision convert heart religious decision anti communist religious views graduating secondary school enrolled known happy courses offer enrolled studied chemical engineering attended wednesday afternoon featured met physicist closest friend experience berlin formative worked met greatest teacher supervised thesis und formation decay molecules middle years returned went work father accepted offer berlin wanted assist work ray recommended months assistant went work explored quantum mechanics studying work group theory received request work assistant great mathematician proved disappointment aged abilities failing interests shifted logic nonetheless studied independently laid foundation theory quantum mechanics introduced known matrix responsible introducing group theory quantum mechanics written standard text easy understand especially younger application quantum mechanics group theory accessible wider audience works laid foundation theory quantum mechanics proved cornerstone mathematical quantum mechanics physical translations symmetry represented space states according symmetry transformation represented linear transformation space representation symmetry group space ordinary representation representation late 1930s extended research atomic papers drawing notice world physics princeton_university recruited year times salary drawing europe princeton recruited time collaborated papers names eugene john respectively year princeton offered year contract visiting professors half year responded teaching assignment half year timely nazis soon rose power germany princeton introduced sister physicist married princeton contract ran found new employment met wife physics student died unexpectedly leaving distraught accepted offer princeton return citizen united_states january brought parents united_states manhattan_project professed political amateur august participated meeting resulted letter prompted president initiate manhattan_project develop atomic bombs afraid german nuclear weapon project develop atomic bomb refused taken track germany won thoughts murdered later recalled focus mind wonderfully june married second wife professor physics completed yale_university war taught physics faculty new_jersey retirement remained married death november children led team included group task design production nuclear convert weapons grade time existed paper gone critical july chose conservative design water cooling present converted court stands university_of_chicago abandoned field december world atomic achieved controlled nuclear chain reaction disappointed given responsibility detailed design construction threatened resign february talked head sent vacation instead turned design decision additional load tubes saved project poisoning problem additional tubes run power burned produced run power set project year 1950s work regret working manhattan_project wished atomic bomb ready year earlier important discovery project effect swelling caused displacement radiation effect problem immediate post war period resulted production shut entirely eventually discovered overcome controlled heating manhattan project funding developed important general approach nuclear reactions theory published later years accepted position director research development tennessee early want involved administrative duties director laboratory handling administrative executive director newly created took charge laboratory operations start feared technical decisions washington saw army continuation wartime security policies laboratory oversight interfering research incident occurred march discovered scientists conducting experiments critical mass director manhattan_project major general forbidden experiments august death argued order superseded forced terminate experiments completely different killed feeling managerial role environment left end summer returned princeton_university maintained consulting role facility years postwar period served number government bodies including mathematics panel physics panel influential general advisory committee contributed civil defense near end life thoughts turned philosophical published classic article philosophy mathematics physics best known work outside technical mathematics physics argued biology origin physical concepts humans perceive happy coincidence mathematics physics matched hard explain original paper provoked inspired responses wide range disciplines included computer science data mining physics mathematics economics awarded nobel prize physics contributions theory atomic nucleus elementary particles particularly discovery application fundamental symmetry principles prize shared year half award divided professed considered possibility occur added expected newspapers wicked won franklin medal award peace award max medal albert award eponymous medal gave lecture mary died november married wife pat hamilton widow physicist dean died age published memoirs said meaning life collective meaning human desires fundamentally mystery grasp young man state affairs peace feel certain honor associated mystery collection essays reflections scientific essays commented possible laws quantum mechanics fully consistent way reference consciousness died pneumonia princeton new_jersey january survived wife children david martha sisters publications physical theory isbn application quantum mechanics new_york translation und die der reflections scientific essays isbn told isbn philosophical reflections | Eugene Wigner | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
5199_MarieCurie | french polish november july born polish french physicist chemist conducted pioneering research woman win nobel prize person woman win twice person win twice multiple sciences family legacy nobel prizes woman professor woman merits paris born warsaw russian_empire studied warsaw clandestine began practical scientific training warsaw aged followed older sister study paris earned higher degrees conducted subsequent scientific work shared nobel prize physics husband physicist won nobel prize chemistry achievements included development theory term coined techniques radioactive discovery elements direction world studies conducted treatment radioactive founded paris warsaw remain major centres medical research today world war established military field centres french citizen lost sense polish identity taught daughters polish language took visits poland named chemical element discovered isolated native country died aged france brought exposure radiation carrying test tubes pockets research course service world war mobile ray units set biography early years born warsaw russian partition poland november fifth youngest child known teachers née elder siblings maria nickname born nickname born nickname born nickname born nickname paternal maternal sides family lost property fortunes patriotic polish national uprisings aimed restoring poland independence recent january uprising condemned subsequent generation including maria elder sisters brother difficult struggle ahead life maria paternal grandfather respected teacher taught young leading figure polish literature father taught mathematics physics subjects maria pursue director warsaw boys russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction polish schools brought laboratory equipment home instructed children use father eventually fired russian pro polish sentiments forced lower paying posts family lost money bad investment eventually chose supplement income lodging boys house maria mother operated prestigious warsaw boarding school girls resigned position maria born died tuberculosis maria years old years earlier maria oldest sibling died contracted maria father mother devout catholic deaths maria mother sister caused catholicism years old maria began attending boarding school attended gymnasium girls graduated june gold medal collapse possibly depression spent following year countryside relatives father year father warsaw unable regular institution higher education woman sister involved clandestine polish patriotic institution higher learning admitted women students maria agreement sister financial assistance medical studies paris exchange similar assistance years later connection maria took position home tutor warsaw years landed family relatives father working family fell love son future eminent mathematician parents rejected idea marrying relative unable oppose maria loss relationship tragic soon earned doctorate pursued academic career mathematician professor rector old man mathematics professor sit statue erected founded beginning months earlier married polish physician social political activist invited maria join paris maria declined afford university tuition year half longer gather necessary funds helped father able secure lucrative position time continued educate reading books exchanging letters early returned home father warsaw continued working remained till late studied began practical scientific training chemical laboratory near warsaw laboratory run cousin assistant saint_petersburg russian chemist new life paris late left poland france paris maria marie known france briefly found shelter sister brother law renting closer university proceeding studies physics chemistry mathematics enrolled late resources suffering cold winters occasionally hunger studied day evenings barely earning awarded degree physics began work industrial laboratory professor continued studying aid fellowship able earn second degree marie begun scientific career paris investigation magnetic properties commissioned encouragement pour year entered life mutual interest natural sciences drew instructor physique paris introduced polish physicist professor learned marie looking larger laboratory space thought access large laboratory able find space marie able begin work mutual passion science brought increasingly closer began develop feelings eventually proposed marriage marie accept planning native country declared ready poland meant reduced teaching french summer break marie returned warsaw visited family illusion able work chosen field poland denied place woman letter convinced return paris pursue marie insistence written research received doctorate march promoted professor school contemporary marie biggest discovery july married wanted religious service marie dark blue outfit worn instead gown serve years laboratory outfit shared long bicycle trips journeys abroad brought closer marie found new love partner scientific collaborator depend new elements discovered existence rays mechanism production understood discovered emitted rays resembled rays penetrating power demonstrated radiation unlike depend external source energy arise spontaneously influenced important discoveries marie decided look rays possible field research thesis innovative technique investigate samples years earlier husband brother developed version sensitive device measuring electric charge discovered rays caused air sample conduct electricity technique result finding activity compounds depended quantity present radiation outcome interaction molecules come hypothesis important step ancient assumption daughter born support family began teaching dedicated laboratory research carried converted shed shed medical school room poorly unaware effects radiation exposure attendant continued unprotected work radioactive substances school sponsor research receive subsidies mining companies organizations governments systematic studies included minerals known showed times active twice active concluded earlier results relating quantity activity correct minerals contain small quantities substance far active began systematic search additional substances radiation discovered element radioactive increasingly intrigued work invested decided drop work crystals join research idea writes helped took husband opinion clearly established ownership later recorded fact twice biography husband ensure chance ambiguity likely early stage career realized scientists find difficult believe woman capable original work involved aware importance promptly publishing discoveries establishing priority years earlier presented discovery day credit discovery nobel prize instead gone thompson chose rapid means publication paper giving brief simple account work presented april professor thompson beaten beaten race tell discovery gives rays way months earlier published finding berlin time world physics noticed recorded sentence paper describing greater activities fact remarkable leads belief minerals contain element active later recall felt passionate desire verify hypothesis rapidly possible april weighed sample ground mortar realize time searching present minute quantities eventually process tons ore july husband published joint paper announcing existence element named honour native poland years remain december announced existence second element named latin word ray course research coined word prove discoveries doubt sought pure form complex mineral chemical separation constituents task discovery relatively easy resembles element like substance ore elusive closely related contains elements obtained traces quantities reach undertook task separating salt differential ton tenth separated isolated pure metal succeeded half life days published jointly separately total scientific papers including announced exposed forming cells destroyed faster healthy cells woman faculty member husband joined faculty visited poland occasion father death june supervised awarded doctorate month couple invited london speech woman prevented speaking allowed new industry began developing based patent discovery benefited little increasingly profitable business nobel prizes december awarded nobel prize physics recognition extraordinary services rendered joint radiation phenomena discovered committee intended honour committee members advocate woman scientists swedish mathematician alerted situation complaint marie added nomination marie woman awarded nobel prize husband declined stockholm receive prize person busy work disliked public ceremonies feeling increasingly ill nobel required deliver lecture finally undertook trip award money allowed hire laboratory assistant following award nobel prize offer offered position gave chair physics proper laboratory complaint relented agreed new laboratory ready december gave birth second daughter later hired polish teach daughters native language sent took visits poland april killed road accident walking heavy rain struck horse drawn vehicle fell wheels causing skull fracture devastated husband death physics department decided retain chair created offer marie accepted hoping create world class laboratory tribute woman professor quest create new laboratory end later years headed laboratory created initiative creating come director disappointed giving proper laboratory suggested threat leaving eventually joint initiative succeeded defined international standard radioactive emissions eventually named elect member votes elected instead inventor helped develop wireless telegraph doctoral student woman elected membership academy half century later despite fame scientist working france public attitude tended led affair false speculation jewish elections right wing press criticised daughter later remarked public french press portrayed nominated french honour portray french hero received foreign nobel prizes revealed conducted affair year duration physicist student married man estranged wife resulted press scandal exploited academic opponents years older foreign jewish home scandal broke away conference belgium return found angry mob house seek refuge daughters home friend international recognition work growing new heights overcoming opposition prompted scandal honored second time nobel prize chemistry award recognition services advancement chemistry discovery elements isolation study nature compounds remarkable element person win share nobel prizes remains nobel fields delegation celebrated polish men learning headed novelist encouraged return poland continue research native country second nobel prize enabled persuade french government supporting built research conducted chemistry physics medicine month accepting nobel prize hospitalised depression kidney avoided public life spend time england friend fellow physicist returned laboratory december break months offered new laboratory warsaw declined focusing developing completed august new street named visited poland welcomed warsaw visit ignored russian authorities institute development interrupted coming war researchers drafted fully resumed activities world war world war saw need field centres near lines assist battlefield quick study anatomy automotive mechanics ray equipment vehicles auxiliary generators developed mobile units came popularly known little director set france military centre operational late assisted military doctor year old daughter directed installation mobile vehicles units field hospitals year war later began training women aides produced hollow containing radioactive gas given later identified infected tissue provided supply estimated million wounded soldiers treated ray units busy work carried little scientific research period spite humanitarian contributions french war effort received formal recognition french government promptly war started attempted donate gold nobel prize medals war effort refused accept buy war bonds nobel prize money active member committees france dedicated polish cause war summarized war time experiences book war postwar years 25th anniversary discovery french government established previous recipient marie welcomed toured united_states raise funds research interviewing marie created marie fund raised money buy trip president received white house present collected united_states meeting recognising growing fame abroad embarrassed fact french official wear public french government offered legion honour award refused fellow travelled countries appearing publicly giving lectures belgium brazil spain czechoslovakia led institute produced nobel prize winners including daughter son law eventually major research laboratories vienna august member newly created wrote biography entitled visited poland participate ceremony laid foundations warsaw second american tour succeeded opened sister director scientific attendant publicity caused discomfort provided resources needed work elected member served death death visited poland time early months later july died believed contracted long term exposure radiation damaging effects radiation known time work carried safety measures later developed carried test tubes containing radioactive pocket stored desk remarking faint light substances gave dark exposed rays equipment serving field hospitals war decades exposure radiation caused chronic illnesses including near ultimately death acknowledged health risks radiation exposure interred cemetery alongside husband years later honour achievements remains transferred paris woman honoured merits women interred merits levels radioactive contamination papers 1890s considered dangerous handle highly radioactive papers kept lead lined boxes wish consult wear protective clothing year worked book published posthumously legacy physical societal aspects work contributed substantially shaping world twentieth centuries professor observes result work making great ignored principle conservation energy forced foundations physics experimental level discovery provided men like sources probe structure result experiments alpha radiation nuclear medicine appeared offer means cancer successfully attacked work helped established ideas physics chemistry equally profound effect societal sphere attain scientific achievements overcome barriers placed way woman native adoptive country aspect life career highlighted life emphasizes marie role feminist precursor known honesty moderate life style having received small scholarship returned soon began earning gave nobel prize money friends family students research associates unusual decision intentionally isolation process scientific community research insisted monetary gifts awards given scientific institutions affiliated husband refused awards medals reportedly remarked probably person corrupted fame awards honours tributes famous women scientists date icon scientific world received tributes globe realm pop culture poll carried new scientist voted inspirational woman science received cent votes cast nearly twice second place cent poland france declared year united_nations declared international year chemistry artistic installation celebrating madame filled san_diego museum contemporary art november google celebrated anniversary birth special google december celebrated centenary second nobel prize presence princess sweden woman win nobel prize person win nobel prizes woman win fields person win multiple sciences awards received include nobel prize physics medal medal prize nobel prize chemistry publication husband discovery honored presented physique paris woman merits paris symbol unit named honour commission agreed clearly stated standard named marie element atomic number named radioactive minerals named received numerous honorary degrees universities world fellowship program european_union young scientists wishing work foreign country named poland received honorary awarded national honorary member significant contribution numerous locations world named metro station paris renamed honour polish nuclear research maria named named registration named honour institutions bear starting maria warsaw paris patron founded france pre eminent science university britain organized care ill museums devoted established warsaw new town birthplace street paris laboratory preserved open works art bear likeness wife polish president unveiled statue warsaw second world war warsaw uprising nazi german occupation monument damaged gunfire war decided leave bullet marks statue pedestal created stained glass panel featured number biographies devoted daughter published wrote life wrote obsessive genius inner world marie published radioactive marie tale love fallout starred oscar nominated film based life recently french film released adapted play film played subject play false assumptions ghosts women scientists observe events life portrayed play living history marie woman performed states countries likeness appeared stamps coins world featured polish french note replaced euro themed postage stamps actually picture portraying picture centenary second nobel prize mural painted façade warsaw birthplace depicts infant holding test tube elements discover adult new warsaw bridge named making intellectual property celebrity culture age information isbn retrieved march daughter plains polish isbn retrieved march isbn madame biography press isbn marie discovery quinn susan life press isbn life isbn translated radioactive tale love fallout isbn lady women won nobel prize press isbn fiction book marie new_york isbn novel featuring patient english translation published | Marie Curie | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
5431_WalterZinn | december february nuclear physicist director worked world war supervised construction chicago world nuclear went critical december university_of_chicago designed built new including experimental nuclear produce electric power went live december early life born berlin ontario december son worked tire factory older brother albert factory worker entered queen university earned bachelor_of_arts degree mathematics master arts degree entered columbia_university studied physics writing doctor philosophy thesis crystal study structure width absorption limits subsequently published support taught columbia instructor queen met fellow student married sons united_states citizen manhattan_project columbia worked center intensive research properties nuclear recently discovered columbia investigated slow believed contended pure available chose work natural particularly interested nuclear chain reaction initiated require emitted average order chain reaction going march established emitted average delay absorbing occurring key controlling chain reaction point began working constructing experimental slow requires water choice tended absorb slow july suggested carbon form critical radius spherical calculated formula order self sustaining nuclear chain reaction occur needed practical configuration needed percent august initial experiments indicated disappointing value pinned hopes better result improved configuration early united_states embroiled world war concentrated manhattan_project teams working university_of_chicago athletes build increasingly large experimental configurations stands disused field july measured raised hopes pure yield suitable value december anderson new configuration ready field feet long feet wide feet high contained long tons long tons metal experiment carried afternoon december known chicago reached incident radiation shield run maximum power power light ran months shut february army want risk accident near densely populated downtown chicago army leased acres known site manhattan_project country club scientists guards worked placed charge site chicago rebuilt time radiation shield known chicago operational march months began designing new known chicago different type smaller feet diameter feet high power metal rods gallons imp gal heavy water charge construction commenced new year day chicago went critical commenced operation june power departed sole authority september received urgent director shut shortly reaching power come life hours later suspected poison responsible half life hours half life close detected tennessee quickly brought chicago power hours series measurements confirmed results following months technical personnel transferred reduced skeleton staff closure july laboratory officially director characterized model director emerging national laboratories sensitive aspirations contractor fund provider confident prevail necessary problems confronting accommodation federal government promised restore site war despite intervention secretary war agree continue occupy portion lease new site found rejected alternate sites outside chicago area army found new site laboratory permanent home miles away illinois known site adopted slightly progressive hiring practices contemporary institutions african american women seven men worked manhattan_project employed research time african american scientists appointed women positions authority section leader theoretical physics division director technical information division replaced manhattan_project january january announced focused chiefly problems development seek additional responsibility realised divert laboratory away research divert responsibilities designing fast obtained written assurance general manager willing collaborate allow remain involved design nonetheless research accounted half laboratory budget percent research classified captain navy director naval nonetheless assisted development nuclear marine propulsion eventually producing land based prototype mark propulsion submarine thermal water designed powered nuclear powered submarine uss basis nearly installed warships branch development closer heart fast time believed scarce resource wise best use breeders designed create material consumed convinced build large experimental near chicago acquired land idaho outpost experimental known pile cooled liquid metal produce electricity proved concept chairman described major milestone nuclear history series destructive tests boiling water conducted idaho test conducted supervision control rods removed demonstrate shut trouble immediately blew loud bang tall column dark smoke turn events anticipated shouted control rods pointed flying air later testify experiment later life leaving moved florida founded consulting firm headquarters florida company involved design construction water acquired vice president head nuclear division stepped position remained board member served member president member successor years received multiple awards work including special peace award elected president wife jean died married acquired warren died florida february suffering stroke survived wife mary sons john robert warren robert professor astronomy yale_university annually presented recognize individual notable sustained contribution nuclear power industry widely recognized | Walter Zinn | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
6260_MaxBorn | german december january german physicist mathematician instrumental development quantum mechanics contributions solid state physics supervised work number notable 1920s 1930s born won nobel prize physics fundamental research especially statistical interpretation wave function born born germany poland known entered found renowned wrote thesis subject stability plane space winning began researching special subsequently wrote thesis model chance meeting berlin led discussion manner compound formed metal today known born cycle world war originally placed radio operator moved research duties sound ranging specialist knowledge born returned arranging chair long time friend colleague born world foremost centres physics born formulated matrix mechanics representation quantum mechanics following year formulated standard interpretation probability density function equation awarded nobel prize influence extended far research received degrees born assistants included january came power germany born jewish suspended emigrated britain took job cambridge wrote popular science book restless universe soon standard textbook october professor natural philosophy working german born assistants continued research physics british subject august day world war broke europe remained edinburgh retired bad west_germany died hospital january early life born december poland time born birth family jewish descent children born professor wife née family died max years old august max sister born half brother father second marriage later professor art history initially educated gymnasium born entered german university system allowed students easily university spent summer fellow students told born born went april found renowned soon arrival born formed close ties men class took identified born having exceptional abilities selected lecture function write class notes students mathematics reading room class born regular contact time intellectual benefited born fertile mind born mentor selecting hold unpaid semi official position assistant born introduction came born knew dancing classes introduction born household sunday addition performing duties assistant born saw house born relationship problematic born attended conducted professors applied mathematics subject particularly interested subject born obliged present paper variations presented curved configuration wire ends fixed demonstrated stable impressed invited born submit thesis subject stability plane space subject near dear arranged subject prestigious annual offered qualify doctoral born responded turning offer applied mathematics preferred area study greatly offended power break academic careers born felt compelled submitting entry prize refused supervise born arranged supervisor starting paper born developed stability conditions interested topic apparatus constructed test predictions june rector announced born won prize month later passed oral examination awarded phd mathematics cum graduation born obliged perform military service deferred student found drafted german army posted 2nd guards empress russia stationed berlin service brief discharged early attack january travelled england admitted cambridge studied physics months born returned germany army inducted served elite 1st life great medically discharged weeks service returned worked supervision hoping physics minor accident involving born black body experiment cooling water flooded laboratory led telling physicist published paper special born intrigued began researching subject devastated discover researching special lines wrote results asked return born accepted helped born brush matrix work dimensional space project reconcile born got work good progress died suddenly january mathematics students born speak behalf funeral born attempted present results meeting weeks later far publicly challenged rejected forced terminate lecture interested born work discussion born convinced results persuaded lecture time interrupted offered sponsor born thesis born subsequently published talk article theory rigid bodies principle german die des der introduced concept born october born presented lecture model career berlin frankfurt born settled young academic born stayed boarding house run known derived letters names medical student born physics student medical student frequent visitor boarding house doctoral student loan special assistant physics mathematician called people group born met daughter law professor friend daughter iris jewish background father practising lutheran got married max sister despite practising religion refused convert wedding august garden ceremony baptised lutheran march pastor performed wedding ceremony born regarded religious churches matter importance decision baptised partly wife partly desire german society marriage produced children daughters born born son born marriage born related father law wife maternal grandfather great uncle british comedian end born published papers including important work dynamics crystal book received letter explaining new professor chair theoretical physics created chair offered turned born accepted world war raging soon arriving berlin enlisted army signals unit october joined army berlin based artillery research development organisation established special unit dedicated new technology sound ranging berlin born formed lifelong friendship frequent visitor born home days armistice november army release born chance meeting month led discussion manner compound formed metal today known born cycle born taken chair berlin changed mind decided wanted arranged born concerned exchange jobs april born professor director science faculty main approached looking replacement director theoretical physics advised flourish happen born found germany today negotiating position education ministry born arranged chair experimental physics long time friend colleague years born born collaborator shared views basic scientific concepts distinct advantage teaching research developing quantum theory approach close collaboration theoretical experimental shared born professor theoretical physics director prime development quantum theory born shared approach experimental physics test advance theories united_states sent student born assistant returned completed born born formulated matrix mechanics representation quantum mechanics july gave born paper entitled und quantum theoretical interpretation review submit publication paper formulated quantum theory avoiding concrete representations electron parameters transition quantum jumps necessitated corresponding initial final states born read paper recognized extended systematic language learned study time seldom considered belong realm pure mathematics paper born work theory crystals cases enter picture matrix quantum mechanics help assistant student born began immediately extension submitted results publication paper received publication days paper follow paper submitted publication end year authors result surprising formula location momentum identity matrix result arises matrix entirely born established elements diagonal matrix zero born considered paper jordan contained important principles quantum mechanics including extension paper approach solid mathematical basis born surprised discover thinking lines matrix method energy values hydrogen found agreed model important contribution looked problem wave mechanics great deal appeal time offered possibility returning classical physics born ran counter facts determined experiment formulated standard interpretation probability density function equation published july letter born december famous remark quantum mechanics quantum mechanics certainly imposing inner voice tells real thing theory says lot bring closer secret old rate convinced playing quotation god play nominated born jordan nobel prize physics won prize creation quantum mechanics application led discovery forms hydrogen shared prize discovery new productive forms atomic theory november born received letter said delayed writing bad conscience received prize work collaboration jordan went born jordan contribution quantum mechanics changed wrong decision outside wrote article insight credited born jordan final mathematical matrix mechanics went stress great contributions quantum mechanics adequately acknowledged public eye received degrees born included born assistants included assistant born completed born recognised talent work let superstars stretch past gifted handed respectable assignments went win nobel prizes later life january came power germany born jewish professors suspended pay resigned years built world foremost centres physics born began looking new job writing princeton_university offers soon started pour accepted college cambridge cambridge wrote popular science book restless universe textbook soon standard text going seven editions family soon settled life england daughters engaged newton john parents born olivia grandfather mother englishman respectively born position cambridge temporary tenure terminated accepted offer come born considered taking permanent position create additional chair november born family german citizenship revoked rendering weeks later cancelled born doctorate born considered offer moscow started taking russian lessons russian born wife asked born consider successor professor natural philosophy offer born promptly accepted assuming chair october edinburgh born promoted teaching mathematical physics german assistants continued investigate mysterious behaviour born fellow march got remaining friends relatives germany country including sister laws kurt daughters friend ran domestic bureau placing young jewish women jobs born received certificate british subject august day second world war broke europe born remained edinburgh reached retirement age retired bad west_germany october received word awarded nobel prize fellow stopped nominated work crystal years nominated work solid state quantum mechanics topics received prize fundamental research especially statistical interpretation wave function worked nobel lecture reflected philosophical implications work believe ideas absolute absolute final truth etc imagination field science hand assertion probability right wrong standpoint theory based thinking des greatest blessing modern science given belief single truth thereof root cause evil world retirement continued scientific work produced new editions books died hospital january buried cemetery survived wife died children great grandchildren include songwriter singer racing car driver awards honors medal cambridge fellow royal society brisbane medal victoria jubilee prize max der hughes medal honorary citizen town nobel prize physics award born fundamental research quantum mechanics especially statistical interpretation nobel prize banquet speech born nobel prize lecture hugo medal international law munich grand cross merit star order merit max born prize created awarded annually ceremony 100th birth year institute directors max born und named honor | Max Born | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
6780_RaemerSchreiber | november december american physicist oregon served world war participating development atomic bomb saw detonated trinity nuclear test july prepared fat man bomb bombing nagasaki war served group leader involved design hydrogen bomb head nuclear rocket propulsion division developed nuclear powered rockets served deputy director laboratory retirement early life born oregon november son née educated high school entered physics mathematics received bachelor_of_arts degree earned master arts degree married french major daughters graduate assistant instructor awarded writing thesis investigation nuclear reactions scattering produced thesis constructed generator originally intended discuss possibilities studying crystals possible development nuclear produced large quantities high energy discovery nuclear interested phenomenon oriented thesis study emitted manhattan_project researcher participated early work manhattan_project university joined moved new_mexico wife month old daughter worked water boiler group headed consisted mainly people working calculations super bomb group designed built water boiler commenced operation intended laboratory instrument test critical mass calculations effect materials use enriched fuel use liquid fuel form dissolved water worked improved designs april transferred division member pit assembly team trinity nuclear test observed explosion july days later lieutenant colonel official collected pit carried case took boarded transport plane july days later arrived pacific island helped assemble fat man bomb bombing nagasaki august comparing tokyo bombers killed people night march noted fact thing airplane bomb proved efficiency didn change effect bombing bringing japan knees shock effect airplane able city think finally convinced japanese military later career war remained group leader assignment ready bombs nuclear tests bikini pacific preparations witnessed accident exposed fatal dose radiation experiment pits slipped core went critical die radiation poisoning days later quick reaction saved lives room demon core remote handling dangerous substances designed remote control machines perform experiments personnel quarter mile distance went lead pit teams bikini june july associate leader head division time worked development hydrogen bomb charge pit crew ivy mike nuclear test pacific test device veteran impressed tnt explosion filled sky recalled awesome went head division responsible developed nuclear rocket engines required deep space exploration oversaw successful test nuclear rocket engine capacity greeted president president visit year technical associate director responsibility entire nuclear rocket propulsion program deputy director served member nasa retirement retired remained consultant served member laboratory late 1980s assisted publication technical history years helped reviewing history medical studies laboratory bought property late 1940s built home weekends lived returned died home december survived wife daughters sister anna laboratory named conference room honor | Raemer Schreiber | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
6943_RobertBrode | june february american physicist world war led group manhattan_project laboratory developed atomic bombing hiroshima nagasaki graduate earned doctorate attended oxford_university rhodes scholarship world war worked helped develop proximity fuse group leader dozen prominent scientists petitioned president declare united_states use hydrogen bomb war returned teaching berkeley supervised graduate students addition research teaching occupied number positions academic assistant presidents sat numerous advisory panels boards early life education born washington june son professor biology wife née second set born brothers wallace older brother attended went earn distinguished careers scientists academics graduated degree entered awarded doctor philosophy physics year awarded degree thesis absorption slow gases showed molecules similar arrangements external similar cross sections collisions slow results readily explained classical physics importance realised graduation associate physicist awarded rhodes scholarship study oxford england study germany princeton_university returning united_states married september sons assistant professor physics professor awarded fellowship enabled return england study cambridge_university friends british physicist impressed cloud chambers set graduate students work projects starting manhattan_project start world war went work helped develop proximity fuse joined manhattan_project appointed leader group consisted civilians military officers enlisted men task develop fuse detonate atomic bomb specified height ground normally bombs cheap relatively expensive atomic bomb extremely expensive failure triggering device unacceptable hand reason employed expensive conventional bomb group tasked develop mechanism chance failing detonate feet required height required height initially known depended yield uncertain group investigated radar proximity barometric testing carried naval proving ground virginia august march dummy drops barrage balloons end modified tail warning radar known employed performed atomic bombing hiroshima nagasaki later life war returned teaching berkeley dozen prominent scientists petitioned president declare united_states use hydrogen bomb returned england year time graduate students conducted research direction supervised students included president vice president addition research teaching occupied number positions academic assistant presidents vice president academic affairs served selection panels rhodes kennedy scholarships awards chairman member chairman colleges times vice president member president chairman associate director research delegate acting director director united_kingdom professor emeritus berkeley died home berkeley february survived wife son john papers | Robert Brode | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
7122_MarieCurie | french polish november july born polish french physicist chemist conducted pioneering research woman win nobel prize person woman win twice person win twice multiple sciences family legacy nobel prizes woman professor woman merits paris born warsaw russian_empire studied warsaw clandestine began practical scientific training warsaw aged followed older sister study paris earned higher degrees conducted subsequent scientific work shared nobel prize physics husband physicist won nobel prize chemistry achievements included development theory term coined techniques radioactive discovery elements direction world studies conducted treatment radioactive founded paris warsaw remain major centres medical research today world war established military field centres french citizen lost sense polish identity taught daughters polish language took visits poland named chemical element discovered isolated native country died aged france brought exposure radiation carrying test tubes pockets research course service world war mobile ray units set biography early years born warsaw russian partition poland november fifth youngest child known teachers née elder siblings maria nickname born nickname born nickname born nickname born nickname paternal maternal sides family lost property fortunes patriotic polish national uprisings aimed restoring poland independence recent january uprising condemned subsequent generation including maria elder sisters brother difficult struggle ahead life maria paternal grandfather respected teacher taught young leading figure polish literature father taught mathematics physics subjects maria pursue director warsaw boys russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction polish schools brought laboratory equipment home instructed children use father eventually fired russian pro polish sentiments forced lower paying posts family lost money bad investment eventually chose supplement income lodging boys house maria mother operated prestigious warsaw boarding school girls resigned position maria born died tuberculosis maria years old years earlier maria oldest sibling died contracted maria father mother devout catholic deaths maria mother sister caused catholicism years old maria began attending boarding school attended gymnasium girls graduated june gold medal collapse possibly depression spent following year countryside relatives father year father warsaw unable regular institution higher education woman sister involved clandestine polish patriotic institution higher learning admitted women students maria agreement sister financial assistance medical studies paris exchange similar assistance years later connection maria took position home tutor warsaw years landed family relatives father working family fell love son future eminent mathematician parents rejected idea marrying relative unable oppose maria loss relationship tragic soon earned doctorate pursued academic career mathematician professor rector old man mathematics professor sit statue erected founded beginning months earlier married polish physician social political activist invited maria join paris maria declined afford university tuition year half longer gather necessary funds helped father able secure lucrative position time continued educate reading books exchanging letters early returned home father warsaw continued working remained till late studied began practical scientific training chemical laboratory near warsaw laboratory run cousin assistant saint_petersburg russian chemist new life paris late left poland france paris maria marie known france briefly found shelter sister brother law renting closer university proceeding studies physics chemistry mathematics enrolled late resources suffering cold winters occasionally hunger studied day evenings barely earning awarded degree physics began work industrial laboratory professor continued studying aid fellowship able earn second degree marie begun scientific career paris investigation magnetic properties commissioned encouragement pour year entered life mutual interest natural sciences drew instructor physique paris introduced polish physicist professor learned marie looking larger laboratory space thought access large laboratory able find space marie able begin work mutual passion science brought increasingly closer began develop feelings eventually proposed marriage marie accept planning native country declared ready poland meant reduced teaching french summer break marie returned warsaw visited family illusion able work chosen field poland denied place woman letter convinced return paris pursue marie insistence written research received doctorate march promoted professor school contemporary marie biggest discovery july married wanted religious service marie dark blue outfit worn instead gown serve years laboratory outfit shared long bicycle trips journeys abroad brought closer marie found new love partner scientific collaborator depend new elements discovered existence rays mechanism production understood discovered emitted rays resembled rays penetrating power demonstrated radiation unlike depend external source energy arise spontaneously influenced important discoveries marie decided look rays possible field research thesis innovative technique investigate samples years earlier husband brother developed version sensitive device measuring electric charge discovered rays caused air sample conduct electricity technique result finding activity compounds depended quantity present radiation outcome interaction molecules come hypothesis important step ancient assumption daughter born support family began teaching dedicated laboratory research carried converted shed shed medical school room poorly unaware effects radiation exposure attendant continued unprotected work radioactive substances school sponsor research receive subsidies mining companies organizations governments systematic studies included minerals known showed times active twice active concluded earlier results relating quantity activity correct minerals contain small quantities substance far active began systematic search additional substances radiation discovered element radioactive increasingly intrigued work invested decided drop work crystals join research idea writes helped took husband opinion clearly established ownership later recorded fact twice biography husband ensure chance ambiguity likely early stage career realized scientists find difficult believe woman capable original work involved aware importance promptly publishing discoveries establishing priority years earlier presented discovery day credit discovery nobel prize instead gone thompson chose rapid means publication paper giving brief simple account work presented april professor thompson beaten beaten race tell discovery gives rays way months earlier published finding berlin time world physics noticed recorded sentence paper describing greater activities fact remarkable leads belief minerals contain element active later recall felt passionate desire verify hypothesis rapidly possible april weighed sample ground mortar realize time searching present minute quantities eventually process tons ore july husband published joint paper announcing existence element named honour native poland years remain december announced existence second element named latin word ray course research coined word prove discoveries doubt sought pure form complex mineral chemical separation constituents task discovery relatively easy resembles element like substance ore elusive closely related contains elements obtained traces quantities reach undertook task separating salt differential ton tenth separated isolated pure metal succeeded half life days published jointly separately total scientific papers including announced exposed forming cells destroyed faster healthy cells woman faculty member husband joined faculty visited poland occasion father death june supervised awarded doctorate month couple invited london speech woman prevented speaking allowed new industry began developing based patent discovery benefited little increasingly profitable business nobel prizes december awarded nobel prize physics recognition extraordinary services rendered joint radiation phenomena discovered committee intended honour committee members advocate woman scientists swedish mathematician alerted situation complaint marie added nomination marie woman awarded nobel prize husband declined stockholm receive prize person busy work disliked public ceremonies feeling increasingly ill nobel required deliver lecture finally undertook trip award money allowed hire laboratory assistant following award nobel prize offer offered position gave chair physics proper laboratory complaint relented agreed new laboratory ready december gave birth second daughter later hired polish teach daughters native language sent took visits poland april killed road accident walking heavy rain struck horse drawn vehicle fell wheels causing skull fracture devastated husband death physics department decided retain chair created offer marie accepted hoping create world class laboratory tribute woman professor quest create new laboratory end later years headed laboratory created initiative creating come director disappointed giving proper laboratory suggested threat leaving eventually joint initiative succeeded defined international standard radioactive emissions eventually named elect member votes elected instead inventor helped develop wireless telegraph doctoral student woman elected membership academy half century later despite fame scientist working france public attitude tended led affair false speculation jewish elections right wing press criticised daughter later remarked public french press portrayed nominated french honour portray french hero received foreign nobel prizes revealed conducted affair year duration physicist student married man estranged wife resulted press scandal exploited academic opponents years older foreign jewish home scandal broke away conference belgium return found angry mob house seek refuge daughters home friend international recognition work growing new heights overcoming opposition prompted scandal honored second time nobel prize chemistry award recognition services advancement chemistry discovery elements isolation study nature compounds remarkable element person win share nobel prizes remains nobel fields delegation celebrated polish men learning headed novelist encouraged return poland continue research native country second nobel prize enabled persuade french government supporting built research conducted chemistry physics medicine month accepting nobel prize hospitalised depression kidney avoided public life spend time england friend fellow physicist returned laboratory december break months offered new laboratory warsaw declined focusing developing completed august new street named visited poland welcomed warsaw visit ignored russian authorities institute development interrupted coming war researchers drafted fully resumed activities world war world war saw need field centres near lines assist battlefield quick study anatomy automotive mechanics ray equipment vehicles auxiliary generators developed mobile units came popularly known little director set france military centre operational late assisted military doctor year old daughter directed installation mobile vehicles units field hospitals year war later began training women aides produced hollow containing radioactive gas given later identified infected tissue provided supply estimated million wounded soldiers treated ray units busy work carried little scientific research period spite humanitarian contributions french war effort received formal recognition french government promptly war started attempted donate gold nobel prize medals war effort refused accept buy war bonds nobel prize money active member committees france dedicated polish cause war summarized war time experiences book war postwar years 25th anniversary discovery french government established previous recipient marie welcomed toured united_states raise funds research interviewing marie created marie fund raised money buy trip president received white house present collected united_states meeting recognising growing fame abroad embarrassed fact french official wear public french government offered legion honour award refused fellow travelled countries appearing publicly giving lectures belgium brazil spain czechoslovakia led institute produced nobel prize winners including daughter son law eventually major research laboratories vienna august member newly created wrote biography entitled visited poland participate ceremony laid foundations warsaw second american tour succeeded opened sister director scientific attendant publicity caused discomfort provided resources needed work elected member served death death visited poland time early months later july died believed contracted long term exposure radiation damaging effects radiation known time work carried safety measures later developed carried test tubes containing radioactive pocket stored desk remarking faint light substances gave dark exposed rays equipment serving field hospitals war decades exposure radiation caused chronic illnesses including near ultimately death acknowledged health risks radiation exposure interred cemetery alongside husband years later honour achievements remains transferred paris woman honoured merits women interred merits levels radioactive contamination papers 1890s considered dangerous handle highly radioactive papers kept lead lined boxes wish consult wear protective clothing year worked book published posthumously legacy physical societal aspects work contributed substantially shaping world twentieth centuries professor observes result work making great ignored principle conservation energy forced foundations physics experimental level discovery provided men like sources probe structure result experiments alpha radiation nuclear medicine appeared offer means cancer successfully attacked work helped established ideas physics chemistry equally profound effect societal sphere attain scientific achievements overcome barriers placed way woman native adoptive country aspect life career highlighted life emphasizes marie role feminist precursor known honesty moderate life style having received small scholarship returned soon began earning gave nobel prize money friends family students research associates unusual decision intentionally isolation process scientific community research insisted monetary gifts awards given scientific institutions affiliated husband refused awards medals reportedly remarked probably person corrupted fame awards honours tributes famous women scientists date icon scientific world received tributes globe realm pop culture poll carried new scientist voted inspirational woman science received cent votes cast nearly twice second place cent poland france declared year united_nations declared international year chemistry artistic installation celebrating madame filled san_diego museum contemporary art november google celebrated anniversary birth special google december celebrated centenary second nobel prize presence princess sweden woman win nobel prize person win nobel prizes woman win fields person win multiple sciences awards received include nobel prize physics medal medal prize nobel prize chemistry publication husband discovery honored presented physique paris woman merits paris symbol unit named honour commission agreed clearly stated standard named marie element atomic number named radioactive minerals named received numerous honorary degrees universities world fellowship program european_union young scientists wishing work foreign country named poland received honorary awarded national honorary member significant contribution numerous locations world named metro station paris renamed honour polish nuclear research maria named named registration named honour institutions bear starting maria warsaw paris patron founded france pre eminent science university britain organized care ill museums devoted established warsaw new town birthplace street paris laboratory preserved open works art bear likeness wife polish president unveiled statue warsaw second world war warsaw uprising nazi german occupation monument damaged gunfire war decided leave bullet marks statue pedestal created stained glass panel featured number biographies devoted daughter published wrote life wrote obsessive genius inner world marie published radioactive marie tale love fallout starred oscar nominated film based life recently french film released adapted play film played subject play false assumptions ghosts women scientists observe events life portrayed play living history marie woman performed states countries likeness appeared stamps coins world featured polish french note replaced euro themed postage stamps actually picture portraying picture centenary second nobel prize mural painted façade warsaw birthplace depicts infant holding test tube elements discover adult new warsaw bridge named making intellectual property celebrity culture age information isbn retrieved march daughter plains polish isbn retrieved march isbn madame biography press isbn marie discovery quinn susan life press isbn life isbn translated radioactive tale love fallout isbn lady women won nobel prize press isbn fiction book marie new_york isbn novel featuring patient english translation published | Marie Curie | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
7546_BrunoRossi | april november italian experimental physicist major contributions particle physics study cosmic rays graduate interested cosmic rays study invented improved electronic coincidence circuit travelled conduct experiments showed cosmic ray intensity west significantly larger east forced october italian racial laws moved denmark worked britain worked finally united_states worked university_of_chicago later stayed united_states american citizen world war worked radar played pivotal role manhattan_project heading group carried experiments war recruited mit continued pre war research cosmic rays 1960s pioneered ray astronomy space physics instrumentation explorer detected initiated rocket experiments discovered extra solar source rays italy born jewish family venice italy eldest sons father electrical engineer participated electrification venice home age fourteen attended venice beginning university studies began advanced work received physics thesis advisor known uncle physicist florence began career assistant founded located hill overlooking city arrived florence appointed fascist government italy brought institute group brilliant included moved rome graduate student awarded doctoral degree search pioneering research turned attention cosmic rays discovered manned balloon flights read paper described discovery charged cosmic ray particles penetrated centimetres gold astonishing penetrating charged particles known time radioactive decay penetrate millimetre gold words came like flash light revealing existence world mysteries begun explore soon overwhelming ambition participate exploration coincidence circuit awarded nobel prize physics coincidence method discoveries implementation method involved visual photographed weeks reading paper invented improved electronic coincidence circuit use vacuum tubes coincidence circuit major advantages offers precise temporal resolution detect number pulse sources features possible identify interesting events produce rare events stand presence high rates unrelated background individual circuit provided basis electronic instrumentation nuclear particle physics implemented electronic circuit fundamental element digital logic modern electronics time improved tubular version original counter invented developed student tubes tubes possible investigations help construction tubes aid practical coincidence circuit confirmed extended results invited visit berlin summer financial support arranged collaborated investigations cosmic ray penetration studied mathematical description charged particles earth magnetic field basis studies realised intensity cosmic rays coming eastward directions different westward ones berlin submitted paper suggesting observations east west effect confirm cosmic rays charged particles determine sign charge rome conference fall mario organized rome international conference nuclear physics sponsored invited introductory talk cosmic rays audience won nobel prize physics respectively 1920s famous oil drop experiment extensive measurements mysterious radiation discovered coined cosmic rays proposed created fusion hydrogen space pleased presentation evidence observed cosmic rays energetic charged particles later wrote clearly resented having beloved theory torn pieces mere youth moment refused recognise existence retrospect admit presentation famous effect positive reaction told later talk motivated begin research cosmic rays curve immediately rome conference carried experiments led significant advance understanding cosmic rays involved triple aligned separated blocks lead second placed triangular configuration traversed single particle travelling straight line results configuration demonstrated existence cosmic ray particles capable penetrating metre lead second configuration enclosed lead box results showed cosmic rays interact lead produce multiple secondary particles extension second experiment measured rate triple function lead plot rate thickness came known curve showed rapid rise lead layer increased followed slow decline experiments showed ground level cosmic rays consist components soft component capable prolific generation multiple particle events hard component capable traversing great lead time physical nature mystery fit growing body knowledge nuclear particle physics late arranged work university_of_cambridge met berlin aid new technique electronic coincidence helped develop counter controlled cloud chamber confirmed discovery positive produced association negative ones pair production positive negative observed events clearly related showers soft component won competition academic position italian university appointed professor experimental physics soon arrived rector asked oversee design construction new task diverted attention research teaching complied willingly institute opened east west effect spite distraction able complete experiment east west effect begun leaving effect prominent near equator organised expedition italian colony red_sea latitude set cosmic ray consisted separated coincidence axis maximum sensitivity pointed direction soon apparent cosmic ray intensity west significantly larger east meant larger influx positive primary particles negative ones time result surprising investigators held notion negative left received news observations similar east west effect published student reported observations mexico_city latitude carried experimental exploitation important idea disappointed published results immediately returning later patented vertical determination device use cosmic ray discovered phenomenon principal theme postwar cosmic ray research extensive cosmic ray air showers discovery occurred tests determine rate accidental assure single particle trigger spread horizontal plane configuration frequency greater calculated basis individual rates resolving time coincidence circuit concluded recording equipment struck extensive showers particles cause placed large distances acquainted daughter professor physiology grandfather renowned physician known italian writers april married set household avoided politics associates active opponents fascist state example member communist party completing degree later joined resistance milan assassinated soldiers german puppet state similarly received phd spent war years alternating cosmic ray research active participation italian resistance movements venice associations jewish italy grew influence nazi germany eventually result anti jewish laws resulting manifesto race dismissed words eventually september learned longer citizen country italy activity teacher scientist come end exile setback began important phase career summarised period memoir decay experimental particle physics age innocence presented october left copenhagen danish physicist invited study couple intention returning italy facilitated search secure position conference attended leading hoped find job soon received invitation come developing major center cosmic ray research pleasant months denmark arrived manchester manchester stay manchester brief productive time clear understanding soft component available published description production electron pairs energetic production energetic manchester collaborated experiment demonstrated theory second process fully confirmed experiment introduced technique anti coincidence feature instruments detecting analyzing energetic particles time cloud chamber observations clarified nature hard component anderson student discovered cosmic ray particles mass intermediate electron anderson called subsequently known shortened copenhagen conference suggested observed variations cosmic ray intensity atmospheric temperature indication unstable held intense discussions subject result left manchester determined confirm decay measure lifetime chicago war europe advised leave britain consequently wrote invited attend summer chicago hinted job available june sailed new_york greeted wife left italy racial laws brief reunion offered ride chicago accepted arrived university_of_chicago mid june decay immediately session instability reached consensus definitive observations needed began plan experiment intensity hard component increases altitude density air decreases suggested investigations carried colorado worked early 1930s access research site metres elevation provided highest paved road north_america urged begin series experiments summer snow blocked road help enlisted friends student assembled equipment loaded dilapidated bus borrowed department time known main process lose energy energy loss described formula proportional mass unit area layer material traversed process intensity hard component passing layer solid material decrease equivalent layer air collaborators found decrease significantly larger atmosphere corresponding layer solid carbon distance traversed air larger carbon interpreted result evidence decay taking account effect time estimated mean life rest roughly summer returned performed experiments near elevation metres use anti coincidence techniques apparatus possible measure mean free path decay groups different average momentum results published confirmed particle momentum mean free path decay expected basis theory presented improved estimate lifetime rest results previous year definitively unstable experimental confirmation time moving predicted theory chicago position research associate permanent unable secure better consequently began job search gave coincidentally death created vacancy physics department suggested invited fill position appointed associate professor fall returning chicago colorado left met american graduate student wrote article published reviews known cosmic ray researchers bible summer denver boulder accompanied mount evans refined knowledge momentum lifetime decay carried experiments showed terms processes documented bible particles soft component produced hard component interpreted evidence primary evident later soft excess arises decay neutral expedition colorado decided question decay answered satisfied precision lifetime determined existing estimates depended mass accurately known perform direct measurement designed apparatus measure time interval arrival stopped electron decayed assist obtained help graduate student heart experiment electronic circuit produced pulse height accurately proportional time interval recorded trace time contributions electronic techniques experimental physics lead brass number plotted time decay curves form ordinary radioactive substances gave mean lifetime later refined war discovered italian colleagues performed experiments similar measured lifetime consistent result looking called age innocence wrote possible results bearing fundamental problems elementary particle physics achieved experiments simplicity costing thousand dollars requiring help graduate students completion work turned attention war effort cambridge massachusetts consultant radar development invented range tracking circuit patented war early july invited join manhattan_project month reported duty weeks later year old daughter florence joined new_mexico laboratory director asked form group develop instruments needed create atomic bomb soon realized existed group similar mission headed swiss physicist decided merge efforts single group assisted approximately young researchers including electronic wizard later earned phd brought stanford_university expert particle fast chamber bomb development called large radiation response proportional energy released follows rapid changes radiation intensity earliest research radiation measured terms existing chambers slow respond changes address problem carried careful analysis result individual charged particles create chamber realised high mobility free removed means produced single particles brief found gas high electron mobility low electron attachment basis investigations allen invented fast chamber patented war crucial factor success manhattan_project widely postwar research particle physics experiments april manhattan project experienced crisis group discovered work gun type weapon like thin man response completely reorganised laboratory focus development type weapon enlisted implement method test weapon designs arrive produced accurately symmetrical spherical tests measured changes absorption gamma rays metal sphere underwent compression gamma rays emitted short lived positioned center sphere term experiment compression progressed rapid increase absorption detected decrease gamma ray intensity recorded outside assembly experiments revealed way successful understand problematic jets plagued early designs test methods necessary experiments played primary role design explosive lenses history project wrote important single experiment affecting final bomb design trinity july type device detonated trinity site near new_mexico code device design similar fat man weapon dropped nagasaki days later preparation trinity designed instrumentation record gamma radiation chain reaction duration expected approximately observations time scale state art designed built large cylindrical chamber speed response adequate separated narrow gap record signal installed fast provided prototype underground bunker feet photographed bring signal devised transmission line inner conductor smaller went chamber configuration enhanced signal reaching need confirm surprising behaviour consulted harvard professor days test went newly developed film dry able initial growth rate nuclear activity crucial information future weapons development attempts measure rate trinity fully successful mit success manhattan_project mit moved new era big science funded government mit expansion nuclear physics spearheaded went late war recruited mit professors left cambridge february new headed delegated create cosmic ray research group mit help recruited young scientists phd candidates came work mature typical graduate students years wartime research experience consequently paid similar researcher funded enabled support families graduate studies new phase activities fundamental change approach words new position activity different past years working help students build instruments place measurements analyze results responsibility entire group work work group task identify promising research programs reach help help needed planning instrumentation evaluation experimental results individual initiative researchers elementary particles discovery search new elementary particles popular research topic operating fast chambers cloud chamber showed bursts recorded primarily produced relatively low energy cosmic rays nuclear interactions typically involve heavily nuclear fragments basis effect demonstrated behaviour interactions similar penetrating showers group focused use cloud chambers study properties interactions aid multi plate cloud chamber lead plates alternated aluminium ones gregory showed source electromagnetic component cosmic ray interactions predominantly energetic result confirmed suggestion neutral produced interactions charged ones component arises rapid decay study new elementary particles bridge operated large rectangular multi plate cloud chamber investigation provided basis phd thesis supervised year authors student showed derive information particle energies measurements multiple scattering added way use cloud chambers measure properties elementary particles early bridge published results comprehensive cloud chamber study elementary particles known visitor obtained accurate value mass student conference zoo elementary particles reported masses decay schemes nomenclature reliability identification deal situation organized international cosmic ray conference according conference placed importance category famous conferences congress shelter island conference asked summary new information presented conference propose nomenclature new particles conference response assignment circulated suggestion particles mass smaller designated small greek letters larger mass designated capital greek letters talk july reported conference results compiled aid consistent scheme commonly highlight declaration closing talk future use particle operation declaration reflected consensus participants result group began wind cloud chamber experiments bridge reported unusual event stopping singly charged particle decayed energies totaled rest energy signature year group led detected awarded nobel prize physics extensive air showers time conference turned attention implications cosmic ray phenomena particularly extensive air showers recognition events exist extensively studied williams time extremely fast response newly developed offered new way study structure air showers enlisted student completed phd visitor solid material unavailable decided use dissolved efficient liquid aid deployed roof building winter found shower particles arrived meters disk travels nearly speed light direction shower axis result showed determine arrival times shower spread large area estimate number particles striking capabilities combine fast timing method determining shower arrival directions density sampling method determining size location axes experiment progress group began major experiment measure primary energies arrival directions extensive air showers participating effort came mit earning phd support professor director group deployed liquid area square metre wooded grounds observatory station signals brought cables displayed recorded shortly experiment began record shower data lightning ignited liquid local quickly extinguished resulting fire spread nearby trees soaked rain water trees played essential role suppressing atmospheric convection observations harvard mit carried tense negotiations elaborate system fire protection installed experiment allowed resume eliminate threat fire clark created factory plastic thickness centimetres diameter approximately metre switch plastic late spring experiment ran continuously findings reported nature physical review important results summarized precise measurement density shower particles function distance shower center measurement energy spectrum primary particles responsible showers electron volts electron volts proof particles arrive practically equal numbers directions observation particle energy close electron volts experiment came end group realized observations near equator southern hemisphere needed extend conclusion air shower arrival directions nearly consequently clark collaboration ran smaller experiment india latitude confirmed absence later suggestion equipment moved meters plateau clark found showed structure air showers maximum development different sea level experiment maximum energy particle recorded experiment electron volts close energies charged particles confined disc typical magnetic fields array large dimensions needed detect showers energies agreed responsibility building array came mit completed phd soon joined recruited group large tract open land available near boston array constructed semi desert property known ranch miles west new_mexico altitude metres deployed plastic similar counter incorporated viewed initially area array compared returned milan spread area results experiment showed cosmic ray intensity decreases smoothly energy electron volts range arrive particular significance detection single particle energy electron volts larger maximum contained disc magnetic fields particles energies originate halo galaxy existence consistent limit october soviet_union launched artificial earth satellite event created wave near surprised american public response government increased funding created nasa renamed june days legislation creating nasa introduced chairman met heads agencies create new advisory body provide advice expansion space research sure funding fundamental science properly emphasized board convened meeting june members engaged space research formed included biologist agreed investigations space desirable consequently decided turn group efforts study designed tested probe based classical cup enhance instrument response positively charged suppress response produced sunlight deployed cup key innovation voltage applied converted signal alternating current proportional contribution intense lobbying nasa deputy director space flight programs secured flight opportunity explorer home grown satellite goal hit moon launch march satellite went highly elongated orbit earth distance moon short goal hours data recorded mit probe battery power ran group found transition distinct regions earth near earth fairly strong organised magnetic fields indication earth spacecraft entered region magnetic fields weaker irregular substantial observed coming general direction sun occasions rest flight disappeared reappeared indicated spacecraft flying close boundary regions boundary moving irregularly eventually boundary known bridge mit space group included wife cups collected data solar system near earth imp space wind voyager voyager astronomy consultant initiated rocket experiments discovered extra solar source rays mit retirement retired mit taught retirement wrote number autobiography moments life scientist published died cardiac arrest home cambridge november survived wife daughters florence son frank cremated ashes graveyard church florence hill honors awards awards wolf prize physics role development ray astronomy national medal science prize award discoveries concerning nature origins cosmic gold medal italian physical society doctors universities durham chicago legacy ray timing explorer nasa satellite ray observatory launched division endowed chair named honor mit currently held books high energy particles new_york cosmic rays new_york introduction new_york moments cambridge isbn reading high energy cosmic rays sci | Bruno Rossi | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
8188_MujaddidAhmedIjaz | june july pakistani american experimental physicist noted role discovering new expanded atomic chart discovered enabled significant advances medical research particularly treatment cancer advanced experimental understanding nuclear structures conducted research work colleagues published papers physics journals announcing discoveries results experiments participated peace initiative 1970s program provided number world countries including pakistan civilian nuclear technology develop energy peaceful purposes professor physics virginia tech acted thesis adviser graduate students world experimental physics disciplines extensive trips abroad career including visiting professor saudi_arabia early 1980s visiting faculty member italy retired professor emeritus physics december year career teaching research wife emigrated united_states settled virginia children died battle cancer early life education born june british indian empire father medical student died brain cancer mother remarried children family early education rural village schools near attended early interest science physics attributed step father work local department graduating high school finishing college entrance exam requirements admitted physics graduated continued advanced studies widely considered pioneer pakistani experimental physics met later married emigrated united_states wife arrived florida august settled incoming graduate students developed early interest particle physics experiments graduated june master degree physics thesis titled scattered nuclear physics thesis titled academic scientific research career joined faculty department september assistant professor physics early years faculty member devoted time teaching responsibilities including acting adviser university roster graduate students doctoral candidates conducted early research physics department newly installed nuclear time equipped activation analysis laboratory early experimental results earned appointment research collaborator grant funded launched distinguished visitors series physics department sponsorship brought world renowned campus nearly decade visiting scholars included nobel physics noted chinese physicist group won nobel prize physics virginia tech attained rank professor physics year served acting head physics department foreign 1980s saudi_arabia continued teaching duties virginia tech retirement december professor emeritus physics career published papers focused methods results teaching religion science aspects physics form technical research earlier years physicist teaching researcher virginia tech established scholarship awarded students involved physics education began research work funding contributed program consortium time institutions research scientists collaborating supported grants virginia tech research focused discovery new high built highest time produced medical allowing higher fidelity materials research available science energy laboratory system 1970s colleagues led high discover new map characteristics existing including lead december mercury discovered successfully model behavior expected heavier particles traditional experiments produce time energy limitations 1970s participated peace initiative created president help post world war international community cope nuclear power pakistan facility pool type facility provided united_states began operations december supervision pakistani scientists led notable collaborations collaborated notable year career notable collaborations groundbreaking work interactions american earned nobel prize physics recommended creating international forum advancement science technology hosted pakistan region serving prime minister pakistan gathered notable scientists world summer breaks break intellectual isolation faced pakistani scientists participated conferences times mid-1970s grants member fellow personal life married june prior united_states later took husband chosen american citizens january children daughter born pakistan initially settled situated lived years living rural community floyd virginia returned township near virginia tech building home today remains family homestead died july home virginia complications arising protracted battle brain lung cancer buried traditional muslim rituals site favored farm surrounded large gathering family united_states physics colleagues friends southwestern virginia president widow letter dated july selected publications study resonance production interactions nuclear physics vol distribution transverse longitudinal momentum interactions vol transverse momentum distribution events collisions vol characteristic features interactions nuclear physics vol | Mujaddid Ahmed Ijaz | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
8587_JohnArchibaldWheeler | july april american theoretical physicist largely responsible reviving interest general united_states world war worked explaining basic principles nuclear developed concept process best known linking term black hole objects collapse predicted early 20th century terms quantum foam bit electron universe earned doctorate supervision studied fellowship teamed write series papers liquid drop model explain mechanism world war worked chicago helped design nuclear washington helped build returned princeton war ended returned government service help design build hydrogen bomb early 1950s career professor princeton_university joined remaining retirement princeton supervised professor princeton physics department early life education born jacksonville florida july oldest children having younger brothers joseph robert younger sister mary joseph earned master columbia_university geology harvard_university worked oil companies colleges mary studied library science librarian grew ohio spent year farm vermont attended room school returned attended graduating high school entered scholarship state maryland published scientific paper summer job earned doctorate research work carried supervision theory absorption received fellowship study copenhagen paper introduced process mechanism potentially transformed matter form electron pairs early career chapel hill associate professor wanted able work closely experts particle physics turned offer associate favor assistant princeton_university lesser position felt princeton building physics department better career choice remained member faculty paper mathematical description light introduced matrix short scattering matrix matrix connecting behavior arbitrary particular solution integral solutions standard form subsequently developed idea matrix 1940s problematic present quantum field theory time motivated essential features theory affected future changes theory developed led introduce characteristic matrix important tool particle physics develop matrix joined examining liquid drop model atomic nucleus presented results meeting new_york graduate student presented paper followed subsequent article detailing liquid drop model unstable certain conditions limitation liquid drop model missed opportunity predict nuclear news discovery brought america told informed set work applying liquid drop model explain mechanism nuclear experimental studied uncovered results asked fast slow walking meeting insight low energies high energies mainly far abundant wrote papers paper appeared september day germany invaded poland starting world war europe considering notion traveling backwards time came electron universe fact electron bouncing forth time graduate student found hard believe idea traveling backwards time intrigued incorporated notion time nuclear weapons manhattan_project soon japanese bombing pearl harbor brought united_states world war accepted request join chicago moved january joining group studying nuclear design wrote paper chain reaction pure materials solution important process december gave replacing term slower took manhattan_project gave responsibility detailed design construction design staff worked closely engineers chicago wilmington delaware headquarters moved family wilmington march task build nuclear entire production complex washington work progressed relocated family july time washington worked scientific buildings known area started september concerned nuclear products turn nuclear accumulation ongoing nuclear chain reaction absorbing thermal needed continue chain reaction april report predicted reduce percent long product capture cross section unexpectedly shut unexpectedly restarted hours later suspected half life hours daughter product half life hours turned capture cross section million problem corrected adding additional fuel rods burn poison personal reason working manhattan_project brother joe fighting italy sent simple message hurry late joe killed october later wrote close creating nuclear weapon end war couldn stop thinking haven stopped thinking war october joe left widow baby daughter later married physicist hydrogen bomb august family returned princeton resumed academic career working explored possibility physics particles fields carried theoretical studies resulting series papers topic including paper introduced triangle related different forms radioactive decay suggested use nuclear probe paper written privately circulated published resulted series measurements radiation emitted component cosmic rays founder director received substantial grant received fellowship allowed spend academic year paris soviet_union prompted effort united_states led develop powerful hydrogen bomb response department head princeton asked join effort like trying establish careers interrupted war reluctant face disruption moral objections agreed participate included body experienced weapons led agreed conversation graduate students princeton joined family moved house row occupied family war practical design hydrogen bomb calculations showed classical super work created new design known alarm clock true weapon january come design obtained permission set branch office laboratory princeton known parts coined investigated nuclear fusion power source bomb engaged nuclear weapons research senior scientists remained project staffed young graduate post doctoral students january involved security breach lost highly classified paper hydrogen bomb design overnight train trip resulted given official efforts crowned success ivy mike nuclear test pacific november witnessed yield ivy mike device tnt percent higher estimated discontinued personal life years married teacher social worker engaged date agreed marriage returned europe married june days return children jobs hard come great depression offered position assistant professor chapel hill annual salary offered teach later years accompanied places france new_mexico netherlands japan founding members initiated died october age later life concluding work resumed academic career paper theoretically investigated electromagnetic wave held confined region attraction field coined electromagnetic entity found smallest size sun millions times heavier working mathematical extensions introduced concept word describe hypothetical tunnels space time asked stable research determined 1950s formulated program physical reduction physical phenomenon properties curved space time manifestation envisaged fabric universe chaotic sub atomic realm quantum fluctuations called quantum foam decades general considered respectable field physics detached experiment key figure revival subject leading school princeton developed subject cambridge_university work students high contributions golden age general work general included theory collapse term black hole talk gave pioneer field quantum gravity development equation equation governing wave function universe quantum mass mass honoring 60th birthday titled magic magic collection essays honor birthday writing style attract parodies including published journal wrote teamed write scouting black holes wrote led general textbook written timely appearance golden age general influential textbook generation retired princeton_university age director austin retired professor emeritus students wrote looking years texas quantum information scientists regard grandfather field produced seminal search papers quantum information major exception delayed choice experiment role inspire asking deep questions radical conservative viewpoint questions stimulate research discovery delayed choice experiment actually thought experiments quantum physics proposed prominent appearing experiments attempts decide light senses experimental apparatus double experiment travel behavior fit assuming appropriate state light remains state wave particle responds questions asked responding wave consistent manner particle consistent manner depending experimental arrangements ask questions years graduate students included gave high priority teaching continued teach freshman sophomore physics saying young minds important princeton supervised professor princeton physics department spoke asking expel admitted years earlier request called saying oppose earnest research questions thought air legitimacy affiliate reserved convincing tests called psi effects demonstrated presentation incorrectly stated committed fraud student forced statement letter journal science request turned remained member bit suggested information fundamental physics universe according bit doctrine things physical information origin bit particle field force space time derives function meaning existence entirely contexts indirectly apparatus answers yes questions choices bits bit idea item physical world deep instances source explanation reality arises analysis posing yes questions registering equipment evoked responses short things physical information origin universe speculated reality created observers universe arise asked existence space time coined term principle version strong principle radio interview universe bringing near far away long ago sense bringing universe distant past explanation happening distant past need don agree right presumably conscious observers universe creators minds universe manifest repeatedly reflected maintains expansion universe manifested expansion cold dark non expanding visible clusters root cause second law time expanding universal sink continue reflect central thesis expansion origin time death legacy years gathered numerous prizes awards including franklin medal prize medal robert memorial prize member received honorary degrees different institutions princeton million gift establish physics death named honor influential generation golden age general notable contributions quantum mechanics april died pneumonia age new_jersey | John Archibald Wheeler | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
10594_DonaldWilliamKerst | november august american physicist worked advanced particle concepts physics physics notable development novel type particle accelerate graduate developed operational july world war took leave absence work engineering staff general_electric designed portable bombs joined manhattan_project responsible designing building water boiler nuclear intended serve laboratory instrument technical director worked advanced particle concepts notably employed general worked problem physics invented devices containing magnetic fields devices contain plagued previous designs contain exceeding limit early life born illinois november son entered earned bachelor_of_arts degree doctor philosophy phd writing thesis development generators air pressure applications functions nuclear reactions involved building testing generator experiments scattering graduation worked year working development ray tubes machines found frustrating ray research required high energies produced time accepted offer head physics department encouraged efforts create better particle result efforts operational july person accelerate electromagnetic induction reaching energies took longer device colleagues suggested names german december decided greek letter beta symbol meaning instrument went build increasing energy machine machine completed influence subsequent success thorough understanding physics involved design vacuum pumps power supply teamed provide theoretical analysis occur original machine donated world war world war took leave absence work development engineering staff general_electric designed versions supervised construction brought designed portable bombs engineering physics background placed near list scientists recruited manhattan_project set design atomic bomb august placed charge laboratory responsible designing building water boiler nuclear intended serve laboratory instrument test critical mass calculations effect materials primarily drawn group included provided help theoretical calculations designed enriched form dissolved water surrounded employ enriched fuel required world supply time sufficient quantity enriched arrived april commenced operation end june achieved design goals reorganized august concentrate creating type nuclear weapon studying large scale scale required special methods early november suggested employing gamma rays instead rays study august reorganization joint head specifically charged testing shipped arrived december january took pictures later life returned war technical director worked advanced particle concepts notably developed spiral sector focusing principle lies heart spiral ridge operation world team devised analysed beam process radio frequency acceleration fixed field machines led development beam employed general division pure applied science california worked physics hoped doorway control energy invented devices containing magnetic fields completed work professor retirement devices contain plagued previous designs contain exceeding limit chairman married children daughter son stephen retired moved florida died august madison wisconsin brain survived wife children papers awards honors honorary degree awarded awarded john price elected honorary degree honorary degree awarded physics awarded physics honorary degree | Donald William Kerst | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
11250_AlbertEinstein | german march april german born theoretical physicist developed general theory pillars modern physics alongside quantum mechanics work known influence philosophy science best known popular culture mass energy formula dubbed world famous equation received nobel prize physics services theoretical physics particular discovery law effect pivotal step evolution quantum theory near beginning career thought mechanics longer reconcile laws classical mechanics laws electromagnetic field led development special theory realized principle extended fields subsequent theory published paper general continued deal problems statistical mechanics quantum theory led explanations particle theory motion molecules investigated thermal properties light laid foundation theory light applied general theory model large scale structure universe visiting united_states adolf_hitler came power jewish germany professor settled american citizen eve world war endorsed letter president potential development extremely powerful bombs new type recommending begin similar research eventually led manhattan_project supported defending allied forces largely denounced idea newly discovered nuclear weapon later british philosopher signed russell highlighted danger nuclear weapons affiliated princeton new_jersey death published scientific papers non scientific works december universities archives announced release papers comprising unique documents intellectual achievements originality word synonymous genius biography early life education born march parents salesman engineer family moved munich father uncle founded company manufactured electrical equipment based direct current non albert attended catholic elementary school munich age years age transferred gymnasium known albert gymnasium received advanced primary secondary school education left seven years later company lost bid supply city munich electrical lighting lacked capital convert equipment direct current standard efficient alternating current standard loss forced sale munich factory search business family moved italy milan months later family moved stayed munich finish studies gymnasium father intended pursue electrical engineering clashed authorities resented school teaching method later wrote spirit learning creative thought lost strict learning end december travelled italy join family convincing school let doctor note time italy wrote short essay title investigation state magnetic field age sat entrance examinations later failed reach required standard general examination obtained exceptional grades physics mathematics advice principal attended school gymnasium switzerland complete secondary schooling lodging family professor fell love daughter marie albert sister later married son paul january father approval renounced citizenship avoid military service september passed swiss good grades including grade physics mathematical subjects scale enrolled year mathematics physics teaching diploma program moved switzerland teaching post future wife enrolled year woman students mathematics physics section teaching diploma course years friendship developed romance read books extra physics taking increasing interest awarded teaching diploma failed examination poor grade mathematics component theory functions claims collaborated celebrated papers historians physics studied issue find evidence substantive contributions marriages children discovery publication early correspondence revealed daughter called letters born early sad staying parents returned switzerland child real fate unknown probably saw daughter contents letter september suggest girl adopted died scarlet fever infancy married january son born switzerland second son born july april moved berlin months wife returned sons learning chief romantic attraction second cousin divorced february having lived apart years father called breakdown age diagnosed mother cared committed periods finally committed permanently death letters revealed wrote early love marriage strong feelings marie wrote think heartfelt love spare minute unhappy man wife pregnant second child spoke love missed life love marie married having personal relationship cousin second cousin emigrated united_states diagnosed heart kidney problems died december patent office graduating spent frustrating years searching teaching post acquired swiss citizenship february medical reasons help father secured job patent office assistant evaluated patent applications variety devices including gravel position permanent passed promotion fully mastered machine technology work patent office related questions transmission electric signals electrical mechanical time technical problems thought experiments eventually led radical conclusions nature light fundamental connection space time friends met started small discussion group self named academy met regularly discuss science philosophy readings included works influenced scientific philosophical outlook academic career paper den conclusions phenomena published prestigious der april completed thesis professor experimental physics serving pro advisor result awarded phd entitled new determination molecular dimensions year called miracle year published groundbreaking papers effect motion special mass energy bring notice academic world age recognized leading scientist appointed lecturer following year giving lecture principle recommended faculty newly created theoretical physics appointed associate professor professor prague april accepting austrian citizenship austro hungarian empire prague stay wrote scientific works radiation mathematics quantum theory july returned alma mater professor theoretical physics taught mechanics studied mechanics molecular theory heat problem worked mathematician friend returned appointed director professor freed teaching obligations soon member appointed president based calculations new theory general light star bent sun gravity prediction confirmed sir solar eclipse observations published international media making world famous november leading british newspaper times printed banner headline read revolution science new theory universe ideas overthrown foreign member awarded nobel prize physics services especially discovery law effect general theory considered somewhat controversial citation treat cited work explanation merely discovery law idea considered receive universal acceptance spectrum elected foreign member received medal travels abroad visited new_york_city time april received official welcome mayor followed weeks lectures went deliver lectures columbia_university princeton_university washington accompanied representatives visit white_house return europe guest british statesman philosopher london met renowned scientific intellectual political figures delivered lecture king college london published essay impression july tried briefly describe characteristics americans published impressions democracy america observations clearly surprised strikes visitor positive attitude life american friendly self confident optimistic travels took asia later palestine month excursion speaking tour visited singapore ceylon japan gave series lectures thousands japanese public lecture met emperor empress imperial palace thousands came watch letter sons described impression japanese modest intelligent having true feel art travels far_east unable personally accept nobel prize physics stockholm award ceremony december place banquet speech held german diplomat praised scientist international activist return voyage visited palestine days visit region greeted head state physicist included cannon salute arriving home british high commissioner sir reception building stormed people wanted hear talk audience expressed happiness jewish people beginning recognized force world travel december visited america second time originally intended month working visit research fellow national attention received trip aimed protect privacy receive awards speak publicly declined arriving new_york_city taken places events including lunch editors new_york_times performance audience arrival days following given keys city mayor met president columbia_university described ruling monarch mind pastor new_york gave tour church showed size statue church standing entrance stay new_york joined crowd people madison square garden celebration traveled california met president nobel friendship awkward penchant patriotic pronounced address students noted science inclined harm good war led author film star noted head universal_studios gave tour studio introduced instant inviting wife home dinner said outward persona calm gentle conceal highly emotional temperament came extraordinary intellectual energy remembers telling time conceived theory breakfast morning lost thought ignored food asked sat piano started playing continued playing writing notes half hour went upstairs study remained weeks bringing food end weeks came sheets paper bearing theory film city lights premiere days later hollywood invited join special guests biographer described memorable scenes new era celebrity arrived black tie joining audience applauded entered theater visited home later trip berlin recalled modest little flat piano begun writing theory speculated possibly wood nazis emigration february visit united_states knew return germany rise power nazis germany new chancellor adolf hitler american universities early undertook month visiting wife returned belgium ship march trip learned cottage raided nazis personal confiscated landing antwerp march immediately went german turned passport formally german citizenship years later nazis sold boat turned cottage hitler youth camp refugee status april discovered new german government passed laws barring jews holding official positions including teaching universities describes virtually protest raised colleagues thousands jewish scientists suddenly forced university positions names removed rolls institutions employed month later works targeted nazi book nazi propaganda minister proclaiming jewish dead german magazine included list enemies german regime phrase hanged offering bounty head subsequent letter physicist friend emigrated germany england wrote confess degree brutality came surprise moving described book spontaneous emotional popular enlightenment world fear influence men intellectual independence permanent home unsure live work equally worried fate countless scientists germany rented house belgium lived months late july went england weeks personal invitation british naval officer commander friends preceding years protect assistants watch cottage outside london press publishing photo guarding took meet winston_churchill home later prime minister asked help bring jewish scientists germany british historian notes churchill responded immediately sent friend physicist germany seek jewish scientists place british universities churchill later observed result germany having driven jews lowered technical standards allies technology ahead theirs later contacted leaders nations including turkey prime minister wrote september requesting placement unemployed german jewish scientists result letter jewish turkey eventually totaled saved individuals submitted bill parliament extend british citizenship period number public appearances describing crisis europe bill failed law accepted earlier offer resident scholar resident scholar october returned took position princeton new_jersey noted having refuge scientists fleeing nazi_germany time american universities including harvard princeton yale minimal jewish faculty students result jewish lasted late 1940s future offers european universities including christ church oxford stayed short periods june offered year arrived decision remain permanently united_states apply citizenship affiliation death selected new institute soon developed close friendship long walks discussing work assistant later physicist period tried develop unified field theory accepted interpretation quantum physics unsuccessfully world war manhattan_project group hungarian scientists included physicist attempted alert washington ongoing nazi atomic bomb research group warnings discounted refugees regarded responsibility alert americans possibility german scientists win race build atomic bomb warn hitler willing resort weapon certain aware danger july months beginning world war europe visited explain possibility atomic bombs said considered asked lend support writing letter president roosevelt recommending pay attention engage nuclear weapons research letter believed arguably key adoption investigations nuclear weapons eve entry world war addition letter connections belgian queen mother access personal envoy white_house president roosevelt risk allowing hitler possess atomic bombs result letter meetings roosevelt entered race develop bomb drawing immense material financial scientific resources initiate manhattan_project country successfully develop nuclear weapons world war remains country use combat hiroshima nagasaki august respectively end war war disease called resistance war signing letter roosevelt went principles year death said old friend great mistake life signed letter president roosevelt recommending bombs justification danger germans citizenship american citizen long settling career princeton new_jersey expressed appreciation american culture compared europe recognized right individuals think pleased social barriers result individuals encouraged said creative trait valued early education personal life supporter civil rights passionate committed joined princeton campaigned civil rights african americans considered racism america worst disease seeing handed generation involvement corresponded civil rights activist prepared testify behalf trial offered character witness judge decided drop case visited pennsylvania awarded honorary degree lincoln university united_states grant college degrees blacks including students gave speech racism america adding intend quiet resident princeton recalls paid college tuition black student black physicist states early science heroes later finding support civil rights assisting causes leader helping establish opened earlier asked president help raise funds planned university submitted suggestions initial programs advised creating order settle undeveloped land followed suggested fight ongoing malaria called evil country development establishing include language courses given hebrew arabic scientific exploration country historical monuments important later israel president death office november urging prime minister offered position president israel ceremonial post offer presented israel ambassador washington explained offer embodies deepest respect jewish people sons declined wrote response deeply moved ashamed accept love music developed appreciation music early age later wrote physicist probably musician think music live music life terms music joy life music mother played piano reasonably wanted son learn violin love music help german culture according conductor said begun playing enjoy age turned discovered violin fell love music studied music willingly taught play practicing systematically said deciding love better teacher sense duty age heard school played violin stating afterward playing remarkable revealing great insight struck writes displayed deep love music quality remains short supply music possessed unusual meaning student music took pivotal permanent role life period idea professional mind time played chamber music professionals performed private audiences friends chamber music regular social life living berlin played son erroneously credited editor edition catalogue work edition actually prepared distant relation engaged research visited family los_angeles played works members quartet near end life young visited princeton played violin quartet impressed level coordination political religious views political view favor socialism critical capitalism detailed essays socialism offered called opinions matters unrelated theoretical physics mathematics strongly advocated idea democratic global government check power nation states framework world federation views religious belief collected interviews original writings called label said believed god personal god belief criticized wrote believe personal god denied expressed clearly death april experienced internal bleeding caused abdominal previously reinforced took draft speech preparing television appearance commemorating state israel seventh anniversary hospital live long complete refused surgery saying want want life artificially share time died early morning age having continued work near end autopsy removed brain preservation permission family hope future able discover intelligent remains cremated ashes scattered undisclosed location lecture memorial nuclear physicist summarized impression person wholly wholly wonderful purity profoundly scientific career life published hundreds books articles published scientific papers non scientific ones december universities archives announced release papers comprising unique documents intellectual achievements originality word synonymous genius addition work collaborated scientists additional projects including statistics papers papers articles pertaining effect gave rise quantum theory motion special theory published der scientific journal works contributed substantially foundation modern physics changed views space time matter papers fluctuations statistical physics paper submitted der attraction published title den translates conclusions phenomena papers published attempted interpret atomic phenomena statistical point view papers foundation paper motion showed movement firm evidence molecules exist research mainly concerned effect finite atomic size phenomena general principles articulated principle understood space space time principles later principle principle quantum number theory moving bodies received june published september year electricity laws mechanics introducing major changes mechanics close speed light later known special theory consequences include time space frame moving body appearing slow contract direction motion measured frame observer paper argued idea leading theoretical entities physics time paper mass energy produced special work remained controversial years accepted leading starting energy paper light consists localized particles light nearly universally rejected including idea universally accepted detailed experiments effect measurement scattering concluded wave frequency associated collection energy constant sure particles related wave suggest idea explain certain experimental results notably effect atomic vibrations proposed model matter structure independent model independently series equally spaced states aware getting frequency actual different proposed theory particularly clear demonstration quantum mechanics solve specific heat problem classical mechanics refined model principle action angle 1910s quantum mechanics expanded scope cover different systems discovered nucleus proposed orbit like planets able quantum mechanical introduced developed explain motion periodic table elements contributed developments linking arguments shown hypothesis thermal state allows curves different temperature derived simple shifting process noted principle shows quantity mechanical motion identified action variable classical mechanics wave particle patent office promoted second class given die das und die der development views composition essence radiation light earlier paper showed energy defined act respects independent point like particles paper introduced concept introduced later inspired notion wave particle quantum mechanics saw wave particle radiation concrete evidence conviction physics needed new unified foundation theory critical returned problem fluctuations giving treatment density variations fluid critical point density fluctuations controlled second derivative free energy respect density critical point derivative zero leading large fluctuations effect density fluctuations light scattered making fluid look white relates scattering happens size smaller explains sky blue derived critical treatment density fluctuations demonstrated effect scattering originate constitution matter zero point energy series works completed quantum theory introduced idea zero point energy second quantum theory soon idea attracted attention assistant assuming energy rotating molecules contains zero point energy compared theoretical specific heat hydrogen gas experimental data numbers matched nicely publishing findings promptly withdrew support longer confidence idea zero point energy general principle general theory developed according general observed attraction masses results space time masses general developed essential tool modern provides foundation current understanding black holes regions space attraction strong light escape later said reason development general preference motions special unsatisfactory theory outset prefers state motion accelerated ones appear satisfactory consequently published article acceleration special article titled principle conclusions drawn argued free fall motion free falling observer rules special apply argument called principle article predicted phenomena time red shift light published article expanding article estimated light massive bodies theoretical prediction general time tested waves predicted waves waves traveling outward source transporting energy radiation existence waves possible general brings concept finite speed propagation physical interactions gravity contrast waves exist theory physical interactions gravity infinite speed indirect detection waves came 1970s observation pair closely stars explanation decay period waves prediction confirmed february researchers published observation waves earth exactly years prediction hole argument theory developing general confused gauge theory formulated argument led conclude general field theory impossible gave looking fully generally searched general linear june draft theory result investigations suggests sketch theory elegant difficult general motion supplemented additional gauge fixing conditions years intensive work realized hole argument mistaken abandoned theory november applied general theory structure universe discovered general field predicted universe dynamic contracting expanding evidence dynamic universe known time introduced new term constant field order allow theory predict static universe modified field predicted static universe closed accordance understanding principle years following discovery recession abandoned static model universe proposed dynamic models model model models discarded constant claiming case theoretically unsatisfactory biographies claimed referred constant later years biggest recently cast doubt claim suggesting exaggerated late team led irish physicist discovered evidence shortly learning observations recession considered steady state model universe hitherto overlooked manuscript apparently written early explored model expanding universe density matter remains constant continuous creation matter process associated constant stated paper follows like draw attention solution equation account sic facts density constant time considers physically bounded volume particles matter continually leaving density remain constant new particles matter continually formed volume space appears considered model expanding universe years steady state model contained fundamental flaw quickly abandoned idea modern quantum theory displeased quantum theory quantum mechanics theory helped create despite acceptance stating god playing continued maintain disbelief theory attempted unsuccessfully died age height work published article proposed possibility stimulated physical process makes possible laser article showed statistics absorption light consistent distribution law light mode enhanced compared light mode paper enormously influential later development quantum mechanics paper statistics atomic transitions simple laws discovered work supported ideas received major paper era gave wave equation waves suggested hamilton equation mechanics paper inspire work statistics received description statistical model indian physicist based counting method assumed light understood gas indistinguishable particles noted statistics applied proposed light particles submitted translation paper published articles describing model implications phenomenon appear low temperatures produced ultra cooling equipment built laboratory boulder statistics describe behaviors assembly sketches project seen archive library energy momentum general includes difficult identify energy momentum allows quantities determined translation general makes translation gauge symmetry energy momentum derived general real reason argued true fundamental reasons field choice coordinates maintained non energy momentum fact best description energy momentum distribution field approach echoed standard use non objects like heavily criticized unified field theory following research general entered series attempts geometric theory include aspect single entity described unified field theory article entitled theory continued lauded work increasingly isolated research efforts ultimately unsuccessful pursuit unification fundamental forces ignored mainstream developments physics notably strong weak nuclear forces understood years death mainstream physics turn largely ignored approaches unification dream laws physics gravity modern quests theory particular string theory fields emerge unified quantum mechanical setting collaborated produce model motivation model elementary particles charge solution field line program outlined paper fields play constitution elementary particles solutions cut black holes bridge patches end positively charged end negatively charged properties led believe pairs particles described way theory order incorporate spinning point particles general connection needed include called modification 1920s motion theory general fundamental law describe space curves equation describes particles derived general non linear energy pure fields like black hole trajectory determined new law proposed path singular solution like black hole determined general established objects angular momentum spinning objects investigations conducted investigations unsuccessful abandoned force waves research collaboration scientists addition longtime collaborators shot collaborations scientists experiment demonstrated motion known spin order reversed iron bar suspended confirmed leads bar rotate electron angular momentum changes changes experiment needed sensitive angular momentum associated small definitively established electron motion kind responsible gas model suggested able reproduce statistics gas considering box possible quantum motion particle box associate independent level occupation number number particles form second modern quantum mechanics applied derive properties ideal gas urged add author declined invitation student invented patented absorption revolutionary having moving parts heat input november patent awarded invention immediately commercial production promising patents acquired swedish company versus debates series public disputes quantum mechanics founders debates remembered importance philosophy science debates influence later interpretations quantum mechanics returned question quantum mechanics considered measurement particles affect noted collaborators performing different measurements distant particle position momentum different properties partner discovered disturbing way hypothesis local realism conclude particle properties determined principle proposed possible determine answer position momentum measurement way disturbing particle particle actually values position momentum principle essence objection quantum mechanics physical principle shown incorrect aspect experiment confirmed bell non scientific legacy traveling wrote daily wife adopted letters included papers bequeathed permitted personal letters available public requested years death died expressed interest profession honorary member told bbc pages private correspondence written successor licenses use associated imagery agent university popular culture period world war new_yorker published talk town feature saying known america stopped street people wanting explain theory finally figured way handle inquiries told pardon sorry mistaken professor subject inspiration novels films plays works music favorite model depictions mad scientists absent minded professors expressive face distinctive widely copied exaggerated time magazine wrote cartoonist dream come true awards honors received numerous awards honors awarded nobel prize physics services especially discovery law effect nominations met criteria set prize carried forward awarded publications following publications referenced article complete list publications found list scientific publications | Albert Einstein | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
11421_AageBohr | danish june september danish nuclear physicist shared nobel prize physics discovery connection collective motion particle motion atomic development theory structure atomic nucleus based connection starting concept irregular shaped liquid drop model nucleus developed detailed theory close agreement experiments father won prize father pairs fathers sons won nobel prize pairs won nobel prize physics early life born copenhagen june fourth sons physicist wife née oldest brother christian died boating accident youngest childhood physician chemical engineer lawyer olympic athlete played field hockey denmark summer olympics london family lived known grew surrounded working father family moved mansion donated heir honorary residence prominent contribution science literature arts went high school gymnasium copenhagen shortly german occupation denmark april entered studied physics assisted father helping draft correspondence articles related physics september word reached family nazis considered jewish grandmother jewish danger arrested danish resistance helped family escape sea sweden arrived october flew britain operated unarmed high speed bomber aircraft converted carry small valuable important passengers flying high speed high altitude cross german occupied norway avoid german fighters equipped parachute flying suit oxygen mask spent hour flight lying aircraft bomb bay arrival london rejoined father flown britain week officially junior researcher actually served personal assistant secretary father worked british atomic bomb project december number visits united_states father consultant manhattan_project father fame given false names father director asked review design reported work reached conclusion concerns viability design rest performed bombs atomic bombings hiroshima nagasaki august physics august war ended returned denmark resumed university education graduating master degree thesis concerned aspects atomic stopping power problems early member princeton new_jersey paying visit columbia_university met sparked interest recent discoveries related structure led visiting fellow columbia january august united_states married march children late 1940s known properties atomic explained current models liquid drop model developed shell model developed allowed additional features explained particular called magic numbers properties explained including non spherical distribution charge certain paper columbia_university suggested variant drop model nucleus explain non spherical charge distribution model nucleus like balloon balls inside surface discussed idea visiting columbia time independently conceived idea month submission submitted publication paper discussed problem general lines imagined rotating irregular shaped nucleus form surface tension developed idea publishing paper treated relationship surface nucleus movement individual return copenhagen began working compare theoretical work experimental data papers published demonstrated close agreement theory experiment example showing energy levels certain described rotation spectrum able reconcile shell model concept work stimulated new theoretical experimental studies jointly awarded nobel prize physics discovery connection collective motion particle motion atomic development theory structure atomic nucleus based connection father awarded prize pairs fathers sons win nobel prize physics married sons daughter nobel prize winning research receive doctorate writing thesis states atomic professor following father death succeeded director position held remained active retired member board inception director addition nobel prize won peace award prize medal continued work publishing volume monograph nuclear structure volume appeared second nuclear awarded honorary degree doctor later wife died october married son working area fluid dynamics died copenhagen september survived second wife children | Aage Bohr | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
12078_GeorgeT.Reynolds | april american physicist best known accomplishments particle physics environmental science received phd physics princeton writing thesis propagation shock waves world war joined united_states_navy served manhattan_project worked design explosive lenses required type nuclear weapon involved investigation disaster served manhattan_project team sent hiroshima nagasaki inspect bomb damage war began long academic career princeton_university director princeton director princeton new combined interest sea science working summers massachusetts studied marine worked woods hole institution early life born new_jersey son wife secretary attended new_jersey year received bachelor degree physics entered princeton_university awarded master science degree earned phd supervision writing thesis studies production propagation interactions shock waves manhattan_project world war raging time doctorate topic area highly sought wartime manhattan_project turned offer join avid surf fisherman sailor join united_states_navy attempted enlist turned wore glasses lobbied navy waived requirement commissioned ensign married librarian waited assignment instead assignment hoped sent manhattan_project assist design explosive lenses required type nuclear weapon april named men like working naval officers sent investigate disaster ammunition ship blown harbor tasked estimating size explosion based observations damage estimate tons tnt tons tnt tons bill subsequently found tons confirming estimate researchers determined atomic bomb maximum damage detonated air ground level later served manhattan_project operations field served worked responsible fat man bomb firing unit flew number practice missions bombing hiroshima nagasaki fighting ended manhattan_project team sent hiroshima nagasaki inspect bomb damage princeton war accepted offer assistant princeton_university spend rest career promoted associate professor professor interested cosmic rays director princeton initially recruited eventually professor division head went chairman later hired reputation spotting hiring talent assured won nobel prizes cosmic ray research attempted grow large organic crystal use particle materials struck incoming particle absorb energy light areas scientific research frustrated cracks crystals attempted problem liquid surprise liquid effective crystal today liquid widespread use nuclear biological medical research developed automated ray collecting data protein structures interest environmental issues increased late 1960s princeton established appointed director leadership investigated number unusual inter disciplinary topics energy conservation buildings indoor air quality relationship nuclear power nuclear weapons decision making process environmental issues career princeton spent time england churchill fellow cambridge_university later visiting senior research fellow oxford_university visiting professor oxford_university class professor physics professor emeritus years combined interest sea science working summer massachusetts studied marine worked woods hole institution died cancer home new_jersey april survived wife virginia sons richard robert david | George T. Reynolds | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
12520_HughBradner | november american physicist credited helped diving graduate ohio received doctorate california worked naval ordnance laboratory world war researched naval mines recruited join manhattan_project worked scientists including development high explosives exploding required atomic bombs war took position studying high energy physics investigated problems encountered staying cold water long periods time developed suit trap water body warm known father worked operation greenhouse nuclear test series joined remained rest career professor retiring retirement continued work research deep ocean astronomy project early life born nevada november raised ohio father briefly director maryland arsenal mother née older brother graduated ohio later received doctorate california writing thesis electron optical studies effect supervision manhattan_project receiving doctorate worked naval ordnance laboratory researched naval mines recruited join manhattan_project new_mexico helped develop atomic bomb helped develop wide range technology needed bomb including research high explosives exploding needed atomic bomb developed bomb triggering mechanism helped design new town laboratory worked closely scientists including witnessed trinity test nuclear weapons test july met future wife working secretary manhattan_project couple married security secret facility tight hall parents allowed attend ceremony wedding guests couple remained years died april age war took position studying high energy physics worked manhattan_project remained university worked atomic bombing test nuclear test series job berkeley required number underwater previously talked united_states_navy world war concerning problems staying cold water long periods time causes lose large amounts body heat quickly worked developing new suit counter basement family home scenic avenue berkeley california researched new conference california december according san_francisco_chronicle invented engineers founded order develop colleagues tested versions prototypes california scientist engineer advised use suit material proved successful found trap water body water heat body temperature warm letter showed clearly understood suit provided water suit skin layer water skin trapped quickly heat skin temperature material suit suit needed limit fresh cold water need dry work applied patent patent application turned similar design flight suit united_states_navy adopt new worries swimmers easier spot underwater exclusively profit invention company tried sell consumer market failed successfully penetrate market way including founders claims years brothers actually invented instead recent researchers concluded created original competitors los_angeles_times concluded father research paper published provided evidence later career life joined professor retired remained interested diving collecting outdoors later years continued work research deep ocean astronomy project combined careers physics died age home san_diego california complications pneumonia survived daughter grandchildren great granddaughter | Hugh Bradner | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
12665_Chien-ShiungWu | simplified chinese traditional chinese pinyin february chinese american experimental physicist significant contributions field nuclear physics worked manhattan_project helped develop process separating metal best known conducting experiment contradicted hypothetical law conservation discovery resulted colleagues lee winning nobel prize physics earned inaugural wolf prize physics expertise experimental physics evoked comparisons nicknames include lady physics chinese madame queen nuclear research early life education born town china second children family custom children generation character followed characters phrase means heroes outstanding figures accordingly older brother younger brother father extremely close encouraged interests creating environment surrounded books magazines newspapers received elementary school education school girls founded father left hometown age boarding school classes teacher training regular high school admission teacher training competitive charge tuition board guaranteed job graduation family afforded pay chose competitive option ranked ninth applicants graduated class admitted according governmental regulations time teacher training college students wanting universities needed serve year case nominally enforced went teach shanghai president time philosopher class took studied later renamed reinstated taiwan mathematics later transferring physics involved student politics relations china japan tense time students urging government stronger line japan elected student leaders colleagues felt students university involvement overlooked authorities case careful neglect studies led protests included sit presidential palace students met years graduation graduate level study physics worked assistant researcher supervisor professor earned phd abroad university_of_michigan encouraged accepted university_of_michigan uncle provided necessary funds embarked united_states female friend chemist president august parents uncle saw parents berkeley women arrived san_francisco plans graduate study changed visiting met physicist grandson president self proclaimed emperor china showed director soon win nobel prize physics invention particle heard michigan women allowed use entrance decided prefer study berkeley took head physics department offered place graduate school despite fact academic year commenced abandoned plans study michigan enrolled berkeley berkeley classmates included friends included history student chose remain united_states return nazi_germany american post doctoral student applied scholarship end year prejudice asian students instead offered readership lower applied secured scholarship rapid progress education research lawrence officially supervisor worked closely thesis separate parts electromagnetic radiation produced charged particle charged particle typically electron atomic nucleus investigated beta radioactive easily produced lawrence brother evaluating use cancer treatment radioactive marked work beta decay subject authority second thesis production radioactive produced nuclear inch inch completed june spite lawrence recommendations secure position university remained post doctoral fellow world war married home academic supervisor president bride groom families able attend outbreak pacific war moved east_coast united_states faculty member prestigious private women college massachusetts worked radar found job frustrating duties involved teaching opportunity research appealed lawrence wrote letters recommendation number universities smith responded making associate professor increasing salary accepted job princeton_university new_jersey instructor naval officers march joined manhattan_project sam laboratories columbia_university lived dormitory returning princeton weekends role headed support manhattan_project program worked alongside group led task develop radiation instrumentation september contacted colonel newly commissioned run unexpected problem starting shutting regular intervals suspected product half life hours culprit poison remembered work berkeley radioactive paper subject unpublished went room collected draft prepared culprit turned unexpectedly large absorption cross section end war august accepted offer position associate research professor columbia communication china restored received letter family plans visit china disrupted birth son grow physicist like parents joined family moved long_island communists came power china year father wrote urging return passport issued government found difficult travel abroad eventually led decision citizenship remain columbia rest career associate professor professor students called dragon lady character comic strip terry pirates beta decay conservation post war research continued investigate beta decay published theory beta decay experiment produced results theory set repeat experiment verify result suspected problem thick uneven film copper beta ray source causing emitted lose energy adapted older form added copper produce thin film able demonstrate observed result experimental error results consistent theory columbia knew chinese born theoretical physicist lee personally mid-1950s lee chinese theoretical physicist grew question hypothetical law elementary particle physics law conservation example highlighting problem puzzle particles apparently different charged strange similar considered particle different decay modes resulting different states observed suggesting different particles lee yang research existing experimental results convinced electromagnetic interactions strong interaction reason scientists expected true weak interaction tested lee yang theoretical studies showed hold true weak interaction lee yang worked pencil paper design experiment testing conservation laboratory lee turned expertise choosing working hardware manufacture set laboratory procedures carrying experiment chose taking sample radioactive cooling temperatures liquid gases beta particle expert beta decay extremely low temperatures needed reduce thermal vibration practically needed apply constant uniform magnetic field sample order cause spin axes atomic line direction work needed facilities expertise working liquid gases traveled headquarters maryland equipment carry experiments lee yang theoretical calculations predicted beta particles emitted hypothetical law conservation invalid experiment showed case weak nuclear interactions particle today known result soon confirmed colleagues columbia_university different experiments soon results published different research papers issue physics journal results confirmed laboratories different experiments discovery violation major contribution particle physics development standard model recognition theoretical work lee yang awarded nobel prize physics later life investigated confirmed hypothesis milestone road standard model universal form beta decay model demonstration brought assumptions weak interaction question weak force interaction charge effect held true gravity strong interaction assumed hold weak interaction conducted series experiments double beta decay salt proved charge important experiment carried confirmation calculations quantum opposite directions experimental confirmation quantum results relevant pair applicable later conducted research molecular changes cause cell disease research effect 1960s wrote textbook beta decay published standard reference subject older brother died father mother time united_states government severe restrictions citizens ability travel abroad permitted visit china attend saw uncle younger brother trip hong_kong nixon visit china relations countries improved able visit china time uncle brother perished cultural revolution tombs parents destroyed greeted personally apologized destruction tombs returned china number times later life outspoken protested imprisonment taiwan relatives physicist journalist spoke gender discrimination wonder asked audience tiny mathematical symbols dna molecules preference masculine feminine treatment men referred professor immediately corrected told professor new chairman adjusted pay equal male counterparts protested crackdown china followed square massacre retired professor died february new_york_city age suffering stroke ambulance rushed luke pronounced dead arrival survived husband son accordance wishes ashes buried courtyard father founded attended girl honors awards elected fellow elected member woman honorary doctorate princeton_university research corporation award year award prize physics honorary fellow royal society edinburgh scientist year award female president national medal science person selected receive wolf prize physics island medal honor living scientist named medal elected foreign | Chien-Shiung Wu | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
13618_KatharineWay | way february december american physicist best known work world war worked manhattan_project chicago professor education early life born pennsylvania second child lawyer wife older brother younger sister originally named catherine later changed friends colleagues generally knew mother died years old father married ear throat specialist provided role model career woman way educated miss boarding school new_jersey connecticut entered forced drop years ill suspected tuberculosis new_york attended couple studied columbia_university interest mathematics authored way published academic paper finally graduated went stimulated interest nuclear physics phd student jobs hard come great depression stayed graduate student completing requirements phd research fellow allowed receive phd thesis nuclear physics cross section subsequently took teaching position assistant professor conference new_york way presented paper nuclear magnetic moments examined spinning atomic nucleus models including liquid drop model followed closer examination liquid drop model paper entitled liquid drop model nuclear moments showed resulting cigar shaped nucleus unstable later recalled day came reported gave solution case sufficiently great angular velocity clear case kind instability took discovery recognize nature instability nuclear analysis higher order terms energy predict advance discovery difficulty mathematics difficulty model failed right right trends nuclear magnetic moments manhattan_project recruited way work manhattan_project chicago working physicist way analyzed data early nuclear designs possible create self sustaining nuclear chain reaction calculations use construction chicago examined problem nuclear poisoning certain products physicist developed way product decay apart working manhattan_project chicago way visited moved tennessee continued research nuclear decay began collection organization nuclear data edited new_york_times bestseller world report public meaning atomic bomb book included essays sold copies later life way moved washington went work years later persuaded establish organization special responsibility gathering nuclear data leadership moved way remained head beginning published journal information gathered joined following year second journal persuaded editors add subject articles facilitate cross referencing way left professor durham north_carolina continued editor later life interested health problems seniors lobbied improved health care way married died chapel hill north_carolina december | Katharine Way | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
14644_PhilipMorrison | november april professor physics mit known work manhattan_project world war later work quantum physics nuclear physics high energy graduate morrison interested physics studied supervision joined communist_party world war joined university_of_chicago worked design nuclear moved manhattan_project new_mexico worked development explosive lenses required detonate type nuclear weapon morrison transported core trinity test device test site seat dodge leader pit crew helped load atomic bombs board aircraft participated atomic bombing hiroshima nagasaki war ended traveled hiroshima manhattan_project mission assess damage war champion nuclear wrote helped found communists remain employed academically active 1950s research turned away nuclear physics published papers cosmic rays paper considered mark birth gamma ray astronomy known writing popular science books articles appearing television programs early life education born new_jersey november son moses morrison younger sister family moved pittsburgh contracted result wore leg spent years wheelchair morrison commence school grade graduating high school entered planning major electrical engineering interested physics earned entered earned phd theoretical physics supervision writing thesis problems morrison married girl known high school fellow graduate divorced married remained died manhattan_project finished morrison took position instructor instructor december world war raging globe recruited join university_of_chicago january worked design nuclear concerned danger german nuclear energy project morrison helped persuade director manhattan_project brigadier general initiate mission order gather information work chicago winding morrison moved manhattan_project new_mexico group leader task help determine bomb require calculated kilograms sufficient worked explosive lenses required detonate type nuclear weapon morrison transported core trinity test test site seat dodge eyewitness test july wrote report month later leader pit crew helped load atomic bombs board aircraft participated atomic bombing hiroshima nagasaki war ended morrison traveled hiroshima manhattan_project mission assess damage activism morrison returned remained turned offer return berkeley instead accepted invitation join physics faculty surveying destruction left use bomb hiroshima morrison champion nuclear wrote helped found testified congress need civilian control nuclear energy participated new_york year life magazine included image gallery america eminent fellow travellers morrison joined communist_party berkeley house american activities committee devoted pages report activities called president great pressure board members alumni fire morrison remained supportive declared morrison demonstrated patriotism distinguished role played wartime development atomic bomb president sympathetic instructed morrison activities academic field morrison agreed nonetheless communists remain employed academically active 1950s writer alleged morrison soviet spy charge morrison strongly stone accepted academic work morrison wrote paper calculated gamma rays emitted process electron capture initially war morrison continued working nuclear physics collaborating textbook early treatments relatively new field following political morrison attention began drifting stars published paper explored theory cosmic rays travel galaxy morrison followed review theories origins cosmic rays paper considered mark birth gamma ray astronomy collaboration morrison published paper proposing potential search communications component modern program proposals detecting extraterrestrial intelligence conceded probability success difficult estimate search chance success zero morrison remained went mit remained remainder career institute professor emeritus working collaboration student morrison investigated effect scattering important source cosmic rays gamma rays mit morrison teamed ray group group nearby morrison deeply involved exploration ray gamma ray emissions paper noted similarities returned applying model radio galaxy media work morrison known numerous books television programs produced popular science articles issues provided narration script powers wife turned material coffee table book appeared science documentary film target earth pbs aired miniseries inquiry know know hosted addition columnist reviewer books science starting later life critic strategic defense initiative authored authored number books critical cold war nuclear arms race including winding price defense nuclear reason hope looking glass recognition morrison fellow chairman member lifetime morrison received numerous honors awards delivered laws physics large small awarded presidential award prize science writing award medal william prize scientific achievement wife prize death morrison died sleep respiratory failure home cambridge massachusetts april survived | Philip Morrison | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
14710_ValLogsdonFitch | march february american nuclear physicist researcher awarded nobel prize physics experiment alternating gradient proved certain reactions adhere fundamental symmetry principles specifically proved examining decay reaction run reverse path original reaction showed reactions particles indifferent time phenomenon violation discovered demolished faith natural laws governed symmetry born cattle ranch near nebraska drafted world war worked manhattan_project new_mexico later graduated completed physics columbia_university member faculty princeton_university retirement early life born cattle ranch near nebraska march youngest children cattle wife née school teacher older brother sister family farm square miles km2 size miles site wounded knee massacre ranch small father specialized raising breeding stock soon birth father badly injured horse riding accident longer work ranch family moved nearby town gordon nebraska father entered insurance business attended school graduating manhattan_project attended years transferred world war studies interrupted drafted completed basic training army sent training army specialized training program program soldiers attended colleges intensive courses program year manpower requirements war great army terminated program soldiers posted combat units soldiers joined provided needed technicians manhattan_project army sent manhattan_project new_mexico technicians met physics including cases attending courses physics taught worked group headed member acquainted techniques experimental physics participated drop testing mock atomic bombs conducted worked trinity site witnessed trinity nuclear test july discharged army continued work civilian year order earn money briefly return academic career wartime experiences led decide physicist head physics division offered graduate needed complete undergraduate degree return northwestern elected enter recommended graduated bachelor degree electrical engineering advice student columbia_university division head decided pursue doctoral studies columbia wrote letter introduction academic supervisor gave paper concerning electron replaced observed completely theoretical evidence existed good thesis topic designed built experiment measure gamma rays emitted turned good time search columbia recently commissioned produce developed activated gamma ray wartime advances electronics yielded advances components new needed bring initially found suggested expanding search energy range predicted basis accepted size radius atomic nucleus found looking discovering process nucleus closer completed writing thesis studies rays thesis published november married secretary worked laboratory columbia sons died married acquiring obtaining doctorate interest shifted strange particles took position princeton_university spent rest career professor professor professor physics retaining position retirement chair conducted research acquainted played bridge nights waited available built new kind spark chamber realized perfect experiments known yale_university physicist suggested interesting properties worth investigating decay matter colleagues set experiment alternating gradient discovered unexpected result decay neutral respect symmetry decayed faster decayed importance result immediately appreciated evidence big bang accumulated realized explained universe largely matter simply found answer physicist exist discovery received nobel prize physics addition nobel prize received orlando john price medal member jason defense advisory group president served number governmental science science policy committees including president died home princeton new_jersey age february publications notes feedback predecessor agency march high resolution scale columbia_university predecessor agency august neutral currents princeton_university predecessor agency march results performance broad band counter princeton_university | Val Logsdon Fitch | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
15383_BrianJosephson | born january welsh theoretical physicist professor emeritus physics university_of_cambridge best known pioneering work quantum awarded nobel prize physics prediction effect year old phd student cambridge won nobel prize physics shared prize jointly received half award work quantum spent academic career member theory condensed matter group cambridge fellow cambridge served professor physics early 1970s took meditation turned attention issues outside parameters mainstream science set mind matter unification project explore idea intelligence nature relationship quantum mechanics consciousness synthesis science eastern broadly known quantum interests led express support topics water memory cold fusion focus criticism fellow scientists early life career education born cardiff wales jewish parents née attended credits school masters having helped particularly physics master introduced theoretical physics went cambridge read mathematics cambridge completing years finding somewhat sterile decided switch physics known cambridge brilliant shy student physicist recalled oxford discuss exam results reader physics cambridge asking going theory like knife butter undergraduate published paper effect pointing crucial issue researchers overlooked according eminent physicist speaking wrote papers important assure place history physics discovery effect graduated research student university laboratory old site supervised american physicist future nobel prize spent year cambridge recalled having class experience lecturer assure right come explain class period phd student carried research led discovery effect cambridge unveiled plaque building dedicated discovery november elected fellow obtained phd thesis entitled non linear discovery effect years old work quantum won nobel prize discovered tunnel thin barrier predicting according physicist junction current flow drop voltage voltage drop current frequency related drop voltage dependence magnetic field known effect junction junction calculations published physics letters chosen new journal paper entitled possible new effects received june published july confirmed princeton appeared paper probable observation effect submitted january anderson confirmed calculations american physicist shared nobel prize physics shared objected work submitted article july arguing flow disagreement led famous confrontation september year queen london eighth international conference low temperature physics eminent world began speaking student stood interrupted men exchanged views reportedly civil soft spoken manner writes discovery effect led important physics including invention quantum interference devices geology highly sensitive measurements medicine computing work build prototype computer times faster nobel prize awarded important prizes discovery including outstanding contributions science hughes medal prize won nobel prize physics sharing award scientists worked quantum awarded half prize theoretical predictions properties tunnel barrier particular phenomena generally known effects half award shared equally japanese physicist new_york norwegian american physicist general_electric new_york experimental discoveries phenomena respectively unusually winners held awarded prize positions held spent year united_states research assistant professor returning cambridge assistant director research remained member theory condensed matter group theoretical physics group rest career elected fellow year awarded fellowship spent year reader physics cambridge professor position held retired meditation early visiting faculty member netherlands movement held visiting early interest meditation interested philosophy mind late particular mind body problem scientists argue phenomena paranormal themes real began practising meditation popular celebrities famously beatles winning nobel prize gave freedom work orthodox areas increasingly involved including science conferences fellow scientists talking meditation higher states consciousness angered scientists molecular cellular versailles inviting read 5th 2nd century bce work founder movement arguing special states consciousness achieved meditation forces scientist shouted listen wild wrote session ended year addressed held welcome cambridge following month canadian conference scientists tested claims teenager said abilities apparently told reporter believed manning powers new kind energy later withdrew corrected statement said long interest paranormal meant dismiss ideas hand presidents trinity set trinity fund research administered college continued explore idea intelligence nature particularly reading took advanced form known program according anderson movement produced poster showing inches floor argued meditation lead mystical scientific insights result come believe creator involved mid group associated investigating paranormal claims organized loosely called effectively house according historian science lot popular government interest time quantum mechanics american government financing research able understand found demand ideas quantum physics particularly bell quantum explore issues action distance remote viewing travelled california meet leading members group laser authors set psi lab papers published work included testing later claims objects nature peer reviewed journals san_francisco_chronicle covered visit organized consciousness cambridge publishing proceedings consciousness conference science consciousness followed year later spain attended addressed set mind matter unification project explore intelligent processes nature told future science consider quantum mechanics particular kinds organised complex system quantum manifestation organisation paranormal phenomena reception views scientific community delivered memorial lecture lecture sir wrote long physics colourful figures support unorthodox causes attracted criticism fellow scientists 1970s including regards criticism prejudice believes served academic support network repeatedly criticized science consensus arguing scientific community quick reject certain kinds ideas goes physics community cosmic time travel argues long keeps distance mystical new age referring position disbelief holds responsible rejection academic journals papers paranormal compared theory continental drift proposed explain observations resisted ridiculed evidence led acceptance death science writer criticized complaining article ridiculed complained booklet celebrating nobel prize centenary wrote britain forefront research physicist said let supporting nonsense physicist suggested skating thin ice given work parallel time travel criticized experiment test claims russian inside people bodies special kind vision experiment involved asked match people confirmed medical conditions plus pass test correct matches argued significant experiment set fail researchers professor psychology responded record publishing professor applied statistics supported position experiment inadequate determine effect reputation promoting unorthodox causes cemented support ideas water memory cold fusion rejected mainstream scientists water memory purported provide explanation dismissed scientists expressed support attending conference french proposed cold fusion hypothesis nuclear reactions occur room temperature british chemist pioneered research died wrote supportive obituary guardian complained nature obituary failed credit london withdrew invitation conference theory work paranormal reinstated complaints awards selected works | Brian Josephson | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
15964_HildeLevi | july german danish physicist pioneer use radioactive biology medicine notably techniques dating later life scientific historian published biography born non religious jewish family frankfurt germany entered carried doctoral studies berlin writing thesis metal supervision time received elected office germany jews longer allowed hired academic positions went denmark found position working published number papers use radioactive substances biology nazis began rounding danish jews september fled sweden worked biologist stockholm war ended returned denmark work copenhagen spent academic year united_states learning recently discovered techniques dating introduced europe retired involved collected papers eventually publishing biography early life born frankfurt germany daughter adolf sales director metal company wife née daughter printer older brother called gifted musician learned play piano young age summers listen performances cousins summer house bavaria musicians including jewish family religion jewish community enrolled frankfurt religion listed jewish religious instruction compulsory attend classes local soon rebelled told parents wish attend classes came reject formal religion high school decided scientist final year devoted physics project photography girl class major physics year graduation april father sent england months learn english good manners entered listened lectures doctorate father managed accepted berlin wrote thesis metal supervision nazi period time received doctorate elected office germany gone exile jews longer allowed hired academic positions danish branch helped find position denmark asked refugee germany knew willing assistant replied know personally knew thesis rated highly engaged physicist known mother jewish opposed son marrying jewish girl broke engagement days wedding place action shocked eminent physicist invited visit second world war married friends visit institute including worked assistant publishing papers left denmark united_states assistant hungarian physical chemist recent discovery induced consequent creation short lived radioactive opened number new uses radioactive substances biology explored publishing number papers cancelled doctorate april germans occupied denmark nazis began rounding danish jews september thousands jews fled sweden rest war worked biologist stockholm later life war ended elected stay sweden decided drop biological research institute return concentrating physics accepted position copenhagen august like won nobel prize spent academic year united_states fellow learned university_of_chicago recently discovered technique dating developed new technique working rochester new_york returning denmark worked copenhagen develop dating equipment test dating man investigate effects agent consultant retired involved collected papers result work biography published year organised copenhagen town hall honoured berlin students dismissed died copenhagen july | Hilde Levi | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
16963_LuisWalterAlvarez | june september american experimental physicist inventor professor awarded nobel prize physics commented brilliant productive experimental twentieth century receiving phd university_of_chicago went work devised set experiments observe electron capture radioactive predicted beta decay theory observed produced measured lifetime collaboration measured magnetic moment joined contributed number world war radar projects early improvements foe radar called system known preventing enemy submarines realizing found new airborne microwave radars enemy submarines wait radar signal getting strong escaping attack transmitted radar signal strength cube distance submarine approached sub signal measured sub got progressively weaker sub assumed plane getting farther away didn radar system best known played major role aviation particularly post war berlin spent months university_of_chicago working nuclear coming work manhattan project worked design explosive lenses development exploding member observed trinity nuclear test later bombing hiroshima great war involved design liquid hydrogen bubble chamber allowed team millions photographs particle interactions develop complex computer systems measure analyze interactions discover entire families new particles resonance states work resulted awarded nobel prize involved project ray egyptian search unknown chambers son developed hypothesis proposes extinction event wiped result impact member republican_party early life born san_francisco june second child oldest son physician wife née grandson physician lived time spain cuba finally united_states found better method older sister younger brother bob younger sister aunt california artist specializing oil painting attended san_francisco father researcher family moved rochester minnesota attended expected attend urging teachers rochester instead went university_of_chicago received bachelor degree master degree phd undergraduate belonged gamma delta fraternity moved graduate student chicago discovered physics rare opportunity use equipment legendary physicist constructed apparatus counter tubes arranged cosmic ray faculty advisor conducted experiment mexico_city measure called east west effect cosmic rays observing incoming radiation west concluded primary cosmic rays positively charged submitted resulting paper early work sister worked time secretary mentioned lawrence lawrence invited tour century progress exhibition chicago completed oral exams engaged married asked sister lawrence jobs available telegram soon arrived job offer lawrence started long association married university_of_chicago headed california children walter jean divorced december married children helen worked lawrence experimental team supported group theoretical headed devised set experiments observe electron capture radioactive predicted beta decay theory observed sweep aside radioactive sources designed special purpose counter detect soft rays coming capture published results bombarded fusion reaction yields plus plus basic fusion reactions foundation hydrogen bomb current research controlled nuclear fusion time stability reaction products unknown based existing theories thought stable unstable proved reverse knowledge details inch operation tuned machine accelerate able beam accelerated kind super mass accelerated came deep gas wells millions years component stable produced radioactive reaction measured lifetime knowledge known time flight techniques created energetic beam thermal began long series experiments collaborating measure magnetic moment result published major advance earlier work world war united_states demonstrated leading american scientists successful application cavity produce short radar established months earlier president created central national laboratory mit purpose developing military applications microwave radar lawrence immediately recruited best joined new laboratory known november contributed number radar projects early improvements foe radar called system known preventing enemy submarines realizing found new airborne microwave radars projects build equipment transition british long wave radar new microwave centimeter band radar possible cavity working microwave early warning system invented linear array antenna suppressed unwanted radiation field need mechanical scanning microwave phased array antenna additional radar systems antenna enabled eagle precision bombing radar support precision bombing bad weather clouds completed late war number equipped eagle worked came late difference radar system best known played major role aviation particularly post war berlin antenna achieve high angular resolution allows ground based radar operators watching special precision displays guide landing airplane runway verbal commands pilot system simple direct worked previously pilots successful military continued use years war use countries 1980s awarded trophy conspicuous outstanding initiative concept development system safe landing aircraft weather traffic conditions spent summer england testing landing planes returning battle bad weather training british use system encountered young raf radar technician clarke subsequently experiences radar research station basis novel contains disguised version clarke developed long term friendship manhattan_project fall returned united_states offer work manhattan project suggested spend months university_of_chicago working coming months general asked think way find germans operating nuclear suggested airplane carry system detect radioactive gases produces particularly equipment fly germany detected radioactive germans built capable chain reaction idea monitoring products intelligence gathering extremely important war result radar work months spent arrived spring later contemporaries work little boy bomb far involved design fat man bomb technique forcing sub critical masses type gun work high level background spontaneous cause soon parts approached heat expansion force system apart energy released decided use nearly critical sphere quickly explosives smaller core technical challenge time create symmetrical required core required density thirty explosive charges simultaneously detonated spherical core conventional explosive techniques blasting caps progress achieving small fraction directed graduate student use large deliver high voltage charge directly explosive lens replacing blasting caps exploding exploding wire detonated thirty charges tenths invention critical success type nuclear weapon supervised experiments later wrote modern weapons grade background rate low terrorists material good chance setting high yield explosion simply dropping half material half people unaware separated hand trivial job set nuclear explosion available making explode difficult technical job know working task manhattan_project develop set microphone aircraft measure strength blast wave atomic explosion allow scientists bomb energy observed trinity nuclear test carried fellow members flying great formation measured blast effect bomb dropped hiroshima days later flying great equipment measure strength nagasaki explosion bubble chamber returning professor ideas use wartime radar knowledge improve particle bear fruit big idea time come concept phase stability led extending concept lawrence team build world largest began operating produce amounts interesting particles particularly secondary collisions complex interactions hard detect analyze time seizing new development particle tracks created known bubble chamber realized device needed function liquid hydrogen hydrogen simplest desirable target interactions particles produced began development program build series small chambers championed device device small glass cylinder filled suddenly reducing pressure device liquid placed temporary state disturbed track particle passing able maintain state seconds spontaneous boiling took place team built chambers liquid hydrogen constructed metal glass windows tracks photographed chamber beam picture taken chamber time beam cycle program built liquid hydrogen bubble chamber feet meters long employed dozens graduate students hundreds engineers technicians took millions photographs particle interactions developed computer systems measure analyze interactions discovered families new particles resonance states work resulted nobel prize physics decisive contributions elementary particle physics particular discovery large number states possible development technique hydrogen bubble chambers data analysis scientific detective proposed known originally conceived large carried high altitude balloon order study extremely high energy particle interactions time focus experiment changed study role particles radiation early universe work large effort carrying aloft high altitude balloon flights high flying aircraft early precursor satellite born experiments cosmic background radiation resulted award nobel prize shared proposed search egyptian unknown chambers naturally occurring cosmic rays scheme place spark chambers standard equipment high energy particle physics time beneath second pyramid known chamber measuring counting rate cosmic rays different directions reveal existence void rock structure assembled team united_states egypt recording equipment constructed experiment carried interrupted day war restarted war effort continued recording analyzing penetrating cosmic rays reported chambers found pyramid surveyed november life published series photographs film took kennedy assassination expert intrigued pictures began study learned film demonstrated theory experiment backward snap president head fully consistent shot investigated timing disturbed camera speed camera pointing number things fbi overlooked got wrong produced paper intended informal advice physicist intent arriving truth dinosaur extinction son nuclear uncovered literally shook earth great discoveries earth history research central italy 1970s walls gorge limestone layers included strata cretaceous boundary called boundary boundary periods exactly boundary layer clay walter told father layer marked extinct knew clay big mystery intended solve access nuclear able work technique activation analysis published seminal paper proposing extraterrestrial cause cretaceous extinction called cretaceous extinction years following publication article clay found contain shocked crystals microscopic diamonds rare minerals formed conditions great temperature pressure publication paper brought criticism community scientific debate ensued years later death evidence large impact crater called found coast mexico providing support theory researchers later found end cretaceous extinction occurred rapidly terms thousands years millions years previously supposed continue study alternative extinction causes increased particularly massive occurred time climate change checking fossil record march panel scientists agreed impact triggered mass extinction aviation autobiography said think having separate careers science aviation found equally rewarding important contributor enjoyment flying learned fly later earning instrument multi engine ratings years accumulated hours flight time pilot command said found activities satisfying pilot command responsibility passengers lives numerous professional contributions aviation world war led development multiple aviation related technologies projects described including awarded trophy held basic patent radar assigned rights government later career served multiple high level advisory committees related civilian military aviation included task group future air navigation air traffic control systems president committee studying scientific community help improve capabilities fighting war aviation responsibilities led adventures example working civilian fly low approach view outside cockpit flew military aircraft pilot seat including lockheed addition survived crash world war passenger miles master death died cancer september died complications succession recent operations cancer cremated ashes scattered papers awards honors fellow american physical society president member medal merit fellow fellow california scientist year national medal science nobel prize physics member university_of_chicago alumni medal award named scout award selected publications berkeley linear october high energy physics march inch bubble chamber july element variable power spherical lens patent december early days mass hydrogen bubble chamber june history linear patents golf training device optical range variable angle element variable power spherical lens variable power lens system particle liquid electron medium method making optical element matrix optical element reduced thickness method forming optical element reduced thickness | Luis Walter Alvarez | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
19028_CharlesCritchfield | june february american mathematical physicist graduate earned phd physics direction conducted research princeton received patents improved designs persuaded come manhattan_project joined captain gun type weapons thin man discovered design work transferred leader group responsible design testing provided burst kick started nuclear fat man weapon war professor vice president research division worked family rockets offered position held retired early life born ohio june grew washington received degrees mathematics earned phd physics direction graduate studies colleague introduced wrote paper analyzed nuclear fusion year showed process key link chain reaction cycle major ways nuclear energy released solar core massive stars awarded nobel prize work stellar world war graduated taught year invitation awarded fellowship went work princeton time recruited advisory board joined visits brief stay harvard_university went continued studies resulted patents improved designs experience persuaded come manhattan_project joined captain leader target source group worked gun type weapons thin man april manhattan_project experienced crisis discovered nuclear work response completely reorganized laboratory focus development type nuclear weapon august reassigned new leader group group responsible design testing provided burst kick started nuclear fat man weapon postwar left returned soon left join assistant professor participated classified project improve balloon technology invented patented natural shape balloon participated student early search primary cosmic ray advancing professor minnesota vice president research division worked family rockets began series evolved launch vehicles space missions created staff expected serve company engineering divisions carry basic scientific research student joined staff created facility observations focused long radio waves transferred professor original observatory abandoned similar research continues larger central new_mexico later life early november president secretary defense selected head hoped able fix nation trouble missile program reluctant serve director salary offered let serve pay government paying expenses day allowing continue draw salary accepted offer ran storm political media criticism conflict interest involved heading agency million worth business year withdrew consideration accepted moved madison friends offered position took instead held position retired continued association laboratory death long battle cancer february obituary written buried wife jean new_mexico external links voices manhattan_project | Charles Critchfield | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
19844_KennethBainbridge | july july american physicist harvard_university work research precise measurements mass differences nuclear allowed confirm mass energy concept director manhattan_project trinity nuclear test took place july described trinity explosion foul awesome display remarked immediately test sons marked beginning dedication ending testing nuclear weapons efforts maintain civilian control future developments field early life born new_york second sons educated new_york high school developed interest radio inspired enter mit study electrical engineering years earned bachelor science master science degrees summer breaks worked general_electric laboratories massachusetts new_york obtained patents related tubes normally promising start career general_electric aware interested physics graduating mit enrolled princeton_university consultant general_electric faculty awarded new field writing thesis search element analysis positive rays supervision early career enjoyed series prestigious graduation awarded fellowship time located campus pennsylvania directed english physicist interest nuclear physics married margaret member teaching faculty september son daughters joan developed mass resolving power relative precision instrument verify mass energy wrote establishing accurate comparisons masses light particles concerned nuclear particularly discovered achieved noteworthy triumph experimental proof fundamental theory mass energy awarded prestigious fellowship travel england work cambridge_university continued work developing mass friends british physicist fellowship expired september returned united_states accepted associate harvard_university started building new mass designed working commenced work design inch provided decided build inch instead elected fellow interest mass led naturally interest relative abundance discovery nuclear led interest separating proposed pump produce vacuum necessary work enlisted help little interest work research carried use packed new_mexico world war september world war raging europe brought number new technologies united_states including cavity high powered device generates interaction stream magnetic field device promised radar demolished thoughts americans entertained technological leadership established develop radar technology october scientists recruited scientists divided work drew pulse working navy helped develop high powered radars warships joined project initially led instrumentation group developed ray instrumentation examining explosions march head new group charged conducting nuclear test sweeping reorganization laboratory august july colleagues conducted trinity nuclear test personal nightmare later wrote knowing bomb didn head test tower seek find gone wrong relief explosion atomic bomb went drama later described foul awesome display turned said sons relieved trinity test success relating bulletin atomic scientists article feeling gone properly followed deep relief wouldn tower gone wrong work manhattan_project received letters project director major general received presidential certificate merit work postwar returned harvard war initiated construction inch dismantled chaired physics department harvard years drew senator aggressive defense colleagues chairman responsible renovation old established devoted good deal time improving laboratory facilities graduate students 1950s remained outspoken proponent civilian control nuclear power abandonment nuclear testing prominent scientists petitioned president declare united_states use hydrogen bomb retired harvard wife margaret died suddenly january blood broken wrist married editor new_york_city october died february scholarship established memory died home lexington massachusetts july survived daughters marriage buried hill cemetery martha plot wife margaret son martin papers | Kenneth Bainbridge | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
23296_KlausFuchs | december january german theoretical physicist atomic spy convicted supplying information american british soviet_union shortly second world war responsible significant theoretical calculations relating nuclear weapons later early models hydrogen bomb son lutheran pastor attended father professor theology involved student politics joining student branch gold paramilitary organisation expelled joined went hiding fire fled united_kingdom received phd supervision worked assistant second world war broke europe interned later canada returned britain assistant working tube british atomic bomb project began passing information project soviet_union german communist major worked spy ring far_east went columbia_university new_york_city work manhattan_project august joined working chief area expertise problem necessary development bomb war returned worked head january confessed spy sentenced fourteen years imprisonment stripped british citizenship released serving years emigrated elected germany central committee later appointed deputy director served retired early life born grand december children lutheran pastor wife wagner known given older brother older sister younger sister family moved attended gymnasium took school siblings father unpopular political views came share known red german word fox entered father professor theology involved student politics joining student branch party father joined gold party paramilitary organisation father took new position professor religion kiel autumn transferred brother sister attended continued studies mathematics physics october mother committed suicide drinking acid family later discovered maternal grandmother taken life march german presidential election supported president fearing split vote hand job candidate adolf_hitler ran candidate offered speak expelled year siblings joined brother active speakers public meetings occasionally attempted disrupt gatherings gathering beaten thrown river hitler chancellor germany january decided leave kiel particularly strong known member enrolled berlin february took early train berlin meeting train read fire newspaper correctly assumed opposition parties blamed fire quietly removed hammer pin meeting berlin held secret fellow party members urged continue studies country went hiding months apartment fellow party member august attended anti fascist conference paris chaired met english couple invited stay somerset eventually expelled october refugee britain arrived england september member family heirs arranged meet bristol professor physics agreed research assistant earned physics paper quantum mechanical calculation elastic metals published proceedings time number german refugees working lacked positions think teacher arranged research post working german refugee published papers born statistical mechanics systems fluctuations electromagnetic radiation proceedings received doctorate science degree edinburgh copies father germany germany dismissed academic post disillusioned support arrested speaking government held month married fellow communist child named arrested sentenced months imprisonment freed christmas wife arrested spent years prison established car rental agency berlin jews opponents government germany arrested fled studied education psychology returned berlin worked car rental agency arranged friends united_states attend college visited england route america eventually married american communist settled cambridge massachusetts permanent resident united_states arrested rental cars fled czechoslovakia released went live sentenced years later escaped prison way czechoslovakia august committed suicide throwing train leaving raise young second world war applied british citizen august application processed second world war broke europe september classification system enemy aliens born provided reference said member anti nazi matters stood june police arrived took july sent camp quebec canada joined communist discussion group led member fought spanish civil war fleeing britain family helped organise britain arranged brother law friend bring magazines lobbied release christmas day group board ship return britain returned edinburgh january resumed working born published papers born mass centre iii wave functions nuclear theory approached work tube program british atomic bomb research project despite wartime restrictions granted british citizenship august signed declaration form accommodation scarce wartime birmingham stayed important work included fundamental paper separation soon contacted teaching contact alexander secretary military soviet_union embassy worked russian foreign military intelligence meetings teamed find travel london sister german communist major experienced agent worked spy ring far_east late rest charles transferred columbia_university new_york_city work means manhattan_project asset britain control transferred russian soviet_union civilian intelligence organisation moved new_york spent christmas family cambridge contacted agent early august worked chief area expertise problem core bomb point calculation work refused lack interest author techniques method calculating energy assembly goes highly prompt critical report blast waves considered classic later filed patent describing method initiate fusion weapon trigger scientists present trinity test considered valuable men division best theoretical known dated grade school teachers befriended members owned cars lent visit dying wife hospital main author pointed chosen gold experienced group contact grounds safer having meet directly russian operative ultimately responsible relationship gold reported meeting obviously worked people fully aware mathematical physicist likely brilliant man position age looks took long walk dinner member british mission working direct control work involves mainly separating electronic method developed berkeley california carried place known camp simultaneously method tried east method prove successful preliminary step separation final work electronic method hope electronic method ready early method july says estimate optimistic says withheld british country told post war request replaced director october stayed laboratory help preparations operation crossroads weapons tests mcmahon act prohibited transfer information nuclear research foreign country including britain explicit official authority supplied highly classified information nuclear scientists britain soviet contacts british official files withheld highly regarded scientist british wanted return united_kingdom work britain post war nuclear weapons program returned august head late gave soviet case officer principal theoretical outline creating hydrogen bomb initial drafts development work progressed meeting times provided results test bombs key data production later testified passed detailed information project soviet_union information super design hydrogen bomb attended conference committee created facilitate exchange atomic secrets highest levels governments united_states great_britain canada soviet spy attendance british secretary september information project indicated spy british intelligence services wary indicating source information soviets broken contact february subsequently tipped october approached head security news father given chair interrogation officer informal meeting december initially denied spy detained january arranged interview voluntarily confessed spy days later directed statement technical content deputy controller atomic energy told acquired agent berkeley california informed soviet_union electromagnetic separation research earlier statements british american intelligence agencies key witness trials united_states data soviet project said physicist knew truly changed history head soviet project foreign intelligence party check giving directly scientists trust information default unknown information substantial effect considering pace soviet program set primarily hard scholars accurately judge time saved according history communist international greatest contribution soviets processed use bomb gave gold technical information january acquired years experimentation cost million disclosed americans planned use atomic bomb information passed relating hydrogen bomb useful debated scholars agree assessment concluded time left program summer little known mechanism hydrogen bomb information useful soviet_union successful design devised soviet later noted americans eventually early designs useless later archival work soviet physicist german suggested early work help soviet efforts hydrogen bomb closer final correct solution recognized time spurred soviet research useful problems eventually provided correct answer work bomb including patent particular model weapon classified united_states difficult scholars fully assess conclusions case clear given soviets secret hydrogen bomb actually know later life espionage likely led cancel anglo american plan britain american atomic bombs prosecuted sir convicted march counts breaking official secrets act communicating information potential enemy trial lasting minutes lord sentenced fourteen years imprisonment maximum espionage soviet_union classed ally time december stripped british citizenship head british bomb project sir visited prison released june serving years months sentence required england long term prisoners entitled law good behaviour prison prison promptly emigrated gave chinese helped develop chinese atomic bomb tested years later according authors political history bomb historians nuclear weapons history challenged particular assertion asserted ambitious deeply flawed book married friend years student communist continued scientific career achieved considerable prominence elected central committee later appointed deputy director served retired received merit order died berlin january cremated ashes buried berlin cemetery | Klaus Fuchs | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
23447_EdwardCondon | march march distinguished american nuclear physicist pioneer quantum mechanics participant development radar nuclear weapons world war manhattan_project principle rules named director president president mccarthy period efforts root communist united_states target house american activities committee grounds follower new revolutionary movement quantum mechanics defended famous commitment physics science widely known principal author official review funded united_states_air_force concluded unidentified flying objects explanations lunar crater named early life education born march new_mexico father supervising construction narrow gauge railroad built area logging companies graduating high school oakland california worked journalist years oakland papers attended initially joining learned high school physics teacher joined faculty switched majors classes theoretical physics earned bachelor degree years doctorate thesis combined work measuring analyzing band suggestion thanks fellowship studied munich rewrote thesis quantum mechanics creating principle seeing worked public relations fall particular promoting discovery electron early career taught briefly columbia_university associate professor physics princeton_university year wrote english language text subject wrote theory atomic bible subject moment publication associate director research pittsburgh beginning established research programs nuclear physics solid state physics mass headed company research microwave radar development worked equipment use atomic bombs served consultant world war helped organize mit joined manhattan_project weeks resigned result conflicts security general project military leader objected superior held discussion director project lab university_of_chicago resignation letter explained thing extraordinary close security policy feel qualified question wisdom totally unaware extent enemy espionage sabotage activities want case found extreme concern security depressing especially discussion mail telephone calls august february worked time consultant berkeley separation elected following war played leading role organizing scientists lobby civilian control atomic energy military control strict security worked science adviser senator chairman wrote mcmahon enacted august created placing atomic energy civilian control adopting viewpoint favored international scientific cooperation joined american soviet science society director president nominated director known confirmed senate opposition served president fbi director wrote letter intended president named senior government officials soviet network described espionage agent disguise decades later senator called corridor talk administration ignored charges decade security clearance status repeatedly questioned reviewed established congressman head house american activities committee furnished information loyalty articles published march thomas reasons prominent case sympathy scientific community international spirit place use ongoing controversy argue increase committee appropriation bolster opposition supported attract favorable coverage election season cleared charges february report dated march said appears weakest links atomic security responded true weakest links atomic security country feel absolutely safe completely reliable loyal devoted interests country life career clearly reveal defended included entire physics department harvard numerous professional organizations wrote behalf held dinner april demonstrate support nobel prize winners sponsors contrast considered statement criticizing procedures defending despite widespread support members leadership release statement instead opted speak privately thomas july granted security clearance allowing access classified information september annual meeting american association advancement science president sitting nearby denounced thomas grounds vital scientific research impossible creation atmosphere man feels safe public airing rumors gossip called activities american thing contend today climate country opposed cooperation congressional attempts identify security risks scientific community june sharply critical letter provided information colleague wrote lost good deal sleep trying figure talked way man known long know good physicist good citizen july testified senate considering rules governing operation senate committees criticized thomas holding closed hearings leaking information loyalty scientists said committee denied colleagues requests public hearings respond continued attacks record finally cleared left government head research development said annual government salary reason president issued statement praise served critical position continued loyal attention duties director reason standing scientists supervision given bureau activities important agency republican asserted investigated security risk leaving fire charge secretary commerce denied december elected head september testimony congressional committee opportunity deny oath charges concluded annual report security clearance persons questionable loyalty contempt necessary security regulations december assumed presidency annual meeting according bulletin atomic scientists tremendous ovation fellow members accompanying induction faith loyalty integrity months later clearance revoked standard left government service granted security clearance july announced october suspended secretary navy october vice president nixon took credit suspension atomic scientists chicago charged political abuse national security system secretary thomas denied nixon played role withdrew application clearance december resigned company seeking government research contracts lacked clearance necessary participating military research citing security reviews passed years said unwilling continue potentially indefinite series reviews reviews paid clearance related legal expenses worked wrote decision reflected belief administration committed policy persecution scientists indifference attack discredit decided situation hopeless reasonably expected having resisted forces seven long years years later reported described encounter loyalty review board board member stated concern says forefront revolutionary movement physics called quantum mechanics strikes hearing forefront revolutionary movement forefront said replied believe principle formulated century believe laws motion discovered seventeenth century believe newton laws continued catalog scientists earlier centuries including said privately join organization noble goals don ask contains communists later career professor physics fellow retiring directed known chosen lack stated position later wrote agreed head project basis appeals duty needed public service final report concluded unidentified flying objects explanations cited key factor generally low levels interest mainstream scientists academics president president chairman edited handbook physics hugh received medal awarded retirement colleagues honored publication died march wrote appeared years later gives annual award named recognizes distinguished achievements written exposition science technology award initiated crater moon named honor personal married sons daughter son february january physicist engineer worked digital telephone switches invented chess computer | Edward Condon | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
23742_BernardWaldman | october november american physicist flew hiroshima atomic bombing mission world war graduate joined faculty world war served united_states_navy engineering officer headed group conducted blast measurements trinity nuclear test served project alberta war returned notre dame director dean notre dame associate director early life education born new_york_city october attended received degrees thesis resonance processes formed basis paper published research supported estimates joined faculty assistant professor manhattan_project world war served united_states_navy engineering officer involved construction extension naval bases united_states took leave absence notre dame joined manhattan_project assigned ordnance division responsible integration design delivery work involved preparing checking instrumentation drop tests involving dummy bombs head group trinity nuclear test july developed dropped parachute measure effect blast assigned manhattan_project oversaw preparation facilities test deploy nuclear weapons support use actual missions participated atomic bombing hiroshima camera operator observation aircraft equipped special high speed movie camera seconds film order record blast unfortunately forgot open camera film exposed later life war ended returned notre dame continued research time charge million particle second powerful source rays took notre dame director laboratory set fixing problems resolved declined fund activities returned notre dame appointed dean notre dame held position august retired age associate director position held died hospital north_carolina treated cancer november survived wife daughters funeral service held sacred heart campus interred cedar grove cemetery papers | Bernard Waldman | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
25372_HansBethe | german july march german american nuclear physicist addition making important contributions quantum solid state physics won nobel prize physics work theory stellar career professor world war head secret laboratory developed atomic bombs played key role calculating critical mass weapons developing theory method trinity test fat man weapon dropped nagasaki august war played important role development hydrogen bomb originally joined project hope proving later campaigned nuclear testing nuclear arms race helped persuade kennedy nixon sign respectively partial nuclear test ban treaty anti missile treaty salt scientific research ceased publishing papers making scientists published major paper field decade career case spanned nearly seventy years students called supreme problem 20th century early years born germany july child anna née physiology mother daughter professor jewish raised protestant like father despite having religious background religious later life described father accepted position professor director family moved director apartment institute initially privately professional teacher group girls boys family moved father head new main attended frankfurt germany education interrupted contracted tuberculosis sent bad recovered sufficiently attend local following year sent private boarding school attended gymnasium final years secondary schooling having passed entered decided major chemistry instruction physics poor distinguished frankfurt like disliked approaches presented mathematics reference sciences found poor destroyed lab coat acid found advanced physics taught associate professor interesting left replaced advised university better school theoretical physics specifically study entered april took student recommendation taught advanced course differential physics enjoyed renowned scholar frequently received advance copies scientific papers discussion weekly evening arrived received papers wave mechanics phd thesis suggested examine electron crystals starting point suggested paper ray crystals later recalled ambitious pursuit greater accuracy calculations complicated met time told tales expected better thesis guess later recalled compliment early work received doctorate offered frankfurt september moved father recently divorced mother father met earlier year married children born born find work frankfurt accepted offer wrote considered greatest paper theory passage fast rays matter starting interpretation equation produced simplified formula collision problems transform known today formula submitted paper recommended foundation travelling scholarship provided month dollars study abroad chose work university_of_cambridge england worked supervision request working cloud chambers created version formula known sense humor research created hoax paper calculated fine structure constant absolute zero temperature units causing scandal scientific world paper fun certain class papers theoretical physics day purely speculative based numerical arguments attempts explain value fine structure constant fundamental quantities earlier paper forced issue apology second half scholarship chose laboratory rome february greatly impressed regretted gone rome developed method finding exact solutions certain dimensional quantum body models influenced simplicity approaching problems qualities influenced later research offered extension fellowship allowing return italy meantime worked munich fluent english supervise english speaking including accepted request write article der quantum mechanics hydrogen reviewing article decades later noted unusual depth breadth treatment subject required little edition asked help article metals article covered basis called solid state physics took new field provided clear coherent complete coverage work articles occupied time rome wrote paper new field quantum describing interactions charged particles accepted appointment assistant professor professor experimental physics laws passed new government law restoration jewish background dismissed job university government post refused help immediately gave fellowship munich spent summer term finding places jewish students colleagues left germany moving england receiving offer position lecturer year connection moved friend wife fellow german physicist barred academic positions germany parents jewish meant speak german eat english food relationship professional personal aroused interest nuclear physics discovered challenged come theoretical explanation phenomenon hour train ride cambridge manchester investigate years ahead physics department looking new theoretical physicist strongly recommended supported visiting time august offered position acting assistant professor accepted fellowship year work semester agreed let start spring leaving united_states visited copenhagen september proposed accepted match opposed mother want marrying jewish girl broke engagement days wedding date december united_states arrived united_states february joined faculty salary appointment deliberate effort new head physics department nuclear physics hired worked build complete team needed advice recruited received requests visit columbia_university princeton_university harvard_university moved prevent having appointed regular assistant professor assurance promotion professor soon follow published series articles summarized known subject nuclear physics time account informally known bible remained standard work subject years account continued left filling gaps older literature offered matched offer salary wrote mother leading america mean best certainly better probably good talk counts march attended fourth annual invited attendees included initially declined invitation attend conference topic stellar energy generation interest persuaded come conference detailed known temperature density chemical composition sun challenged come explanation proposed paper sun energy result chain reaction account observation elements heavier end conference working collaboration come series subsequent nuclear reactions explained sun shines explain processes heavier stars overlooked time doubts cycle described processes sun recent measurements sun core temperature returned studied relevant nuclear reactions reaction cross sections leading discovery carbon nitrogen oxygen cycle cycle papers cycle authored carbon oxygen nitrogen cycle sent publication mother afraid remain germany taking advantage origin able united_states june french german graduate student noted offering prize best unpublished paper topic solar stellar energy need release mother furniture withdrew cycle paper sent won prize gave fee release mother furniture paper subsequently published march breakthrough understanding stars win nobel prize physics age sent note use solar observations cycle accounts sun energy observations started experiment based calculations encouragement led davis receiving share nobel prize married daughter september simple civil ceremony children henry henry contract bridge expert husband citizen united_states march writing home america germany born germany mistake came true homeland manhattan_project second world war began wanted contribute war effort unable work classified projects citizen following advice collaborated friend theory shock waves generated passage gas considered influential papers worked theory armor penetration immediately classified army making inaccessible american citizen time receiving security clearance december joined invented hole directional microwave radar sets chicago june july participated series meetings invitation discussed designs atomic bomb went preliminary calculations discussed possibilities raised prospect device super bomb point asked nitrogen atmosphere set fell perform calculations prove occur bomb later recalled germans presumably charge forming secret weapons design laboratory appointed director theoretical division laboratory smallest prestigious division equally qualified difficult manage job series disagreements february june relative priority super research led group removed division placed directly september new division work included calculating critical mass efficiency nuclear exploding atomic bomb developed formula calculating bomb explosive yield august laboratory reorganized solve problem bomb spent time studying aspects job continued worked later radiation propagation exploding atomic bomb trinity nuclear test accuracy division results detonated new_mexico desert july immediate concern efficient operation moral implications reported commented philosopher hydrogen bomb war argued crash project hydrogen bomb attempted president announced beginning project outbreak korean war signed played key role weapon development project end hoped impossible create hydrogen bomb later remark apparent contradiction stance having opposed development weapon later helping create months korean war broken time saw direct confrontation communists disturbing cold war looked hot knew reverse earlier position work bomb somebody thought force agreed join developing bomb logical wish consistent role project relation dispute responsible design later said bomb reporters started father bomb sake history think precise father provided seed mother remained child guess testified behalf security hearing specifically argued developing hydrogen bomb late 1940s hindered actual development topic seen key factor hearing contended developments led successful design matter question manpower logical development previously existing ideas hearing wife tried hard convince agree testimony played major role security clearance good terms years conflict manhattan_project especially episode permanently marred relationship later work lamb shift war ended returned june participated shelter island conference sponsored held new_york conference foundations quantum mechanics major physics conference held war chance american come pick left war establish direction post war research major talking point conference discovery graduate student shortly conference began possible quantum states hydrogen slightly energy predicted theory known lamb shift suggested result quantum fluctuations electromagnetic field pre war quantum gave absurd infinite values lamb shift showed real finite proposed solution knew calculation managed work train new_york arrived value extremely close obtained lamb realising non process greatly simplified calculations paper published august pages long contained mathematical enormously influential hitherto assumed meant fundamentally flawed new radical theory required demonstrated necessary famous papers wrote paper added consulting knowing mind wishes apparently reflection sense humor wanting paper title sound like letters greek alphabet reviewers saw manuscript struck words believed atomic nucleus like quantum liquid drop investigated nuclear matter problem considering work theory working produced solution case infinite hard core potential working came converted scattering equation easily solved differential equation led equation approach body scattering techniques examine stars similar continued research stars black holes problems theoretical late collaborated brown proposed collaborate reasonably understood time calculations problem techniques decades working nuclear physics experience calculations involving nuclear explosions tackled problems involved stellar collapse way factors affected explosion able reduce problem set differential solve age wrote important article solar problem helped establish conversion mechanism electron proposed explain theory experiment argued physics standard model required understand solar problem assumed mass effect required occur hoped evidence found ontario canada birthday june nearly approached laser wave observatory designed detect waves merging stars black holes good calculating things seen look year old quickly soon began required calculations result paper evolution compact objects merge brown regarded best produced political physicist published article criticising detail anti defense system proposed described article nearly measure taken easily thwarted deployment relatively simple primary voices scientific community signing partial test ban treaty prohibiting atmospheric testing nuclear weapons 1980s 1990s campaigned peaceful use nuclear energy disaster committee experts analysed incident concluded suffered fundamentally faulty design human error significantly contributed accident colleagues established explained disaster tells deficiencies soviet political administrative system problems nuclear power life remained strong advocate electricity nuclear energy described necessity merely option 1980s opposed strategic defense initiative missile system conceived ronald_reagan administration age wrote open letter calling scientists cease working aspect nuclear weapons development manufacture joined nobel signing letter endorsing president united_states restore science appropriate place government wrote died long time friend assumed mantle scientist conscience country like jefferson adams live new century colleagues shape personal life included passion stamp collecting loved outdoors enthusiastic life exploring alps died home new_york march heart failure survived wife rose children time death anderson emeritus professor physics emeritus honors awards received numerous honors awards lifetime fellow year received henry medal awarded max medal franklin medal medal prize nobel prize physics medal sciences posthumously elected foreign member gave lecture mechanism named new residential colleges named distinguished member faculty 4th washington home longtime board member germany discovered named selected publications theory high frequency crystals mit predecessor agency october theoretical estimate maximum possible nuclear explosion predecessor agency january body problem nuclear matter predecessor agency strong electromagnetic field predecessor agency september principle scattering predecessor agency october fusion hybrid august | Hans Bethe | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
25926_LeonaWoods | august november later known american physicist helped build nuclear atomic bomb age youngest female member team built experimented world nuclear called pile chicago project led mentor particular woods instrumental construction analysis experimentation woman present went critical worked manhattan_project husband subsequently helped solve problem poisoning production site supervised construction operation production war fellow later worked princeton new_jersey professor research involved high energy physics divorced marshall married nobel professor staff member later life interested ecological environmental issues devised method tree rings study climate change strong advocate food means killing harmful bacteria early life born farm illinois august second children lawyer wife sisters brothers graduated received chemistry university_of_chicago age passing qualifying exams chemistry approached nobel prize physics graduate student having impressed talk gave zones accepted told young professor warned jewish academic death warned woods woman death despite fact look took warning seriously decided instead graduate student day nobel allowed choose research problem edited final version appeared doctoral thesis bands prepared supervision polish chemist accepted later recalled twice told taught wasted students noted agree highest praise manhattan_project finishing writing thesis youngest pre war students working fellow students involved war work met working swimming afternoon anderson discovered woods adept vacuum technology research soon phd finished hired work measure group constructed nuclear known chicago stands field university abandoned football stadium woods played want woman involved dirty work placing blocks woods plenty work small stack measure effects source foil obtain measure cross section order woods woman present went critical asking scared remembered woods tall young girl built like athlete man job woman physicist group time mother endowed energy running small farm near chicago relieve woods work divided time potatoes like scientists working project woods affected casual attitude danger posed radiation morning containing mixture salt metal woods absorbed white blood cell count doctors gave lecture woman fixed number egg cells proposition woods skeptical considered important thing correctly team moved new home dormitory woods married july soon fell pregnant told agreed let know fear insist leave building covered pregnant belly work clothes rode work day army bus arriving morning barely time starting day work child boy called peter born returned work days later team hand large produce bombs watched shifts day shift night shift ending midnight swing shift left peter mother powered successfully hours power level dropped shut speculated water leak problem radioactive poison night operators able power die away pointed radioactive poison working numbers slide rules hand determined cross section poison turned fortunately engineers equipped cent fuel tubes called loading managed started asked years later felt involvement manhattan_project said think terrified wrong way developing bomb germans ahead persistent present fear fed course fact leaders knew people germany went school leaders terrified terror fed germans got don know happened world different germany led field physics respect time war set hitler lowered boom frightening time certainly recall felt atomic bombs brother law captain scheduled harbor brother marine flame okinawa sure people lasted invasion pretty clear war continue half million fighting men dead japanese know know general curtis tokyo mentions slaughter happened think nagasaki hiroshima compared wrong regrets think right couldn differently yeah know suggested second bomb nagasaki necessary guys cry shoulders war death don think stand ask right post war career war returned university_of_chicago fellow working chicago pile heavy water found way percent spin beams determined index materials second child born assistant professor died separated returned effectively single mother fellow princeton new_jersey following year fellow time focus research physics shifting away nucleus elementary particles joined associate professor physics professor years later professor researching high energy physics staff member worked divorced married won nobel prize later joined ucla visiting professor environmental studies engineering engineering mechanical nuclear engineering known interested ecological environmental issues devised method hydrogen tree rings study changes temperature rainfall patterns hundreds years records kept opening door study climate change like strong advocate food means killing harmful bacteria advocated legal regulatory restrictions use relaxed proposed instead sprayed fruit affected mediterranean fruit fly treated gamma rays prolific author publishing scientific papers wrote paper works include autobiographical people history early atomic research died edited papers published life work nobel paper quasi stellar objects appeared died medical center california november induced stroke survived sons peter john grandchildren second marriage selected creation atmosphere moon environmental problems timely importance people crane upside lack solar life work nobel carbon dioxide climate past climates tree people texas | Leona Woods | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
26779_AlvinC.Graves | november july american nuclear physicist served world war war head director assistant director numerous nuclear weapons tests 1940s 1950s graves badly injured laboratory accident killed recovered early life born november youngest children son engineer member world war graves attended graduated class bachelor degree electrical engineering attended year found jobs hard come great depression received graduate fellowship university_of_chicago earned writing thesis packing fraction differences heavy elements chicago graves met married physics major known earned writing thesis energy release alpha alpha production graves remained university_of_chicago research fellow assistant professor moved unfortunately elizabeth unable secure job anti rules manhattan_project graves invited university_of_chicago graves received request work radar asked contribute project replied joined helped build nuclear graves formed suicide squad liquid control squad assigned smash imp gal glass bottles containing solution went wrong strong hoped halt runaway nuclear chain reaction control rods proved incapable halting place graves elizabeth moved work new_mexico opened condition going job found probably unnecessary skills experience quickly snapped time trinity nuclear test elizabeth seven months pregnant child graves requested assigned post far blast listened countdown explosion radio monitored radioactive fallout test took afternoon reach child healthy daughter graves badly injured laboratory accident killed training graves replace position chief bomb demonstrating dangerous dragon tail test graves scientists accident occurred graves nearest suffered estimated dose given percent chance survival caused severe radiation poisoning loss hair zero count weeks weeks recovered fully months work skiing vigorously bald spot head experience years later fathered healthy child second son named later life graves dismissive radiation risks nuclear testing serving test director shots 1950s announced risks fallout minds weak spokesman spoke local areas nevada assuring population danger activities head scientific director deputy director nuclear tests 1950s including exercises exposed military personnel radiation test native test personnel asked testify danger radiation causing cancer graves replied danger happen danger likely happen maybe likely likely likely graves pillar community active member non encouragement elizabeth played violin learned play cello petrol stamps travel new_mexico lessons played accompanying local performances gilbert sullivan chairman board local bank member local school board graves died heart attack july skiing colorado years accident age suffered accident minor heart attack december father died heart attack follow study accident victims suggested damage accident contributed heart failure interred cemetery new_mexico | Alvin C. Graves | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
27460_AlvinM.Weinberg | april october american nuclear physicist administrator manhattan_project came tennessee remained death use term bargain describe nuclear energy graduate university_of_chicago awarded doctorate mathematical joined september following year task design nuclear convert replaced director research director laboratory direction worked program pioneered innovative designs including water boiling water dominant types commercial nuclear power plants designs appointed president administration later served kennedy administration leaving named director washington following year founded director early years chicago born april chicago illinois son russian jewish met board boat carrying united_states older sister born november later professor attended chicago entered university_of_chicago received degree physics master science physics following year received university_of_chicago mathematical writing thesis mathematical foundations theory supervision later lamented restricting thesis linear systems overlooked interesting systems received nobel prize chemistry studying chicago hired family student university_of_chicago tutor mathematics married june sons taught courses applied received fellowship study columbia_university took cole came chicago work manhattan_project radiation biologist recruited work university_of_chicago september needed work capture calculations early concentrated manhattan_project teams working university_of_chicago brought scientists including columbia princeton_university protégé led included group task design production nuclear convert time existed paper gone critical july chose conservative design water cooling choice water controversial time water known absorb reducing efficiency confident group calculations correct water work technical difficulties involved liquid metal delay project took manhattan_project gave responsibility detailed design construction friction company team major differences design included increasing number process tubes circular array square array cutting power turned design decision additional tubes came poisoning problem extra tubes allowed greater fuel load overcome poisoning run low power burned allow reach power delayed operation year came online turned attention theoretical designs discovery spontaneous bred contamination led propose switching breeding challenge met developing type nuclear weapon design intrigued possibility away having solution heavy water attempted find way competing designs proposed water ultimately common design possibilities discussed colleagues chicago later wrote early days explored sorts power comparing advantages type number possibilities enormous possibilities component fuel material water heavy water gas liquid metal water heavy water calculated counted combinations fuel identify thousand distinct beginning nuclear power choose possibilities pursue ignore ultimate success water wrote superior characteristics water decision power prototype mark submarine thermal version water established possibilities expensive pursue remained interested possibilities according nuclear pioneer supported wide universe designs work accepted position director research tennessee staff took arrive head took responsibility laboratory operations manhattan_project start feeling managerial role new environment left end summer returned princeton_university administration passed university_of_chicago december influential general chaired recommended work concentrated successor near chicago competition staff resources newly established near new_york morale low found job director research laboratory renamed january people turned job acting director nelson asked director research march subsequently appointed director sat row division information meetings ask penetrating question scientific talk young scientists giving presentation experience frightening exciting asked found time attend meeting replied jokingly didn days development project biggest program budget project military goal produce nuclear powered aircraft bomber overcome range limitations jet fueled aircraft time project little chance success overlooked provided employment allowed stay development business successfully built operated prototype aircraft power plant creating world salt fueled cooled called set record high temperature operation radiation hazard posed people ground event crash new developments missile technology aerial longer range jet bombers president kennedy canceled program june converted mock real called poor man pile experiments led design water boiling water dominant types commercial nuclear power plants attracted simplicity self controlling features nuclear fluid proposed support nuclear aircraft project late 1940s asked engineers design liquid instead solid fuel experiment dubbed required pot pipe pump went operation party brought appropriate spirits piles critical chicago celebrate wine piles critical tennessee celebrate operated days closed despite leaks valuable information gained operation proved simple safe control time online senators visited hosted salt shifted focus civilian version proof away military idea nuclear powered aircraft set record continuous operation use fuel standard naturally occurring known chemist proposed mainly engineer chemical solution melted containing carrier salt composed depleted prevent excessive capture production afforded opportunity change chemistry salt operating remove products add new fuel change fuel called online processing biological environmental studies tenure director grew times size largest division division charged understanding radiation living things try find ways help survive radiation damage bone 1960s pursued new missions nuclear energy recruited mission started big ecology project united_states research applied leadership nuclear textbook following year elected president began service president kennedy starting patent usually filed numerous patents light water technology provided primary nuclear main types serve naval propulsion commercial nuclear power appointed vice president paper term bargain describe nuclear energy nuclear people bargain society hand offer nuclear source energy short range use ordinary offer energy cheaper energy fossil fuel source energy properly handled fossil fuel carbon nitrogen reason nuclear systems heat traces price demand society magical source longevity social institutions fired nixon administration years laboratory director continued advocate increased nuclear safety salt instead administration chosen director division appointed develop firing effectively halted development virtually unknown nuclear laboratories specialists brief revival research carter administration interests culminating conceptual design characteristics salt considered reference design commercial salt washington named director washington following year founded director institute focused evaluating alternatives meeting future energy requirements center study diverse issues related carbon dioxide global warming worked retiring distinguished fellow published landmark article science focused interface science policy matters especially governmental policy decisions issues arise course interaction science technology society effects technology attempts deal social problems procedures science hang answers questions asked science answered science propose term trans scientific questions speaking questions fact stated language science science science far public policy involves trans scientific scientific issues role scientist contributing policy different role issues answered science retirement remained active retirement named chairman arranged installation japanese bell called strengthening systems defend nuclear weapons wife margaret died later married stock broker died son david died died home october survived son richard sister legacy named awards outstanding young american year award peace award award books reflections big science cambridge second nuclear era new start nuclear power editor new_york isbn continuing nuclear dialogue selected essays selected introductory comments isbn edited new_york isbn stability edited washington isbn nuclear reactions science isbn nuclear era life times technological new_york isbn autobiography covering period early 1940s early 1990s | Alvin M. Weinberg | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
27567_RobertF.Christy | october canadian american theoretical physicist later surviving people worked manhattan_project world war briefly president graduate 1930s studied physics followed year ahead accepted graduate student leading theoretical physicist united_states time received doctorate joined physics department joined manhattan_project university_of_chicago recruited join effort build nuclear having recommended theory resource formed manhattan_project early recruits join generally credited insight solid sub critical mass compressed great earlier concepts requiring hollow shells insight solid core model referred pit war briefly joined department recruited join faculty decided practical resume academic activities stayed academic career serving acting president turned attention creating practical models stellar operation work awarded medal royal astronomical society 1980s 1990s participated extended effort better understand actual radiation exposure japanese bombs basis learning better understand medical risks radiation exposure early life born vancouver british_columbia son electrical engineer wife née school teacher named robert maternal great uncle frederick second husband maternal grandmother older brother john born changed family surname deed poll august november accidentally work died surgery brother cared grandmother great aunt educated graduating highest examination score province british_columbia awarded governor general importantly view family limited ability pay free tuition attend award dinner met second place winner dated received bachelor_of_arts degree mathematics physics class honors master arts degree writing thesis electron attachment negative formation oxygen friend year ahead accepted graduate student led active school theoretical physics united_states time inspired apply accepted awarded fellowship year berkeley shared apartment wife thesis look particles called today recently found cosmic rays called larger smaller help performed detailed calculations particle spin published papers formed basis doctor philosophy phd thesis manhattan_project graduated teaching assistant left income found post physics department married sons born born paid month teach hours week months abreast developments physics attended university_of_chicago brought attention hired money paying time research assistant commencing january team columbia_university arrived university_of_chicago january effort concentrate manhattan_project work new arranged join group building nuclear called pile court field university_of_chicago construction began november present chicago went critical december early joined new_mexico american citizen head theoretical division detailed assist projects laboratory knowledge assignment help group water boiler intended laboratory instrument test critical mass calculations effect materials use enriched fuel use liquid fuel form dissolved water estimated require grams pure figure subsequently revised grams went critical grams accuracy figures raised laboratory confidence division calculations discovery group april high levels produced meant type nuclear weapon required studies indicated extremely difficult achieve august calculations ideal spherical work problem work real world jets problem worked studied theory suggested possibility solid core form critical mass compressed ultra conservative design solved problem jets force known pit laboratory bomb solid pit efficient hollow pit required start chain reaction worked develop suitable design known trinity nuclear test fat man atomic bombing nagasaki pits later life agree number oral history video interviews discussed role manhattan_project interests later life war ended accepted assistant university_of_chicago salary twice making war moved chicago february suitable housing hard find immediate post war period family shared mansion family war spent year teaching berkeley students trip california year continue studying war decided additional responsibilities longer continue arrangement head asked theoretical physicist recommend replacement recommended approached offer time position accepted remain rest academic career working theoretical physicist heavy workload fell recognised pay raise joined joined faculty detailed study western_europe defended soviet_union distraught outcome security hearing encountered testified publicly refused shake hand viewed god later recalled sure person asked relationship said seen time time relationship remained cool time disagreed number areas example strategic defense initiative disagreed argued publicly operates different level presidents merely disagree privately way number scientists publicly called ban atmospheric nuclear testing partial nuclear test ban treaty advocated end unusual projects worked design spacecraft propelled atomic bombs year princeton_university began investigation smaller classes variable stars time mystery varied knowledge gained war explain phenomenon earned medal contributions theoretical appointed vice president president expanded added economics allow students education appointed vice president steered financially stringent 1970s women admitted 1970s hired refused tenure filed suit pressed case settled given tenure ruled adding paid male colleagues received tenure romantically involved fellow physicist years junior divorced early married august daughters born born briefly acting president brown left secretary defense returned teaching president institute professor emeritus died october survived wife daughters sons peter buried mountain view cemetery california | Robert F. Christy | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
27757_JamesFranck | august german physicist won nobel prize physics discovery laws governing impact electron completed doctorate frederick william university berlin taught having reached position professor served volunteer german_army world war seriously injured gas attack awarded 1st class head kaiser professor experimental physics director worked quantum physics director work included experiment important confirmation model promoted careers women physics notably came power germany resigned post protest dismissal fellow academics assisted helping dismissed jewish scientists find work overseas left germany november year denmark moved united_states worked baltimore university_of_chicago period interested participated manhattan_project world war director chairman atomic bomb best known compilation recommended atomic bombs japanese cities warning early life born hamburg germany august second child son banker wife née older sister younger brother father devout religious man mother came family attended primary school hamburg starting attended gymnasium boys school hamburg university prospective students attend universities germany intending study law economics entered renowned law school attended lectures law far interested science met lifelong friend born help able persuade parents allow switch studying physics chemistry attended mathematics lectures strong physical sciences decided berlin berlin attended lectures july saved pair children drowning doctor philosophy supervision suggested study found topic complex changed focus thesis entitled der der mobility subsequently published der thesis completed perform deferred military service called october joined 1st suffered minor horse riding accident december discharged unfit duty took frankfurt enjoy soon returned concert met swedish pianist married swedish ceremony december daughters born lisa born pursue academic career germany having doctorate needed achieved major thesis producing substantial body published work chose route problems physics time published articles sole author generally preferred working collaboration collaboration wrote articles received experiment teamed perform experiment investigate designed vacuum tube studying energetic flew thin mercury discovered electron collided mercury lose specific quantity electron volts energy flying away faster electron completely collision loses precisely energy slower bounce mercury losing significant speed energy experimental results provided confirmation effect relation linking energy frequency arising energy constant provided evidence supporting model proposed previous year key feature electron inside occupies quantum energy levels collision electron inside mercury occupies lowest available energy level collision electron inside occupies higher energy level electron volts energy means electron loosely bound mercury intermediate levels possibilities second paper presented reported light mercury absorbed energy collisions showed light corresponded exactly energy flying electron lost relationship energy predicted completed paper december reconciled results theory acknowledged nobel lecture admitted completely failed recognise fundamental significance theory mentioned december awarded nobel prize physics discovery laws governing impact electron world war enlisted german_army soon outbreak world war august december sent sector western deputy officer lieutenant awarded second class march city hamburg awarded january hospital wrote scientific paper appointed assistant professor absence september sent russian came returned berlin joined working development gas masks awarded class february discharged army november soon war ended war returned research offered job new post came pay position allow pursue research wished working new younger collaborators papers examined atomic excited state results later prove important development laser coined term spending extended time state energy visited berlin arranged come talk younger staff presence offered chair theoretical physics recently vacated important centre mathematics thanks physics change price coming born wanted head experimental physics november director fully professor allowed assistants brought berlin fill positions gifted teacher headed institute handled lectures refurbished laboratory latest equipment funds pocket born world great centres physics published papers born discussed papers gaining laboratory highly competitive doctoral students included supervising doctoral candidates ensure thesis topics defined teach candidate conduct original research staying limits candidate ability laboratory equipment institute budget direction research carried structure molecules research developed known principle rule quantum chemistry explains intensity transitions simultaneous changes electronic energy levels absorption appropriate energy principle states electronic transition change energy level likely happen wave functions overlap significantly principle applied wide variety related phenomena exile period came end won power germany election march following month enacted law restoration provided retirement dismissal jewish civil servants political opponents government veteran world war exempt submitted resignation april commented science god nature religion require daughters attend religious instruction classes school let decorated tree christmas proud jewish heritage academic resign protest law newspapers world reported government university protested assisted helping dismissed jewish scientists find work overseas left germany november brief visit united_states measured absorption light heavy water took position copenhagen needed new collaborator took recent thesis impressed original intention continue research influence began interest biological aspects reactions particularly process plants use light convert carbon dioxide water organic compounds biological processes turned far complicated simple reactions molecules authored papers subject return following years found position copenhagen son law having married daughter decided provide financial security children dividing nobel prize money gold medal entrusted germany invaded denmark april hungarian chemist dissolved gold medal regia prevent germans taking placed resulting solution shelf laboratory war returned find solution precipitated gold acid nobel society recast nobel prize medals moved united_states accepted laboratory poorly equipped compared received equipment problem university money hire skilled staff concerned family members remaining germany needed money help accepted offer university_of_chicago work attracted interest paper authored processes crystals collaborator joined escaped belgium german invasion arranged position laboratory daughters families moved united_states able bring elderly mother aunt united_states citizen july enemy alien united_states declared war germany december daughters restricted travelling care mother fell ill died january permitted attend funeral february established university_of_chicago manhattan_project mission build nuclear create atomic bombs initially headed preferred hands work administration turned owing german background later wrote welcomed invitation join project vote confidence far exceeded hopes gave chance cause freedom german people fighting explained nazis germany german people helpless break strength nazi masters welcomed elder scientific statesman guidance glad follow addition heading chairman atomic bomb consisted warned fears mankind learned atomic power politically prepared use committee compiled known finished june recommended atomic bombs japanese cities warning event decided later life married civil ceremony june post war research continued tackle problem explaining mechanism saw break early later work recalled enjoyed talking problems explain satisfy mind problem aroused interest completely obsessed common sense straight logic main tools simple apparatus research followed straight line early studies work energy exchange molecules fascinated addition nobel prize awarded max medal medal work honorary citizen elected foreign member died suddenly heart attack visiting buried chicago wife university_of_chicago named lunar crater named honour papers | James Franck | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
27998_EricBurhop | january january australian physicist humanitarian graduate awarded exhibition scholarship study lord supervision investigated nuclear fusion produced non theory effect followed treatment following year later wrote monograph subject returned lecturer helped professor build physics department second world war worked sydney produced laboratory model cavity september returned melbourne officer charge continued development cavity radar sets australian worked manhattan_project created atomic bombs early offered position lecturer london fostered international cooperation nuclear physics nation study interaction atomic went years group produced wealth new results including observation double spent year secretary committee recommended construction super international team leadership carried successful search early life born tasmania january child officers wife older sisters family wealthy moved frequently owing nature parents evangelical work family moved attended secondary education receiving leaving year certificate transferred final year won scholarship entered initially studied civil engineering switched science years physics awarded provided financial assistance graduated bachelor science degree class honours physics earned bachelor_of_arts class honours mathematics master science physics master research problem professor investigate probability shell electron impact measuring intensity resultant ray emissions aroused interest effect subject later authority contrast master thesis band molecules little influence later work thesis good awarded exhibition scholarship study cambridge_university lord scholarship included class ticket london liner time leading centres physics world laboratory scientists split atomic nucleus discovered confirmed existence supervised fellow australian initially assigned task investigating positive metal hot metal surfaces soon switch interesting subject measurement function pairs producing nuclear fusion able observe reaction energies continued investigations rays effect conducted investigation shells silver born produced non theory effect followed treatment australian fellow work effect monograph effect transitions coming cambridge engaged political activities cambridge encountered political debate generated suffering caused great depression rise europe rejected parents faith favour science reject values especially compassion cambridge embraced socialism believed scientists moral responsibility society included fighting returned australia taking position lecturer eager build adding expertise latest developments nuclear physics married fiancée december ceremony daughter sons completed cambridge doctor philosophy phd degree supervision parts reorganization inner shell special reference theory electron problems atomic note migration surface established research program field australian university employing scientific equipment brought britain research effort produced beam commissioned august gave lectures modern physics quantum mechanics outbreak second world war worked development optical munitions particularly mirrors aerial photography february release work microwave radar sydney martin produced laboratory model cavity july based overseas design entirely local components manufactured australia september returned officer charge outpost task turning cavity prototypes production models eventually radar sets produced australia manhattan_project january sir head release work manhattan_project allied effort create atomic bombs joined australian working manhattan_project berkeley task develop electromagnetic separation process worked studying characteristics electric magnetic fields today known studied compounds feed electromagnetic process work involved occasional visit manhattan_project electromagnetic faculty tennessee london early offered position lecturer london head wait released reach london war ended august wife family stayed australia working united_states joined london months later living working conditions london worse california australia wartime shortages persisted college suffered bombing damage located temporary quarters promoted reader head moved professor dean listed international scientific cooperation worked establish high altitude cloud chamber commenced operation collaborated nation study interaction atomic went years produced wealth new results including observation double spent academic year secretary committee chaired drew policy development machines committee recommended super built important physics research europe decades come took charge quick grasp advantages heavy liquid bubble chambers studying interactions steered group participation joint european ventures group discovery neutral currents milestone road theoretical unification weak force help director united_states international team seven european laboratories leadership carried search new particle existence predicted suggested interactions create short lived low particles detected use nuclear experiment successfully detected particles lifetime order follow experiment confirmed existence flight time social activism opened file believing secret member communist_party associate known passed secret documents soviet_union july british government cancelled passport accepted offer travel soviet_union new passport issued gave foreign secretary written assurance seek travel soviet_union iron curtain countries like scientists worked manhattan_project concerned dangers nuclear weapons addressed public meetings raise awareness subject founding member war chairman member britain capacity helped organise founded president local branch years received number honours awards elected fellow delivered memorial lecture elected foreign member received peace prize retired died london result stomach cancer january survived wife children papers london special collections | Eric Burhop | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
28129_NorrisBradbury | august american physicist served director years succeeded personally chose position director working closely manhattan_project world war charge final assembly detonated july trinity test took charge difficult time staff leaving living conditions poor possibility laboratory close managed persuade staff stay got renew contract manage laboratory pushed continued development nuclear weapons transforming laboratory devices production models numerous improvements safer reliable easier store handle efficient use scarce 1950s oversaw development weapons falling priority given development led creation rival nuclear weapons laboratory later years branched constructing develop laboratory role nuclear science space race 1960s laboratory developed named honor early life born california children wife sister died infant family adopted twins bobby betty served world war educated ontario california graduating age attended california graduated cum bachelor_of_arts chemistry earned membership met english literature major sister college room mate married sons david interested physics graduate work teaching fellow fellow submitted phd thesis studies mobility supervision awarded fellowship supervising thesis served naval world war encouraged apply commission naval commission ensign signed lieutenant commander head berkeley time years assistant professor physics stanford_university rising associate professor professor expert electrical gases properties behavior atmospheric electricity publishing journals including invented nielsen type electrical gate widely mass time flight mass mobility world war called service world war early navy allowed stay stanford end academic year sent naval proving ground virginia work external working commander june received orders parsons deputy director manhattan_project report new_mexico parsons explained needed work explosive lenses required type nuclear weapon enthusiastic prospect naval officer ultimately agreed head charge field test program august laboratory director implemented sweeping reorganisation new renumbered point leading critical work laboratory struggled jets perfect spherical shape desired process examined combination magnetic ray techniques march created parsons carry manhattan_project ultimate mission preparation delivery nuclear weapons combat transferred head assembly group july supervised preparation bomb known trinity nuclear test later recalled deep emotional thoughts trinity didn damned pleased went director submitted resignation director remained successor found director manhattan_project major general wanted solid academic background high standing project recommended liked fact naval officer military man scientist accepted offer month trial basis parsons arranged quickly discharged navy awarded wartime services remained naval reserve ultimately retiring rank captain october ceremony presented laboratory award presented certificate appreciation laboratory second director following day months particularly difficult hoped quickly passed congress wartime manhattan_project superseded new permanent organization soon clear months president sign act creating law august active january meantime legal authority act limited scientists eager return laboratories universities february wartime division heads left talented core remained head division renamed responsible chemistry physics george theory explosives ordnance number personnel wartime peak living temporary wartime accommodation matters worse water pipe water supplied tanker trucks despite reduced staff provide support nuclear tests pacific pushed continued development nuclear weapons laboratory devices production models numerous improvements safe reliable easy store handle efficient use scarce gave priority improved weapons research continued alarm clock boosted nuclear weapon super weapons design new designs tested operation sandstone mark nuclear bomb nuclear weapon mass produced assembly line future certain began looking new site laboratory away crowded town center submitted proposal new million facility linked town new bridge canyon time remained nominally professor stanford nominally run wartime contract clause contract allowed university terminate contract months end war university duly served notice managed rescinded contract renewed professor laboratory come design tests conducted operation greenhouse tensions degree priority given weapons development led creation second nuclear weapons laboratory later years branched constructing develop laboratory role nuclear science space race 1960s laboratory worked project developing laboratory demonstrated feasibility value nuclear rocket propulsion years responsible administration town town established impressive health education facilities eventually new technical area built outside town february security gates taken finally town incorporated community director civic responsibilities ended awarded exceptionally civilian service united_states_of_america position great responsibility director citation went outstanding international reputation directly exceptional leadership united_states laboratory large degree present nuclear capability received later life retired director successor invited senior consultant declined offer serve consultant government agencies including member boards governor new_mexico appointed regent turbulent time university response students activist marched home president refused meet students called strike classes cancelled rallies held students occupied cargo called remove people cargo successor replaced regent mid-1990s accidentally hit leg set right leg knee spread left leg left foot leaving wheelchair disease eventually proved fatal died august survived wife died january sons funeral service held buried | Norris Bradbury | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
28337_HarrieMassey | sir november australian mathematical physicist worked primarily fields atomic atmospheric physics graduate cambridge_university earned doctorate independent lecturer appointed professor applied mathematics second world war worked helped german magnetic naval mines admiralty mining establishment helped develop british naval mines persuaded admiralty release work manhattan_project joined worked electromagnetic separation process returned britain took returned london october find badly damaged bombing temporary accommodation appointed professor physics head london department merged astronomy remained head retired direction particle physics upper atmosphere physics worked rocket range develop rocket governing board anglo australian chairman british national chapter chairman helped found london early life born victoria australia child wife née wilson grew rural community enrolled local state school received merit certificate normally awarded completing eighth grade age stay years won scholarship moved mother president vice captain cricket team carrier age won scholarship entered thoughts studying chemistry impressed physics lectures given stroke luck year physics lectures normally given recalled fairly wide experience rate worst lecturer heard university played cricket tennis baseball played university awarded bachelor_of_arts physics class honours bachelor_of_arts mathematics meeting perth august met married january district office perth daughter time university offer doctor philosophy phd program undertook master science course experimental theoretical components cooperation dealt soft ray metal surfaces wave mechanics involved translating numerous articles german journals der external university_of_cambridge phd supervisor benefit travelling scholarship went cambridge perform research led scholarship expired years awarded exhibition scholarship time leading centres physics world laboratory scientists split atomic nucleus discovered confirmed existence appointed supervisor clear need supervision obtained phd shortly authored book atomic collision processes theory atomic collisions applied theory collisions models structure laboratory played hockey cricket team captain final year june independent lecturer member department arrived despite having lectures week found time write second book began working upper atmospheric physics frustrated time consuming process calculation physics workshop superintendent build small scale differential analog computer solve differential solve problems related low temperature photo oxygen upper atmosphere appointed professor applied mathematics following death previous year brought buckingham promising graduate student brought differential london destroyed air raid second world war second world war soon outbreak war september germans began naval campaign britain results devastating nineteen ships totaling tons sunk mines october totaling tons november destroyer ships damaged including cruiser nature mines initially unknown november bomb disposal team lieutenant commander recovered intact aerial threat revealed magnetic december joined group led soon joined number including buckingham came series enable navy successfully sweep mines hand deputy chief scientist scientific section design department early time job create mines good german ones brought team worked packaging protect dropped aircraft buckingham calculated theoretical effectiveness designed soon service group turned attention developing acoustic pressure mines retirement chief scientist august quebec agreement merged british american atomic bomb projects persuaded admiralty release work manhattan_project november set bomber develop electromagnetic separation process charge included american australian studied characteristics electric magnetic fields today known studied compounds feed electromagnetic process returned britain march replaced head british mission berkeley wartime papers produced group collected published magnetic fields later life returned london october find badly damaged bombing temporary accommodation allowed pick chose bats buckingham teach mathematics free choose research topics chose research physics carrying physical experiments situation lasted retired appointed professor physics head london department merged astronomy remained head retired served london vice took including buckingham moved like temporary accommodation owing bomb damage war new building construction develop technical infrastructure hired worked british mission berkeley department acquired including built moved away researching physics metals focused particle physics upper atmosphere physics saw potential computers arranged copy purpose electronic computer recruited programmers established computing unit buckingham left head elected fellow awarded hughes medal member council serving physical secretary vice president member founded initial members governing board member chairman services rockets seen enormous development military purposes second world war saw potential studying upper atmosphere major supporter space science wrote book subject history chairman established founding british national chapter chairman helped found london space science gave excuse visit australia trips involved testing balloons upper atmosphere research site victoria chairman visited near adelaide rocket range discuss collaboration british rocket test fired sought develop space program cooperation space australia united_states european countries successful building international cooperation project cancelled favour launched satellite launched british launch vehicle involved negotiations leading establishment anglo australian siding spring mountain new south wales received united_kingdom member deputy chairman governing board chairman death legacy long illness died home surrey named australian word area western_australia lived november survived wife daughter named london medal prize jointly awarded papers london archives | Harrie Massey | Natural sciences | Physics and astronomy | Physicists |
78_LeanneDelToso | born august point wheelchair basketball player represented australia summer paralympics london won silver medal diagnosed chronic age nineteen started playing wheelchair basketball playing local victorian competition named league valuable player year started playing following year named team players player valuable player mvp played semifinal rangers scored points pulling rebounds saw rangers win won titles debut australia women national wheelchair basketball team known osaka cup japan winning silver medal london participated osaka cup japan successfully defended title won personal born august age nineteen diagnosed chronic condition involves damage nerves siblings younger brother daniel developed disease prior diagnosis played regular basketball worked participation assistant lives victoria wheelchair basketball point wheelchair basketball player progress disease reclassified point player scholarship financial year received grant das program received trained club started playing wheelchair basketball australian wall local gym asking prompted respond advised wheelchair basketball playing local victorian competition named league valuable player year debut end season named improved player played rangers known victoria second round season defeated western stars scored points team victory second round season playing loss scored points season named team players player valuable player mvp played finals semifinal scored points pulling rebounds saw rangers win named valuable player rangers won title round game rangers won scored rebounds rangers won league championship year national named reserve australia women national wheelchair basketball team known summer paralympics national team debut following year team finished year participated nations canada japan friendly series players played selected participate national team training camp july played game test series germany member australian team world championships finished fourth played osaka cup team finished played games world challenge selected represent australia summer paralympics wheelchair basketball london games group stage australia women national wheelchair basketball team posted wins brazil great_britain netherlands lost canada advance quarter finals beat mexico defeated united_states point set final clash germany lost earned silver medal games participated osaka cup japan successfully defended title won statistics | Leanne Del Toso | Sports and recreation | Basketball | Basketball |
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